PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI

THE TRANSLATION PROCEDURES OF CULTURESPECIFIC TERMS IN ON FOREIGN SHORES A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

By Paskalis Damar Aji Kurnia 091214107

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2014


THE TRANSLATION PROCEDURES OF CULTURESPECIFIC TERMS IN ON FOREIGN SHORES A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

By Paskalis Damar Aji Kurnia 091214107

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2014 i






ABSTRACT Kurnia, Paskalis Damar Aji. 2014. Procedures to Translate Culture-Specific Terms in On Foreign Shores. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University. In translation, cultural differences between the source and target language cause major difficulties. Often, cultural differences are characterized by the absence of the relevant source language situation in the culture of the target language. If this problem happens, a translator should employ translation procedures to overcome it in sentences or smaller units of language within the text. One example of texts in which such cultural problems may occur is On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry, an anthology of Indonesian poetry written in Bahasa Indonesia which is translated into English by John McGlynn. Thus, this research is conducted to find out procedures to translate culture-specific terms indicating cultural problems. The research questions then were formulated as: 1) What are the culturespecific terms found in On Foreign Shores? and 2) What are the procedures adopted by McGlynn in translating the culture-specific terms found in On Foreign Shores? To answer both research questions, the researcher conducted a qualitative research by using the content analysis. The research data are taken from On Foreign Shores. To answer the first research question, the researcher identified and classified culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores according to Newmark’s categorisation (1988). To answer the second research question, the researcher analyzed the procedures to translate culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores from Bahasa Indonesia into English by employing procedures proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) and Newmark (1988). From the analyses, it can be concluded that: first, there are 23 culturespecific terms found in On Foreign Shores. Second, there are 5 procedures used to translate culture-specific terms in this anthology. Those procedures are transference, cultural equivalence or adaptation, functional equivalence, descriptive equivalence, and reduction. In fact, functional equivalence is the most frequently procedure used by McGlynn. Therefore, the researcher then addressed several recommendations for: 1) translators to take culture-specific terms and translation procedures into account in cross-cultural translation, 2) ELESP to start developing cross-cultural translation topic in Translation course in order that students of ELESP are aware of cultural problems in translation, and 3) future researchers to analyze other translation procedures that are not found in this research in accordance to cross-cultural translation. Keywords: culture-specific term, translation procedure, On Foreign Shores

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ABSTRAK Kurnia, Paskalis Damar Aji. 2014. Procedures to Translate Culture-Specific Terms in On Foreign Shores. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University. Dalam penerjemahan, perbedaan budaya antara bahasa sumber dan bahasa sasaran dapat menyebabkan masalah serius. Seringkali, perbedaan budaya ditandai dengan ketiadaan situasi yang relevan menurut bahasa sumber di dalam budaya bahasa sasaran. Untuk mengatasi masalah ini, seorang penerjemah harus menggunakan prosedur penerjemahan pada kalimat maupun unit bahasa yang lebih sederhana di dalam naskah. Salah satu contoh naskah di mana masalah ini terdapat adalah On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry, sebuah antologi puisi Indonesia yang ditulis dalam Bahasa Indonesia dan diterjemahkan ke dalam Bahasa Inggris oleh John H. McGlynn. Oleh sebab itu, penelitian ini dilakukan untuk menentukan prosedur untuk menerjemahkan istilah budaya spesifik yang menandakan adanya masalah budaya. Pertanyaaan-pertanyaan yang akan dijawab dalam skripsi ini dapat dirumuskan sebagai berikut: 1) Apa saja istilah budaya spesifik dalam On Foreign Shores? dan 2) Prosedur apa saja yang digunakan oleh McGlynn untuk menerjemahkan istilah budaya spesifik dalam On Foreign Shores? Untuk menjawab rumusan masalah tersebut, peneliti melakukan penelitian kualitatif melalui analisis isi dengan On Foreign Shores sebagai sumber data. Untuk menjawab rumusan masalah pertama, peneliti mengidentifikasi dan mengelompokkan istilah budaya spesifik dalam On Foreign Shores berdasarkan kategorisasi Newmark (1988). Untuk menjawab rumusan masalah yang kedua, peneliti menganalisa prosedur untuk menerjemahkan istilah budaya spesifik dalam On Foreign Shores dari Bahasa Indonesia menjadi Bahasa Inggris dengan menggunakan prosedur yang dikemukakan oleh Vinay dan Darbelnet (1958) dan Newmark (1988). Berdasarkan analisa data, dapat disimpulkan bahwa: pertama, terdapat 23 istilah budaya spesifik dalam On Foreign Shores. Kedua, terdapat 5 prosedur yang digunakan untuk menerjemahkan istilah budaya spesifik dalam antologi ini. Prosedur-prosedur tersebut adalah transferensi, kepadanan budaya atau adaptasi, kepadanan fungsional, kepadanan deskriptif, dan reduksi. Kepadanan fungsional adalah prosedur yang paling sering digunakan oleh McGlynn. Pada akhirnya, peneliti mengusulkan beberapa rekomendasi yang ditujukan pada: 1) penerjemah untuk memperhitungkan istilah budaya spesifik dan prosedur penerjemahan dalam penerjemahan antar budaya, 2) Program Studi PBI untuk mengembangkan topik penerjemahan antar budaya dalam mata kuliah Translation, dan 3) calon peneliti selanjutnya untuk menganalisa prosedur penerjemahan lain yang tidak ditemukan pada penelitian ini dalam kaitannya dengan penerjemahan antar budaya. Kata kunci: istilah budaya spesifik, prosedur penerjemahan, On Foreign Shores

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“FOR I CONSIDER THAT THE SUFFERINGS OF THIS PRESENT TIME ARE NOT WORTH COMPARING WITH THE GLORY THAT IS TO BE REVEALED TO US” (ROMANS 8:18)

DEDICATED TO: THE HOUSE OF JOYO MONAWI THE HOUSE OF SUTARSOMO AND PBI 2009

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I would like to praise Jesus Christ—my life and my love. I truly thank Him for always walking by my side through every single path I take. No words in Earth nor in every realm can describe how grateful I am for having Him in my life The greatest gratitude of mine goes to the best sponsor I have ever had, Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed., Ph.D. Through the very hectic time of my thesis until now, his patience and his favor to give me my independence in writing have been the greatest power for me. Moreover, his advice, comments, suggestions, and corrections were very valuable for me. In completion of my thesis, I also thank all of lecturers and students of ELESP Sanata Dharma University for everything. I would peculiarly thank Ibu Laurentia Sumarni, S.Pd., M.Trans.St., for kindly being the proofreader of the embryo of my thesis, and Ibu Yuseva Ariyani Iswandari, S.Pd., M.Ed., for patiently teaching me to write in English from the basic. I would also like to thank Ibu Caecilia Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd., for being the most caring and the best chairperson of ELESP, and Ibu Christina Kristiyani, S.Pd., M.Pd., for being the best academic advisor of my class in ELESP. For everything, I thank Bapak Heribertus Menir Sunarno, Ibu Elisabet Dwi Rahayu, and Agustina Ria Arini. As my family, they have done everything to me—and now; I must become everything for them. I believe that their prayers and blessings are my power in being good. I also thank the great House of Joyo ix


Monawi and House of Sutarsomo for all supports and prayers—especially the late Budhe Maria Magdalena Sri Ekorini, the late Simbah Antonius Dibya Sanjaya, and the late Simbah Chatarina Darmo Suprobo for delivering my prayers to Jesus Christ, who sits with the three of you in heaven. For every support and companion, I thank the great family of Lembaga Bahasa Universitas Sanata Dharma (all coordinators, all teachers, and all staff), all best friends in Layung, all best friends in LVYWR, and all best friends in Kelompok 11-Pusmalang Barat KKN XLV. For all inspirations, I thank The Devil Wears Prada, Underoath, and Park Chan-wook (even though they might never know). For everything, I peculiarly thank Shela Novitasari, Adit, Mas Ketchup, Budi, Nicko, Ayon, Tunggul, Bayu, Mas Amink, Mas Grandil, Indra, Aldhy, Blacky, Ceper, Mas Sasongko, Liece, Yoga, Devi and Tari (for their generosity), Nana, Tiara, Anggi, Adam, Kojek, Saka, and all comrades whom I cannot mention one by one. I owe them a galaxy. Finally, I thank everyone who knows me and cares about me—those whom I cannot mention one by one. I would like to remind them that there are no deeds left unrewarded. May all beings be happy.

Paskalis Damar Aji Kurnia

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page TITLE PAGE ......................................................................................................... i APPROVAL PAGE .............................................................................................. ii STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY .................................................... iv PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ................................................. v ABSTRACT......................................................................................................... vi ABSTRAK .......................................................................................................... vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................... viii TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................... xi LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................... xiv LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................. xv LIST OF APPENDICES .................................................................................... xvi CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION.......................................................................... 1 A. Research Background............................................................. 1 B. Research Problem................................................................... 6 C. Problem Limitation................................................................. 6 D. Research Objectives ............................................................... 8 E. Research Benefits ................................................................... 8 F. Definition of Terms .............................................................. 10 CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ................................ 13 A. Theoretical Description ........................................................ 13 1. Language, Translations, and Cross-Cultural Communication................................................................ 14 a. Type of translation ...................................................... 16 b. Process of translation .................................................. 19 c. Form and meaning in translation ................................ 21 d. Untranslatability.......................................................... 22 xi


e. Translation equivalence .............................................. 23 2. Culture-specific Terms .................................................... 24 a. Ecology ....................................................................... 25 b. Material Culture .......................................................... 26 c. Social Culture.............................................................. 27 d. Organisations, Ideas, Customs.................................... 27 e. Gestures and Habits .................................................... 28 3. Translation Procedures .................................................... 28 a. Borrowing ................................................................... 31 b. Calque ......................................................................... 31 c. Literal translation ........................................................ 32 d. Transposition............................................................... 32 e. Modulation.................................................................. 32 f. Equivalence................................................................. 32 g. Adaptation................................................................... 33 h. Transference................................................................ 34 i. Naturalization.............................................................. 34 j. Descriptive equivalence .............................................. 35 k. Synonymy ................................................................... 35 l. Reduction and expansion ............................................ 35 m. Couplets ...................................................................... 36 n. Notes, addition, and glosses........................................ 36 B. Theoretical Framework ........................................................ 37 CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.............................................. 39 A. Research Method .................................................................. 39 B. Research Setting ................................................................... 40 C. Research Data....................................................................... 40 D. Research Instrument ............................................................. 41 E. Data Analysis Technique...................................................... 43 F. Research Procedure .............................................................. 45 xii


CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ......................... 49 A. The Discussion of Culture-Specific Terms in Selected Poems Taken From On Foreign Shores ............ 49 1. Ecology ............................................................................ 50 2. Material Culture............................................................... 55 3. Social Culture .................................................................. 57 4. Organisations, Ideas, Customs......................................... 64 5. Gestures and Habits ......................................................... 66 B. The Discussion of Procedures to Translate Culture-Specific Terms in On Foreign Shores..................... 70 1. Functional Equivalence ................................................... 71 2. Cultural Equivalence ....................................................... 97 3. Descriptive Equivalence ................................................ 102 4. Transference .................................................................. 104 5. Reduction....................................................................... 106

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................. 110 A. Conclusions ........................................................................ 110 B. Implications ........................................................................ 113 C. Recommendations .............................................................. 113 REFERENCES ................................................................................................. 115 APPENDICES ................................................................................................. 118

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

Page

2.1

Larson’s Translation Process (1984: 4).................................................. 20

2.2

Nida and Taber’s Translation Process (1988: 33)................................. 21

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LIST OF TABLES

Table

Page

3.1

Table of Culture-Specific Terms (Based on Newmark (1988)).................

3.2

Table of Procedures to Translate Culture-Specific Terms (Based on

42

Vinay & Darbelnet (1959), Newmark (1988))...........................................

43

4.1

The Ecology Category of Culture-Specific Terms.....................................

54

4.2

The Material Culture Category of Culture-Specific Terms......................... 57

4.3

The Social Culture Category of Culture-Specific Terms...........................

64

4.4

The Organisations, Ideas, and Customs Category.....................................

66

4.5

The Gestures and Habits Category of Culture-Specific Terms..................

68

4.6

The Distribution of Culture-Specific Terms in On Foreign Shores..........

69

4.7

The Use of Functional Equivalence Procedure........................................... 96

4.8

The Use of Cultural Equivalence Procedure.............................................. 101

4.9

The Use of Descriptive Equivalence Procedure......................................... 104

4.10

The Use of Transference Procedure............................................................ 105

4.11

The Use of Reduction Procedure............................................................... 107

4.12

The Distribution of Translation Procedures in On Foreign Shores........... 108

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix

Page

A. Table 3.1.......................................…………………………………..

118

B. Table 3.2.......................................................................………..........

121

C. Transcripts of Poems from On Foreign Shores.................................

127

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter the researcher discusses the background of the research. It consists of six parts, namely research background, research problem, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms. The research background discusses the underlying reason why the researcher chose this topic and an introduction of an analysis on the translation of Indonesian poems written by Indonesian poets featured in On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry translated by John H. McGlynn. A. Research Background Language and culture cannot be separated from human life. Both of them are integral parts of human life. Hymes (1964: 21) states that “speech is so fundamental an activity of a man, language is so integral a part of his culture.” Witherspoon (1980) believes that language and culture are highly interrelated and proposes that cultures cannot be studied without attention to the native language spoken within them, and language cannot be studied in isolation from the cultures in which they are spoken. In addition, language and culture influence one another. Language, in general, is a means of communication for people to interact with other people. Specifically, language is also a means for the culture to share its beliefs, values, and norms. Thus, cultural beliefs, values, and norms can also be found in literary text as a product of language. Therefore, to study the literature as a representation of language or people culture and tradition, people also need to 1


2 know the meaning and definition of certain cultural words or terms that exist in literature of the target culture. Translation plays an important role in studying the target culture. It enables people to exchange information with others who speak in different languages and come from some different culture. Nida and Taber (1982: 12) state that translation consists of reproducing in the receptor language (target language) the closest natural equivalent of the source language message in term of meaning and style. It can be concluded that translation should transfer the real meaning of the source language message instead of transferring only the form. That idea defines what an ideal translation is. However, fulfilling the criteria of the ideal translation is not an easy thing. Based on Larson (1984: 163), cultural differences between the source and target language pose major difficulties for translators. Certain concepts in the source language may have no equivalence in the target language because of differences in aspects, such as geography, customs, beliefs, and various other factors. For example, some Javanese words like macapat, which means old traditional Javanese verses, paklik, which means the younger brother of one’s parents, budhe, which means the older sister of one’s parents, and surjan, which means traditional Javanese clothes for men, may be difficult to be translated into English because English, the target language does not have cultural equivalences for those words. The problem of non-equivalence in translation has become a serious threat to translators. Based on Nida and Taber (1974), a translation reaches the highest degree of equivalence when the receptors of the target language respond


3 to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language; it is also called dynamic equivalence. Meanwhile, non-equivalence is rooted the untranslatability. The untranslatability itself, based on Catford (1965: 94), occurs when it is impossible to build features of the situation which are functionally relevant to the contextual meaning of the target language. There are two types of untranslatability,

linguistic

and

cultural

untranslatability.

Linguistic

untranslatability is caused by the failure to find a target language equivalence due to the differences in source language and target language, while cultural untranslatability is caused by the absence of the relevant source language situation in the culture of the target language. Baker (1992: 20) reveals the occurence of non-equivalence in the word level which is defined by the absence of direct equivalence concept in the target language. To analyze how problems of untranslatability and non-equivalence rooted from the absence of local Indonesian cultural concepts in English, this research focuses on some Indonesian poetry which is translated into English. Poetry is chosen as the means of this research because of its likeliness of being untranslatable, which Jakobson claims as an impact of the form of words that contributes to the construction of the meaning in text (1959: 238). Thus, the researcher considers that translating poetry is not an easy quest. As El-shafey (2012: 12) states that it “is considered the highest forms of translation” as it involves more than simply translating text. Poetry is an extraordinary kind of text; it is the most personal and concentrated of all literary forms, no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any


4 other type of text (Newmark, 1988: 163). Therefore, the research only focuses on words which become the first unit of meaning—preceding the sentence. In conducting this research, the researcher analyzed all poems featured in On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry (which is going to be referred only as On Foreign Shores later). On Foreign Shores is an anthology of Indonesian poems telling experience as a poetic record of travels by Indonesian poets through The United States of America, which was published in conjunction with the 1990-1991 Festival of Indonesia in the United States by the Lontar Foundation. This book consists of 69 poems from 21 Indonesian most pioneering poets from several generations. All of those poems are translated into English by McGlynn who also becomes the editor of this book. Damono, in the introduction of this anthology, said that this anthology gives a chance for Indonesian readers through the eyes of fellow Indonesians, who are poets to view The United States of America; while for American readers, this collection offers insight into foreigner’s attitude toward American ways. For all readers, this book presents a study of intercultural exchange between Indonesia and the United States of America. McGlynn, who translated all poems in On Foreign Shores, finds that culture-bound expressions (e.g., culture-specific terms and onomatopoeic words) become problematic for him because of the lack of cultural correspondences in English. It can be inferred from his statement that “it is impossible to translate” without explicitation, or “without paragraphs of explanation for each items” (1990: 185). Therefore, there are procedures used to translate poems in On


5 Foreign Shores. In his effort to accommodate studies of intercultural exchange and its global publication for readers in the United States, McGlynn, who concerns about culture, takes these translation problems into account by carefully addressing questions on how those cultural expressions in the poems which are originally written in Bahasa Indonesia and some Javanese are translated into English. Furthermore, a careful study of applied translation procedures in translating from different cultural background was conducted by the translator to accommodate the reader. By conducting this research, the researcher expects that the findings of this research will be beneficial in the practical field, as well as in the academic field; moreover, for ‘Translation’ course in English Language Education Study Program (ELESP) of Sanata Dharma University, in which the researcher majors English Education. This research, which deals with cross-cultural translation and procedures to translate literary work, is expected to equip Translation lecturers and students with some decent comprehension on how translation procedures are used in general and cultural purpose. In addition, this research is going to provide ELESP students a vivid view on how culture-specific terms become threats in translating English text into Bahasa Indonesia. This research is also expected to be a consideration in designing syllabus used in Translation course. Generally, this research is going to provide real and authentic examples of how translation procedures are applied and analyzed.


6 B. Research Problem Based on the research background, the problems of this research are formulated as follows: 1. What are the culture-specific terms found in On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry? 2. What are the procedures adopted by McGlynn in translating the culturespecific terms found in On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry? C. Problem Limitation Some theories on translation are applicable in general translation. It means that those theories can be applied as the basic or standard principles to translate any text from a language to other language. This research also focuses on translating texts from Bahasa Indonesia into English; specifically on procedures adopted by the translator, John H. McGlynn, to translate culture-specific terms. The researcher also limits the procedures to those models proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) and Newmark (1998). This research is limited by analyzing only poems which are featured in the anthology of poems entitled On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry as translated and edited by McGlynn. Those poems are selected because they feature particular numbers of culture-specific term uses in them; those culture-specific terms are mostly Indonesian and Javanese specific terms. All poems in On Foreign Shores are translated by considering the intended


7 meaning and reproduction of the syntactic form in TL, yet, neglecting stylistic form of SL in the TL, as seen in the fragment below: Pada hari yang ketiga kau siuman dan terjaga Pada hari yang kelima kau sudah berganti nama Pada hari kesebelas kau cicip udara bebas Pada hari keduapuluh putusan jatuh: kau sembuh (Surachman R.M’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, p. 56) The fragment of Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium devices rhyme, as indicated by bolded letters above, to enhance stylistic form of the poem. However, when the poem is translated into English, the rhyme deviced to enhance the style is not transferred. Therefore, only the original meaning and syntactical form remain, as seen in the fragment of the translated version of Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium below. On the third day you regained consciousness, awoke On the fifth day you changed your name On the eleventh day you tasted open air On the twentieth day the prognosis came: a clean bill of health (Poems from the Solariums, an English version of Surachman R.M’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, p. 57) Considering the fact that poems in On Foreign Shores are translated by regarding the meaning and literal form only, the researcher also focuses on the transferred meaning and literal form from the SL to the TL. To accommodate that fact and the theories of culture-specific term, this research also limits the data


8 which are going to be translated only into word-level and phrase-level terms only. Therefore, the researcher analyzes only culture-specific words and phrases in the SL and their forms in the TL based on their intended meaning. D. Research Objectives The objectives of this research are: 1. To identify the culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry based on Newmark’s categorisation. 2. To find out the procedures applied in translating culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry, which are translated by McGlynn based on Vinay and Darbelnet’s and Newmark’s models. E. Research Benefits The researcher is expecting this research to have contribution to academic and practical field, particularly for the development of English language education, for the translators, and for the further research. 1.

For the Development of English Education a. English teachers, especially who teach translation, would know better how translation procedures play roles in translating culture-specific terms in literary work. b. Students, who learn English, especially about translation, would be able to learn about threats in translation and how translation procedures play roles in translating culture-specific terms in literary work.


9 c. The research finding would be a consideration in designing material to put in the syllabus of “Translation” course in English Language Education Study Program. 2.

For Translators a. The research findings will give translators precautious aids on what might be problematic in translating culture-specific terms in literary work. b. The research findings will give translators, especially who work for Bahasa Indonesia-English translation, more considerations to take in choosing the most appropriate procedures to translate culture-specific terms in literary work.

3.

For Further Research a. This research will contribute to linguistics study, particularly related to the translation of literary work, the translation of culture-specific terms, and translation procedures for general and specific purpose. b. The research findings will enrich the theories of linguistics which are related to the translation of literary work and the translation of culturespecific terms. c. The research can be used and referred for other researchers in the future as academic references to conduct further studies dealing with the translation of literary work, especially with the translation of culturespecific terms.


10 F. Definition of Terms In this part, the researcher is going to give some definitions of terms used in this research. The terms which are going to be described are translation, translation procedure, culture-specific terms, source language, target language, source text and target text. 1. Translation Translation is simply known as a process of transferring message from one language to another language. It is in lines with Newmark’s definition stating that translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text (1988: 5). In addition, Catford (1965: 20) states that translation may be defined as the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in the target language. Similarly, Nida and Taber (1974: 12) defines translation as the reproduction in receptor language of the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style. Therefore, based on the definitions given by some experts above, it can be concluded that translation deals with finding a Target Language equivalence of a Source Language text. 2. Translation Procedure Suryawinata and Haryanto (2003: 67) define translation procedures as the way to translate words, phrases, clauses, or even the whole sentence if the translated part cannot be separated into smaller units to be translated. Besides, Krings (1986: 18) states that translation procedure is "translator's potentially conscious plans for solving concrete translation problems in the framework of a


11 concrete translation task," and Loescher (1991: 8) defines translation procedure as "a potentially conscious procedure for solving a problem faced in translating a text, or any segment of it." From those definitions and explanations above, it can be concluded that translation procedures deals with conscious act that a translator used to overcome problems in sentences or smaller units of language within the text. In addition, some experts propose several translation procedures to translate texts with or without corresponding equivalence. However, in this research, only translation procedures proposed by Newmark (1988) and Vinay & Darbelnet (1995) will be used. 3. Source Language (SL) The Source Language or SL is the language in which the text requiring translation is couched (Hervey and Higgins, 1992: 15). In other words, it is the original language upon which the translation process happens. In this research, the Source Language is Bahasa Indonesia in which the poems from On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry were originally written. 4. Target Language (TL) The Target Language or TL is the language into which the original text is to be translated (Hervey & Higgins, 1992: 15). In other words, it is the language in which the translation is addressed. TL in this research is the language in which the results of the translation of all poems in On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry were written. In a more negligible way, the TL mentioned in


12 this research is English, in which John H. McGlynn wrote the translation of those poems. 5. Source Text (ST) Hervey and Higgins define Source Text or ST as the text that requires the translation (1992: 15). It is the text presented in the Source Language that was translated. In this research, the STs are all poems in On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry. 6. Target Text (TT) A Target Text or TT is defined as the text which is a translation of Source Text or the result of translating Source Text (Hervey & Higgins, 1992: 15). It means that TT is a text in Target Language as a result of translating Source Language text. In this study, the TTs are all English version of the poems in On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry.. 7. Culture-specific Terms Baker (1992: 21) defines culture-specific items as abstract and concrete concepts in the ST which are totally unknown in target culture. Furthermore, Newmark (1988: 95) mentions that culture-specific terms “are associated with a particular language and cannot be literally translated.” Newmark, then, categorizes culture-specific terms into five categories as follows: a) ecology, b) material culture, c) social culture, d) organizations, customs, ideas, and e) gestures and habits.


CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The contents of this chapter are to explain the theories related to the conduct of this research. This chapter consists of two parts, namely theoretical description and theoretical framework. The theoretical description presents the theories of translation, culture-specific terms, translation procedures, and poems underlying this research. The theoretical framework provides theories to solve the research problems. A. Theoretical Description In this part, the researcher discusses three major parts of theoretical description, namely the language, culture, and cross-cultural communication theories, the culture-specific term theories, and the translation procedure theories. The language, culture, and cross-cultural communication theories contain theories which embrace the scope of the translation itself, types of translation, process of translation, translation shift, untranslatability, translation equivalence. Separately, the culture-specific term theories embrace the definition of which and the categorisation; while, the translation procedure theories encompass procedures proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet as well as Newmark. The theoretical description begins with the discussion of the theories of language, culture, and cross-cultural communication, including the types of translation, process of translation, translation shift, untranslatability, and

13


14 translation equivalence. The next part concerns with further theories related to the terms that will be used in analyzing part of this research, namely culture-specific terms, which include categories of cultural words, and translation procedure, which are limited to Newmark’s and Vinay and Darbelnet’s models only. Subsequently, the culture-specific terms are described, in which it encompassed two sections, namely the definition of culture-specific terms and the categories of culture-specific terms. Afterwards, translation procedures are also described in two sections, namely the definition of translation procedures and the types of translation procedures as proposed by Newmark and Vinay and Darbelnet. 1. Language, Translation, and Cross-cultural Communication Translation, in this modern situation, is not merely about transferring meaning between texts from one language to another language. Based on SnellHornby (1990), translation studies have moved from translation as text to as culture and politics. It is implied that translation has gone beyond the text itself – there are several cultural and politic concerns to be taken into account in translation. Munday (2001: 125) also clarifies that comparisons between original texts and the translations do not consider the text in its cultural environment. He adds that translation goes beyond language and focuses on the interaction between translation and culture, on an account where culture impacts and constrains translation, and on the issues of context, history and conventions. Therefore, culture has a major role in translation. In translation, understanding the culture is definitely a serious concern. Therefore, to understand translation, it is necessary to understand culture.


15 Different places in the world may have different culture. Each culture has specific differentiator to differentiate to other cultures. Furthermore, certain culture is differentiated from another culture by language. As Katan (1999: 75) states that the key to cultural reality was in the lexicon, it is implied that words of a language are what differentiate cultures. Language itself could be understood with reference to a context of culture (Malinowski, 1923). He also states that language is essentially rooted in the reality of culture. In the light of culture, language must be explained with constant reference. A language could only be understood when these two contexts implicitly or explicitly clear to the addressee or interlocutors. Therefore, the role of translation is to make the source text (ST) comprehensible to the target text (TT) readers by providing them context. According to Malmkjaer (2005: 10), the relationship between the linguistic form and the referent shows that “language does not put names on things, but on concepts.” It reflects that the meaning of word is conceptual-based. In the light of culture, it represents some concepts that exist in certain culture. The problem is some concepts may exist in one culture but some may not exist in other cultures. Therefore, the meaning of certain words in one culture cannot be transferred into other culture’s word directly. Jakobson (2004: 139) explains that the problem of equivalence in meaning between words in different language, as a differentiator of culture, happens because there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code-units. For example, the word gotong royong, a tradition to work together within a society in Indonesia, has no


16 equivalence in English, and the word joglo, a traditional type of house in Javanese tradition, has no equivalence in English as well. a. Type of translation There

are

several

types

of

translation.

Catford

(1965:20-26)

differentiates them based on extent, level, and rank. He defines translation, as follow: 1.

Full vs. Partial Translation. This distinction relates to the extent of SL text which is submitted to the

translation process. In a full translation, the entire text is submitted to the translation process, which means all part of the SL text is replaced by the TL material. In a partial translation, some part or parts of the SL text are left untranslated. It is common to have this kind of treatment in most literary translation. 2.

Total vs. Restricted Translation This distinction relates to the language involved in the translation. Total

translation is best defined as the replacement of SL grammar and lexis by equivalent TL grammar and lexis, which may result in replacement of SL sounds or spellings by non-equivalent TL sounds or spellings. On the other hand, restricted translation is defined as the replacement of SL textual material by equivalent TL textual material at only one level. It implies that translation is performed only at the phonology (the sounds) or the spellings, or only at one level between grammar and lexis.


17 3.

Rank of Translation The third type of differentiation in translation relates to the rank in a

grammatical (or phonological) hierarchy at which translation equivalence is established. In normal total translation, the grammatical units between which translation equivalences can be at any rank, while in a long text, the ranks where translation equivalences occur are constantly changing. It can be sentence-tosentence, group-to-group, word-to-word, etc. The popular terms free, literal, and word-for-word translation also partly correlate with this distinction. A free translation is always unbounded between larger units than the sentence. A word-for-word translation generally means what it says; it is essentially at word-rank. A literal translation may start from a wordfor-word translation, but it makes changes in TL grammar. An example adopting Catford (1965: 26) can be seen below: SL text

Siapa nama Anda?

TL text

1 Who name of yours?

(Word-for-word)

2 Who is your name?

(Literal)

3 What is your name?

(Free)

The relation between free, literal, and word-for-word translation can be seen as written above. Word-for-word translation performed in word rank, literal translation performed in a higher level of word-for-word translation by the change in grammar; while free translation seeks further than any rank beforehand. On the other hand, based on the purpose of translation, Brislin (1976: 34) categorizes translation into these following types:


18 1. Pragmatic Translation It refers to the translation of a message with an interest in accuracy of the information that was meant to be conveyed in the SL form. It is not concerned with other aspects of the SL. The example of pragmatic translation is the translation of procedure to do something, such as safety flight procedure on an airlines and procedures of usage in electronic devices. 2. Aesthetic-Poetic Translation This refers to translation in which the translator takes into account the affect, emotion, and feeling of an original agnate version, the aesthetic form used by the original author in SL, as well as any information in the message. The example of aesthetic-poetic translation is the translation of sonnet, rhyme, heroic couplet, dramatic dialogues, and novel. 3. Ethnographic Translation It refers to translation whose purpose is to explicate the SL and TL culture. Translators have to be sensitive to the way words are used. Accordingly, translators must know how the words fit into cultures. 4. Linguistic Translation It concerns with equivalent meanings of the constituent morphemes of the SL. It also deals with the SL grammatical form. The example of which is the language in computer program or machine translator.


19 In addition, Brislin (as cited in Choliludin, 2005: 26-29) also states that based on the kinds of text to being translated, there are two types of translation, namely factual translation and literary translation. Factual translation refers to translating to convey information with precision, without emotion or feeling of the translators but only based on real facts, i.e. translating scientific fields, reports, newspaper, etc. Literary translation refers to the translation of art works in which the translators involve his or her emotion or feeling and the translators have a perk of being subjective. The example of which is translating poems, drama, novel, etc. Larson (1984: 15) proposes that translation is classified into two main types, namely form-based translation and meaning-based translation. Form-based translation mostly follows the SL form; it is commonly known as literal translation. Meaning-based translation attempts to make every effort to communicate the meaning of the SL text in the natural form of TL. It is also known as idiomatic translation. b. Process of translation Based on Larson (1984: 3), the goal of a translator is “an idiomatic translation which makes every effort to communicate their meaning of the SL text into the natural forms of the receptor language.” Furthermore, he adds that translation is concerned with a study of the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the SL, which is analyzed in order to determine its meaning. The discovered meaning is later re-expressed and/or re-constructed using the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language as well as in its cultural context. Therefore,


20 process of translation is not merely transferring the SL style directly to the TL form, but it is transferring the SL meaning into TL meaning and reconstructing it in the closest form of the TL. The following diagram is representing Larson’s process of translation.

SOURCE LANGUAGE

RECEPTOR LANGUAGE

Text to be translated Translation

Discover the meaning

Re-express the meaning

Meaning

Figure 2.1. Larson’s Translation Process (1984: 4) On the other hand, Nida and Taber (1982: 33) categorize translation process into three stages. The first stage is “analysis”, in which the surface structure is analyzed in terms of (1) the grammatical relationship, and (2) the meaning of the words and the combinations of words. The second stage is “transfer”, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of of ther translator from SL to TL. The third stage is “restructuring”, in which the transferred is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the TL. The following diagram illustrates the process of translation based on Nida and Taber (1988: 33).


21 A (Source)

B (Receptor)

(Analysis)

(Restructuring)

X

Transfer

Y

Figure 2.2. Nida and Taber’s Translation Process (1988: 33) c. Form and meaning in translation Larson (1984: 3) states that translation is basically a change of form, which are referred to as the surface structure of a language. It concerns with the structural part of a language which is actually seen in print or heard in speech, or in other words, it is the language of daily formal communication. In addition, Baker (1992: 24) says that “the form of the source language in translation is replaced by the equivalent lexical item of the receptor language.” The problem is not every particular form in the SL has lexical equivalence in the TL. Based on Larson (1984: 3), translation goes from thr SL form into the TL form by the way of semantic structure. In making a translation, a translator transfers the meaning of the SL text. Therefore, changes of form in the TL should not change the meaning of the SL text; the meaning of the SL text is to keep constantly. It refers to the characteristic of a language in which the same emaning component occurs in several surface structure of lexical items. The initial thing to do in translation process is to understand the complete meaning of the SL text. There are several kinds of meaning. Nida and Taber (1982:34) classifies meaning into two classes, namely referential and


22 connotative meaning. Referential meaning refers to words as symbols of objects, event, abstracts and relations. Connotative meaning refers to how language users react to the words and their combinations. By knowing the meaning of the SL text, the translators are able to produce particular meaning to the TL and transfer the meaning effectively into the TL environment. Therefore, well-transferred meanings are easier to be understood by the target readers. d. Untranslatability There is a problem where some texts cannot be translated from ST into TT found in the selected poems which are going to be analyzed; a problem which mostly exists because of cultural absence of some cultural concept in American culture and most English speaking countries (e.g.: gayam, a local food whose concept only exists in Indonesian culture and is impossible to translate directly into English). This problem is called as untranslatability. According to Catford (1965), there are two kinds of untranslatability. The first is called Linguistic Untranslatability, which happens when there is no lexical or syntactical substitute in TL, and the second is called Cultural Untranslatability, which happens when there is an absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature. However, untranslatabilities can be translated indirectly by transferring the source item and explaining it if no parallel item can be found in TL and no compensatory effect to produce within the same paragraph (Newmark, 1981). Each variety of meaning in a SL can be translated both directly and indirectly into a TL. Therefore, every single item is translatable using that principle. Jakobson (2004) also explains, in the light of overcoming untranslatabilities, that even if


23 there is no one-to-one correspondence between signs across language, full semantic meaning of the words can still be expressed by that principle. Untranslatabilities can be a source of information streams in translation. Nida (1959) states that non-correspondence of grammatical and lexical categories, as the main cause of untranslatabilities, is the main source of information loss and gain in translation when SL category lacks information which is obligatory expressed in the corresponding TL category. Furthermore, untranslatabilities can also be a source of information streams in translating between different cultures since language is an integral part of culture. Based on that situation, Snell-Hornby (1988: 42) suggests that a translator needs not only proficiency in two languages, but also be at home in those two cultures. e. Translation Equivalence Equivalence is not the same with correspondence, although those terms have slight similarities. Correspondence happens in comparing two language systems and describing differences and similarities contrastively. While equivalence happens when there are equivalent items in specific ST-TT pairs and contexts (Koller, 1979, in Munday, 2008: 47). Popovic (1976) explains further about equivalence as he defines four types of equivalence (in Bardenstein, 2005): 1) Linguistic equivalence, where there is homogeneity on the linguistic level of both SL and TL texts, i.e. word for word translation. 2) Paradigmatic equivalence, where there is equivalence of ‘the elements of paradigmatic expressive axes, i.e. the elements of grammar.


24 3) Stylistic (syntacmatic) equivalence, where there is ‘functional equivalence of elements in both original and translation aiming at an expressive identity with an invariant of identical meaning’. 4) Textual (syntagmatic) equivalence, where there is equivalence of the syntagmatic structuring of a text, i.e. equivalence of form and shape. Nida (1964:162-165) distinguishes two types of equivalences, formal and dynamic. Formal equivalence ‘focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content’. The concern of this type is such correspondences as poetry to poetry, sentence to sentence, and concept to concept. Dynamic equivalence, on the other hand, is based on the principle of equivalence effect, where the relationship between the receiver and message should be the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message. 2. Culture-specific Terms Newmark (1988: 94) defines culture as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression.” Furthermore, he distinguishes languages into ‘cultural’, ‘universal’, and ‘personal’ language. However, the more specific a language becomes for natural phenomena (e.g., flora and fauna) the more it becomes embedded in cultural features, and therefore creates translation problems. Those ‘cultural’ words is later mentioned as culture-specific terms. On the other hand, Baker (1992: 21) defines culture-specific items as abstract and concrete concepts in the ST which are totally unknown in target culture. Due to its unknown state in target culture, there are some factors that influence translator’s choice of


25 procedures in translating culture-specific term to avoid mistranslation or information loss. In translating culture-specific term, a translator must recognize those cultural words initially. Newmark (1988: 95) states that “most 'cultural' words are easy to detect” because they are particular-language-associated and cannot be literally translated, however, “many cultural customs are described in ordinary language where literal translation would distort the meaning and a translation may include an appropriate descriptive-functional equivalent.” Furthermore, he categorizes cultural words into five categories, namely, (1) ecology, (2) material culture, (3) social culture, (4) organizations, ideas, customs, and also (5) gestures and habits (1988: 95-102). a. Ecology Newmark (1988: 96-97) states that geographical features can be normally distinguished from other cultural terms in that they are usually valuefree, politically and commercially. Newmark’s examples of this category are the local words for plains in many countries (i.e., ‘prairies’, ‘steppes’, ‘tundras’, ‘pampas’, ‘savannahs’, ‘llampos’, ‘campos’, ‘paramos’, ‘bush’, ‘veld’) with strong elements of their local colours. Their familiarity is a function of the importance and geographical or political proximity of their countries. These words is normally transferred, with the addition of a brief culture-free third term or explanation where necessary in the text. Mostly the examples of this category are flora, fauna, winds, plains, hills. In On Foreign Shores, the example of ecological culture-specific terms can be found in Darmanto Yatman’s Melintasi


26 Atlantik, as found in the word gayam, a local edible fruit found mostly in Java; and daun ketapang, leaves from almond trees which grow near the seashore in most area in Indonesia, as found in Subagio Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian Makin Akrab. b. Material culture Newmark (1988: 97-98) makes four sub-categories of material culture category, namely, food, clothes, houses, and transports. Food is considered the most sensitive and important expression of national culture; food terms cause the widest

variety

of

translation

procedures,

e.g.,

‘zabaglione’,

‘sake’,

‘kaiserschmarren.’ Traditionally, national costumes when distinctive are not translated, 2.g., sari, kimono, yukata, sarong. Clothes as cultural terms can be explained in TL if the generic noun of classifier is added to indicate the part of body that is covered. Furthermore, in many language communities, there are typical houses which remain untranslated, e.g., ‘palazzo’, ‘hotel’, ‘bungalow’, ‘hacienda’, or ‘joglo.’ In addition, names of various carriages and transportation are often used to provide local colours for prestige. However, an accurate description is needed to precede or follow the transferred word. The examples of ‘transport’ sub-category are rickshaw, Mouton, Chalice, etc. In Linus Suryadi AG’s Central Park and Darmanto Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, culture-specific terms which are categorized into material culture are found, i.e., kopiah, a ceremonial hat worn by Indonesian Muslim men, which belongs to terms for clothes sub-category, and getek, a traditional raft made from bamboos, which belongs to terms for transportations sub-category.


27 c. Social culture Newmark (1988: 98-99) also proposes that social culture category refers to words that indicate particular work and leisure activity or product of cultures, e.g., ‘ajaki amah’, ‘condotttere’, ‘biwa’, ‘sithar’, ‘raga’, ‘reggae’, ‘rock.’ Examples given by Newmark (1988: 95) show that local music terms, music instruments, and music genre (e.g., sithar and biwa—Indian traditional string instrument, raga—Indian melodic mode, reggae—Jamaican music genre) also belong to this category. In Darmanto Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, there are some examples of culture-specific term which belong to social culture category; i.e., megatruh, bapak pocung, and dandanggula, which are Javanese traditional songs. d. Organisations, ideas, and customs Based on Newmark (1988: 99-102), organisations, ideas, and customs terms come from political, social, legal, historical, religious, and artistic terms. Names of several parliaments are not readily translatable, e.g., Storting (Norway), Sejm (Poland), Riksdag (Sweden), Eduskunta (Finland). Organisations’ names also need a study to translate, whether they need appropriate functional or descriptive terms to explain. Those also include historical institute terms and international terms, e.g., FAO, UNESCO, and UNICEF. Religious terms, mostly Christianity, provide words which needs translation, e.g., Pharisees. Name of buildings, museums, theatres, opera houses, are likely to be translated, since they form part of street plans and addresses. Words like Sekolah Rakyat as a historical institute term in Indonesia is an example of it, which is found in Taufiq Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco.


28 e. Gestures and habits Based on Newmark (1988: 102), “for ‘gestures and habits’ there is a distinction between description and function which can be made where necessary in ambiguous case.” Some gestures and habits exist and are practiced among people in particular culture, however, the same gestures and habits do not exist in other cultures, e.g., ‘cock a snook’, ‘spitting.’ Ongkang-ongkang is a local Javanese gesture which belongs to this category, which can be found in Surachman R.M.’s Hari Tua Mister Gilbert. 3. Translation Procedures Translation

procedures

are

important

matters

for

translators.

Suryawinata and Haryanto (2003: 67) define it as the way to translate words, phrases, clauses, or even the whole sentence if the translated part cannot be separated into smaller units to be translated. Furthermore, Krings (1986: 18) defines it as "translator's potentially conscious plans for solving concrete translation problems in the framework of a concrete translation task," and Loescher (1991: 8) defines translation procedure as "a potentially conscious procedure for solving a problem faced in translating a text, or any segment of it." Translation procedures employ consciousness to help translating problematic text; translator’s consciousness makes it difference from any non-strategic procedures of translation. Newmark (1988: 81) differentiates translation procedures to translation methods. He states that “translation methods relate to whole texts,” while translation procedures “are used for sentences and the smaller units of language” (1998: 81). It can be concluded that translation procedures deal with


29 conscious act that a translator used to overcome problems in sentences or smaller units of language within the text. Furthermore, Benjamin (1923) explains that translation can never be completely adequate to foreign text (in Venuti, 2000: 20). Translation allowed the translator to choose between a domesticating method, an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to TL cultural value, “bringing the author back home,” and a foreignising method, an ethno-deviant pressure on those values to register linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, “sending the reader abroad.” Venuti later adds some explanations to define foreignisation and domestication. Foreignisation aims to preserve the differences of the source culture, while domestication focuses on replacing the source culture with the target culture (Venuti, 2000: 468). Translators should also consider their tendency and possibility whether to foreignise or domesticate their translation. There are many models of procedures proposed by experts to help translating problematic SL text into the TL. However, Vinay and Darbelnet’s models proposed in “A Methodology for Translation” and Newmark’s models proposed in “A Textbook of Translation” are the most familiar procedures in modern translation. Therefore, in this research, the researcher is going to use Vinay and Darbelnet’s and Newmark’s models. Vinay and Darbelnet’s model is the most familiar procedure in modern translation. In their journal “A Methodology of Translation” which is originally written in French, Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) elaborate two procedures to translate from SL to TL. Those procedures are direct translation, procedures


30 which are SL-oriented, and procedures which are TL-oriented, oblique translation, which are elaborated again into seven procedures, in which the first three are direct translation, and the others are oblique translation: borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation (in Venuti, 2000: 84-93). That model is basically designed for translating from French to English; to translate distant languages, such as Indonesian to English, or Javanese to English, more procedures are needed. Therefore, the researcher takes Newmark’s models into account to provide more procedures. Newmark (1988) also develops some procedures to translate foreign texts, only he focuses at level of sentence and smaller units of language. Newmark adds some additional terms such as, transference, which are actually the same with Vinay and Darbelnet’s borrowing with focus on meaning rather than style, and naturalisation, which is similar to calque but the pronunciation and morphology of SL are adapted to TL. Newmark (1998: 81-91) also expands Vinay and Darbelnet’s model by combining two, three, or four procedures to generate Newmark’s model which consists of: cultural equivalent, functional equivalent, descriptive equivalent, synonymy, through-translation (calque In Vinay and Darbelnet’s model), transposition, modulations, equivalence, and adaptation (the last four procedures are the same with Vinay and Darbelnet’s). He adds that notes, additions, and glosses are acceptable procedures when differences between SL and TL cultures are obvious and none of the other procedure can transfer the expressions satisfactorily, or when there is ambiguity in the text (1988:91).


31 Vinay and Darbelnet’s and Newmark’s model of translation procedures are described as follows: a.

Borrowing Based on Vinay and Darbelnet (1958), borrowing is the simplest of all

translation procedures (in Venuti, 2000: 85). Borrowing is done by directly using foreign terms without formal and semantic modification, e.g., déjà vu (borrowed from French into English), orang-utan (borrowed from Bahasa Indonesia to English), and tequila (borrowed from Mexican Spanish to English). The decision to borrow SL word or expression for introducing an element of local colour or taste is a matter of style and consequently of the message. b. Calque Calque is a special kind of borrowing in which TL borrows an expression form of SL, but then translates literally each of its elements into TL. This calque may results in (1) lexical calque, in which keeps the structure of the TL, but introduces a new mode of translation, e.g., the calque in translating compliments of the season from English into compliments de la saison in French, or (2) structural calque, which introduces a new construction into TL, e.g., science fiction in English, which is translated into science fiction in French. This procedure is identical to Newmark’s through-translation and loan translation (Newmark, 1988: 84), which translates text by substituting linear element of a language into another. Newmark (1988: 84) emphasizes that calque or throughtranslation is only used when the terms are already recognised terms. The most obvious examples of calque or through-translations are the names of international


32 organisations, which are known by their acronyms, which may remain English and internationalisms (UNESCO, FAO, OPEC). c.

Literal translation Literal translation or also known as word for word translation is a direct

transfer of a SL text into a grammatically and idiomatically appropriate TL text (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1958, in Venuti, 2000: 86), e.g., the clause Saya suka film in SL (Bahasa Indonesia) is translated into I like movie in TL (English), or the phrase Mereka adalah polisi is translated into They are police. d. Transposition Transposition involves replacing one word class with another without changing the meaning of the message (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1958, in Venuti, 2000: 88). Newmark (1988: 85) also adds that it involves a change in grammar from SL to TL, as he calls this procedure a shift (by borrowing the same term introduced by Catford). e.

Modulation Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) define modulation as a variation through a

change of viewpoint, of perspective, and very often of category of thought (in Venuti, 2000: 89, and Newmark, 1988: 88-89) f.

Equivalence Vinay and Darbelnet also state that equivalence involves substituting SL

text with its functional equivalence in the TL. In other words, the same situation can be rendered by the two texts of SL and TL using completely different stylistic and structural methods. The common cases of this procedure are onomatopoeic


33 expressions, e.g., kukuruyuk (the sound of a rooster in Bahasa Indonesia) is equivalent to cock-a-doodle-doo in English, kwek (the sound of a duck in Bahasa Indonesia) is equivalent to quack in English, dor (the sound of a gun in Bahasa Indonesia) is equivalent to bang in English, and wan (the sound of a dog in Japanese) is equivalent to woof in English. This procedure is also commonly used in translating idioms, e.g., Bagai pinang dibelah dua in Bahasa Indonesia is equivalent to Two peas in a pod in English, or Bagai makan buah simalakama in Bahasa Indonesia is equivalent to Between the devil and the deep blue sea in English. (1958, in Venuti, 2000: 90). This procedure is also referred as functional equivalence in Newmark. This procedure is applied to cultural words and it requires the use of culture-free words, sometimes with new specific terms (Newmark, 1988: 83). This procedure neutralises and generalises the SL word; and sometimes adds a particular explanation. Functional equivalence is a cultural componential analysis and considered as the most effective way of translating because it “deculturalises” a cultural word, e.g. baccalaureat (French) is translated into French secondary school leaving exam in English, or Sejm (Polish) is translated into Polish parliament in English. g.

Adaptation Adaptation is an effort of creating cultural equivalent between two

different situations. It happens when the situation being referred to by the the SL message is unknown in the TL culture; therefore, translators have to create a situation that can be considered as being equivalent (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1958).


34 This procedure is also called “Cultural Equivalence” by Newmark (1988: 82-83). Cultural equivalence is an approximate translation where a SL cultural word is translated by a TL cultural word. The translation uses are limited, since they are not accurate. However, they have greater pragmatic effect than culturally neutral terms, e.g. the phrase Montecrito (Italian) is translated into the English word Westminster, the term café-pause (French) is translated into English phrase coffee break, the term carte a’ identity (French) is translated into English phrase car license (Newmark, 1988: 83); the phrase Dear Sir on the beginning of a letter written in English is translated into Dengan hormat in a letter written in Bahasa Indonesia; the word rugby in American English is translated into Sepakbola Amerika in Bahasa Indonesia (Machali, 2000:6). h. Transference Transference, or commonly known as loan word, is the process of transferring a SL word to a TL text as a translation procedure. It includes transliteration related to the conversion of different alphabets of the SL, e.g. Russian, Arabic, Greek, and Chinese, into the TL alphabets, in this term English (Newmark, 1988: 82). i.

Naturalisation Naturalisation succeeds the process of transference and adapts the SL

word initially to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal morphology (wordforms) of the TL, e.g. humeur, thatcherisme in French; Performanz, Exhalation in German; akselerasi, 1988: 82).

informasi, naturalisasi in Bahasa Indonesia (Newmark,


35 j.

Descriptive equivalence Descriptive equivalence gives description to find an equivalence of SL

words to TL and sometimes combines it with function, e.g. Machete, the description is a ‘Latin America broad, heavy instrument’, the function is ‘cutting or aggression’; Samurai is described as ‘the Japanese aristocracy from the eleventh to the nineteenth century’ which function is ‘to provide officers and administrators’ (Newmark, 1988: 83-84). k. Synonymy Synonymy is used in the sense of a near TL equivalent of an SL word in a context, where there is no clear one-to-one equivalent, and the word is not important enough for the componential analysis in the text (Newmark, 1988: 84). Examples of this procedure are adjectives and adverbs of quality, e.g. orang kikuk in Bahasa Indonesia is translated into an awkward man, personne gentile in French into a kind man. l.

Reduction and Expansion Although both reduction and expansion are rather imprecise translation

procedures, they are “practiced intuitively in some case and ad hoc in others” (Newmark, 1988: 90). Both procedures are used for SL text which is impossible to be literally translated into TL. An example of reduction is the translation of SL adjective of substance plus general noun, e.g., atleimes inflammatoires et infectieuses in French is translated into “inflammation and infection” in English; while in expansion, usually adjective, adverb plus past participle, or present


36 participle plus object is added to translate SL text, e.g., cheveux igaux, a French ST, is translated into “evenly cut hair” in English. m. Couplets Couplets as well as triplets combine two or three of the above-mentioned procedures respectively for dealing with a single problem (Newmark, 1988: 91). Newmark (1988) exclaims that this combination of procedures is common for cultural words. The most common example of a couplet is a combination of transference with a functional or a cultural equivalence. An example of it is the translation of insitutional terms, i.e., the translation of the UN (United Nations) in English into PBB (Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa) in Bahasa Indonesia. n. Notes, addition, glosses Newmark (1988: 91) suggests that translators are allowed to put ‘notes’ or supply additional information in a translation. The additional information that can be added into the translators’ version is normally cultural (accounting for difference between SL and TL culture), technical (related to the topic), and linguistic (explaining the use of word). He also suggests that additional information in the translation may take various forms, which are described as follows: 1) Within the text a) As an alternative to the translated word: e.g., la gabelle becomes ‘the gabelle or salt-tax’


37 b) As an adjectival clause: e.g., la taille becomes ‘la taille, which was the old levy raised in feudal times from the civilian population.’ c) As a noun in apposition: e.g., les traites becomes ‘the traites, custom dues.’ d) As a participial group: e.g., Voctroi becomes ‘Voctroi taxes imposed on food stuffs and wine entering the town.’ e) In brackets, often for a literal translation of a transferred word: e.g., das kombinat becomes ‘the kombinat (a “combine” or “trust”).’ f) In parentheses, the longest form of addition: e.g., aides become ‘aides– these are excise dues on such things as drinks, tobacco, iron, precious metals, and leather–where imposed in the eighteenth century.’ 2) Notes at bottom of page 3) Notes at end of chapter 4) Notes or glossary at end of book B. Theoretical Framework There are two research problems in this research, namely culturespecific terms within poems featured in On Foreign Shores and procedures used in translating culture-specific terms in those poems. Based on the theoretical description, the researcher employs theories from Catford (1965), Nida and Taber (1982), Nida and Taber (1988), Brislin (1976), Jakobson (1004), Malmkjaer (2005), Hornby (1990), Katan (1999), Malinowski (1923), Newmark (1981),


38 Newmark (1988), Larson (1984), Munday (2001), and Choliludin (2005) to understand about the relation between language, translation, and cross-cultural communication. Afterwards, the researcher employs theories from Newmark (1988) about culture-specific terms and Newmark (1988) as well as Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) about translation procedures to solve those two research problems. To solve the first research problem, the theory that will be used is culture-specific term categorization proposed by Newmark (1988). There are five types of culture-specific terms, namely ecology; material culture; social culture; organisations, culture, and ideas; and gesture and habits. Based on Newmark’s theory, the researcher attempts to analyze culture-specific terms in poems featured in On Foreign Shores. To solve the second research problem about procedures used in translating culture-specific terms, the researcher uses theories of translation procedures which are compiled from the study of Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) and Newmark (1988). From that compilation of procedures, the researcher employs 15 translation procedures, namely borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, transference,

functional

equivalence, adaptation

or cultural

equivalence, naturalisation, descriptive equivalent, reduction or expansion, synonymy, couplets, and notes (see page 31-36). Those procedures are used to analyze what procedures used to translate culture-specific terms found within poems in On Foreign Shores from Bahasa Indonesia into English.


CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In this chapter, the researcher discusses the methodology used to answer the research problems. This chapter consists of seven subtopics. The first subtopic is the research method used to conduct this research. The second subtopic is the setting in which and when the research was conducted. The third subtopic talks about the research subject as the source of data used in conducting the research. The fourth subtopic is the instrument used in collecting and analyzing the data. The fifth is about the techniques used to gather the data. The sixth is the data analysis. The seventh or the last subtopic is the research procedures. A. Research Method This research was qualitative research. Based on Borg and Galls (2007), “Qualitative research is a research which presents facts in a narration with words.” A description is also given by Hansen (2005) stating that qualitative methods rely on experiences and phenomena that need to be interpreted and explained. The results of the research problems are to be explained and interpreted. Those were the application of descriptive-qualitative research in this study. Merriam et al (2002) state that a descriptive-qualitative research is used when data collected through interviews, observations, or documents analysis are analyzed to identify the pattern of the data. In addition, the findings of the research are to be presented and discussed in the lights of some relevant theories of culture-specific terms and translations procedures. Therefore, the researcher analyzed the phenomena of 39


40 culture-specific terms in poems featured in On Foreign Shores, which were translated into English and what procedures are used to translate those terms from Bahasa Indonesia into English. Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, and Razavieh (2010) define a document analysis as a method that is used when someone wants to analyze any physical documents, in form of written or visual materials, in order to identify specific data. Furthermore, the researcher took the sources of data by analyzing and interpreting recorded materials which can be taken from public records, textbooks, letters, films, tapes, diaries, themes, reports, etc (Ary, Jacobs & Razavieh, 2002). Based on that study, the researcher selected an anthology of poems entitled On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry which features 69 Indonesian poems which are translated into English. B. Research Setting The setting of this research refers to the setting in which the researcher conducted this research. The researcher conducted this research during the period of August 2013 to September 2013. The research was conducted in Yogyakarta through library study. C. Research Data The data which are analyzed in this research are taken from On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry, an anthology of Indonesian poems about the United States of America which was published in conjunction with the 1990-1991 Festival of Indonesia in the United States by the Lontar


41 Foundation. This anthology consists of 69 Indonesian poems from 21 Indonesian poets throughout generations, which are translated into 69 poems written in English. From all poems featured in this anthology, the researcher only selected culture-specific terms which bear Indonesian or Javanese culture to be presented for discussion. D. Research Instruments There were two instruments used in this research; those instruments were a human instrument and a document instrument. Human instrument became the primary agent to collect the data in qualitative research (Merriam, 2002; Borg and Galls, 2007; Ary, et al, 2010). In this research, the human instrument was the researcher. The researcher was the one who identified the culture-specific terms in the poems. Afterwards, the researcher analyzed the translation procedures used to translate those poems from Bahasa Indonesia into English. Document instruments were to find answer for the research problems. In this research, the document instruments were the printed version of On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry published by The Lontar Foundation and observation forms, which are depicted in Table 3.1 and Table 3.2. The observation forms were employed to observe the occurrences of culturespecific terms, to classify the data, and to identify the procedures used to translate culture-specific terms from Bahasa Indonesia into English. Table 3.1 was employed to classify the culture-specific terms in poems from On Foreign Shores based on appropriate categories. Table 3.1 was used to answer the first research problem about culture-specific terms in those poems


42 based on the categorization based on theories from Newmark (1988). There are five categories proposed by Newmark, namely ecology; material culture; functional culture; organization, ideas, and concepts; and gestures and habits. Each category is given a specific code, e.g., ecology is given a code ECO, and material culture is given a code MCU. The identification will be done as portrayed in the table below. Table 3.1. Table of Culture-Specific Terms (Based on Newmark (1988))

No

1

2

Notes ECO MCU SCU OIC GAH

Culturespecific Terms

Line on Poems

Categories of Culture-Specific Terms ECO

Daun ketapang

“daun ketapang makin lebat berguguran” (Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian Makin Akrab)

√

Garuda

“Ricky, sayang, garudaku sayang” (Rendra’s Rick dari Corona,)

√

MCU

SCU

OIC

GAH

: Ecology : Material Culture : Social Culture : Organizations, Ideas, Customs : Gestures and Habits

Table 3.2 was used to organize procedures which were applied to translate culture-specific terms in all poems taken from On Foreign Shores and to solve the second research problem. There are 15 (fifteen) translation procedures compiled from the studies of Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) also Newmark (1988), namely: borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation,


43 transference, functional equivalence, adaptation or cultural equivalence, naturalisation, descriptive equivalence, synonymy, reduction, expansion, couplets, and notes. Each procedure is also given a code; the identification of each procedure can be seen in a table that will work similarly to the table below. Table 3.2. Table of Procedures to Translate Culture-Specific Terms (Based on Vinay & Darbelnet (1958), Newmark (1988))

TT ST BO DE LT MO TF FE NO

: Target Text : Source Text : Borrowing : Descriptive Equivalence : Literal Translation : Modulation : Transference : Functional Equivalence : Notes

NO

CO

EX

RE

SY

DE

NA

The Bengawan

FE

bengawan

CE

2

TF

eagle

MO

garuda

TP

1

LT

ST BO

TT

CA

Translation procedures

N o

√

√ CE NA CA TP SY RE EX CO

: Cultural Equivalence : Naturalisation : Calque : Transposition : Synonymy : Reduction : Expansion : Couplets

E. Data Analysis Technique This research is qualitative and further, its type is content analysis where

the researcher learned about the phenomena by studying the documents (Ary, Jacobs and Razavieh, 2002). The phenomena to be studied are the culture-specific terms in Indonesian poems and procedures used to translate them into English. The data in this research are culture-specific terms in poems which are featured in On Foreign Shores.


44 In qualitative research, there are general steps that are used to analyze the data. Creswell (2007) defines the first steps of the data analysis as “preparing” and “organizing” the data for analysis. In this step, the researcher read and analyzed all poems in the anthology On Foreign Shores. The researcher identified culture-

specific terms based on the categorization proposed by Newmark (1988). The second, sorting the data into some categories through a process of “coding” (Creswell, 2007: 148). In this research, data were categorized in double layers; The first layers are to analyze culture-specific terms in the all poems, while the second layer is to analyze procedures used to translate them into English. First, the researcher categorized the data and put them into categories of culturespecific terms which had been given specific codes, e.g., ecology category was given a code ECO. Each datum was put into specific categories in which they belong. Second, the researcher categorized the data of culture-specific terms, and then analyzed what procedures used in translating them into English based on procedures proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) as well as Newmark (1988). Each procedure had been given a specific code, e.g., Borrowing was given a code BO. The first coding dealt with the solving of the first research problem, while the second coding dealt with the solving of the second research problem. The last step is presenting the data in the form of tables. After the data were prepared and organized, the researcher put them into two tables. The first table was Table 3.1 to distinguish the categories of culture-specific terms in the poems, as to solve the first research problem. Furthermore, the second table, namely Table 3.2 was used to analyze procedures applied to translate culture-


45 specific terms from Bahasa Indonesia into English, as to solve the second research problem. In the end, the researcher described Table 3.1 based on each category and Table 3.2 based on each applied procedure. F. Research Procedures In this part, the researcher explained the steps in conducting the research. The steps were as follows: 1. Deciding the topic to discuss The researcher decided one topic to discuss among many topics. The decided topic was “procedures to translate culture-specific terms and onomatopoeic words from Bahasa Indonesia to English in On Foreign Shores.” To proceed discussing this topic, the researcher needed theories from related literature, such as theories of language, translation, and cross-cultural communication; theories of culture-specific terms; and theories of translation procedures. 2. Conducting library study After deciding the topic, the researcher conducted a library study to support the topic with theories from experts. At first, the researcher equipped himself with knowledge on how language, translation, and cross-cultural communication are interrelated by employing the studies from Catford (1965), Nida & Taber (1982), Larson (1984), Munday (2001), Choliludin (2005), and other experts. Later, the researcher employed the theory from Newmark (1988)


46 about categorisation of culture-specific terms as a basis of the research. Furthermore, the researcher also equipped himself with theories from Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) as well as Newmark (1988) about translation procedures to prepare analyzing the data of this research. 3. Collecting data from On Foreign Shores Being equipped with theories to support the topic, the researcher collected data for this research from the sources. Those data were taken from poems featured in On Foreign Shores. The researcher used Newmark’s categorisation of culture-specific terms in collecting the data. 4. Classifying culture-specific terms using Table 3.1 From the poems taken from On Foreign Shores, the researcher identified culture-specific terms in Bahasa Indonesia based on the theory proposed by Newmark (1988). To identify those terms, the researcher employed the third edition of Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, the latest prime Indonesian dictionary, and Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings’s A Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary, a bilingual Indonesian dictionary which has the largest entries and is recommended by professional translators; the researcher employed those two dictionaries to check whether those data were available and cultural—which means they have no direct equivalence in English. The researcher also deviced Google search engine to check whether each data cultural or universal. In addition, the researcher analyzed the context of the poems in which those terms occur to find out the contextual term of those terms.


47 After identifying those culture-specific terms, the researcher classified those culture-specific terms based on Newmark’s categorisation and put the results in Table 3.1 (see page 40). Thus, the result of this analysis and classification solved the first research problem. 5. Identifying procedures to translate culture-specific terms using Table 3.2 From the culture-specific terms identified from the initial identification and classification, the researcher identified what procedures were used to translate them from Bahasa Indonesia to English as seen in the English version of those poems in On Foreign Shores. Those data from Table 3.1 (page 40) were put on the Table 3.2 along with their original version and their English translation to be analyzed. The analysis focused on what procedures were used to translate them. To document the translation procedures, the researcher employed Table 3.2 (see page 41) which were adapted from procedures proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) also Newmark (1988). Therefore, the result presented in Table 3.2 became the basis to solve the third research problem. 6. Describing procedures applied to translate culture-specific terms Based on the findings of translation procedure identification, the researcher analyzed the procedures which were applied in translating culturespecific terms from Bahasa Indonesia to English based on theories proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) and Newmark (1988). The researcher described how those procedures were used by comparing the meaning and syntactical form of the


48 ST and the TT only, yet neglecting the stylistic form in the TT, since it is not developed well in the result of the translation. 7. Reporting the result of the research To display the final findings of this research, the researcher wrote a report of the final result consisting of the answers of all research problems formulated initially. Firstly, the researcher wrote down the result from Table 3.1 and described those findings based on the categorisation of culture-specific term compiled from the theory from Newmark (1988); the researcher did that to report the findings of the first research problem. The researcher wrote down the result from Table 3.2 and described how the procedures are applied; the researcher, thus, reported the findings of the second research problem. Finally, the researcher drew conclusions of the whole research and gave suggestion towards translators, Translation teachers and students, as well as future researchers who have the similar passion dealing with translation.


CHAPTER IV RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter consists of two parts, namely the discussion of culturespecific terms found in poems featured in On Foreign Shores based on Newmark’s categorisation of culture-specific terms and the discussion of procedures used to translate culture-specific terms found from Bahasa Indonesia into English based on translation theories compiled from Newmark’s and Vinay and Darbelnet’s. A. The Discussion of Culture-Specific Terms in Selected Poems Taken from On Foreign Shores The researcher discovered twenty-three (23) culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores. The distribution of those terms is described as follows: seven terms belong to the category of ecology, three terms belong to the category of material culture, nine terms belong to the category of social culture, one term belong to organization, ideas, and culture category, and three terms belong to the category of gesture and habit. Those 23 terms were found in 15 poems (of 69 poems) written by 10 poets (of 21 poets) featured in this anthology. Furthermore, those terms were all in word-level and phrase-level. In this section, the researcher discussed and analyzed each culturespecific term found in On Foreign Shores. The discussion is based on Newmark’s categorisation of culture-specific terms established in 1988. In addition, each datum is presented based on its category. 49


50 1.

Ecology This category refers to geographical and ecological features which can be

normally distinguished from other cultural term because they are “usually valuefree, politically and commercially” (Newmark, 1988: 96). Mostly, terms which are categorized into this category are related to flora, fauna, winds, plain, and hills (p. 97). In this research, this category refers to Indonesian ecological terms which have no direct equivalence in English due to their cultural bound. The researcher discovered seven (7) culture-specific terms which belong to the category of ecology in 5 poems, namely W.S. Rendra’s Rick dari Corona, Surachman R.M’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, Subagio Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian Makin Akrab, Taufiq Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, and Darmanto Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik. a.

“daun ketapang makin lebat berguguran” (Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian Makin Akrab, p. 6) Ketapang is an Indonesian local plant which grows near the beach. In

Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, ketapang is defined as “pohon besar yang daunnya lebar, buahnya bertempurung keras, kulitnya untuk menyamak kulit, bijinya dapat dibuat minyak” (p. 494). That definition means that ketapang is a big tree which has broad leaves with hard-shelled fruits, barks that can be used to tan skins and seeds that can be used to produce oil. Similarly, according to Stevens

and

Schmidgall-Tellings’

A

Comprehensive

Indonesian-English

Dictionary, ketapang is a “Singapore almond” (p. 495). In addition, the scientific name of which is Terminalia catappa. In Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian Makin


51 Akrab, daun ketapang refers to the leaves of a tree that fall very thickly in the late hours of the night. The descriptive definition in dictionaries implies that ketapang carries cultural element and does not have direct equivalence in the TL. Thus, ketapang, as local flora belongs to the category of ecology. b.

“Ricky, sayang, garudaku sayang” (Rendra’s Rick dari Corona, p. 54) Garuda is a well-known bird in Indonesia; moreover, this bird becomes

the national symbol of the country as depicted in Garuda Pancasila symbol. In Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, garuda is defined as (1) “burung besar pemakan daging yang menyerupai elang dan memiliki kekuatan terbang yang luar biasa” (p. 295) or literally translated into “a big carnivorous bird which looks like an eagle and has tremendous flying power” and (2) “lambang negara Indonesia” (p. 295) or “the symbol of Indonesia.” This word is also defined as a “griffin”, “mythical bird that transported the god Vishnu through space”, and “the eagle in the state coat of arms of the Republic Indonesia” in A Comprehensive IndonesianEnglish Dictionary (p. 298). Yet, in Rendra’s Rick dari Corona, garuda refers to a nickname given to Rick—a character in the poem; that nickname is taken from the name of a strong bird whose definition is close to the first definition stated in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. Since it refers to a kind of bird in the SL culture, the word garuda belongs to the category of ecology. c.

“Dan, ah, seekor kijang” (Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, p. 58) In Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, the word kijang refers to an

animal that crosses a street as indicated by the quantifier seekor, which in the SL determines quantity for animal. Furthermore, the word kijang itself, in Kamus


52 Besar Bahasa Indonesia, is defined as “binatang seperti rusa, tubuhnya lebih kecil dan tanduknya lebih pendek” which is scientifically known as Cervulus muntjac (p. 500). That definition means that kijang is an animal which looks like a deer with a smaller body and shorter horns. Meanwhile, Stevens and SchmidgallTellings define kijang as a “barking deer with short antlers” (p. 501). Although, there are differences in both dictionary definitions, a conclusion can still be drawn. Literally, kijang refers to a kind of deer with small body. Therefore, kijang belongs to the category of ecology. d.

“Lembah. Bengawan. Lembah. Bengawan” (Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, p. 58) Bengawan is literally a Javanese term for river. The most obvious

example of this term is the phrase Bengawan Solo which refers to a great river in Solo, Central Java. Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia defines bengawan as a big river (originally written as “sungai besar,” p. 116), whilst Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings’ A Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary defines it as a “large river” in Javanese (p. 119). In ST, the word bengawan literally refers to a geographical object which is mentioned along with other objects during a road trip. That object refers to a great river seen by a SL-speaking beholder. As a geographical term in the SL, bengawan belongs to the category of ecology. e. “seribu burung belibis” (Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, p. 78) Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings functionally define belibis as a “lesser tree duck, whistling teal” (p. 114). However, according to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, it is a wild bird which looks like a duck (originally written as “burung


53 liar yang rupanya seperti itik, Dendrocygna javanica, p. 111). Based on its occurrence in the ST, the researcher concludes that belibis is a kind of bird which looks like a duck moving in a large flock. According to the definitions and the interpretation from the poem, this bird refers to a kind of local fauna in the SL origin; thus, it belongs to the category of ecology. f. “dari sekian petani penanam gayam” (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p.128) Gayam is an Indonesian word which refers to a kind of plant. According to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, gayam means “pohon yang daunnya lebat dan dapat dipakai sebagai pembungkus, biasanya tumbuh di daerah yang banyak air” (p. 297) or a kind of tree which has dense leaves that can be used to wrap foods and it usually grows around an area surrounded by water. The scientific name of this plant is Inocarpus edulis. In Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings’, gayam is defined as a “Tahitian or Polynesian chestnut” (p. 301). In Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, gayam refers to a cropping fruit in Indonesia which is a subject to harvest. Therefore, as a kind of local flora known in the SL culture, this term can be categorized as a culture-specific term under the category of ecology. g. “Kalau butuh kacang kangkung” (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p.130) Kangkung, is a kind of vegetable in Indonesia. Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia defines it very specifically as “tumbuhan sayuran yang menjalar, batangnya berair, daunnya berbentuk tameng dan meruncing pada bagiannya, bertangkai panjang dengan permukaan daun sebelah atas berwarna hijau yang lebih tua daripada permukaan sebelah bawah, bunganya berbentuk terompet berwarna lila, buahnya berbentuk bulat telur” (p. 440). In other words, kangkung


54 refers to a kind of creeper plant whose trunk is succulent. It has shield-shaped leaves, long stems, lilac-colored trumpet-shaped flowers, and fruits which look like eggs; it is scientifically known as Ipomoea reptans. Similarly, kangkung, in A Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary, is defined as a “swamp cabbage, water convolvulus” (p. 445). Furthermore, in ST the word kangkung literally refers to a vegetable in Indonesia which is sold along with peanuts. Thus, as a kind of local flora, kangkung belongs to the category of ecology. The occurrence of culture-specific terms that belong to the category of ecology is illustrated in Table 4.1. Table 4.1. The Ecology Category of Culture-Specific Terms Culture-specific term Daun ketapang Garuda Kijang Bengawan Belibis Gayam Kangkung

Poem Dan Kematian Makin Akrab (Subagio Sastrowardoyo) Rick dari Corona (W.S. Rendra) Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium (Surachman R.M.) Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium (Surachman R.M.) Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest (Taufiq Ismail) Melintasi Atlantik (Darmanto Yatman)

Example daun ketapang makin lebat berguguran

Ricky, sayang, garudaku sayang Dan, ah, seekor kijang Lembah. Bengawan. Lembah. Bengawan seribu burung belibis dari sekian petani penanam gayam Kalau butuh kacang kangkung

Based on the conducted analysis, the researcher found out that there are seven culture-specific terms that belong to the category of ecology found in On Foreign Shores. Those terms are mostly terms related to local flora and fauna


55 known in the SL culture. However, one term referring to a geographical object is also found in On Foreign Shores. 2.

Material Culture Material culture, which is also called as artifacts, is associated to local

foods, clothes, houses, and transports which Newmark (1988: 97-98) proposes as four sub-category of it. This category embraces names of traditional foods which is “the most sensitive and important expression of national culture” (p. 97), traditional clothes which refers to national costumes which is distinctive (p. 97), traditional and national houses which refers to typical house of particular language communities (p. 97), and also local transportation referring to names of various carriages to provide local colour and to connote prestige (p. 98). The researcher found three terms that belong to the category of material culture in Taufiq Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, Darmanto Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, and Linus Suryadi AG’s Central Park. a. “Amerika mengeluarkan bunyi kerupuk kentang kering” (Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, p. 72) Kerupuk is an Indonesian culture-specific term which belongs to the food sub-category of material culture. It refers to a kind of Indonesian chip which is made of flour. In Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, kerupuk is a food made of flour dough mixed with crushed shrimp and fish. To cook it, the dough is steamed, cut slightly, molded, and sun-dried (originally written as “makanan yang dibuat dari adonan tepung dicampur dengan lumatan udang atau ikan, setelah dikukus disayat-sayat tipis atau dibentuk dengan alat cetak, kemudian dijemur agar


56 mudah digoreng, p.492). In Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings’ A Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary, kerupuk is defined as a “generic term for all kinds of chips made from starch base and ground shrimps, fish, or other ingredients” as “they come dried and are fried before eaten” (p. 493). Based on the context in Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, an overview can be taken explaining that kerupuk refers to dried, fried chips made of flour dough with potatoes. Henceforth, kerupuk carries cultural element that makes it a material culture-specific terms. b. “Bagai geteknya Joko Tingkir” (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 132) Getek is a traditional kind of water transportation in Indonesia. It is made of bamboos which are arranged and tied up together as a flat-formed raft. According to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, the term getek is a Jakarta Malay word for a raft (originally “rakit”, p. 317). Similarly, Stevens and SchmidgallTellings in A Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary define getek as a “raft” (p. 322). Based on the ST, the word getek literally refers to a water transportation used by Joko Tingkir, a fictional character in Javanese legend, to sail down a river. Therefore, the word getek belongs to material culture-specific terms c. “Kopiahnya bertengger di atas kepala” (Suryadi’s Central Park, p. 164) The term kopiah in Bahasa Indonesia refers to a hat which is also called ‘peci’; this hat is usually worn by men in a formal ceremony regardless of the fact that it becomes an identity of Muslim men. This term belongs to clothes subcategory. According to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, kopiah is a hat which is


57 usually worn by Muslim men when practicing their prayer (originally written as “topi biasa dipakai orang Islam waktu salat,” p. 525). In Stevens and SchmidgallTellings’, kopiah is defined as a “cap, headdress (worn by Muslim men and as a symbol of nationalism), an untasseled fez” (p. 519). In Suryadi’s Central Park, the word kopiah refers to the hat worn by a bishop; that hat physically looks like the headdress worn by Muslim men. Nevertheless, the word kopiah still belongs to the category of material culture; since it still refers to national clothes, specifically a nationally acclaimed headdress. This fact marks kopiah as one of Indonesian national identities. The findings of material culture terms are illustrated in Table 4.2 below. Table 4.2. The Material Culture Category of Culture-Specific Terms Terms Kerupuk

Sub-category Food

Getek

Transport

Kopiah

Clothes

3.

Poems Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco (Taufiq Ismail) Melintasi Atlantik (Darmanto Yatman) Central Park (Linus Suryadi)

Examples Amerika mengeluarkan kerupuk kentang kering

bunyi

Bagai geteknya Joko Tingkir Kopiahnya kepala

bertengger

di

atas

Social Culture The category of social culture refers to words that indicate particular

work and leisure activity or product of cultures (Newmark, 1988: 98). Based on examples provided by Newmark, it can be concluded that music terms, music instruments, and music genre (e.g., sithar and biwa—Indian traditional string instruments, raga—Indian melodic mode, reggae—Jamaican music genre, p. 95)


58 also belong to this category. Furthermore, it also includes terms which denote leisure activity in “national games with their lexical sets” (p. 99). In this research, nine terms that belong to the category of social culture were found. Those terms were found in six poems, namely Taufiq Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, Darmanto Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, Darmanto Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, Frans Nadjira’s Sepasang Turis, Abdul Hadi’s Kidung Putih, and Abdul Hadi’s Landskap 1971 untuk Angela Davis. a. “Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest” (Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, p. 78) Pantun is a kind of traditional poetry known in Malay and traditional Jakarta. The word pantun is found in the title of Ismail’s poem and it refers to the kind of poetry Ismail applies in this poem. In Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, the word pantun is defined as “bentuk puisi Indonesia (Melayu), tiap bait (kuplet) biasanya terdiri atas empat baris yang bersajak (a-b-a-b), baris pertama dan kedua biasanya untuk tumpuan (sampiran) dan baris ketiga dan keempat merupakan isi (p. 728).” The definition implies that pantun is a form of Indonesian poetry; each verse consists of four couplets with specific rhymes. The first 2 couplets are called “sampiran”—not the literal meaning; and the second 2 couplets are called “isi”—the content it addresses. Meanwhile, the word pantun is described as a kind of “quatrain, old poetry form consisting of verses of four lines each” or “kinds of epigrammatic style” in Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings’ A Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary (p. 708). The example of pantun can be seen in the following illustration.


59 Jika ada sumur di ladang Boleh kita menumpang mandi Jika ada waktu yang panjang Boleh kita bertemu lagi

—a —b —a —b

sampiran—not literal meaning isi—literal meaning

The first and the third line bear the same final sound ang, while the second and the fourth line bear the same i sound. That kind of poetry is what Ismail wants to show in Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest. Since it refers to a traditional work of art as leisure poetry, pantun, belongs to the category of social culture. b. “dalam megatruh blues” (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 130) Megatruh is one of macapat song—Javanese traditional songs with specific lines and rhymes. The constraint on macapat’s specific numbering of syllables is called guru wilangan; while the constraint on macapat’s final sound of each line is called guru swara. According to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, megatruh is defined as a form of macapat composition which is usually used to express disappointment or deep sadness; it has five lines (gatra) in which the first line consists of 12 syllables finalized with n sound (originally written as “bentuk komposisi tembang macapat, biasanya dipakai untuk melukiskan perasaan kecewa atau kesedihan yang mendalam, mempunya bait lagu yang terdiri atas lima baris, baris pertama mempunyai dua belas suku kata yang berakhir bunyi n (12n), kemudian berturut-turut 8i, 8i, dan 8a,” p. 641). The word megatruh does not have equivalence in English indicated by the absence of it in Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings’ A Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary. From the definition in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, it is apparent that megatruh is a cultural word which belongs to social culture as a music term.


60 c. “sambil nembang bapak pocung” (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p.130) Bapak pocung is also one of macapat songs in Javanese tradition. Bapak pocung is sometimes called as bapak pucung or pucung. According to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, bapak pocung or pucung is defined as a form of macapat composition which is usually used to tell spoof, anecdote, and riddle (originally defined as “bentuk komposisi tembang macapat, biasanya dipakai untuk menceritakan hal-hal yang ringan, jenaka, atau teka-teki,” p. 794). Pucung has 4 lines (4 gatra), in which the first line has 12 syllables finalized in u sound, the second line has six syllables ended in a sound, the third line has 8 syllables ended in i sound, and the fourth line has 12 syllables ended in a sound. The same as the word megatruh, bapak pocung also literally refers to a macapat song. In Stevens

and

Schmidgall-Tellings’

A

Comprehensive

Indonesian-English

Dictionary, the word pucung is defined as a “song form” in Javanese (p. 779). Therefore, this word as a music term in particular culture belongs to the category of social culture. d. “dalam tetembangan dandanggula” (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 132) The word dandanggula in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik also refers to a macapat song in the Javanese tradition. Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia categorizes it as an art word and defines it as a form of Javanese and Sundanese poem or song that express joyfulness or victory (it is originally defined as “bentuk pusi Jawa dan Sunda termasuk jenis tembang, yang melukiskan rasa suka cita atau kemenangan,” p. 208). Dandanggula has 10 lines (10 gatra) and the guru wilangan and guru swara structure of which is described as follows: 10i, 10a, 8e,


61 7u, 9i, 7a, 6u, 8a, 12i, 7a. Meanwhile, the word dandanggula is defined as a “Javanese meter (in music)” (p 225). In addition, based on the context given in the poem, the word dandanggula also literally refers to a title of macapat song. Therefore, the word dandanggula, an existing ancient form of traditional music in Javanese culture, belongs to the the category of social culture. e. “nina bobo” (Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, p. 134) or “ninabobo yang menentramkan, kupahatkan padanya” (Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi, p. 160) Nina bobo or ninabobo is a title of a song which is sung to aid the process of a child to go to sleep. In other word, nina bobo is a title of a lullaby in Indonesia. This word is coined into Bahasa Indonesia becoming a noun which means a song sung before a child go to sleep (originally written “nyanyian untuk menidurkan anak,” Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, p. 690) and a verb which means to sing a song for children in order to make them sleep (originally defined as “menyanyikan lagu untuk anak supaya tidur,” Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, p. 690). In other hand, Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings in A Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary define the word ninabobo as a “lullaby” (p. 665). The contexts also emphasize that the phrase nina bobo here exactly refers to the title of the song described in dictionaries, which is sung to led someone to sleep. According to its origin, nina bobo belongs to the category of social culture. f. “Dewa-dewa di pulau ini tidak membenci sabung ayam.” (Nadjira’s Sepasang Turis, p.138) Sabung ayam is a kind of leisure activity which is often practiced in Bali, Indonesia. This phrase refers to a contest of rooster fighting which is sometimes


62 attached to betting games. Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia defines sabung ayam as a fighting between two roosters (as originally written as “perkelahian atara dua ekor ayam jantan,” p. 858). Whereas, based on Steven and Schmidgall-Tellings’ A Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary, sabung ayam is “fighting cock” (p. 852). Those dictionary definitions imply that sabung ayam is a kind of leisure activity done by engaging two roosters in a fight; moreover, the context stated in the poem also shows that it precisely refers to the reference defined by dictionaries. Therefore, since this leisure activity is renowned in Indonesian culture, the word sabung ayam belongs to Indonesian culture-specific term specifically to the category of social culture. g. “musim panas datang berduaan dengan angin si gender” (Abdul Hadi’s Kidung Putih, p. 154) Gender is a Javanese traditional music instrument—one of gamelan instrument which looks like a xylophone with metal to resemble each tone. From its use, it can be concluded that gender is a term of art specifically originated from Javanese tradition. Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia defines gender as a Javanese gamelan instrument made from 14 metallic plates and bamboos to echo the sound (originally defined as “gamelan Jawa yang dibuat dari bilah-bilah logam berjumlah empat belas buah dengan pernggema dari bambu,” p. 308). Whilst, according to Steven and Schmidgall-Tellings’ A Comprehensive IndonesianEnglish Dictionary, gender is a “gamelan instrument” or “xylophone with bronze keys suspended over bamboo sounding tubes” (p. 314). By considering the


63 context in the poem, the researcher also found out that the word gender exactly refers to a traditional musical instrument included in the ensemble set of gamelan. Newmark (1988: 95) shows that example of social culture are mostly words related to work and leisure. Furthermore, some of examples he proposes are related to terms which includes music and its instrument as representations of it. Thus, gender represents the category of social culture of culture-specific terms due to its definition and use as a traditional music instrument. h. “berpesta di angkasa riuh memukul kendangnya di rimba-rimba” (Hadi’s Landskap 1971 untuk Angela Davis, p. 162) Kendang is defined as a Javanese term of gendang (originally written as “gendang,” p. 478), while gendang, in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, is defined as a musical instrument in the shape of long and round wood covered with leather on one or both side with a cavity inside (originally written as “alat bunyi-bunyian berupa kayu bulat panjang, di dalamnya berongga dan pada salah satu lubangnya atau kedua-duanya diberi kulit,” p. 308). Meanwhile, Steven and Schmidgall-Tellings describe kendang as a “conical-shaped drum resting on crossbeams and beaten with both hands; used to direct or conduct a group of players” (p. 480). Based on dictionary definitions presented above and judgments made from the context, a conclusion can be drawn about the meaning of the word kendang. Apparently, the word kendang refers to a music instrument used in Indonesian leisure activity. Therefore, it belongs to the category of social culture.


64 The terms of the category of social culture are illustrated in Table 4.3 below. Table 4.3. The Social Culture Category of Culture-Specific Term Culture-specific terms

Poems

Sabung ayam

Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest (Taufiq Ismail) Melintasi Atlantik (Darmanto Yatman) Melintasi Atlantik (Darmanto Yatman) Melintasi Atlantik (Darmanto Yatman) Impresi Honolulu (Darmanto Yatman) Dini Hari Musim Semi (Abdul Hadi) Sepasang Turis (Frans Nadjira)

Gender

Kidung Putih (Abdul Hadi)

Kendang

Landskap 1971 untuk Angela Davis (Abdul Hadi)

Pantun Megatruh Bapak pocung Dandanggula Nina bobo ninabobo

4.

/

Examples Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest dalam megatruh blues sambil nembang bapak pocung dalam tetembangan dandanggula nina bobo ninabobo yang menentramkan, kupahatkan padanya Dewa-dewa di pulau ini tidak membenci sabung ayam musim panas datang berduaan dengan angin si gender berpesta di angkasa riuh memukul kendangnya di rimba-rimba

Organisations, Ideas, and Customs Organisations, ideas, and customs category theoretically attains the

largest population among all categories of culture-specific terms. Based on Newmark (1988: 99-102), this category embraces political, administrative, historical, international, religious, and artistic terms. Terms within the scope of this category are political and administrative terms of a country which “is reflected in its institutional terms,” i.e., Sejm, Polish parliament (p. 99), historical terms which are shown in “historical institutional terms,” i.e., kulturkampf in Germany, (p. 101), international terms which refer to international institutional terms “known by their acronyms,” i.e., United Nations or UN, (p. 101), religious


65 terms which refer to terms used by “the other world religions,” i.e., Pharisees from Christian Bible, (p. 102), and artistic terms which refer to art “movements, processes, and organizations,” i.e., Amsterdam Concertgebouw—an art movement in Holland (p. 102). Although it has the largest population of culture-specific terms, the researcher only found one term priors to this category. That term was found in Taufiq Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di kota San Fransisco. a. “…pada pelajaran ilmu bumi di Sekolah Rakyat partikelir.” (Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di kota San Fransisco, p. 70) Sekolah Rakyat is an Indonesian educational term referring to one level of education in the past. Sekolah Rakyat levels with primary or elementary school (Sekolah Dasar) in the present context. Nowadays, the term Sekolah Rakyat is no longer used in Indonesian education since it is replaced by the term Sekolah Dasar. The term Sekolah Dasar refers to a school which provides education as a basic knowledge to proceed to a higher school (“sekolah tempat memberikan pendidikan sebagai dasar pengetahuan untuk melanjutkan ke sekolah yang lebih tinggi,” Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, p. 893). In other hand, Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings precisely define sekolah rakyat as being equivalent to elementary school or grammar school (A Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary, p. 892). Meanwhile, based on the context given in the poem, the phrase Sekolah Rakyat indeed refers to the elementary school in Indonesia during the past time.


66 Nevertheless, Sekolah Rakyat is categorized into culture-specific term because of the historical bound it has. A term which has specific bound to Indonesian history is therefore categorized in the category of organisations, ideas, and customs. There is only one term which belongs to the category of organisations, ideas, and customs in On Foreign Shores, namely Sekolah Rakyat. That term belongs to historical sub-category. The occurrence of culture-specific term which belongs to the category of organisations, ideas, and customs is illustrated on the Table 4.4 below. Table 4.4. The Organisations, Ideas, Customs Category Culture-specific terms Sekolah Rakyat

5.

Sub-categories Historical

Poems Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco (Taufiq Ismail)

Examples ...pada pelajaran ilmu bumi di Sekolah Rakyat partikelir.

Gestures and Habits The category of gestures and habits refers to those culture-specific terms

related to particular gestures and habits “which occur in some cultures and not in others” (Newmark, 1988: 102). Later, Newmark also mentions some gestures and habits from all along the world, such as smiling a little when someone dies, doing a slow hand-clap to express warm appreciation, spitting as a blessing, nodding to dissent or shake their head to assent, kissing their finger tips to greet or to praise, giving a thumbs-up to signal affirmation, that belong to this category. Therefore,


67 this category embraces some movements and postures which occur in particular culture only and not in other culture. In this research, terms that were considered to come under this category are terms of gestures and habits practiced within any culture in Indonesia and barely practiced in other cultures. At last, two terms that belong to this category were found in three poems, namely Surachman RM’s Hari Tua Mister Gilbert, Goenawan Mohamad’s Potret Taman untuk Allen Ginsberg, and Eka Budianta’s Instrumentalia. One of those terms is found in two different poems, yet, still referring to the same posture in Indonesian culture. a. “ongkang-ongkang dan goyang kaki” (Surachman’s Hari Tua Mister Gilbert, p. 66) Ongkang-ongkang is a kind of movement made by Indonesian people, mostly Javanese, when they are sitting. People in Javanese tradition practice this gesture for relaxation. Functionally, this term is defined as a position of sit with legs dangling in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (originally written as “duduk dengan kaki berjuntai,” p. 704), whilst Stevens and Schmidgall-Tellings’ A Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary defines the term ongkang-ongkang as an act to “sit with one’s legs dangling” (p. 679). Based on the context, this term literally refers to the movement of one’s feet as followed by another act involving one’s feet. This movement is mostly practiced in Indonesia, especially in Java, and is not practiced in other cultures, especially in English speaking country. Because of its reference to a local movement in the SL culture, it becomes a member of the category of gestures and habits.


68 b. “Ia kini duduk bersila” (Mohamad’s Potret Taman untuk Allen Ginsberg, p. 116) and “Kini bercerita lagi sambil bersila” (Budianta’s Instrumentalia, p. 174) Bersila is another local term related to a local sitting position in Indonesia.

Bersila is an act to sit by folding crossing-legs (“duduk dengan

melipat kaki yang bersilangan,” Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, p. 939). The word sila itself is defined in several ways in Steven and Schmidgall-Tellings’ A Comprehensive Indonesian-English Dictionary; if it stands by itself, sila means “cross-legged” (p. 936). In other hand, the term duduk bersila is defined as an act to “sit neatly cross-legged” or “sit with one leg placed across the other” (p. 936), which is in line with the posture pictured in both poems. The act of bersila is often practiced in traditional Javanese ceremonies. Therefore, it belongs to the category of gestures and habits. Culture-specific terms that belong to this the category of gestures and habits are illustrated in Table 4.5. Table 4.5. The Gestures and Habits Category of Culture-Specific Terms Culture-specific Terms Ongkang-ongkang Bersila

Poems Hari Tua Mister Gilbert (Surachman R.M.) Potret Taman untuk Allen Ginsberg (Goenawan Mohamad) Instrumentalia (Eka Budianta)

Examples ongkang-ongkang dan goyang kaki Ia kini duduk bersila

Kini bercerita lagi sambil bersila


69 The distribution of the 23 culture-specific terms found in On Foreign Shores based on the categorisation proposed by Newmark (1988: 95-102) is illustrated in Table 4.6. Table 4.6. The Distribution of Culture-Specific Terms in On Foreign Shores Categories Ecology Material Culture Social Culture Organisations, Ideas, and Cultures Gestures and Habits

Examples Daun ketapang, belibis, kijang, garuda, bengawan, gayam, kangkung Kerupuk, getek, kopiah Pantun, megatruh, bapak pocung, dandanggula, nina bobo, ninabobo, sabung ayam, gender, kendang Sekolah Rakyat

Numbers of occurence 7 3 9

1 Ongkang-ongkang, bersila

Total numbers of occurrence

3 23

Those 23 terms were all culture-specific terms in Indonesia found in On Foreign Shores based on the categorization proposed by Newmark (1988). In this anthology, the category which contributes the largest amount of culture-specific terms is the category of social culture with nine terms, which are contributed mostly by music terms (e.g., megatruh, bapak pocung, dandanggula, nina bobo, kendang, and gender) as the most frequently terms to occur. The poem which contributes the most culture-specific terms is Darmanto Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik with 6 terms. Furthermore, the poet who uses the most culture-specific terms is Darmanto Yatman with seven terms through his two poems, namely Melintasi Atlantik and Impresi Honolulu.


70 B. The Discussion of Procedures to Translate Culture-Specific Terms in On Foreign Shores In On Foreign Shores, there are twenty-three (23) Indonesian culturespecific terms found. Those culture-specific terms are abstract and concrete concepts in the ST which are totally unknown in target culture (Baker, 1992: 21). Furthermore, they are particular-language-associated and cannot be literally translated; yet, many cultural customs are described in ordinary language where literal translation would distort the meaning and a translation may include an appropriate descriptive-functional equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 95). Due to their characteristic of being untranslatable, literal translation cannot provide appropriate equivalence in the TL. Dealing with untranslatability and small units of language, translation procedures are used to translate not only the form, but also the meaning of the terms into the TL. In this section, the researcher analyzed and discussed the procedures applied by McGlynn to translate those 23 culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores from the SL into the TL. In analyzing those procedures, the researcher deviced procedures proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) and Newmark (1988). However, not all translation procedures proposed by experts are used by McGlynn. The researcher found out that there are five translation prociedures used to translate culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores. Those procedures are functional equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 83) or equivalence (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958, in Venuti, 2000: 90), cultural equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 82-83) or


71 adaptation (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958, as cited in Venuti, 2000: 86), descriptive equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 83-84), transference (Newmark, 1988: 82), and reduction (Newmark, 1988: 90). In this section, the researcher is going to discuss the use of each translation procedures in translating culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores. 1.

Functional Equivalence Based on Newmark (1988:83), functional equivalence neutralises and

generalises the SL word; and sometimes adds a particular explanation. Functional equivalence is a cultural componential analysis and considered as the most effective way of translating because it “deculturalises” a cultural word. In Vinay and Darbelnet’s model, this procedure is called ‘equivalence’ (1958, in Venuti, 2000: 90). The researcher found out that functional equivalence is used 17 times to translate Indonesian culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores into English. This procedure translates Indonesian culture-specific terms from five different categories. There are six ecology terms; two material culture terms; seven social culture terms; one organisations, ideas, customs term; and one gestures and habits term translated using this procedure. a.

Procedure to translate daun ketapang in Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian Makin Akrab Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian Makin Akrab is translated into English

by McGlynn; the eventual title becomes And Death Grows More Intimately in its


72 English version. The term daun ketapang is found in the ST as seen in the following fragment. ST:

... Di jam larut daun ketapang makin lebat berguguran di luar rencana. (Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian Makin Akrab, On Foreign Shores, p. 6)

The term daun ketapang there refers to the leaves of Terminalia catappa tree that heavily fall in the late hours of the night. However, the TT version by McGlynn tends to neutralise the cultural element in the word daun ketapang, as seen in the fragment of And Death Grows More Intimately below. TT:

... In the late hours of the night leaves fall more thickly unplanned. (And Death Grows More Intimately, On Foreign Shores, p. 7)

McGlynn strips off the cultural element in daun ketapang by generalising the kind of leaves in the poem—leaves of ketapang tree into the leaves in general. Instead of explaining the word ketapang as the origin of the leaves, he drops the word ketapang. By so doing, McGlynn applies ‘functional equivalence’ procedure which neutralises and generalises the SL word (Newmark, 1988: 83). The possible reason why McGlynn employs functional equivalence is its role to “deculturalise” a cultural word (Newmark, 1988: 83); it helps the TL readers to understand the original meaning in ST using TL words which functionally relevant and equivalent to the SL word.


73 b.

Procedure to translate garuda in Rendra’s Rick dari Corona Rendra’s Rick dari Corona is translated into Rick from Corona. The

poem itself tells about Rick, a man from Corona, and his relationship with a girl named Betsy in New York City. The occurrence of the word garuda in the ST can be seen in the following fragment. ST:

… + Dari Queens. Dari Brooklyn. Dan dari Manhattan – - Ricky, sayang, garudaku sayang. ... (Rendra’s Rick dari Corona, On Foreign Shores, p. 54)

The word garuda in the poem whose fragment is shown above refers to a nickname given to Rick by Betsy. That nickname points out that Rick is a strong man—possibly in bed—as strong as a garuda, a carnivorous bird which in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia is defined to be looked like an eagle. Having known the definition of the word garuda, the researcher would be likely to adapt the word garuda into the TL or give extra information about it. However, McGlynn translated the word garuda in the TT differently, as seen in the following fragment. TT:

... + From Queens. From Brooklyn. And from Manhattan – - Ricky, honey, my loving eagle. ... (Rick from Corona, On Foreign Shores, p. 55)

In that translation, McGlynn once again drops the cultural element in the SL, yet, instead of making a generalization to the word garuda, he uses a culture-free word eagle, which has close relation to the word garuda (See Page


74 51) as a replacement. To bring the word eagle out, a translation procedure which is taken into account is functional equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 83); as it deculturalises the word in the TT and uses a culture-free term in the TL which fits the context and original meaning. The use of functional equivalence is important since there is no word-toword or cultural equivalence for the word garuda in the TL environment. However, the word eagle in the TL is functionally acceptable to replace the word garuda, since both eagle and garuda refers to kinds of strong carnivorous bird. Besides, the word garuda in the TT refers to a nickname given by Betsy to Rick for his impressive act; thus, replacing the word garuda with eagle in the TT is acceptable. Although the word eagle cannot accommodate the loss of the cultural element in the word garuda, it fits the original ST meaning as the name of a “large bird of prey with a massive hooked bill and a long broad wings, known for its

keen

sight

and

powerful

soaring

flight”

(http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/eagle), which is similar to the definition of garuda in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia and reflecting Rick’s impressive act praised by Betsy in the poem. c. Procedure to translate kijang in Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium is translated into Poems from the Solarium. This poem originally consists of 5 segments in which each segment tells different story and theme. The word kijang is found in the fifth segment of this 5-segmented poem, which tells about the natural scenery highlighted in


75 someone’s road trip. The occurrence of the word kijang in the ST can be seen in the following fragments. ST:

... Dan, ah seekor kijang melintas jalan dalam gerimis hujan Lalu menghilang (Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, On Foreign Shores, p. 58)

In the ST, it can be seen that a kijang crosses the street when rain falls, yet, it disappears eventually. The word kijang in the ST refers to a kind of antelope, which looks like a deer with a smaller body (as discussed in page 51). The animal it refers is familiar in the SL culture, not only literally but also nonliterally since it is also depicted as a brand symbol of a commercial car. Thereafter, McGlynn translates that word into deer in the TT; a word that has close relation to kijang. Thus, it implies that McGlynn employs Newmark’s functional equivalence (1988: 83) to translate this term as seen in this fragment. TT:

... And, yes, a deer, too flitting across the road to disappear in the drizzling rain (Poems from the Solarium, On Foreign Shores, p. 59)

The functional equivalence procedure is applied to neutralize the word kijang from its cultural element based on its previously-discussed defintion and replace it with a near TL equivalent which is functionally known by the readers of the TT. The word deer in the TT refers to “a hoofed grazing or browsing animal with branched bony antlers that is shed annually and typically borne only by the


76 male”

(http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/deer)

which

is

functionally acceptable to replace the word kijang. In the definition in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, kijang is defined as a horned animal which looks like a deer. d. Procedure to translate belibis in Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest The word belibis is found in Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, which is translated into Full Moon in the Midwest by McGlynn in the TL. The original poem consists of five verses marked as five pantun with unique rhyme patterns. The word belibis refers to the birds found in the fifth verse of this poem. The detail of its occurrence can be seen in the fragment below. ST:

Danau yang di sana Seribu burung belibis Lereng pohon pina Angin pun gerimis (Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, On Foreign Shores, p. 78)

The word belibis in this poem refers to a kind of bird which flies in a large flock. In the ST, the poem is in a form of pantun (See Page 58), but, in the TT, the poem is in a free form which still accommodates the meaning of each verse in the ST. Therefore, the translation of the poem is not limited to the stylistic form of pantun. The translation of the word belibis in the TT Full Moon in the Midwest can be seen in the following fragment. TT:

On the lake beyonds A thousand ducks The hillside pines Even the wind is wet (Full Moon in the Midwest, On Foreign Shores, p.79)


77 The word belibis is translated into ducks in the TT. The omission of the pantun form in Full Moon in the Midwest makes this translation possible. The word belibis in the ST carries cultural element; while the word ducks in the TT does not carry cultural element since it bears universal element. Therefore, the possible procedure used in that translation is Newmark’s functional equivalence (1988: 83), which deculturalises the word belibis and replaces it with a culturefree term. This procedure is possibly used with a consideration that belibis is defined as a bird which looks like duck (See Page 52). In addition, the consideration that belibis is not familiar in the TL culture and duck is more recognized in the TL is possibly taken into account to functionally replace belibis with ducks in the TT. e. Procedure to translate gayam in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik The word gayam is found in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, which tells about the experience of Yatman’s uncle, a character in this poem, when he was in The United States; the characters tells it in a humorous way by making comparison between the view of The United States with the view of his hometown in Bantul, Yogyakarta. The word gayam can be seen in this fragment. ST:

... (Setidak-tidaknya Aku tidak merasa seperti Columbus Sekalipun mungkin sekali Akulah orang pertama Dari sekian petani penanam gayam Dari sekian yang berincome 150 U.S. Dollar Per kapita per annum Yang menyeberangi samudera!) (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, On Foreign Shores, p. 128)


78 The word gayam in the ST refers to Indonesian local cultivated fruit which is edible (See Page 53). Thus, gayam belongs to a culture-specific term. However, gayam is translated differently in the TT as seen in the fragment below. TT:

... (Leastways I didn’t feel like Columbus Though very likely I was the first Of the many fruit farmers From a country with an income Of US$ 150 per capita Per year To have crossed this very ocean!) (Crossing the Atlantic, On Foreign Shores, p. 129)

In the TT, gayam is replaced by a general word fruit instead of being replaced by a more specific word or an adaptation of the word gayam. The character is still a farmer and still cultivates fruit, yet, McGlynn does not specify what fruit he cultivates. Thus, the original meaning remains the same on the TT. In translating the word gayam, McGlynn employs a functional equivalence procedure (Newmark, 1988: 83). Based on Newmark (1988: 83), this procedure is “neutralizing” the word gayam from its cultural element and “generalizing” it. This procedure is possibly employed with a consideration that the word gayam literally refers to a kind of fruit growing in Indonesia (See Page 53), which is not recognized in the TL. Therefore, a word which is culturallyneutral and able to accommodate the meaning of gayam in the TL environment is needed.


79 f. Procedure to translate kangkung in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik The word kangkung is also found in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik—a poem about an Indonesian farmer who crosses the ocean and goes to The United States. Literally, it refers to a kind of Inocarpus tree growing in water (See Page 53). In the ST—Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, the word can be found in this fragment. ST: Sambil nembang bapak pocung Mbokku cukup melenggang ke pasar Pundong Kalau butuh kacang kangkung (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, On Foreign Shores, p. 130) In the ST, kangkung refers to a kind of vegetable the character’s mother wants to buy in Pundong market. With peanuts, the equivalence of kacang, kangkung is a kind of vegetable sold in markets. However, kangkung is often associated to red water spinach, although both of them belong to different species of Inocarpus family. In the TT, kangkung is not translated literally or transferred immediately. McGlynn translates it into spinach—a culturally-neutral item which has immediate association to the word kangkung as an Inocarpus tree. However, it still refers to a kind of vegetable sold in Pundong market along with peanuts. Thus, the original meaning of it in the TT can still be accommodated by the translation. The translation of the word kangkung in the TT can be seen in the following fragment.


80 TT:

As I sing my ancient verses All mother must do is going to Pundong market If its peanuts and spinach we need (Crossing the Atlantic, On Foreign Shores, p. 131)

From the comparison between ST and TT, it is apparent that McGlynn employs Newmark’s functional equivalence procedure (1988: 83) to translate the word kangkung into spinach. Based on Newmark (1988: 83), this procedure “generalises the SL word” kangkung and provides a culture-free word in the TL. This procedure is possibly used in consideration that spinach, “an edible Asian plant of the goosefoot family, with large dark green leaves which are widely eaten as a vegetable,” (www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/spinach) fits the definition of the word kangkung (See Page 53) in the SL. g.

Procedure to translate kerupuk in Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco The word kerupuk belongs to food sub-category of of material culture.

This word is found in Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, which is translated into The Clatter of Cable Cars in San Fransisco. Kerupuk is local Indonesian chips which are made of flour dough with particular seasoning (See Page 55). In the ST, the word kerupuk can be found in the fragment below. ST:

Amerika mengeluarkan bunyi kerupuk kentang kering yang dikunyah lambat-lambat (Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, On Foreign Shores, p. 72)


81 The word kerupuk in the ST refers to dry chips made of flour dough with potato mixture non-literally chewed by America to produce crunch sound. However, in the translation of the poem which is taken from point of view of a man who is bizarre with the technology in The United States, kerupuk is replaced with a general word, chips, which is more common in the target culture. The translation of the word kerupuk in the TT can be seen in the fragment below. TT:

America sounds like crispy potato chips being chewed slowly (The Clatter of Cable Cars in San Fransisco, On Foreign Shores, p. 73)

In the TT, the word kerupuk is translated into chips—a general word that functionally describes what kind of food kerupuk is in the TL culture. Chips is the plural form of the word chip, a noun referring to “a long rectangular piece of deep-fried potato” (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/chip). Naturally, kerupuk, as a kind of food, cannot be found in the TL culture, yet, the word chips resembles its function and form.

Although the word kerupuk is

translated differently from the real reference, the original meaning does not change since chip is a kind of food that can produce crunch sound the way kerupuk produces. The original word kerupuk is deculturalised and replaced by a culturally-neutral word which functionally represents the meaning of which to accommodate the original meaning in the ST to be reproduced in the TT. Therefore, the procedure employed to translate this word is functional equivalence proposed by Newmark (1988: 83).


82 h.

Procedure to translate getek in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik The word getek in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik is a culture-specific term

which belongs to transport sub-category of the category of material culture. It refers to a kind of water transportation used by a legendary Javanese character, Joko Tingkir. Getek is a kind of water transportation structured of bamboos tied up together functioned as a flat boat or a raft (See Page 56). Getek in this poem is used to liken how history floats and oscillates like the boat sailed by Joko Tingkir which is drifted away by a female crocodile. The occurrence of the word getek can be seen in the following fragment. ST:

… Ah. Ah. Melintasi Atlantik Sejarah mengambang Bagai geteknya Joko Tingkir Digoyang goyang pinggul buaya wanita (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, On Foreign Shores, p. 132)

The word getek in the TT refers to particular water transportation. In the TT, that word is translated into raft, a water transportation which is known overseas. The word raft has an immediate association to the word getek as a mean of transportation. The former is literally defined as a noun which refers to “a flat buoyant structure of timber or other materials fastened together, used as a boat or floating platform” (hhttp://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/raft); this definition is similar to the definition of getek discussed previously (See Page 56). The occurrence of the word raft to translate getek in the TT can be seen on the following fragment.


83 TT:

… Psshaw! Crossing the Atlantic History floats Like Joko Tingkir’s raft Rocking on the back of a crocodile woman (Crossing the Atlantic, p. 133)

The word raft functionally replaces the word getek in the translation and in the generating of meaning in the TT. Rather than transferring the whole word getek or explaining it, McGlynn prefers to use functional equivalence which is proposed by Newmark (1988: 83). For this word, McGlynn does not generalize the ST word, yet, he finds a culturally-neutral term known in the TL culture to translate it. i. Procedure to translate megatruh in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik Megatruh is one of three culture-specific terms found in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik which belongs to the category of social culture. Literally, megatruh refers to one kind of traditional Javanese macapat songs. The occurrence of that word in the ST can be seen below. ST:

... Namun di atas Atlantik ini pula Kudengar biyungku menangis Dalam megatruh blues Yang mengusik suarga (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, On Foreign Shores, p. 130)

In the ST, megatruh refers to a form of macapat composition which is usually used to express disappointment or deep sadness with unique rhyming patterns (See Page 59). The character on this poem vaguely hears the sound of his


84 mother cries blends with megatruh and blues. However, McGlynn translates the word megatruh very differently in the TT as seen in the following fragment. TT:

... But above the Atlantic I heard as well My grandmother crying In traditional Javanese blues That could not have but touched heaven (Crossing the Atlantic, On Foreign Shores, p. 131)

In the TT, the word megatruh is translated into an adjectival phrase traditional Javanese. It appears that McGlynn uses the functional equivalence procedure proposed by Newmark (1988: 83) to translate that word and transfer the meaning of which into SL. The word megatruh does not have word-for-word equivalence in the SL; moreover, a cultural equivalene may not accommodate the uniqueness of megatruh in the SL due to the absence of similar kind of song in the TL culture. Since megatruh refers to a traditional song in Javanese culture which lasts for excessive period, the translation done by McGlynn functionally fits the definition of megatruh. Therefore, functional equivalence allows the translator to generalize the word in the ST and express it in the TT with a more understandable term. j. Procedure to translate bapak pocung in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik The term bapak pocung is also in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik. Bapak pocung, literally refers to a form of macapat composition which is usually used to tell spoof, anecdote, and riddle. The occurrence of bapak pocung in the ST is illustrated in this fragment.


85 ST: Sambil nembang bapak pocung Mbokku cukup melenggang ke pasar Pundong Kalau butuh kacang kangkung (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, On Foreign Shores, p. 130) In the ST, bapak pocung is described as a title of song that the character sings while his mother goes to Pundong market. Furthermore, this term is defined as a form of macapat composition to express happiness (See Page 60); this definition explains what kind of song is sung by the character’s mother in the ST. However, this term is translated differently in the TT as seen in the fragment below. TT:

As I sing my ancient verses All mother must do is going to Pundong market If its peanuts and spinach we need (Crossing the Atlantic, On Foreign Shores, p. 131)

In the TT, the term bapak pocung is translated into the phrase my ancient verse. According to dictionary, the word verses is defined as a noun which means “writing arranged with a metrical rhythm, typically having a rhyme” (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/verse), while the word ancient is defined as an adjective which means “belonging to the very distant past” (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/ancient). Hence, the phrase my ancient verse in the TT refers to a kind of writing with metrical rhythm coming from the distant past—known by the character in the poem. Functionally,


86 it refers to the same thing the term bapak pocung referring in the ST, yet, uses common vocabulary in the TL. Therefore, the procedure employed for this term is a functional equivalence proposed by Newmark (1988: 83). The functional equivalence in this translation is employed to deculturalise the word bapak pocung—neutralizing it without altering the general meaning. It is employed because the SL term does not have TL equivalence. Thus, it

applies

what

Newmark

states

about

functional

equivalence

which

“deculturalises a cultural word” (1988: 83). k. Procedure to translate dandanggula in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik Dandanggula is also one of three culture-specific terms found in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik which belongs to the category of social culture. Literally, dandanggula also refers to one kind of traditional Javanese macapat songs that expresses joyfulness or victory (See Page 61). The occurrence of the term bapak pocung in the ST can be seen in the fragment below. ST: Dalam tetembangan dandanggula Apa yang bisa kukerjakan selama ini Cuma nanem, matun, panen Hanya terkadang saja ada waktu Buat semadi Dan baca sajak Li Po dan Tu Fu Sambil latihan yoga dan Tai Chi (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, On Foreign Shores, p. 132) In the ST, the word dandanggula refers to a kind of macapat song telling about what the character in the poem can do all the time, such as cultivating, meditating, reading verses, and practicing yoga as well as practicing Tai Chi. It corresponds the dictionary definition of dandanggula as a form of macapat


87 composition to express joyfulness as depicted in the activities the character can do. In Indonesian-English dictionary, this word does not have corresponding equivalence in the TL. Even though the word dandanggula has no word-for-word equivalence in the TL, McGlynn is able to transfer its meaning in the TT by employing a procedure to translate it into the TL. In the TT, Crossing the Atlantic, the word dandanggula is translated in a similar way like the word bapak pocung in the same poem. The translation of this word can be seen in the fragment below. TT: As I sing my ancient songs What is it that I can do But plant and weed and harvest And, sometimes, when there’s time A little meditation And reading the poems of Li Po and Tu Fu While practicing yoga and tai chi (Crossing the Atlantic, On Foreign Shores, p. 133) In the TT, the word dandanggula is translated into the phrase my ancient song. The procedure employed to translate it is similar to the one employed to translate the term bapak pocung. Practically, the translation in the TT refers to some songs that have been lasting since the ancient time; it also refers to the definition of the word dandanggula in a general and neutral way. Generalizing a cultural word and neutralizing it are characteristics of the functional equivalence procedure proposed by Newmark (1988: 83). l. Procedure to translate nina bobo in Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu The term nina bobo is found twice in On Foreign Shores. However, those two nina bobo have different form but belong to the same part of speech. In


88 Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, nina bobo is a noun which belongs to the category of social culture. Its occurrence can be seen in the following fragment. ST: berbaring tengah siang seekor burung perkutut bernyanyi nina bobo (Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, On Foreign Shores, p. 134) In the ST, nina bobo refers to a song sung by a turtledove while lying down in the middle of the noon. Furthermore, that song actually refers to a title of song which is popularly used as a lullaby in Indonesian culture (See Page 62). In a brief way, McGlynn translates nina bobo practically as seen in this fragment. TT: napping in the middle of the day a turtledove sings a lullaby (Honolulu Impression, On Foreign Shores, p. 135) In the TT, the word nina bobo is translated into the word lullaby. This translation is very functional since the culture-specific term in the ST is translated into a word which is culturally neutral and understandable in the TL culture. The word lullaby in the TT defines the meaning of the coined word nina bobo in the TL culture as “a quiet, gentle song sung to send a child to sleep” (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/lullaby). Since the word lullaby is culture-free, it is implied that McGlynn employs a functional equivalence by Newmark, which neutralizes cultural word and replaces it with a culturally-neutral term (1988: 83).


89 m. Procedure to translate ninabobo in Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi The term ninabobo in Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi is the one of two nina bobo terms found in On Foreign Shores. In addition, it is an orthographical variant of the word nina bobo found in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik. Ninabobo in this poem is also a noun which refers to the kind of song sung to lull someone to sleep (See Page 62). The occurrence of this word in the ST can be seen in the following fragment. ST: ... Menjelang tidur kupahat sinar bulan yang letih itu yang menyelinapkan dalam semak-semak salju terakhir ninabobo yang menentramkan, kupahat padanya sebelum matahari memasang kaca berkilauan (Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi, On Foreign Shores, p. 160) In the ST, figurative expressions are used frequently. However, the culture-specific term ninabobo in the ST does not belong to figurative expressions. In this poem, the word ninabobo refers to a title of song used as lullaby which is soothing. The same as the word nina bobo in Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, the word ninabobo in this poem refers to the same reference. Therefore, the translation of it in Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi is the same as the translation of Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu—as seen in the following fragment. TT: ... As sleep approaches I carve the listless moon’s light hiding in the bushes of the last snow I carve on it a soothing lullaby before the sun erects its shimmering mirror (Early Spring Morning, On Foreign Shores, p. 161) The same as in the TT of Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, the word ninabobo in the TT of Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi is translated into lullaby.


90 Similarly, the procedure employed by McGlynn in translating this item is a functional equivalence by Newmark (1988: 83). In this translation, McGlynn also strips off the cultural element in the word ninabobo, and then replaces it with a neutral item lullaby which functionally fits the meaning of the word ninabobo in the TL culture. n. Procedure to translate gender in Hadi’s Kidung Putih The word gender is an Indonesian culture-specific term which belongs to the category of material culture in accordance to its reference as a music instrument. This term can be found in Hadi’s Kidung Putih. Literally, gender is a traditional music instrument in Javanese culture which is also one instrument of gamelan set; its appearance looks like a xylophone with a kind of sounding tube (See Page 63). In the ST, the occurrence of the word gender is illustrated in the following fragment. ST: Sebelum gugur atas daunan itu pusingan debu bersilengking pada kayu (musim panas datang berduaan dengan angin si gender) bunga-bunga menahan bibirnya dari ciuman (Hadi’s Kidung Putih, On Foreign Shores, p. 154) In the ST, the word gender refers to one of gamelan instrument whose sound is carried by the wind during summer. In the TL, the reference of the word gender is unknown. Although cultural equivalence of this term is available in the form of xylophone, McGlynn does not use this kind of equivalence. He generalizes the word gender and uses a cultural word which is universally known to maintain the original sense. The translation of the word gender can be seen in the following fragment.


91 TT: Before the fall of the leaves the whirl of the dust whistling ‘round branches (the summer arrives, the gamelan resounds) flowers avert their lips from kisses (White Ballad, On Foreign Shores, p. 155) In the TT, McGlynn translates the word gender into the word gamelan. The word gamelan, although it carries cultural element, is known in the TL as a set of music instrument from Indonesia. It is proven by the fact that gamelan can be found in the TL dictionary; in dictionary, gamelan is defined as “a traditional instrumental ensemble in Java and Bali, including many bronze percussion instruments”

(http://www.oxfordditionaries.com/definition/english/gamelan).

Thus, it is apparent that McGlynn generalizes the word gender to find out a general word that covers the definition of it; this act of translation follows the procedure of functional equivalence proposed by Newmark (1988: 83) which generalizes a cultural word and replaces it with a recognized word in the TL without altering the original meaning in the SL. The word gamelan is a general word to explain the specific word gender that becomes part of it; therefore, to do this replacement, it is apparent that McGlynn employs Newmark’s functional equivalence. o. Procedure to translate kendang in Hadi’s Landskap 1971 untuk Angela Davis As a traditional music instrument, the word kendang belongs to the category of social culture proposed by Newmark (1988: 95, 98-99). Literally, this term refers to a Javanese music instrument resembling drums covered with leather (See Page 63). The occurrence of kendang in the ST can be seen in this fragment.


92 ST:

dicarinya usus si mati setelah kolera yang panjang menyerang dari laut membentuk bulan jadi jingga dalam gugusan angin laut yang beku, tiada ubahnya seperti para dewa yang putus asa berpesta di angkasa riuh memukul kendangnya ke rimbarimba (Hadi’s Landskap 1971 untuk Angela Davis, On Foreign Shores, p. 162)

In the ST, the seeking for the bowels of the dead by nightingale after a long cholera epidemic is described like an attack from the ocean or a feast of desperate gods. Kendang refers to a drum or percussion played by gods upon the woods. Similarly, McGlynn translates the word kendang according to how it is played. The translation of this term can be seen in the fragment below. TT:

they search the bowels of the dead after the invasion of cholera from the sea turned the moon orange in a clump of frozen sea winds, no different from the gods who without hope celebrate in the heavens and beat their drums in the forest. (Landscape for Angela Davis, 1971, On Foreign Shores, p. 163)

In the TT, the word kendang is translated into drums. From that translation, it is implied that McGlynn employs a functional equivalence procedure proposed by Newmark (1988: 83). From the translation in the TT, it can be seen that McGlynn strips the cultural element from the word kendang off by generalizing it and replaces it with the general word that covers the original meaning of that word in the ST. The process of bringing out the word drums as the translation of kendang follows Newmark’s principle of functional equivalence (1988: 83).


93 p.

Procedure to translate Sekolah Rakyat in Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco Based on Newmark (1988: 101), historical term also belongs to

organsiations, ideas, and customs category of culture-specific terms. As a historical institutional term, Sekolah Rakyat belongs to which. That term refers to a level of education in Indonesia in the past; that level equals to Sekolah Dasar or elementary school in the present (See Page 66). In the ST, the occurrence of the term Sekolah Rakyat can be seen in the fragment below. ST: … ketika aku masih bercelana pendek dan asyik menghafalkan nama-nama hebat dengan huruf c, v, x, dan y pada pelajaran ilmu bumi di Sekolah Rakyat partikelir. (Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, On Foreign Shores, p. 70) In the ST, it is apparent that Sekolah Rakyat refers to an educational institutional term—a level of education in which the character in the poem memorized some names of westerners in geography and still wore short pants in school. From the information in the ST and the definition discussed previously, it can be concluded that Sekolah Rakyat refers to a level of education in Indonesia which equals to elementary school or primary school in the present time. Therefore, McGlynn translates it functionally as seen in the following fragment. TT: : …when I was still in grade school uniform and busy memorizing the great names beginning with the letters c, v, x, and y for my geography class at a private primary school. (The Clatter of Cable Cars in San Fransisco, On Foreign Shores, p. 71) In the TT, it can be seen that McGlynn translates Sekolah Rakyat into primary school. That translation implies that McGlynn adopts the principle of


94 functional equivalence procedure proposed by Newmark (1988: 83) as he uses a culturally neutral term to replace the term in the ST. Furthermore, Newmark also states that functional or descriptive term with as much descriptive details as required is also needed to transfer historical term (1988: 101). Therefore, the application of functional equivalence in this translation is considered appropriate. q. Procedure to translate bersila in Budianta’s Instrumentalia The culture-specific term bersila in Budianta’s Instrumentalia is one of two of two bersila words found in On Foreign Shores. This term belongs to the category of social culture. The function and the meaning of the word bersila in this poem is exactly the same with the one in Surachman’s Hari Tua Mister Gilbert. The occurrence of this term in Budianta’s Instrumentalia is portrayed in the following fragment. ST: Kuli yang miskin itu Kini bercerita lagi sambil bersila … (Budianta’s Instrumentalia, On Foreign Shores, p. 174) In the ST, the word bersila refers to a sitting posture done by the poor coolie while telling stories. From the discussion previously, it is implied that the coolie sits with his legs crossing. His sitting posture resembles a meditation posture viewed from an Indonesian point of view. Although, both bersila terms in this anthology refer to the same posture, McGlynn translates them differently. The translation of bersila in the TT can be seen in the following fragment.


95 TT: The poor old coolie Cross-legged, speaks … (American Instrumental, On Foreign Shores, p. 175) The word cross-legged functionally defines bersila literally, yet, it poses as the equivalence of bersila in the TT. From the translation, it can be seen that for this term, McGlynn employs a functional equivalence procedure as he neutralizes the word bersila from its cultural element. Consequently, a culturally neutral term cross-legged is used to translate bersila; cross-legged is a neutral and known term in the TL culture posing as an adjective which refers to a kind of sitting position “with the legs crossed at the ankles and the knees bent outwards” (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/cross-legged). Therefore, a conclusion can be drawn that McGlynn has employed a functional equivalence procedure (Newmark, 1988: 83). Based on the analysis, the researcher discovered 17 uses of functional equivalence procedures to translate culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores. Functional equivalence is used to help translating six terms that belong to the category of ecology; two terms that belong to the category of material culture; seven terms that belong to the category of social culture; one term that belongs to the category of organisation, idea, custom; and one term that belongs to the category of gestures and habits. The distribution of how functional equivalence is used can be seen in the following Table 4.7.


96 Table 4.7. The Use of Functional Equivalence Procedure No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

ST Daun ketapang (Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian Makin Akrab, p. 6) Garuda (Rendra’s Rick dari Corona, p. 54) Kijang (Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, p. 58) Belibis (Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, p. 78) Gayam (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 128) Kangkung (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 130) Kerupuk (Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, p. 72) Getek (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 132) Megatruh (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 130) Bapak pocung (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 130) dandanggula (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 132) Nina bobo (Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, p. 134) Ninabobo (Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi, p. 160) Gender (Hadi’s Kidung Putih, p. 154) Kendang (Hadi’s Landskap 1971 untuk Angela Davis, p. 162) Sekolah Rakyat (Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, p. 70) Bersila (Budianta’s Instrumentalia, p. 174)

TT Leaves (And Death Grows More Intimately, p. 7) Eagle (Rick from Corona, p. 55) Deer (Poems from the Solarium, p. 59) Ducks (Full Moon in the Midwest, p. 79)

Category Ecology Ecology Ecology Ecology

Fruit (Crossing the Atlantic, p. 129)

Ecology

Spinach (Crossing the Atlantic, p. 131)

Ecology

Chips (The Clatter of Cable Cars in San Fransisco, p. 73)

Material Culture

Raft (Crossing the Atlantic, p. 133)

Material Culture

Traditional Javanese (Crossing the Atlantic, p. 131)

Social Culture

My ancient verses (Crossing the Atlantic, p. 131)

Social Culture

My ancient songs (Crossing the Atlantic, p. 133)

Social Culture

Lullaby (Honolulu Impression, p. 135)

Social Culture

Lullaby (Early Spring Morning, p. 161)

Social Culture

Gamelan (White Ballad, p. 155) Drums (Landscape for Angela Davis, 1971, p. 162) Primary school (The Clatter of Cable Cars in San Fransisco, p. 71) Cross-legged (American Instrument, p. 175)

Social Culture Social Culture Organisations, Ideas, Customs Gestures and Habits


97 2.

Cultural Equivalence Based on Newmark (1988:82), cultural equivalence is an approximate

translation where a SL cultural word is translated by a TL cultural word. This translation procedure is known as ‘adaptation’ in Vinay and Darbelnet’s model (1958, as cited in Venuti, 2000: 86). It is used when the situation being referred to by the the SL message is unknown in the TL culture. Based on the analysis, the researcher found out that cultural equivalence or adaptation is used three times. This procedure is used to translate one material culture term, one social culture term, and one gestures and habits term. In this section, the researcher is going to discuss the use of cultural equivalence to translate culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores. a. Procedure to translate kopiah in Suryadi’s Central Park The word kopiah is a culture-specific term which belongs to clothes subcategory of the category of material culture. This word is found in Suryadi’s Central Park, which is eventually translated into Central Park. The occurrence of this word in the ST is illustrated in the following fragment taken from Suryadi’s Central Park. ST: Dan seorang bishop menawarkan ice juice Lengkap dengan pakaian kebesarannya Perutnya gendut kebanyakan keju dan anggur Kopiahnya bertengger di atas kepalanya (Suryadi’s Central Park, On Foreign Shores, p. 164) In the ST, the word kopiah refers to a headdress worn by the bishop. Meanwhile, in the previous discussion, kopiah refers to a headdress worn by Muslim men as a national identity (See Page 57). Thus, it may also mean that


98 Suryadi, the poet, sees the headdress worn by the bishop the way he sees the hat as the identity of Muslim men. However, the word kopiah is translated differently in the TT as illustrated in the following fragment. TT: Complete in holy vestments A bishop plies sno-cone His stomach massive from excess wine and cheese His miter askew on top of his head (Central Park, p. 165) In the TT, the bishop wears a miter rather than a kopiah as depicted in the ST. Thus, the word kopiah is translated into miter in the TT. This translation is considered acceptable since miter also refers to a headdress. The word miter literally means “a tall headdress worn by bishops and senior abbots as a symbol of office, tapering to a point at front and back with a deep cleft between” (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/mitre). Therefore, a hat in the ST is translated into another hat in the TT. The procedure employed to translate the word kopiah into miter is known as cultural equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 83) or adaptation (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958). Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) claim this procedure as “an effort of creating cultural equivalence between two different situations.” In this procedure, a translator translates an SL cultural word with a TL cultural word. In this case, the cultural equivalence procedure allows McGlynn to translate kopiah, a cultural word in the SL into miter, a headdress known in the TL to be worn by a bishop. This procedure is reasonable to employ since the word kopiah is unknown in the TL, yet, there is a word miter which have greater pragmatic effect in the TL.


99 b. Procedure to translate sabung ayam in Nadjira’s Sepasang Turis Sabung ayam refers to a traditional game in Indonesia in which people engaging two roosters in a fight. As a kind of leisure activity, it belongs to the category of social culture. The occurrence of sabung ayam can be seen in the following fragment. ST: Kita tak menemukan yang beda, ternyata Bunga-bunga seperti ini juga ada di Vietnam (ketika bersin, jahitan di lambung terasa nyeri) Apa? Permainan nyawa? Dewa-dewa di pulau ini tidak membenci sabung ayam. (Nadjira’s Sepasang Turis, On Foreign Shores, p. 138) In the ST, this word also refers to a traditional game which is allowed by gods of particular tropical area (See Page 62). Although this term does not have direct word-for-word equivalence the TL culture, the translation for this term can be done by McGlynn. This translation is possible because there is a cultural concept in the TL that can accommodate the SL original meaning of sabung ayam in the TL. The translation of the term sabung ayam in the TT can be seen in the following fragment. TT:

We cannot tell the difference, in fact There are flowers like this in Viet Nam, too (sneezing, he winces from the stitches in his side) What is this? A fight to the finish? The gods on this island are not averse to cockfights (A Tourist Couple, On Foreign Shores, p. 139)

In the TT, the term sabung ayam in the ST is translated into cockfights. Based on dictionary, the term cockfight or cockfighting is defined as a kind of “sport (illegal in the UK and some other countries) of setting two cocks to fight each other” (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/cockfighting).


100 Hence, those two terms in the ST and the TT are similar and both pose as cultural equivalence to each other. The SL cultural word is translated into by a TL cultural word which is known by the speaker of TL. Therefore, it can be concluded that McGlynn employs Newmark’s cultural equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 82-83), which is also known as adaptation in Vinay and Darbelnet’s model (1958, as cited in Machali, 2000:6). c. Procedure to translate bersila in Mohamad’s Potret Taman untuk Allen Ginsberg The word bersila occurs twice in On Foreign Shores; each occurs in different poems. One of those words can be found in Mohamad’s Potret Taman untuk Allen Ginsberg. It is an Indonesian culture-specific term which belongs to the category of gestures and habits. In the ST, the occurrence of this word can be seen in this fragment. ST:

Ia kini duduk bersila di bangku taman kotapraja mungkin semadi mungkin aku tak mengerti karena ia berkata: “Di Vietnam tak ada orang mati Tak ada Vietnam dan orang tak mati.” (Mohamad’s Potret Taman untuk Allen Ginsberg, On Foreign Shores, p. 116)

In the ST, the word bersila refers to a sitting posture acted by someone on a bench in the city park. In the previous discussion, bersila is defined as an act of sit with legs crossed (See Page 68). In the TT, the cultural word bersila is translated into another cultural world as seen in the following fragment.


101 TT: Now he sits in lotus position on a bench in the city park in meditation, maybe maybe I don’t know because he said “In Viet Nam there are no dead There is no Nam, there are no dead” (Picture of A City Park for Allen Ginsberg, On Foreign Shores, p. 117) In the TT, McGlynn translates the word bersila into a TL term in lotus position. Both terms indicates a sitting posture acted by the character in the poem. The term lotus position, or also known as, lotus posture refers to “a cross-legged position

for

meditation,

with

the

feet

resting

on

the

thighs”

(http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/lotus-position). This word accommodates TL readers to understand the original meaning of which. By using TL cultural word to replace cultural word, McGlynn has already employed cultural equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 82-83), or adaptation in Vinay and Darbelnet’s model (1958, as cited in Machali, 2000: 6). Cultural equivalence is used three times in translating culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores. This procedure is used to translate one material culture term, one social culture term, and one gesture and habit term. The distribution of this procedure can be seen in Table 4.8. Table 4.8. The Use of Cultural Equivalence Procedure No 1 2 3

ST Kopiah (Suryadi’s Central Park, p. 164) Sabung ayam (Nadjira’s Sepasang Turis, p. 138) Bersila (Mohamad’s Potret Taman untuk Allen Ginsberg, p. 116)

TT Miter (Central Park, p. 165)

Category Material Culture

Cockfights (A Tourist Couple, p. 139)

Social Culture

In lotus position (Picture of A City Park for Allen Ginsberg, p. 117)

Gestures and Habits


102

3.

Descriptive Equivalence The researcher found out that descriptive equivalence procedure is used

once to translate culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores. Descriptive equivalence itself gives description to find an equivalence of SL words to TL (Newmark, 1988:84). This procedure is used to translate a culture-specific term which belongs to the category of gestures and habits. a. Procedures to translate ongkang-ongkang in Surachman’s Hari Tua Mister Gilbert The term ongkang-ongkang refers to a local body movement in Indonesia associated to relaxing position. This movement involves an act of dangling legs while sitting (See Page 67-68). As a local body movement, this term belongs to the category of gestures and habits of culture-specific term (Newmark, 1988: 102). In the ST, the occurrence of the term ongkang-ongkang can be seen in the following fragment. ST: ... Dan kau sendiri Gilbert! Kau cuma ongkang-ongkang dan goyang kaki dan tak pernah mau punya istri. (Surachman’s Hari Tua Mister Gilbert, On Foreign Shores, p. 66) In the ST, it can be concluded from that Gilbert only loves to relax and to have no burdens in his life. The reference of ongkang-ongkang can be seen in what activities Gilbert always do—ongkang-ongkang, dangling his legs and


103 rocking them as well as persisting on having no wife. This gesture is not known and practiced in the TL culture, yet it can be described. Therefore, McGlynn gives a description to find the its equivalence in the TL as seen in the this fragment. TT: ... And you yourself Mr. Gilbert? dangling your legs and twiddling your thumbs a man who never wanted a wife. (The Last Days of Old Man Gilbert, On Foreign Shores, p. 67) In the TT, the term ongkang-ongkang is translated by describing it as an act of dangling legs in the clause dangling your legs. By giving description of a term and sometimes providing additional information about it to find an equivalence of SL words to TL, a descriptive equivalence procedure is conducted (Newmark, 1988: 102-103). Thus, the act of giving description done by McGlynn has already employed this procedure. Terms that do not have cultural equivalence or barely have functional concepts in the TL are usually described with words known in the TL culture. Furthermore, Newmark (1988: 84) states that description is also essential in explanation and translation of cultural word. Therefore, this procedure is applicable. In this research, the researcher found out that descriptive equivalence is used once. This procedure is used to translate a culture-specific term which belongs to the category of gestures and habits. The distribution of how descriptive equivalence is used can be seen in Table 4.9.


104 Table 4.9. The Use of Descriptive Equivalence Procedure No

ST

TT

1

Ongkang-ongkang (Surachman’s Hari Tua Mister Gilbert, p. 66)

Dangling your legs (The Last Days of Old Man Gilbert, p. 67)

4.

Category Gesture and Habit

Transference Transference is commonly known as loan word. Based on Newmark

(1988:82), it is the process of transferring a SL word to a TL text as a translation procedure. In this research, the researcher discovered one employment of transference to translate a culture-specific term which belongs to ecology term. a. Procedure to translate bengawan in Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium The same as the word kijang, the word bengawan is also found in the fifth segment of Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium. Along with other geographical objects, this word refers to one of the scenery seen in a nature trip. The term bengawan in the ST can be seen in the fragment below. ST:

Ladang. Kota. Ladang. Kota Bukit. Hutan buatan dan pina. Lembah. Bengawan. Lembah. Bengawan. Tunnel. Kanal dan pelabuhan. (Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, On Foreign Shores, p. 58)

The word bengawan in that fragment refers to a geographical object which in the previous discussion (see page 52) is defined as a kind of great river in the SL culture. In Poems from the Solarium, the translation of Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, bengawan is partially altered as seen in the following fragment.


105 TT:

Fields. City. Fields. City. Hills. Man-made forests, pines. A Valley. The Bengawan River. A Valley. The Bengawan. A tunnel. A canal. The port. (Poems from the Solarium, p. 59)

The first bengawan word in the ST is translated into The Bengawan River, while the second bengawan word is translated into The Bengawan in the TT. Hence, McGlynn translates both bengawan words by directly transferring them to the TT; therefore, he has applied transference proposed by Newmark (1988: 81). The use of transference in this case is considerably appropriate. According to Newmark (1988: 82), transference normally transfers “geographical and topographical” term known in particular culture. In addition, Newmark (1988) also exclaims that “cultural words are often transferred to give a local colour” and “to give a sense of intimacy between the readers and the text” (p. 82). Since bengawan is both geographical and cultural term in Indonesian culture, to transfer it the way it looks in the TT is appropriate. The researcher found out that transference is used once in translating culture-specific term in On Foreign Shores. This procedure is used to translate an ecology term. The distribution of the use of transference can be seen in Table 4.10. Table 4.10. The Use of Transference No 1

ST

TT

Bengawan (Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, p. 58)

The Bengawan (Poems from the Solarium, p. 59)

Category Ecology


106 5.

Reduction Reduction deals with the omission of particular word from the

translation. It is “practiced intuitively in some case and ad hoc in others” (Newmark, 1988: 90). This procedure is used for SL text which is impossible to be literally translated into TL. In this analysis, the researcher discovered that reduction is used once to translate a social culture term. a. Procedure to translate pantun in Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest Pantun is a culture-specific term found in the title of Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, which is translated into Full Moon in the Midwest. In the ST, the word pantun represents the form of the whole poem itself. The comparison between the occurrence of the word pantun in the ST and the TT can be seen in the following fragment. ST: Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest (Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, p. 78) TT: _____ Full Moon in the Midwest (Full Moon in the Midwest, p. 79) The word pantun in the title of the ST refers to a kind of Indonesian traditional poetry with unique rhyming patterns (See Page 58-59). This word refers to what kind of poem Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest is. However, the word pantun is not translated in the TT; it is removed from the title and no meaning of it transferred into the TT. Therefore, the procedure which allows this act is called reduction. According to Newmark (1988: 90), reduction is only used for SL text which is impossible to be literally translated into TL. In the TT, the reduction of


107 the equivalence for the word pantun is reasonable since pantun has no literal or cultural equivalence. In addition, transferring the word directly into the TL or giving a functional equivalence without further explanation is impossible since the word pantun is in the title of the poem and it represents the form of the poem. Finally, the reduction of the equivalence for pantun is allowed. In consequence, the procedure takes its toll to the form of poem in the TT, which does not resemble the concept of pantun as depicted in the ST. Reduction is used once in translating culture-specific term in On Foreign Shores. This procedure is used to translate a social culture term. The distribution of which can be seen in Table 4.11. Table 4.11. The Use of Reduction Procedure No 1

ST

TT

Pantun (Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, p. 78)

(Full Moon in the Midwest, p. 79)

Category Social Culture

Of 15 translation procedures compiled from models proposed by Newmark (1988: 81-91) and Vinay and Darbelnet (1958, as cited in Venuti, 2000: 84-93), only 5 procedures are employed to translate 23 culture-specific terms found in On Foreign Shores. Those five procedures are transference (Newmark, 1988: 82), cultural equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 82-83) or adaptation (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958, as cited in Venuti, 2000: 86), functional equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 83) or equivalence (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958, in Venuti, 2000: 90), descriptive equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 83-84), and reduction (Newmark, 1988:


108 90). Of those procedures, functional equivalence is the most frequently procedure to employ; it is employed 17 times in all five categories of culture-specific term (Newmark, 1988: 95-102). Furthermore, the procedures which are not employed are borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, naturalisation, synonymy, expansion, couplets, and notes. The distribution of procedures employed to translate culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores in accordance to the categories of which is illustrated in Table 4.12. Table 4.12. The Distribution of Translation Procedures in On Foreign Shores Translation procedure Transference Cultural equivalence Functional equivalence Descriptive equivalence Reduction Total

The occurrence of translation procedures in category of culture-specific term ECO MCT SCT OIC GAH 1 -

Total occurrence 1

-

1

1

-

1

3

6

2

7

1

1

17

-

-

-

-

1

1

7

3

1 9

1

3

1 23

From Table 4.12, it is clear that there were 23 culture-specific terms found in On Foreign Shores. From those 23 terms, seven terms belong to the category of ecology (i.e., daun ketapang, belibis, kijang, garuda, bengawan, gayam, and kangkung), three terms belong to the category of material culture (i.e., kerupuk, getek, and kopiah), nine terms belong to the category of social culture (i.e., pantun, megatruh, bapak pocung, dandanggula, nina bobo, ninabobo, sabung ayam, gender, and kendang), one term belongs to the category of organisations, ideas, and customs (i.e., Sekolah Rakyat), and three terms belong to


109 the category of gestures and habits (i.e., ongkang-ongkang and bersila). Therefore, the discovery of 23 culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores solves the first research problem regarding culture-specific terms found in the anthology. From Table 4.12, it is also clear that the researcher also found out that McGlynn, the translator of this anthology, employs five procedures to translate those 23 culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores. Those procedures are transference (Newmark, 1988: 82) which is used once, cultural equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 82-83) or adaptation (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958, as cited in Venuti, 2000: 86) which is used 3 times, functional equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 83) or equivalence (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958, in Venuti, 2000: 90) which is used 17 times, descriptive equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 83-84) which is used once, and reduction (Newmark, 1988: 90) which is used once. These findings, thus, solve the second research problem regarding what procedures are used to translate culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores.


CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter consists of three parts, namely conclusions, implications and recommendations. Conclusions summarize the research findings and highlight the main aspects, implications point out how the research findings contribute to ELESP, while recommendations consist of recommendations for the current study and the further research. A. Conclusions There are two objectives of this research. Those objectives are to discover and analyze culture-specific terms found in anthology of poems On Foreign Shores and to analyze translation procedures employed to translate those culture-specific terms from Bahasa Indonesia to English. The data were taken from an anthology of Indonesian poems entitled On Foreign Shores which is edited and translated into English by John H. McGlynn and later published by The Lontar Foundation. First, regarding the first objective, there were 23 culture-specific terms discovered from 15 poems featured in On Foreign Shores. Those data were found by using categorisation of culture-specific terms proposed by Newmark (1988: 96-102) and employing two dictionaries, namely Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia and Kamus Indonesia Inggris. Of those 23 data found, 7 terms belong to ecology category (Newmark, 1988: 96-97), 3 terms belong to material culture category (Newmark, 1988: 97-98), 9 terms belong to social culture category (Newmark, 110


111 1988: 98-99), 1 term belongs to organisations, ideas, and customs category (Newmark, 1988: 99-102), and 3 items belong to gestures and habits category (Newmark, 1988: 102). Regarding the second objective, 5 of 15 translation procedures compiled in the review of related literature were employed to translate those 23 culture-specific terms found in On Foreign Shores.

Those procedures were

transference (Newmark, 1988: 82), cultural equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 82-83) or adaptation (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958, as cited in Venuti, 2000: 86), functional equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 83) or equivalence (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958, in Venuti, 2000: 90), descriptive equivalence (Newmark, 1988: 83-84), and reduction (Newmark, 1988: 90). Furthermore, the procedures which were not employed were borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, naturalisation, synonymy, expansion, couplets, and notes. The researcher also learned to find out the most frequently translation procedures employed to translate culture-specific terms found in On Foreign Shores although this research did not focus on that concern. The researcher discovered that functional equivalence (Newmark, 1988:83), or also known as equivalence (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958, in Venuti, 2000: 90), was the most frequently translation procedure employed. This procedure was employed 17 times through all 5 categories of culture-specific term proposed by Newmark (1988: 96-102). Newmark (1988: 83) explains this phenomenon as a common procedural thing as he states that functional equivalence is a “common procedure, applied to cultural words, requires the use of culture-free items” He later points


112 out that functional equivalence procedure, “which is a cultural componential analysis, is the most accurate way of translating and deculturalising cultural word” (1988:83). Instead of finding out the reason to use functional equivalence as the most frequently used procedure, the researcher also learned to find out the reasons underlying the applications of other translation procedures to translate culturespecific terms in On Foreign Shores. Other four procedures, like functional equivalence, have immediate effects in translating culture-specific terms. Cultural equivalence allows a TL cultural word to translate an SL cultural word since it produces greater pragmatic effects to the TT (Newmark, 1988: 82-83). Descriptive equivalence allows words known in TL culture to describe an SL culture-specific term. Based on Newmark (1988: 84), description is also essential in explanation and translation of cultural word. Transference allows the translator to transfer the SL term to the TL; in addition, transference normally transfers “geographical and topographical” term known in particular culture (Newmark, 1988: 82). Since local geographical terms also belong to ecology category of culture-specific term, the application of transference for them is reasonable. The use of reduction procedure in translating a culture-specific term in On Foreign Shores is also reasonable. According to Newmark (1988: 90), reduction is only used for SL text which is impossible to be literally translated into TL. Since the culture-specific term in On Foreign Shores which is translated by using reduction has no word-for-word or cultural equivalence in the TL and becomes the part of the title, reduction is the appropriate procedure to take. Those are the reason why


113 such procedures are applied in translating culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores compiled from Newmark’s theories. B. Implications Based on the findings of this research, there are some implications of this research that can contribute to ELESP. The findings of this research can contribute to the Translation course in ELESP, as they provide examples on how translation procedures are employed to translate culture-specific terms in a realworld text—specifically; they provide examples of how transference, cultural equivalence or adaptation, functional equivalence or equivalence, descriptive equivalence, and reduction are employed in translation. The findings of this research also provide theoretical base on the use of translation procedure to translate texts whose source language is Bahasa Indonesia specifically into English, since some terms in Bahasa Indonesia do not have direct word-for-word equivalence in English and some Indonesian cultural concepts are not available in cultures of English-speaking countries. C. Recommendations Based on the research findings, there are some recommendations proposed for the current study and the further research. For the current study, local words, or simply known as culture-specific terms, in Bahasa Indonesia can be an interesting field to study in the scope of translation. Furthermore, what kind of local words which tend to be culture-specific terms can also be studied. The translation of Indonesian poetry can also be an interesting field to study since


114 Indonesian literature, especially poetry, is developed from time to time. Besides, Indonesian literature lately meets international recognition. Since the researcher only found five translation procedures; thus, the researcher only analyzed how those five procedures is employed in translating culture-specific terms. However, there are many other translation procedures which are not yet analyzed in accordance their application to translate culturespecific terms. Accordingly, it is expected that the future research analyzes the other procedures which have not been analyzed yet in this research. Besides, this research only focused on translating culture-specific terms within word level. Thus, the future research is also expected to focus on broader level, for instance, clause or sentence level—which needs more complex translation. For translators, the findings of this research about culture-specific terms provide additional knowledge and consideration of what words carrying cultural element. Furthermore, the analyses of how translation procedures are employed to translate culture-specific terms in poems are expected to become considerations and models for translators when they face similar cases. Finally, this research is expected to become a reference for translators to study translation threats related to culture-specific terms.


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APPENDICES


No.

APPENDIX A Table 3.1. Table of Culture-specific Terms (Based on Newmark, (1988))

1

Culturespecific terms Daun ketapang

Line on poems “daun ketapang makin lebat berguguran” (Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian Makin Akrab, p.7)

2

Garuda

“Ricky, sayang, garudaku sayang” (Rendra’s Rick dari Corona, p. 54)

3

Kijang

“Dan, ah, seekor kijang” (Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, p. 58)

4

Bengawan

(Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, p. 58)

6

7

8

9

Ongkangongkang

Sekolah Rakyat Kerupuk

Pantun

Belibis

ECO

MCU

SCU

OIC

GAH

√

√

√

“Lembah. Bengawan. Lembah. Bengawan”

5

Categories of culture-specific terms

√

“ongkang-ongkang dan goyang kaki” (Surachman’s Hari Tua Mister Gilbert, p. 66)

√

“...pada pelajaran ilmu bumi di Sekolah Rakyat partikelir.” (Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, p. 70) “Amerika mengeluarkan bunyi kerupuk kentang kering” (Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, p. 72)

√

√

“Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest” (Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, p. 78) “seribu burung belibis” (Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, p. 78)

118

√

√


No.

119

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

Culturespecific terms Bersila

Gayam

Megatruh

Line on poems

ECO

“dari sekian petani penanam gayam” (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 128)

Kangkung

“Kalau butuh kacang kangkung” (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 130)

Nina bobo

Sabung ayam

Gender

ninabobo

SCU

√

√

√

√

“dalam tetembangan dandanggula” (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 132) "Bagai geteknya Joko Tingkir” (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 132) “nina bobo” (Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, p. 134) “Dewa-dewa di pulau ini tidak membenci sabung ayam” (Nadjira’s Sepasang Turis, p. 138) “musim panas datang berduaan dengan angin si gender” (Hadi’s Kidung Putih, p. 154) “ninabobo yang menentramkan, kupahatkan padanya” (Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi, p. 160)

OIC

GAH √

“dalam megatruh blues” (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 130) “sambil nembang bapak pocung” (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 130)

Getek

MCU

“Ia kini duduk bersila” Potret Taman untuk Allen Ginsberg (Goenawan Mohamad)

Bapak pocung

Dandanggula

Categories of culture-specific terms

√

√

√

√

√

√


No.

120

21

22

23

Culturespecific terms Kendang

Kopiah

Bersila

Line on poems

Categories of culture-specific terms ECO

MCU

“berpesta di angkasa riuh memukul kendangnya di rimba-rimba” (Hadi’s Landskap 1971 untuk Angela Davis, p. 162)

SCU

OIC

√

“Kopiahnya bertengger di atas kepala” (Suryadi’s Central Park, p. 164)

√

“Kini bercerita lagi sambil bersila” (Budianta’s Instrumentalia, p. 174)

Total

√ 7

Notes ECO

: Ecology

MCU

: Material Culture

SCU

: Social Culture

OIC

: Organizations, Ideas, Customs

GAH

: Gestures and Habits

GAH

3

9

1

3


APPENDIX B Table 3.2. Table of Strategies to Translate Culture-specific Terms

3

4

√

√

√

The Bengawan (Poems from the Solarium, p. 59)

√

121

NO

CO

EX

RE

SY

DE

NA

Deer (Poems from the Solarium, p. 59)

FE

Kijang (Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, p. 58) Bengawan (Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, p. 58)

CE

Eagle (Rick from Corona, p. 55)

TF

2

Garuda (Rendra’s Rick dari Corona, p. 54)

MO

Leaves (And Death Grows More Intimately, p. 7)

TP

1

Daun ketapang (Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian Makin Akrab, p. 6)

Translation Strategies LT

TT (Target Text)

CA

ST (Source Text)

BO

No.

(Based on Vinay and Darbelnet (1958), Newmark (1988))


√

Fruit (Crossing the Atlantic, p. 129)

√

Spinach (Crossing the Atlantic, p. 131)

√

122

NO

CO

RE

EX

SY

DE

FE √

CE

Raft (Crossing the Atlantic, p. 133)

TF

9

Getek (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 132)

MO

√

7

TP

Chips (The Clatter of Cable Cars in San Fransisco, p. 73)

6

LT

8

Kerupuk (Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, p. 72)

5

CA

Ducks (Full Moon in the Midwest, p. 79)

BO

Belibis (Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, p. 78) Gayam (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 128) Kangkung (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 130)

No.

TT (Target Text)

NA

Translation Strategies

ST (Source Text)

13

14

√

√

√

√

My ancient songs (Crossing the Atlantic, p. 133)

√

123

NO

CO

RE

EX

SY

My ancient verses (Crossing the Atlantic, p. 131)

DE

Bapak pocung (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 130) dandanggula (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 132)

NA

Traditional Javanese (Crossing the Atlantic, p. 131)

FE

12

Megatruh (Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 130)

CE

(Full Moon in the Midwest, p. 79)

TF

11

Pantun (Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, p. 78)

MO

Miter (Central Park, p. 165)

TP

10

Kopiah (Suryadi’s Central Park, p. 164)


TT (Target Text)

CA

ST (Source Text)

BO

No.


16

17

18

Gamelan (White Ballad, p. 155)

19

Kendang (Hadi’s Landskap 1971 untuk Angela Davis, p. 162)

Drums (Landscape for Angela Davis, 1971, p. 162)

√

√

√

√

124

NO

CO

RE

EX

SY

DE

NA

FE √

Cockfights (A Tourist Couple, p. 139)

Gender (Hadi’s Kidung Putih, p. 154)

CE

Lullaby (Early Spring Morning, p. 161)

TF

Ninabobo (Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi, p. 160) Sabung ayam (Nadjira’s Sepasang Turis, p. 138)

MO

Lullaby (Honolulu Impression, p. 135)

TP

15

Nina bobo (Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, p. 134)


TT (Target Text)

CA

ST (Source Text)

BO

No.


√

√

√

√

125

NO

CO

RE

EX

SY

Cross-legged (American Instrument, p. 175)

DE

23

Bersila (Budianta’s Instrumentalia, p. 174)

NA

In lotus position (Picture of A City Park for Allen Ginsberg, p. 117)

FE

22

Bersila (Mohamad’s Potret Taman untuk Allen Ginsberg, p. 116)

CE

Dangling your legs (The Last Days of Old Man Gilbert, p. 67)

TF

21

Ongkangongkang (Surachman’s Hari Tua Mister Gilbert, p. 66)

MO

Primary school (The Clatter of Cable Cars in San Fransisco, p. 71)

TP

20

Sekolah Rakyat (Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, p. 70)


TT (Target Text)

CA

ST (Source Text)

BO

No.



Notes TT : Target Text

CE

: Cultural Equivalence

ST : Source Text

NA

: Naturalisation

BO : Borrowing

CA

: Calque

DE : Descriptive Equivalence

TP

: Transposition

LT : Literal Translation

SY

: Synonymy

MO : Modulation

RE

: Reduction

TF : Transference

EX

: Expansion

FE : Functional Equivalence

CO

: Couplets

NO : Notes

126


APPENDIX C Transcripts of Poems from On Foreign Shores

Dan Kematian Makin Akrab

And Death Grows More Intimate

Written by Subagio Sastrowardoyo (On Foreign Shores, p. 6 & p. 8)

Translated by John H. McGlynn (On Foreign Shores, p. 7 & p. 9)

(Sebuah Nyanyian Kabung untuk JFK) Di muka pintu masih bergantung tanda kabung Seakan ia tak akan kembali – Memang ia tak kembali tapi ada yang mereka tak mengerti – mengapa ia tinggal diam waktu berpisah. Bahkan tak ada kesan kesedihan pada muka dan mata itu, yang terus memandang, seakan mau bilang dengan bangga: — Matiku muda — Ada baiknya mati muda dan mengikut mereka yang gugur sebelum waktunya. Di ujung musim yang mati dulu bukan yang dirongrong penyakit tua, melainkan dia yang berdiri menentang angin di atas bukit atau dekat pantai di mana badai mengancam nyawa. Sebelum umur pahlawan ditanam di gigir gunung atau di taman-taman di kota tempat anak-anak main layang-layang. Di jam larut. daun ketapang makin lebat berguguran di luar rencana. Dan kematian makin akrab, seakan

127

(Requiem for JFK) On the door still hangs the sign of mourning As if he will not return — No, he will not return but there is something they do not understand — why he was so quiet upon departure. There was not even a trace of sadness on his face or in his staring eyes, that seemed to say with pride: — I died young — Yes, there is some good in dying young and following those who fell before their time. At the close of the season the first to die was not the infirmed, the one wasted by age but he who stood braving the wind on a hill or near the shore where storms threaten life. Before their time the heroes are buried on mountain ridges or in city parks where children fly kites. In the late hours of the night leaves fall more thickly unplanned: And death grows more intimate, like a


128 kawan berkelakar yang mengajak tertawa — itu bahasa semesta yang dimengerti Berhadapan muka seperti lewat kaca bening

convivial friend who goads one to laugh — the universal language always understood — Face to face as if through a clear glass Page 6

Masih dikenal raut muka, bahkan kelihatan bekas luka dekat kening Ia menggapai tangan di jari melekat cincin. — Lihat, tak ada batas antara kita. Aku masih terikat kepada dunia karena janji karena kenangan Kematian hanya selaput gagasan yang gampang diseberangi Tak ada yang hilang dalam perpisahan, semua pulih, juga angan-angan dan selera keisengan — Di ujung musim dinding batas bertumbangan dan kematian makin akrab. Sekali waktu bocah cilik tak lagi sedih karena layang-layangnya robek atau hilang — Lihat, bu, aku tak menangis sebab aku bisa terbang sendiri dengan sayap ke langit —

Page 7 The face: still recognizable, even the scar of a former wound is visible on his forehead. He reaches out a ring linging to his finger. — You see, there is no barrier between us, I am still tied to the world by promises and memories While death is only a veil a concept whose threshold is easily crossed Nothing is lost in parting everything is restored,

as are daydreams and urges of fancy — At the close of the season the dividing wall comes tumbling down and death grows more intimate. One day there will be a little boy who no longer grieves for his kite tattered or flown away — See, Mom, I’m not crying because I can fly myself with my own wings to the sky — Page 8 Page 9


129

Rick dari Corona

Rick from Corona

Written by W. S. Rendra (On Foreign Shores, p. 48, p. 50, p. 52, & p. 54)

Translated by John H. McGlynn (On Foreign Shores, p. 49, p. 51, p. 53, & p. 55)

(Di Queens Plaza di stasiun trem bawah tanah ada tulisan di satu temboknya: “Rick dari Corona telah di sini. Di mana engkau, Betsy?”)

(In the Queens Plaza subway station there was written on the wall: “Rick from Corona was here. Where were you, Betsy?”)

Ya. Rick dari Corona telah di sini. Di mana engkau, Betsy?

Yeah.... Rick from Corona was here. Where were you, Betsy?

- Akulah Betsy. Ini aku di sini. Betsy Wong dari Jamaika. kakek buyutku dari Hongkong.

- I’m Betsy Here I am. Betsy Wong from Jamaica. My great-grandfather was from Hong Kong. My Husband’san elevator operator Pedro Gonzales from Puerto Rico a liar and drunk. If you want to get together, give me a ring. Mornings I work at a bakery Tuesday and Thursday nights I belong to Mickey Ragolsky this old Polish guy who pays the rent on my room. Try calling on Wednesday. Don’t worry about my husband. He’ll pretend not to know. Oh, yeah, before I forget: it’ll cost ya twenty bucks.

Suamiku penjaga elevator Pedro Gonzales dari Puerto Rico suka mabuk dan suka berdusta Kalau ingin bertemu, telpon saja aku. Pagi hari aku kerja di pabrik roti Selasa dan Kamis sore aku miliknya Mickey Ragolsky si kakek Polandia yang membayar sewa kamarku. Cobalah telpon hari Rabu. Jangan kuwatirkan suamiku. Ia akan pura-pura tak tahu. O, ya, sebelum lupa, dua-puluh dollar ongkosnya. Betsyku bersih dan putih sekali lunak dan halus bagaikan karet busa Rambutnya mewah tergerai bagai berkas benang-benang rayon warna emas. Dan kakinya sempurna.

My Betsy is pure and white soft and smooth like a rubber sponge Her hair is long and thick like a skein of gold yarn. And her legs are perfect:


130 Singsat dan licin bagaikan ikan salmon.

like a salmon lean and smooth Page 48

Page 49

(Rick dari Corona di perut kota New York memandang kanan kiri sambil minum jeruk soda)

(Rick from Corona in the bowels of New York looks right and left and drinks his orange soda)

Betsy. Di mana engkau, Betsy?

Betsy. Where are you, Betsy?

- Ini, Betsy Hudson di sini. Aku merindukan alam hijau tapi benci agraria. Aku percaya pada dongeng aneka ragam. Aku percaya pada benua Atlantis. Dan juga percaya bahwa hidup di bulan lebih baik dari hidup di bumi. Pada politik aku tak percaya. Namaku Betsy. Memang. Tapi kita tak mungkin ketemu. Siang hari aku kerja jadi akuntan. Malam hari aku suka nulis buku harian. Untuk merias diri memelihara rambut dan kuku telah pula memakan waktu. Namaku Betsy. Cantik. Aku suka telanjang di depan kaca. Aku benci lelaki.

- Here, Betsy Hudson here. I love nature but hate to farm. I believe in all sorts of fairy tales. I believe in Atlantis. And that life on the moon must be better than life on earth. But I don’t believe in politics. My name is Betsy. Really. But there’s no way we can meet. Days I work as an acountant. Night I write in my diary. And besides, taking care of myself my hair and nails all that takes time too. My name is Betsy. I’ll something to look at. I like to stand naked in front of the mirror. But I hate men.

(Dengan mobil sport dari Inggris Rick dari Corona mengitari kota New York berkaca mata hitam sekali. Melanggar aturan lalu lintas ia disetop polisi sambil masih mimpi siang hari)

(With his British sports car and ink-black sunglasses. Rick from Corona cruises New York city. But for a traffic violation he’s stopped by the cops in the middle of a daydream)

Betsy gemerlapan bagai lampu-lampu

Betsy shines like the lights of


131 Broadway. Betsy terbang dengan indah. Bau minyak wanginya menidurkan New York Dan selalu sesudah itu aku diselimutinya dengan selimut katun yang ditenunnya sendiri. Page 50 Betsy, di mana engkau, Betsy.

Broadway. Betsy is beautiful when she flies. Her perfume puts New York to sleep

- Di sini, bodoh! Kau selalu tak mendengarkan aku. Ricky! Kau selalu menciptakan kekusutan. Sepatu tak pernah kauletakkan pada raknya. Selalu kaupakai dasi yang kacau warnanya. Berapa kali pula kau kuperingatkan kalau tidur jangan mendengkur. Itu barbar. Dan, Ricky! Kau harus belajar makan sup yang lebih sopan!

- Here I am, stupid! You never listen to me, Ricky!

(New York mengangkang. Keras dan angkuh. Semen dan baja. Dingin dan teguh. Adapun di tengah-tengah cahaya lampu gemerlapan terdengar musik gelisah yang tentu saja tak berarti apa-apa)

(New York spreads its legs. Hard and arrogant. Cement and steel. Cold and rigid. And in the middle of bright lights

Rick dari Corona telah di sini. Ya. Ya. Betsy, engkau di mana

Rick from Corona was here. Yeah, yeah. Betsy, where were you?

- Ricky, sayang, aku di sini. Ya. Ya.

- Ricky, honey, I’m here. Yeah, yeah.

And always, after that she covers me with a cotton blanket that she herself made. Page 51 Betsy, where are you, Betsy?

You’re always picking fights. You never put your shoes on the rack. You always wear those loud ties. And how many times have I told you not to snore when you sleep. It’s barbaric. And, Ricky! You gotta stop slurping your soup!

comes the sound of restless music which of course means nothing.)


132 + Engkau hitam. Engkau bukan Betsy. Engkau macan negro dari Harlem.

+ You’re black. You’re not Betsy. You’re a black tigress from Harlem.

- Pegang pinggulku. Rasakan betapa lunak dan penuhnya. Namaku Betsy. Ya. Ya.

- Squeeze my ass. feel how soft and full it is. My name’s Betsy. Yeah, yeah.

+ Gadisku selalu menjawab dengan sabar. segala pertanyaanku yang bodoh dan sangsi.

+ My girl always takes the time to answer my stupid uncertain questions.

- Aku Betsy karena aku negro. - I’m Betsy because I’m black. Karena aku negro Because I’m black. aku adalah tanggungjawabmu. I’m in your hands. Ya, namaku Betsy. I’m Betsy. Yeah... Telah kuputuskan namaku Betsy. I decided my name is Betsy. Page 52 Page 53 + Apyun. Apyun. Drugs, drugs Aku hasratkan pengalaman mistis. I long for mystical experience Aku ingin melukis tubuhmu telanjang I want to paint your naked body sambil kuhirup marijuana. while smoking marijuana. Ricky, sayang, engkau akan kuninabobokan. Dan bagai bayi akan kaupuja tetekku.

Ricky, honey, I’ll sing you a lullaby

+ Dari Queens. Dari Brooklyn. Dan dari Manhattan —

+ From Queens. From Brooklyn. And from Manhattan —

- Ricky, sayang, garudaku sayang.

- Ricky, honey, my loving eagle.

+ Sebab irama combo, sebab buaian saxophone —

+ Because of the combo rhythm, because of the saxophone swing

- Pejamkan matamu. Dan bagaikan banjo mainkanlah aku.

- Shut your eyes. And play me like a banjo

(Di Harlem, Manhattan, New York

(In Harlem, Manhattan, New York

And like a baby you can adore my tits


133 di mana orang tinggal penuh sesak di mana udara bau air kencing dan sampah di musim panas dengan udara sembilan puluh lima drajat para negro menari watusi di tepi jalan dan pada drajat keseratus dua

where people live in huddled masses the air smells of rubbish and piss in summer when it’s ninety-five

terjadi perkelahian antara mereka)

the blacks watusi in the street and when it climbs to a hundred and two they begin to roll).

Hallo. Hallo. Di sini Rick dari Corona. Dan Betsy juga di sini — Hallo, Dokter. Kami harus disuntik sekarang juga. Kami kena raja singa. Page 54

Hello. Hello. This is Rick from Corona. Betsy’s here too — Hello, Doctor. We need some shots right away. Cause we got a royal dose. Page 55

Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium

Poems from the Solarium

Written by Surachman R.M. (On Foreign Shores, p. 56 & p. 58)


(1)

(1)

Tubuhnya diterbangkan dari Clinton jiwanya dicincang di Dellroy, Ohio Dengan mimpi antara Hong Kong dan Tokyo, Sebuah ibukota bernama Washington menyediakan baginya suatu gedung untuk bersemayam dan diperam di tingkat keenam

His body was flown from Clinton His soul became mincemeat in Dellroy, Ohio Along with daydreams of Hong Kong, Tokyo A capital city named Washington offered him a building where on the sixth floor he was placed and prayed over

Duh, hatinya tertinggal di Bandung

Dear God, he left his heart in Bandung

Ada sebuah jendela terlalu baik untuk bunuh diri

There was a window one much too fine for suicide


134 Sayangnya butuh terdera antara halusinasi misteri O, Pangeran yang malang Selamat tidur, Para inang tengah mempersiapkan bagimu: mimpi dalam dua buah tabung injeksi

With the will whipped back and forth between mystery and hallucination Poor Prince Good night. The nurses prepare for you: dreams in two intravenous bottles

(2)

(2)

Pada hari yang ketiga kau siuman dan terjaga

On the third day you regained consciousness, awoke

Pada hari yang kelima kau sudah berganti nama

On the fifth day you changed your name

Pada hari kesebelas kau cicip udara bebas

On the eleventh day you tasted open air

Dan hari keduapuluh putusan jatuh: kau sembuh

(3)

On the twentieth day the prognosis came: a clean bill of health Page 56 Page 57 (3)

O, dear, jagalah dirimu! Tulislah surat untukku Selamat jalan

Oh, dear, take care ofyourself Don’t forget to write me Good-bye

(4)

(4)

Ranjang kiamat Kamar sekarat Selamat tinggal

Death bed and lonely room Good-bye

Para penghuni yang terdampar di sini Selamat tinggal

All those stranded here Good-bye

Dokter budiman Perawat sekawan

Good doctor nurses


135 Selamat tinggal

Good-bye

Adapun untukmu kuucapkan di Terminal

But as for you I’ll take my leave at the terminal

Selamat tinggal, selamat tinggal dan selamat tinggal (5)

Good-bye, good bye and good bye (5)

Bosan jaringan awan dipilihnya jalan daratan Jarak sepuluh jam bisa berkencan dengan alam:

Bored with the network of clouds he chose the overland route and ten hours toconverse with nature:

Ladang. Kota. Ladang. Kota Bukit. Hutan buatan dan pina. Lembah. Bengawan. Lembah. Bengawan Tunnel. Kanal dan pelabuhan.

Fields. City. Fields. City. Hills. Man-made forests, pines. A Valley. The Bengawan River. A Valley. The Bengawan. A tunnel. A canal. The port.

Dan, ah seekor kijang melintas jalan dalam gerimis hujan

And, yes, a deer, too. flitting across the road to disappear

Lalu menghilang.

in the drizzling rain. Page 58

Page 59

Hari Tua Mister Gilbert

The Last Days of Old Man Gilbert

Written by Surachman R.M. (On Foreign Shores, p. 66 & p. 68)


Di negeri yang paling kaya

Oncce in the richest country of the world I rented for a month or two an apartment, a miserable place just out of curiosity and the experience.

sebulan dua pernah kusewa apartemen buruk sekedar ingin tahu dan memancing pengalaman.


136 Tidak lama, tapi aku cukup berkenalan dengan seluruh penghuni. Sebelahku Gilbert tua batuk-batuk dan sakitan. Lainnya hippies remaja malas dan gelandangan bertualang dengan kenikmatan dunia dalam ganja dan keberandalan. “Perduli benar dengan mereka” umpat Gilbert tua. “Apa yang bisa diharapkan untuk kemajuan Amerika?” Dan kau sendiri Gilbert! Kau Cuma ongkang-ongkang dan goyang kaki dan tak pernah mau punya istri. Kauhabiskan umurmu dalam busa alkohol. Kau nganggur lama jua

It wasn’t for very long, but long enough to become acquainted with the tenants there. Next door was Old Man Gilbert always coughing a sickly man. The rest of teh renters were hippies lazy and unemployed seeking adventure in marijuana and depravation. “To hell with them,” Old Gilbert swore. “What is America coming to” And you yourself Mr. Gilbert? dangling your legs and twiddling your thumbs a man who never wanted a wife.

You spend your days in alcoholic stupor. You’ve been out of work for a long time, too dengan tunjangan mingguan with your weekly support dari jawatan sosial: from the social security office: Tapi kalau kau mati But if you die, penguburanmu dijamin asuransi. there’s no need to worry your burial is covered by insurance. Pekerjaan terakhir: Your last job: sopir. driver. Dalam perang dunia kedua: And in World War II anggota eskwadron udara serving in the air force di Perancis Selatan. in southern France. Page 66 Page 67 Hanya kemujuran But war’s fortune, too perang pun berakhir came to an end Begitu kau datang. not long after your enlistment. Tapi kau cukup bangga Even so, you’re proud of yourself dalam kemalasan di hari tua now in the laziness of old age


137 Dan tak bosan bercerita tentang apa saja, kecuali perempuan. Cuaca bukan rintangan bagimu: keluar di sore hari Duduk-duduk dalam bar menyaksikan gambar-gambar dan warta berita senja yang disiarkan teve Sedang tengorokanmu serak dihangati suam wisky. Menyusul regukan-regukan bir di beranda apartemen kita Membolak-balik koran lokal yang lumayan tebal Baru pada botol ketiga kaunaiki tangga. Dan musik-musik klasik mengalirlah dari radio tua yang setia. Adapun botol kesekian menunggu regukanmu di sudut kamarmu apak. “Negriku luar biasa kaya. Tapi negriku saja!” gerutumu suatu pagi. “Sedang para warganya kausaksikan sendiri di sarang tikus ini!” Demikianlah Gilbert tua yang sendiri Sakitan dan miskin Tapi biaya penguburannya telah terjamin.

You never tire of talking about anything, except, that is, women. The weather is no obstacle for you: to go out evenings to sit in bars watch shows and the evening news on television while you warm your raw throat with shots of whiskey. chased by swigs of beer on the stoop of our apartment building. You turn the pages of the local paper a fairly thick compendium over and back again Only after the third beer I proceed up the stairs to classical music flowing from a faithful old radio. The umpteenth bottle awaits your throat in the ccorner of your stuffy apartment. “My country is so goddamned rich, but only my country!” you grumbled one morning. “But the people themselves, see for yourself how they live here in this rat hole of ours!” Yes, that was Old Man Gilbert alone sick and wanting but whose burial is covered by insurance. Page 68 Page 69


138

Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco

The Clatter of Cable Cars in San Fransisco

Written by Taufiq Ismail (On Foreign Shores, p. 70 & p. 72)


Pagimu yang cerah, San Fransisco, sampai padaku di atas bukit itu, lautmu bagai bubur agar-agar, uap air di langitmu mencecerkan serbuk kabut seoperti tepung nilon dan terjela-jela sepanjang jembatan raksasamu tepat seperti kartu pos bergambar yang pernah kubeli di kedai Hindustan duapuluh empat tahun yang silam di Geylang Road ketika aku masih bercelana pendek dan asyik menghafalkan nama-nama hebat dengan huruf c, v, x dan y pada pelajaran ilmu bumi di Sekolah Rakyat partikelir.

Your bright morning, San Fransisco, caught me on top of that hill, your sea like aspic, the haze in your air sprinkled bits of fog like nylon flour winding through your giant bridge like the picture post card I bought twenty four years ago in a Hindustani kiosk on Geylang Road when I was still in grade school uniform and busy memorizing the great names beginning with the letters c, v, x and y for my geography class at a private primary school.

Matahari terlalu gembira menyinari bukit-bukitmu, Bukit-bukit yang ditumbuhi rumah-rumah Eropa, Meksiko, Habsyi dan Cina, bercat putih beratap merah tua dengan bunga-bungaan yang mekar karena persekutuan akrab dengan musim semi bagai tak kunjung habisnya. Debu segan padamu. Kotoran mekanika dan asam arang kau serahkan sepenuhnya pada Los Angeles si buruk muka. Dia cemburu padamu.

The sun shines too cheerfully on your hills. Hills overgrown with European, Mexican, Persian and Chinese houses, painted white with burnt-red tile roofs and flowers in bloom thanks to a close alliance with a never-ending spring. The dust leaves you alone while the industrial fumes and carbon monoxide you give over entirely to Los Angeles, she of the poker face. She is jealous of you.

Pasar buah dan rempah-rempah. Trem berklenengan dan meluncur gila pada penurunan bukit-bukit sama-kaki yang sempit. Sebuah peti cat meledak di udara dan warna-warna pun dibagibagi pada deretan bangunan dinding trem kota, tulang jembatan, atap, pintu dan jendela. Angin mengeringkannya dan mengaduknya dengan aroma

Markets for fruit and herbs. Cable cars clatter and careen madly down the slopes of hillsas narrow at their bottoms as at their tops. A paint box explodes in the air and colors are splattered on rows of building, the sides of cable cars, bridge beams, roofs, doors and windows. The wind dries the paint and mixes in the aroma of leaves from citrus groves and


139 daun-daun perladangan jeruk serta the mist rising from the harbor is fanned uap perairan dermaga lalu dikibas- by the wings of a flock of gulls flying kibaskan oleh sayap kawanan burung over the bay. camar mengatasi muara lautan. Percintaan bulan dengan lekuk-lekuk tubuhmu semacam percintaan anakanak muda yang garang kemudian dilukiskan oleh pelukis-pelukis kubistis. Emas yang diburu-buru abad yang lalu dilambangkan dalam cahaya natrium, amat geometris, lewat tingkap-tingkap dan pipa-pipa kaca, simetris, dan tidak simetris. Kapal-kapal angkat jangkar.

The love of the moon for the curves of your body is the passion of a young couple as portrayed by cubist painters. The gold that was sought a century earlier is now symbolized in geometric sodium-vapor lights, through symmetricl and asymmetrical awnings and glass pipes The ships lift anchor.

Page 70 Di ujung meja panjang terbuat dari kayu mahoni pada suatu bar dekat Market Street seorang tua berambut putih berkumis putih berjanggut putih duduk di atas kursi plastik yang bentuknya seperti bom waktu. “Aku tidak dengar Amerika menyanyi lagi”, ujarnya. Pelayan bar memberinya segelas air.

Page 71 At the end of the mahogany bar in a tavern off Market an old man with white hair, white moustache and beard sits on a plastic chair that is shaped like a time bomb. “I don’t hear America sing anymore,” he mutters. The bartender gives him another glass of beer.

Amerika tidak menyanyi lagi. Amerika mengerang.

America doesn’t sing anymore America moans.

Di atas bar kayu mahoni berlapis formika hampir biru muda, padangpadang Texas dilipat ke tengah, New York berhamburan ke dalam Grand Canyon, Niagara mengental, California tergulung-gulung. Walt Whitman memeras Amerika bagai sehelai karbon bekas, dan si tua itu menuangkan bir Milwaukee berbusa ke atasnya.

On top of the mahogany bar with its lamination of turquoise formica, the Texas plains are folded in, New York dissolves in the Grand Canyon, Niagara freezes, California is rolled up. Walt Whitmancrumples America like a used sheet of carbon papaer and the old man pours over it his Milwaukee beer with its head of foam.

Amerika mengeluarkan bunyi kerupuk kentang kering yang dikunyah lambat-lambat

America sounds like crispy potato chips being chewed slowly


140 Camar-camar teluk San Fransisco melayang di atas kedai-kedai bunga tulipa, menelisik jaringan kawat tremtrem yang berklenengan dan buang air tepat di atas kantor asuransi. Selamat jalan c Selamat jalan v Selamat jalan x Selamat jalan y Selamat jalan.

The gulls of San Fransisco bay float above the tulip stands, swoop through the web of wires of the clattering cable cars to dispose of their droppings right on top of an insurance office. Good-bye c Good-bye v Good-bye x Good-bye y Good-bye.

Page 72

Page 73

Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest

Full Moon in the Midwest

Written by Taufiq Ismail (On Foreign Shores, p. 78)

Translated by John H. McGlynn (On Foreign Shores, p. 79)

Sebuah bulan sempurna Bersinar agak merah Lingkarannya di sana Awan menggaris bawah

A perfect moon Sheds rosy light An aureole around it An underline clouds

Sungai Mississippi Lebar dan keruh Bunyi-bunyi sepi Amat gemuruh

The Mississippi Wide and muddy Sounds of silence Roll like thunder

Ladang-ladang jagung Rawa-rawa dukana Serangga mendengung Sampaikah suara

Fields of corn Sensual swamps Insect buzzing Do you hear the sound?

Cuaca musim gugur Bukit membisu Asap yang hancur Biru abu-abu

In the autumn air Hills lie mute Smoke transforms To grayish blue


141 Danau yang di sana Seribu burung belibis Lereng pohon pina Angin pun gerimis

On the lake beyond A thousand ducks The hillside pines Even the wind is wet Page 78

Page 79

Potret Taman untuk Allen Ginsberg

Picture of a City Park for Allen Ginsberg

Written by Goenawan Mohamad (On Foreign Shores, p. 116 & p. 118)


Ia menebak dari warna kulit saya dan berkata, “Tuan pasti dari dunia ke3.” Lalu ia, dari dunia pertama, mengunyah makan pagi seraya mengutip Mao Tse-tung dan sebuah sajak gunung – ramah sekali.

He guessed the color of my skin and said, “Mister, you got to be from the third world.” Then he, from the first world, chewed his breakfast while quoting Mao Tse-tung and a mountain verse – it was all so very friendly.

Bisakah ia tidur sebelum anggur lalu mungkin mimpi di lindungan malaikat masehi?

Could he sleep before rest then possibly dream in the shelter of Christian angels?

Ia telah jalan dalam angin dan mengucup es-krim dan membaca berita di halaman pertama tentang sebuah perang di Asia Tenggara.

He walked in the wind and slurped ice cream and read the front-page news

Ia kini duduk bersila di bangku taman kotapraja mungkin semadi mungkin aku tak mengerti karena ia berkata: :Di Vietnam tak ada orang mati

Now he sits in lotus position on a bench in the city park in meditation, maybe maybe I don’t know because he said “In Viet Nam there are no dead

about a war in Southeast Asia.


142 Tak ada Vietnam dan orang tak mati.”

There is no Nam, there are no dead.”

Lalu ia mencari kepak burung ia mencari merpati ia mencari lambang ia mencari makna hari Ia mencari seakan ia tahu apa yang ia Ingin temukan dan tiba-tiba ia menuliskan: “Revolusi. Revolusi. Tak Bisa Dipesan Hari Ini.”

He then sought a bird’s wing he sought a dove he sought a symbol he sought the meaning of life He sought as if he knew what he would discover before he suddenly wrote: “Revolution. Revolution. No Orders Taken Today.”

Lalu ia bangkit ia mual ia mencium bau biasa dari kakus umum ia basah oleh tangis dan ia meludah: “Kencingilah kaum burjuis!” Adakah ia Nabi?

Then he rose, his stomach churning with the smell of the public toilet wet with tears, he spat: “Piss on the bourgeois!” Was it he was a prophet?

Page 116

Page 117

Tuhan. Di taman ini orang juga ngelindur tentang perempuan-perempuan berpupur dan sebuah mulut berahi kudengar memaki: “Bangsat, kenapa aku di sini?” Atau mungkin ia ngelindur tentang sebuah dusun yang hancur dan sisa-sisa infantri dan mayat dan ulat dan ruh dan matahari?

God. In this park people mumble insensibly about women thick with face powder

Aku dengar seorang-orang tua, yang kesal dan Berkata, “Di sekitar hari Natal, pernah terjadi Hal yang tak masuk akal. Misalnya mereka membom Hanoi sebelum (bukan sesudah) aku minum kopi.”

I heard an old man, in versation,

Page 118

And I hear curse from a passionate mouth: “You bastard, why am I here?” Or maybe he was mumbling about a village, destroyed, the remains of infantry and human limbs and worms and ghost and the sun?

say: “Round Christmas, something happened that didn’t make sense, I mean they bombed Hanoi, you see, before (not after) I’d even had my coffee.” Page 119


143

Melintasi Atlantik

Crossing the Atlantic

Written by Darmanto Yatman (On Foreign Shores, p. 128, p. 130, & p. 132)

Translated by John H. McGlynn (On Foreign Shores, p. 129, p. 131, & p. 133)

Welha. London lho mbokne! -Towikromo New York! New York! -Liza Minelli

What the…! Bloody London, good! -Towikromo (a Javanese farmer) New York! New York! -Liza Minelli

Melintasi Atlantik Tidaklah sefantastik Columbus Beberapa abad lewat (Setidak-tidaknya Aku tidak merasa seperti Columbus Sekalipun mungkin sekali Akulah orang pertama Dari sekian petani penanam gayam Dari negeri yang berincome 150 U.S. Dollar Per kapita per annum Yang menyeberangi samudera!)

Crossing the Atlantic Was not as fantastic As Columbus’ trip A few centuries ago (Leastways I didn’t feel like Columbus Though very likely I was the first Of the many fruit farmers From a country with an income

Aku kehilangan samudera Dari pandangan mataku Seperti New York kehilangan hijau daun

The ocean was lost From my sight As New York lost its green leaves

Kabut terkaing-kaing Disengat matahari Meratap pada sayap jumbo 747

The fog whimpers When stung by the sun And moans on the wings of a 747 jumbo

-

Heh Columbus, sabrangana Atlantik! Babo! Babo! Cross history Towikromo! Go!

Peradaban kelelegen Makan buah simalakama

Of US$ 150 per capita per year To have crossed this very ocean!

-

Hey. Columbus, cross the Atlantic! Okay! Okay! Cross history, Towikromo! Go!

Civilization is drunk And damned if you do damned if you don’t


144 Kapal kapal penguasa lautan Pendiri pabrik dan industri Diombang ambingkan gelombang Antara Scylla dan Charybdis

Ships rule the ocean With builders of factories and industries Rocking to and fro on the waves Between Scylla and Charybdis Page 128

-

Di sini mesin – di sana manusia Di sini pengangguran – di sana perbudakan Cobalah terka mana jalan ke luarnya! Pizzaro menghancurkan Cholula (Piramid yang berpondasikan manusia) Lalu menegakkan gereja di atasnya Lhaillah!

Page 129 -

Here are the machines – there are the managers Here is unemployment – there is slavery Make a guess what happened! Crossing the Atlantic Pizzaro razed Cholula (A Pyramid built on the backs of men) Then erected a church on top of it Motherofgod!

Mungkinkah jadi Peradaban beribu tahun Dimusnahkan Cuma Oleh sejumlah bedil Dan kekejaman melulu?! Aztec dan Inca saderek saderek telah dipendam dalam tanah Sementara Sioux dan Apache Ditaburkan di atas padang garam O, Allah!

Could A thousand-year civilization Be destroyed By just a few guns And unadulterated cruelty?! The Aztecs and the Incas enslaved Were run into the ground While the Sioux and the Apache Were sown on the salt plain Oh, God!

Di atas Atlantik Sekali aku mimpi jadi Daniel Boone Mimpin imigran protestan Eropa

Above the Atlantic I dreamed of being Daniel Boone Leading protestant immigrants from Europe In their journey to the west Crossing the plains on saddle Just ahead of the Pope’s curse and Ogalagah arrows! And above the Atlantic, too I became you, Kowero Negro slave dragged into the galley

Mengembara ke barat Melintasi steppe di atas pelana Dikejar kutuk Paus dan panah Ogalagah! Di atas Atlantik ini pula Aku telah jadi kau, Kowero Budak negro yang diseret di atas palka


145 Dirantai besi Supaya tidak bunuh diri dihajar cemeti! Namun di atas Atlantik ini pula Kudengar biyungku menangis Dalam megatruh blues Yang mengusik suarga

Bound in steel chains Preventing suicide’s release from the whip! But above the Atlantic I heard as well My grandmother crying In traditional Javanese blues That could not have but touched heaven

Tidak! Tidak seperti Columbus aku Nyeberang lautan cari rempah Atas perintah cewek dari Aragon

No! I am not Columbus Who crossed the ocean in search of spices On the order of a chick from Aragon

Sambil nembang bapak pocung Mbokku cukup melenggang ke pasar Pundong Kalau butuh kacang kangkung

As I sing my ancient verses All mother must do is go to Pundong market If its peanuts or spinach we need

Page 130

Page 131

Ya. Ya. Aku cuma petani dari Tambran Sekalipun akulah paman DMT Yang ngarang sajak ini Lahir di Kepulauan Pasifik

Yeah. Yeah. I’m just a farmer from Tambran Even if I am the uncle of DMT, The writer of this poem Born in the Pacific islands

Dalam tetembangan dandanggula Apa yang bisa kukerjakan selama ini Cuma nanem, matun, panen Hanya terkadang saja ada waktu Buat semadi Dan baca sajak Li Po dan Tu Fu Sambil latihan yoga dan Tai Chi

As I sing my ancient verses What is is that I can do But plant and weed and harvest And, sometimes, when there’s time A little meditation And reading the poems of Li Po and Tu Fu While practicing yoga and tai chi

Ah. Ah. Melintasi Atlantik Sejarah mengambang Bagai geteknya Joko Tingkir Digoyang goyang pinggul buaya wanita: --ing ngarso miwah ing pungkur… Berangkat dari no when

Psshaw! Crossing the Atlantic History floats Like Joko Tingkir’s raft Rocking on the back of a crocodile woman: --on the front and on the back, too… Leaving from no when


146 Menuju ke no where.

Going to no where.

London! London!

London! London!

New York! New York!

New York! New York!

Wah, anggitku Kok kaya bakul neng stasiun Bantul New York! New York! London! London!

Shiiiiit! It’s just like the station in Bantul! New York! New York! London! London!

Page 132

Impresi Honolulu

Written by Darmanto Yatman (On Foreign Shores, p. 134 & p. 136) dari pasifik kuintip kau pelacur yang bergincu teknologi

akhirnya kita pun bertemu rambutmu yang tergerai ah betapa kau tua sesudah berpuluh tahun merindu memandang ke luar jendela pagi hari burung-burung bernyanyi: haleluya! apakah yang angin kerjakan di sini membarut punggung bukit atau sekadar mencumbu perahu di pesisir -

Page 133

Honolulu Impressions

Translated by John H. McGlynn (On Foreign Shores, p. 135 & p. 137) from the pacific I peep at you you whore with a hightech gloss in the end we did finally meet your long loose hair how old you looked after years of longing staring out the window in the morning the birds sang: hallelujah! what do you want to do here climb the mountain’s ridge or flirt with the boats on the shore -


147 ah, apakah yang jari lentikmu kerjakan sekedar membelai punggung tanganku atau asyik memasang-masang bom waktu kekasihku berbaring tengah siang seekor perkutut menyanyi nina bobo burung-burung bernyanyi di ranting-ranting pohonan ceri berumah dan beranak di atap pencakar di Honolulu sini semua tertangkap tangan di sini kabut (yang meng-embun) sijingkat di ujung rumput pelangi (yang meng-kembang) tumbuh dari semak-semak atau daging (yang meng-gadis) bergolak di pasir pantai

Mmmm, what are your supple fingers doing my love; stroking my back or setting a time bomb napping in the middle of the day a turtledove sings a lullaby birds sing on cherry tree branches breed and nest on top of skyscrapers here in Honolulu you can take everything in your hands here the fog (with its dew) toeing from tips of grass rainbows (that bloom) rising from thickest or flesh (of the female kind) waving on the sandy beach

namun

yet

ada satu hal yang lepas dari jangkauan rinduku (yang bagai aspal jalan Honolulu

something remains free outside the grasp of my longing (which like the asphalt streets of Honolulu

Page 134 menangkap sol sepatuku memboikot langkahku) kepadamu. menatap bukit-bukit Honolulu aku terkenang padamu: bunga matahari sejenak sebelum senja angin sejenak Cuma bermain di ranting-ranting Jesus! Jesus! kenapa persahabatan kita seret

Page 135 sticks to the soles of my shoes arresting my steps) for you staring at the Honolulu hills I think of you a sunflower the moment before dusk the wind plays a second only in the branches Jesus! Jesus! why did our friendship slip so


148 benar jadi sementara umurku : pelangi yang kembang semenit lalu habis berguguran semenit berikutnya.

fast as I grew older: the rainbow that bloomed a minute ago perished the minute after.

Page 136

Page 137

Sepasang Turis

A Tourist Couple

Kepada istrinya dia berkata: Di atas kursi dorong telah kubagikan hidupku sepotong-sepotong

He said to his wife From his wheel chair I have divvied my life bit by bit

Written by Frans Nadjira (On Foreign Shores, p. 138)


(sebelum bersin tercium bau lumut mirip bau mesiu sewaktu naik pasang)

(before sneezing he caught the smell of mildew so like the smell of gunpowder at the shot of the gun)

Kita tak menemukan yang beda, ternyata Bunga-bunga seperti ini juga ada di Vietnam (ketika bersin, jahitan di lambung terasa nyeri) Apa? Permainan nyawa?

We can not tell difference, in fact There are flowers like this in Viet Nam, too. (sneezing, he winces from the stitches in his side) What is this? A fight to the finish? The gods on this island are not averse to cockfights.

Dewa-dewa di pulau ini tidak membenci sabung ayam. Lututku. Mereka gemetar lagi. Diamkan. Kita berhenti rindu mencari. (suara suara anjing berebut isi perut seekor penyu merangkak dari gelap laut) Teruslah mendongeng tentang dewata, Kau. Negeri yang jauh. Hijau

My calves. They’re shaking again. Give them a rest. We cease our longing to search. (the turtle crawls from the dark sea dogs yelp in competition for its trove) Go on, You. Go on telling your stories about gods. Distant land. Green.


149 tak ada ketakutan. Kelainan jiwa dan bulan yang tak beringat karena kutembakkan meriam ke arahnya. Berahi yang percuma. Tak percaya. Bulan di sini menciut setiap naga melenggang ke arahnya.

without fear. Insanity

Menjauh lampu lampu kapal terbang Terdengar suara mencebur

The lights of the plane fade in the distance There omes the sound of a splash An empty wheel chair Buried in the sand

Roda kursi yang kosong Terbenam dalam pasir

and a moon without memory for the shot I fired in its direction. Futile passion. Disbelief. The moon here shrinks as serpents swing in its direction.

Page 138

Page 138

Kidung Putih

White Ballad

Sebelum gugur atas daunan itu pusingan debu bersilengking pada kayu (musim panas datang berduaan dengan angin si gender) bungabunga menahan bibirnya dari ciuman (gerimis

Before the fall of the leaves the whirl of the dust whistling ‘round branches (the summer arrives, the gamelan resounds) flowers

di pipi) — berjalan dari taman itu kala akhir musim semi (kau senandungkan matahari, bayangbayang pohon tua tak berdaun) terusir (dan di antara warwer hujan yang tibatiba) terbangun

a drizzle) — leaving the garden

gelisah....

in anxiousness....

Written by Abdul Hadi (On Foreign Shores, p. 154)


Page 154

avert their lips from kisses (and on the cheek

at spring’s end (you sing of the sun and images of old and leafless trees) expelled (and with the whoosh of a sudden rain) awake Page 155


150

Dini Hari Musim Semi

Early Spring Morning

Aku ingin bangun dini hari, melihat fajar putih memecahkan kulit-kulit kerang yang tertutup — Menjelang tidur kupahat sinar bulan yang letih itu yangmenyelinap dalam semak-semak salju terakhir, ninabobo yang menentramkan, kupahatkan padanya sebelum matahari memasang kaca berkilauan

I want to rise in the early hours, to see the whit dawn break open theoyster shells —

Ah, tapi antara gelap dan terang, ada dan tiada Waktu selalu melimpahi langitsepi dengan kabut dulu lalu angin perlahan-lahan dan ribut memancar lagi — burung-burung hari ini, sedang musim dingin yang hanyut masih abadi seperti hari kemarin yang mengiba harus memakan beratus-ratus masa lampauku Page 160

But between dark and light, being and not

Written by Abdul Hadi (On Foreign Shores, p. 160)

Lanskap 1971 untuk Angela Davis Written by Abdul Hadi (On Foreign Shores, p. 162)


As sleep approaches I carve the listless moon’s light hiding in thebushes of the last snow, I carve on it a soothing lullaby before the sun erects its shimmering mirror

Time floods the quiet sky with its past haze while winds slowly but noisily sweep in the morning — birds today, so winter fades yet remains eternal, wistful devouring the hundreds of my yesterdays Page 161

Landscape for Angela Davis, 1971 Translated by John H. McGlynn (On Foreign Shores, p. 163)

Inilah senja yang kujanjikan padamu dan This is the twilight I promised you as mega clouds melelehkan darahnya di udara drip blood in an empty sky, the city mutlak, kota menanti awaits burung-burung raksasa kuning tak the vultures that do not return to pulang menjuntaikan spill food from paruhnya, agar perutnya yang lapar their breaks causing guts to growl, tak jadi garang to heave in anger dan bisa berteriak lagi and once more roar dicarinya usus simati setelah kolera

they search the bowles of the dead


151 yang panjang menyerang dari laut membentuk bulan jadi jingga dalam gugusan angin laut yang beku, tiada ubahnya seperti para dewa yang putus asa berpesta di angkasa riuh memukul kendangnya ke rimba-rimba Inilah saatnya setelah perang saudara dan gempa bumi mengusir mereka yang kini tiada berumah lagi dan akan menjadi pejalan menempuh gang-gang gelap menempuh ladang-ladang musim panas dan menyanyi lalu menjotoskan kesia-siaannya mencari saudarasaudaranya yang hilang berduaan atau berenam menyanyi garang bagai angsa menatap syorga yang malang dan dewa-dewa yang putus asa mabok menari bersama awan hitam memuntahkan serapahnya lagi perempuan-perempuan meratap bagai perajurit-perajurit yang luka belum mati. Sedang sejam lagi udara bakal beku Inilah senja yangkujanjikan padamu dan mega tebal seakan sukmaku yang menyeret benua-benua ke jazirah sepi dan perutnya yang lapar jadi garang dan berteriak lagi bunuhlah aku! Dan surya hanya menanti malam hari Page 162

after the invasion of cholera from the sea turned the moon orange in a clump of frozen sea winds, no different from the gods who without hope celebrate in the heavens and beat their drums in the forest This is the moment after civil war and quakes have chased away the newly homeless, changing them to passersby in darkened ways who sing while passing through summer fields then belt out the futility of searching for their lost kin. in twos, in sixes they squawk like geese stare at the calamitous sky and useless gods in drunken dance withblackened clouds spewing curses as women wail like wounded soldiers knowing the next moment is death. While in an hour the sky will freeze. This is the twilight I promised to you with heavy clouds a mirror of my soul dragging off continents to the silent peninsula and my hungry stomach rises and roars once more: kill me! While the sun waits only for night to fall Page 163


152

Central Park

Central Park

Ada seseorang suster berdansa riang Bermain di atas sepatu rodanya Dia gengsot di lapangan terbuka Tawanya renyah gadis sweet seventeen

A nun dancers happily on roller skates chug-a-lugs in the open lot and laughs like a girl of sweet seventeen

Dua orang suster berkerudung putih Ngebut dengan mobilnya amat kencang Tawanya ngikik bagaikan kuda binal Yang kepingin ditumpaki pejantannya

Two nuns in white habits speed past in their car and neigh like wild mares in need of stallions on their back

Dan seorang bishop menawarkan ice juice Lengkap dengan pakaian kebesarannya Perutnya gendut kebanyakan keju dan anggur Kopiahnya bertengger di atas kepala

Complete in holy vestments a bishop plies sno-cones his stomach massive from excess wine and cheese his miter askew on top of his head

Lihat! Anak-anak kecil bersorak kegirangan Mereka ketemu tontonan ramah dan baik hati Mereka dapat bagian. Mereka dapat ciuman Suster dan bishop itu beroleh Firdausnya kembali

And all the kids scream in glee for this free and safe attraction

Tiba-tiba udara dingin. Kabut pun turun Dan lelampuan mobil menyala waktu jalannya Orang-orang tak bisa melihat dari dekat Alhamdulillah! Yesus ada di antara para umat

Suddenly the air turns cold. Fog also falls and car lights burn time

Written by Linus Suryadi (On Foreign Shores, p. 164)


They get a share and a kiss as well The nun and bishop find Paradise lost

as objects lose their form My God! Jesus is among His flock.

Page 164

Page 165

Instrumentalia

American Instrumental

Malam-malamku di Cahuenga Mengalir dalam darah Sisa-sisa parfum Hollywood Larut ke dalam paru-paru Setiap kali thermador tua Menghangati angin pagi

My nights in Cahuenga Flow in my blood Lingers of Hollywood’s scent Dissolve in my lungs Each time the ancient heater Warms the morning air

Written by Eka Budianta (On Foreign Shores, p. 174)



153 Bukit-bukit Griffith Masih ingatkah engkau Tatkala aku menggigil Pulang kerja jam 5 pagi Tanpa mantel tersuruk di bangku Menunggu bis pertama ke downtown?

The Griffith hills Can you still remember my shivers When coming home from work at 5 AM

Kuli yang miskin itu Kini bercerita lagi sambil bersila Diputarnya pita ingatan: Gunung-gunung karang di Wyoming Danau-danau membeku di Colorado Anak burung robin terbuang di Nebraska

The poor old coolie Crosslegged, speaks Playing memory’s tape: Limestone mountains in Wyoming Frozen lakes in Colorado A baby robin thrown from its nest in Nebraska

Malam-malamku di Cahuenga Menyurutkan sukmaku dalam darah Sampai ke Utah, South Dakota Kemudian terbujur di Minnesota Negeri 10.000 danau Yang menyuguhkan secangkir air mata

My nights in Cahuenga Drag down my spirit in blood Up to Utah, to South Dakota Finally to Minnesota, stretching ahead Land of 10,000 Lakes Offering a cup of tears

Berhentilah, kuli Kita memang punya duka Tapi juga tanah air, tulang Dan semangat untuk mengabdi Yang sering bikin kita bagai menara Berdiri memancarkan sinar Di atas perasaan tak berharga Page 174

Stop now, coolie Yes, we may have pain But we also have a land and bones And the spirit as well to serve That often makes us into towers Standing and throwing off light On top of feeling of worthlessness Page 174

With no overcoat, hunched on the bench Awaiting the first bus to downtown?

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

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