STRATEGI ORGANISASI DAN PEMILIHAN PROYEK Strategi diimplementasikan melalui berbagai proyek Masing-masing proyek harus memiliki hubungan yang jelas dengan strategi organisasi
1
Where We Are Now
2–2
Pertanyaan yang Muncul karena Proyek Tak Jelas Darimana proyek ini berasal?
Apakah saya sebaiknya berhenti mengerjakan proyek ini dan memulai proyek baru? Mengapa kami mengerjakan proyek ini? Bagaimana proyek ini bisa menjadi prioritas pertama? Dimana kami mendapatkan sumber daya untuk mengerjakan proyek ini? 3
Why Project Managers Need to Understand the Strategic Management Process
Changes in the organization’s mission and strategy • Project managers must respond to changes with appropriate decisions about future projects and adjustments to current projects. • Project managers who understand their organization’s strategy can become effective advocates of projects aligned with the firm’s mission. 2–4
Strategi Organisasi dan Pemilihan Proyek Setiap proyek seharusnya menyumbangkan nilai bagi rencana strategis perusahaan, yang dirancang untuk kebutuhan di masa mendatang dari para pelanggan mereka
Tugas manajemen puncak dan madya menciptakan, memelihara, dan memastikan hubungan yang kuat antara rencana strategis dan proyek
Agar perusahaan dapat memastikan hubungan dan kesesuaian tersebut, proyek harus diintegrasikan dengan rencana strategis menganggap eksistensi rencana strategis dan sebuah proses untuk memprioritaskan proyek berdasarkan kontribusinya terhadap rencana strategis 5
Strategi Organisasi dan Pemilihan Proyek Banyak organisasi tidak mengembangkan sebuah proses yang secara jelas menghubungkan pemilihan proyek dengan rencana strategis sehingga penggunaan sumber daya organisasi menjadi sangat menyedihkan—orang, uang, peralatan, dan berbagai kompetensi inti
Organisasi yang punya hubungan koheren antara proyek dengan strategi memiliki kerja sama yang lebih baik, kinerja yang lebih baik pada proyek yang dikerjakan, dan punya lebih sedikit proyek 6
Pemikiran lama vs Pemikiran baru 7
Pemikiran Lama • Manajemen proyek dikerjakan semata-mata dengan perencanaan dan eksekusi proyek • Strategi dianggap menjadi tanggung jawab manajemen senior
Pemikiran Baru • •
•
Manajemen proyek adalah poin paling penting dari strategi dan operasi Peran tradisional manajer proyek diperluas dari operasional ke perspektif yang lebih luas Manajer proyek akan fokus pada aspek-aspek bisnis, dan peran mereka akan meluas, dari membuat pekerjaan dilakukan menjadi mencapai hasil-hasil bisnis dan memenangkan pasar
Alasan Manajer Proyek perlu Memahami Strategi Agar manajer proyek dapat membuat keputusan serta penyesuaian secara tepat serta dapat menjadi penasehat proyek yang efektif
Manajer proyek harus mampu menunjukkan kepada manajemen senior bagaimana proyek mereka memberikan kontribusi terhadap misi perusahaan Proteksi dan dukungan yang terus-menerus dapat diperoleh dengan cara menyesuaikan proyek dengan sasaran perusahaan Manajer proyek juga perlu mampu menjelaskan kepada anggota tim dan stakeholder lain mengapa sasaran dan prioritas tertentu dari proyek adalah kritis agar dapat terlibat dalam keputusan-keputusan yang imbal baliknya sangat besar
8
Dampak Manajer Proyek Tidak Memahami Peran Proyek Untuk Mencapai Strategi
Fokus pada masalah atau solusi yang secara strategis punya prioritas rendah
Fokus pada pelanggan saat itu ketimbang pada pasar keseluruhan dan rantai nilai
Berusaha memecahkan setiap masalah pelanggan dengan sebuah produk atau jasa ketimbang fokus pada penyelesaian masalah berbasis Hukum Pareto (20:80)
Terlalu menekankan teknologi, akibatnya adalah proyek yang mengejar teknologi canggih yang tidak cocok dengan strategi atau kebutuhan pelanggan
Terus-menerus mengusahakan kesempurnaan yang tidak menjadi perhatian siapa pun kecuali tim proyek
9
PROJECT PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT
10
The Strategic Management Process: An Overview Strategic Management • Requires every project to be clearly linked to strategy. • Provides theme and focus of firm’s future direction. • Responding to changes in the external environment—environmental scanning • Allocating scarce resources of the firm to improve its competitive position—internal responses to new programs • Requires strong links among mission, goals, objectives, strategy, and implementation. 2–11
Strategic Management Process Activities Review and define the organizational mission. Set long-range goals and objectives. Analyze and formulate strategies to reach objectives.
Implement strategies through projects 2–12
Why Project Managers Need to Understand the Strategic Management Process
Changes in the organization’s mission and strategy • Project managers must respond to changes with appropriate decisions about future projects and adjustments to current projects. • Project managers who understand their organization’s strategy can become effective advocates of projects aligned with the firm’s mission. 2–13
Strategic Management Process
FIGURE 2.1 2–14
Characteristics of Objectives S
Specific
Be specific in targeting an objective
M
Measurable
Establish a measurable indicator(s) of progress
A
Assignable
Make the objective assignable to one person for completion
R
Realistic
State what can realistically be done with available resources
T
Time related
State when the objective can be achieved, that is, duration
EXHIBIT 2.1 2–15
Scenario Planning: A Supplement to Traditional Strategic Planning
Clarifying your core business and assessing drivers of change in the industry environment
Developing potential scenarios and assessing the impact of STEEP factors
Developing potential contingency strategies and best future strategic options
Identifying early indicators and establishing triggers for strategic action
2–16
Project Portfolio Management (PPM) The centralized management of processes, methods, and technologies used by project managers and project management offices (PMOs) to analyze and collectively manage a group of current or proposed projects based on numerous key characteristics. The objectives of PPM are to determine the optimal resource mix for delivery and to schedule activities to best achieve an organization’s operational and financial goals ― while honoring constraints imposed by customers, strategic objectives, or external real-world factors.
17
Project Portfolio Management Problems The Implementation Gap • The lack of understanding and consensus on strategy among top management and middle-level (functional) managers who independently implement the strategy.
Organization Politics • Project selection is based on the persuasiveness and power of people advocating the projects.
Resource Conflicts and Multitasking • Multiproject environment creates interdependency relationships of shared resources which results in the 2–18 starting, stopping, and restarting projects.
Key Players and Responsibilities Business Unit/Sponsor Any organizational component that requests or consumes a portion of the budget for the purpose of conducting projects.
Project Manager Project Portfolio Manager
Executive Team
Individual with overall responsibility for successful planning and execution of a project.
Select corporate officers who guide and provide inputs to the PPM process.
Manager with responsibility for the project portfolio. Usually supported by a team. Team may be composed of directors of the business areas.
19
Key Players and Responsibilities Business Unit/Sponsor
Project Manager
Project Portfolio Manager
Executive Team
Each business unit Identifies projects, assists project managers in constructing business cases for justifying projects, and champions its projects and project portfolio. The business unit is responsible for providing quality assurance for data related to its projects.
Project managers work closely with business units/sponsors to provide good data for the portfolio management process. Project managers are responsible for ensuring that approved projects perform according to plan.
The project portfolio manager establishes the rules, and procedures for making portfolio decisions. The portfolio manager analyses projects and portfolios proposed by business units and recommends the overall project portfolio.
The executive team provides policy inputs for the process, including weights for trading off different types of project benefits. The team sets targets, approves the budget and project portfolios, and ensures that portfolio decisions are enforced. 20
Perlunya Sistem Manajemen Portofolio Proyek Yang Efektif Masalah yang timbul karena adanya implementasi proyek tanpa sebuah sistem prioritas yang kuat yang terkait dengan strategi:
• Kesenjangan implementasi • Politik organisasi • Konflik sumber daya dan multitasking 21
Keuntungan Manajemen Portofolio Proyek 1
2 3 4. 5. 6. 7
• Membangun disiplin ke dalam proses pemilihan proyek • Menghubungkan pemilihan proyek dengan matrik strategis • Memprioritaskan usulan/proposal proyek berdasarkan sekumpulan kriteria yang umum ketimbang berdasarkan emosi atau politik • Mengalokasikan sumber daya pada proyek yang selaras dengan arah strategis
• Menyeimbangkan resiko di semua proyek • Membenarkan menghapus proyek yang tidak mendukung strategi organisasi • Meningkatkan komunikasi dan mendukung kesepakatan terhadap tujuan proyek 22
Sistem manajemen portofolio Manajemen portofolio memastikan bahwa proyek sesuai dengan tujuan strategis dan diprioritaskan dengan tepat Manajemen portofolio menyediakan informasi untuk membuat keputusan bisnis secara lebih baik
Perancangan sistem portofolio proyek meliputi: • Klasifikasi proyek • Kriteria pemilihan yang tergantung pada klasifikasi • Sumber proposal • Evaluasi proposal • Mengelola portofolio proyek 23
Klasifikasi Proyek Proyek Pemenuhan (compliance) dan Keadaan Darurat (harus dilakukan) • Proyek pemenuhan (compliance) umumnya adalah proyek-proyek yang perlu memenuhi persyaratan yang diperlukan untuk beroperasi di suatu wilayah sehingga harus dilakukan • Proyek keadaan darurat harus memenuhi kriteria • Proyek pemenuhan dan proyek keadaan darurat biasanya mendapat penalti bila tidak dilakukan
Proyek operasional
Proyek strategis
• Proyek yang diperlukan untuk mendukung operasi yang sedang berjalan; dirancang untuk meningkatkan efisiensi sistem penyerahan, mengurangi biaya produk, dan meningkatkan kinerja
• Proyek yang secara langsung mendukung misi jangka panjang organisasi • Diarahkan langsung untuk meningkatkan pendapatan atau pangsa pasar 24
Klasifikasi Proyek Semua proyek yang berada dalam kategori “harus” mengabaikan kriteria pemilihan lainnya
Aturan utama untuk menempatkan sebuah proyek yang diusulkan masuk dalam kategori “harus” adalah 99% stakeholder organisasi menyetujui bahwa proyek harus diimplementasikan; tidak ada pilihan selain mengimplementasikan proyek Semua proyek yang lain dipilih dengan menggunakan kriteria pemilihan dihubungkan dengan strategi organisasi 25
Portfolio of Projects by Type
FIGURE 2.2 2–26
A Portfolio Management System
Selection Criteria • Financial: payback, net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR) • Non-financial: projects of strategic importance to the firm.
Multi-Weighted Scoring Models • Use several weighted selection criteria to evaluate project proposals. 2–27
Kriteria Pemilihan
kriteria finansial
kriteria nonfinansial
• Payback • net present value (NPV)
28
Payback Model payback mengukur waktu yang diperlukan untuk memulihkan investasi proyek, lebih pendek lebih diinginkan
Menggunakan cash flows, Digunakan untuk menghapus proyek khusus yang penuh resiko Mengabaikan nilai waktu dari uang, mengasumsikan penerimaan kas untuk periode investasi, dan tidak mempertimbangkan profitabilitas
estimasi biaya proyek Masa pengembalian (tahun) penghematan tahunan 29
Contoh Payback
30
Net Present Value (NPV) Menggunakan tingkat pengembalian minimum yang diinginkan untuk menghitung nilai saat ini dari semua kas bersih • Positive NPV: project meets minimum desired rate of return and is eligible for further consideration. n Ft • Negative NPV: project is rejected.
NPV Proyek I 0
Rumus:
t 1
1 k
t
Dengan:
• I = investasi awal (karena pengeluaran, maka nilainya negatif)
31
Contoh NPV
32
Kriteria Nonfinansial Bertahan hidup dalam jangka panjang adalah tergantung pada pengembangan dan pemeliharaan kompetensi inti Untuk menangkap pangsa pasar yang lebih besar Untuk membuat pesaing sulit memasuki pasar Untuk mengembangkan sebuah produk enabler, yang pengenalannya akan meningkatkan penjualan produk-produk yang lebih profitable
Untuk mengembangkan teknologi inti yang akan digunakan dalam produk generasi berikutnya Untuk mengurangi ketergantungan pada pemasok yang tidak dapat dipercaya Untuk mencegah intervensi dan regulasi pemerintah Kriteria intangible untuk mengembalikan citra perusahaan, untuk meningkatkan pengenalan merek
33
Multi-Criteria Selection Models Checklist Model • Uses a list of questions to review potential projects and to determine their acceptance or rejection. • Fails to answer the relative importance or value of a potential project and doesn’t to allow for comparison with other potential projects.
Multi-Weighted Scoring Model • Uses several weighted qualitative and/or quantitative selection criteria to evaluate project proposals. • Allows for comparison of projects with other potential projects 2–34
Kriteria Pemilihan Karena tidak ada kriteria tunggal yang dapat mencerminkan signifikansi strategis, manajemen portofolio memerlukan model penyaringan dengan banyak kriteria Model skoring terbobot • Menggunakan beberapa kriteria pemilihan untuk mengevaluasi usulan proyek • Membobot kriteria individual sehingga proyek yang memberikan kontribusi pada sasaran strategis yang paling utama akan lebih dipertimbangkan/diperhatikan • Memasukkan kriteria kuantitatif dan kualitatif • Setiap kriteria diberi bobot dan skor dikalikan untuk mendapatkan total skor terbobot 35
Sample Selection Questions Used in Practice Topic
Question
Strategy/alignment
What specific strategy does this project align with?
Driver
What business problem does the project solve?
Success metrics
How will we measure success?
Sponsorship
Who is the project sponsor?
Risk
What is the impact of not doing this project?
Risk
What is the project risk to our organization?
Risk
Where does the proposed project fit in our risk profile?
Benefits, value, ROI
What is the value of the project to this organization?
Benefits, value, ROI
When will the project show results?
Objectives
What are the project objectives?
EXHIBIT 2.4 2–36
Sample Selection Questions Used in Practice Topic
Question
Organization culture
Is our organization culture right for this type of project?
Resources
Will internal resources be available for this project?
Approach
Will we build or buy?
Schedule
How long will this project take?
Schedule
Is the time line realistic?
Training/resources
Will staff training be required?
Finance/portfolio
What is the estimated cost of the project?
Portfolio
Is this a new initiative or part of an existing initiative?
Portfolio
How does this project interact with current projects?
Technology
Is the technology available or new?
EXHIBIT 2.4 cont’d 2–37
Kesesuaian strategis
Urgensi 25% dari penjualan produk baru Mengurangi cacat sampai kurang dari 1% Meningkatkan loyalitas pelanggan ROI 18% plus
Bobot total
Bobot Proyek 1 Proyek 2 Proyek 3 Proyek 4 Proyek 5 Proyek 6 : Proyek n
Tetap dalam kompetensi inti
Kriteria
Contoh Model Skoring Terbobot
2 1 3 9 3 1 6 3 8 3 5 0 10 5 2 2 2 2 10 5 0 2,5 6 0 0 0 10 2 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 6 5 2 6 8 2 3 5 1 5 0 9 7 66 27 56 32 102 55
5 5 7 0 10 10 8 83 38
Contoh Model Skoring Terbobot Proyek 5 mendapat nilai paling tinggi
Proyek 2 mendapat nilai paling rendah
Jika sumber data menciptakan “cutoff treshold” 50 poin, maka tim prioritas akan membuang proyek 2 dan proyek 4 39
Menerapkan Model Pemilihan “Klasifikasi Proyek” Proyek yang berbeda (strategis dan operasional) tidak perlu punya kriteria yang sama persis Kriteria yang paling penting untuk pemilihan adalah kesesuaian proyek dengan strategi organisasi konsisten di semua jenis proyek dan mendapat prioritas relatif lebih tinggi dibanding kriteria lainnya Keseragaman di semua model prioritas yang digunakan dapat mencegah perusahaan untuk tidak berlebihan menggunakan sumber daya organisasi Siapa pun yang membuat usulan proyek perlu mengelompokkan proposal berdasarkan jenis sehingga kriteria yang sesuai dapat digunakan untuk mengevaluasi proposal mereka 40
Menerapkan Model Pemilihan “Memilih model” Peralihan berdasarkan kriteria finansial menjadi multi kriteria Manajemen senior berniat mengidentifikasi bauran potensial dari banyak proyek yang akan memungkinkan penggunaan terbaik sumber daya manusia dan modal untuk mengembalikan investasi dalam jangka panjang Model skoring terbobot membawa proyek semakin dekat dengan tujuan-tujuan strategis
• • • •
Disiplin dan kredibilitas perlu dilibatkan dalam pemilihan proyek Jumlah proyek yang menghabiskan banyak sumber daya dapt dikurangi Proyek politik dan “sacred cow” diekspos Tujuan proyek lebih mudah dikenali dan dikomunikasikan dengan menggunakan kriteria pemilihan sebagai bukti-bukti yang menguatkan • Membantu manajer proyek memahami bagaimana proyek tersebut dipilih, bagaimana proyek tersebut memberikan kontribusi bagi tujuan organisasi, dan bagaimana proyek tersebut dibandingkan dengan proyek lain
41
Project Proposals Sources and Solicitation of Project Proposals • Within the organization • Request for proposal (RFP) from external sources (contractors and vendors)
Ranking Proposals and Selection of Projects • Prioritizing requires discipline, accountability, responsibility, constraints, reduced flexibility, and loss of power.
Managing the Portfolio • Senior management input • The priority team (project office) responsibilities 2–42
43
Meranking Proposal dan Memilih Proyek
Meranking Proposal dan Memilih Proyek: contoh format evaluasi
44
Tanggung jawab untuk menentukan prioritas Melibatkan disiplin, akuntabilitas, tanggung jawab, batasan, berkurangnya fleksibilitas, dan hilangnya kekuasaan
Dapat menjadikan hal yang tidak menyenangkan bagi para manajer
Komitmen manajemen puncak tidak lebih dari sekadar memberi restu kepada sistem prioritas
Manajemen harus meranking dan membobot berbagai sasaran dan strategi yang mereka yakini paling kritis bagi organisasi 45
A Proposal Form for an Automatic vehicular tracking (AVL) Public Transportation Project
FIGURE 2.4A 2–46
Risk Analysis for 500-Acre Wind Farm
FIGURE 2.4B 2–47
Managing the Portfolio Senior Management Input • Provide guidance in selecting criteria that are aligned with the organization’s goals • Decide how to balance available resources among current projects
The Priority Team Responsibilities • Publish the priority of every project • Ensure that the project selection process is open and free of power politics. • Reassess the organization’s goals and priorities • Evaluate the progress of current projects 2–48
Project Screening Process
FIGURE 2.5 2–49
Priority Analysis
FIGURE 2.6 2–50
Project Portfolio Matrix
FIGURE 2.7 2–51
Project Portfolio Matrix Dimensions • Bread-and-butter Projects – Involve evolutionary improvements to current products and services.
• Pearls – Represent revolutionary commercial opportunities using proven technical advances.
• Oysters – Involve technological breakthroughs with high commercial payoffs.
• White Elephants – Showed promise at one time but are no longer viable. 2–52
ORGANIZATION: STRUCTURE AND CULTURE
53
Where We Are Now
3–54
Project Management Structures Challenges to Organizing Projects • The uniqueness and short duration of projects relative to ongoing longer-term organizational activities • The multidisciplinary and cross-functional nature of projects creates authority and responsibility dilemmas.
Choosing an Appropriate Project Management Structure • The best system balances the needs of the project with the needs of the organization. 55
Project Management Structures Functional Organization Dedicated Project Team Matrix 56
Organizing Projects: Functional organization Different segments of the project are delegated to respective functional units. Coordination is maintained through normal management channels.
Used when the interest of one functional area dominates the project or one functional area has a dominant interest in the project’s success. 57
Functional Organizations
FIGURE 3.1 58
Functional Organization of Projects 59
• • • •
Advantages No Structural Change Flexibility In-Depth Expertise Easy Post-Project Transition
• • • •
Disadvantages Lack of Focus Poor Integration Slow Lack of Ownership
Organizing Projects: Dedicated Teams Teams operate as separate units under the leadership of a full-time project manager.
In a projectized organization where projects are the dominant form of business, functional departments are responsible for providing support for its teams. 60
Dedicated Project Team
FIGURE 3.2 61
Project Organizational Structure
FIGURE 3.3 62
Project Organization: Dedicated Team
63
• • • •
Advantages Simple Fast Cohesive Cross-Functional Integration
• • • •
Disadvantages Expensive Internal Strife Limited Technological Expertise Difficult Post-Project Transition
Organizing Projects: Matrix Structure Hybrid organizational • Two chains of command (functional and project) structure (matrix) is • Project participants report overlaid on the simultaneously to both functional normal functional and project managers. structure.
Matrix structure optimizes the use of resources.
• Allows for participation on multiple projects while performing normal functional duties • Achieves a greater integration of expertise and project requirements
64
Matrix Organization Structure
FIGURE 3.4 65
Division of Project Manager and Functional Manager Responsibilities in a Matrix Structure Project Manager
Negotiated Issues
Functional Manager
What has to be done?
Who will do the task?
How will it be done?
When should the task be done?
Where will the task be done?
How much money is available to do the task?
Why will the task be done?
How will the project involvement impact normal functional activities?
How well has the total project been done?
Is the task satisfactorily completed?
How well has the functional input been integrated? TABLE 3.1 66
Different Matrix Forms Balance (or Middleweight) Form Functional (also Weak or Lightweight) Form
Strong (Heavyweight) Form
Matrix Forms 67
Project Organization: Matrix Form 68
• • • •
Advantages Efficient Strong Project Focus Easier Post-Project Transition Flexible
• • • •
Disadvantages Dysfunctional Conflict Infighting Stressful Slow
Rated Effectiveness of Different Project Structures by Type of Project
Source: Larson, E. W., and Gobeli, D. H., “Matrix Management: Contradictions and Insights,” California Management Review, vol. 29, no. 4 (Summer 1987), p. 137.
FIGURE 3.5 69
Choosing the Appropriate Project Management Structure Organization (Form) Considerations • How important is the project to the firm’s success? • What percentage of core work involves projects? • What level of resources (human and physical) are available? 70
Choosing the Appropriate Project Management Structure Project Considerations • Size of project • Strategic importance • Novelty and need for innovation • Need for integration (number of departments involved) • Environmental complexity (number of external interfaces) • Budget and time constraints • Stability of resource requirements 71
Organizational Culture Organizational Culture Defined
A system of shared norms, beliefs, values, and assumptions which bind people together, thereby creating shared meanings The “personality” of the organization that sets it apart from other organizations. • Provides a sense of identify to its members • Helps legitimize the management system of the organization • Clarifies and reinforces standards of behavior 72
Key Dimensions Defining an Organization’s Culture
FIGURE 3.6 73
Cultural Dimensions of an Organization Supportive of Project Management
FIGURE 3.8 74
Identifying Cultural Characteristics • Study the physical characteristics of an organization. • Read about the organization. • Observe how people interact within the organization. • Interpret stories and folklore surrounding the organization. 3–75
Organizational Culture Diagnosis Worksheet Power Corp. I. Physical Characteristics: Architecture, office layout, décor, attire Corporate HQ is 20 Story modern building—president on top floor. Offices are bigger in the top floors than lower floors. Formal business attire (white shirts, ties, power suits, . . . ) Power appears to increase the higher up you are. II. Public Documents: Annual reports, internal newsletters, vision statements At the heart of the Power Corp. Way is our vision . . . to be the global energy company most admired for its people, partnership and performance. Integrity. We are honest with others and ourselves. We meet the highest ethical standards in FIGURE 3.6 all business dealings. We do what we say we will do. 3–76
Organizational Culture Diagnosis Worksheet III. Behavior: Pace, language, meetings, issues discussed, decision-making style, communication patterns, rituals Hierarchical decision-making, pace brisk but orderly, meetings start on time and end on time, subordinates choose their words very carefully when talking to superiors, people rarely work past 6:00 P.M., president takes top performing unit on a boat cruise each year . . . IV. Folklore: Stories, anecdotes, heroines, heroes, villains Young project manager was fired after going over his boss’s head to ask for additional funds. Stephanie C. considered a hero for taking complete responsibility for a technical error. Jack S. was labeled a traitor for joining chief competitor after working for Power Corp. for 15 years. 3–77
FIGURE 3.6
Implications of Organizational Culture for Organizing Projects
Challenges for Project Managers in Navigating Organizational Cultures • Interacting with the culture and subcultures of the parent organization • Interacting with the project’s clients or customer organizations • Interacting with other organizations connected to the project 3–78
Organization of Product Development Projects at ORION
FIGURE C3.1 3–79
Traditional Master Plan at ORION
FIGURE C3.2 3–80
Proposed Project Organization for the Jaguar Project
FIGURE C3.3 3–81
Jaguar Master Plan
FIGURE C3.4 3–82
Mechanisms for Sustaining Organizational Culture
FIGURE A3.1 3–83
Project Management Structures (cont’d)
Organizing Projects: Network Organizations • An alliance of several organizations for the purpose of creating products or services. • A “hub” or “core” firm with strong core competencies outsources key activities to a collaborative cluster of satellite organizations. 3–84
Project Organization: Network Form • Advantages – Cost Reduction – High Level of Expertise – Flexible
• Disadvantages – Coordination of Breakdowns – Loss of Control – Conflict
3–85
End of This Chapter
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