Voorwoord. Mededelingen Aureus:

Overzicht studiestof Cross Cultural Marketing 2014-2015

Voorwoord Dit is het overzicht van de studiestof “Cross Cultural Marketing”. Het betreft hier een overzicht van de verplichte literatuur. Hoofdstuk A tot en met K bestaat uit de verplichte literatuur van het hoofdboek. Dit overzicht is geschreven naar eigen inzicht van de auteur. Bij het maken van deze overzichten wordt geprobeerd de kwaliteit zo veel mogelijk te waarborgen. SlimStuderen.nl kan echter geen verantwoordelijkheid aanvaarden voor het gebruik ervan. Dit overzicht dient als aanvulling/hulpmiddel en niet ter vervanging van de verplichte leerstof. Uiteraard is nadruk verboden. Als je wilt dat wij in staat blijven de verslagen aan jullie aan te bieden, geef dit verslag dan niet aan derden. Laat hen zelf een exemplaar aanschaffen! Mededelingen Aureus: Samenwerking Aureus & Slimstuderen Met trots kunnen wij vermelden dat Aureus recent tot een samenwerking met SlimStuderen.nl is gekomen. De coöperatie met deze partner zorgt voor een betere garantie van de kwaliteit en recentheid van de samenvattingen. Dit betekent voor jou dat er vanaf nu elke periode samenvattingen worden aangeboden voor alle verplichte vakken in de Aureus store! We hopen je op deze manier te ondersteunen bij je studie.

Zelf dictaten/uittreksels schrijven (bijbaan): Schrijf je altijd al samenvattingen en wil je er vanaf nu ook geld mee verdienen, dan kan dat! Er wordt een ruime vergoeding aangeboden, je kan je eigen tijd indelen en tijdens het samenvatten ben je tegelijkertijd ook aan het leren voor je tentamens. Heb je interesse? Stuur een mail naar Emilia via [email protected].

Zelf deelnemen aan activiteiten: Voor iedere student heeft Aureus een activiteit in huis. Van een fantastische en gezellige wintersport, tot de mogelijkheid met meer dan 75 bedrijven in contact te komen op de Amsterdamse Carrière Dagen: Aureus organiseert het! Van academisch naar carrièregericht en via internationaal tot sociaal, in elke categorie kan je een Aureus activiteit terugvinden. Bijna al onze activiteiten zijn kosteloos om te bezoeken of aan deel te nemen. Voor de ideale service naast je studie kan je dus altijd bij Aureus terecht! Meer informatie over onze activiteiten vind je op onze website: www.aureus-vu.nl.

Zelf activiteiten organiseren: Succes met de tentamens! Wil jij je horizon verbreden tijdens te studie? Wil jij met een team van gemotiveerde mede studenten een top evenement organiseren? Maar wil jij ook plezier hebben terwijl je op hetzelfde ook een beter CV opbouwt? Dan biedt één van de vele commissies van Aureus je deze kans. Voor een omschrijving van alle commissies kan je terecht op de Aureus website: www.aureus-vu.nl/activemember.

Succes met de tentamens! SlimStuderen.nl & Aureus

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Inhoudsopgave VOORWOORD ......................................................................................... 1 INHOUDSOPGAVE ................................................................................... 2 A. THE CULTURAL PROCESS .................................................................. 3


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A. The cultural process Our understanding of other cultures is often very limited, forcing us to rely on rather shallow or stereotyped ideas. ! Culture is complex. The influence of culture is difficult to isolate as it may be hard to recognize from within and to understand from without. This chapter focuses on the cultural process and the elements of culture that are likely to impact international business operations by exploring the following: 1. Cultural definitions; 2. How the elements of culture fit together to form a coherent culture; 3. The relationship between culture and nationality; 4. The relationship between culture, competence, and stereotypes; 5. Self-shock, ethnocentrism, and overcoming self-reference criteria. Defining culture Culture is often defined in terms of the cultivation of the mind. Ralph Linton (1945): A culture is the configuration of learned behaviour and results of behaviour whose component elements are shared and transmitted by the members of a particular society. Clifford Geerts’s view of culture: Culture is a control mechanism of society, without people would have difficulties living together. (Example: Knowing the right time to go to bed). Particular solutions to universal problems Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck: Humans share a preference for certain solutions to universal problems in society, which are reflected in our cultural values. This is based on three assumptions: 1. There is a limited number of common human problems for which all peoples at all times must find some solution; 2. While there is a variability in solutions of all the problems, it is neither limitless nor random but is definitely variable within a range of possible solutions; 3. All alternatives of all solutions are present in all societies at all times, but are differentially preferred. Every society has, in addition to its dominant profile of value orientations, numerous variants or substitute profiles. Malinowski described preferred solutions to the biological state of hunger, as being dependent on the rules and principles of shared culture. How culture links the individual to society Individuals also have a role in the evolution of their culture. As a simple unit in the social organism, the individual keeps up the status quo. Individuals are not simple programmed by their culture, as they are free to adopt or adapt the commonly accepted norms of their culture to suit their needs. Culture is a set of beliefs or standards, shared by a group of people, which help the individual decide what is, what can be, how to feel, what to do, and how about to go about doing it (Goodenough, 1971): • Culture is useful, but not a characteristic of individuals • Operational culture: choose your culture at any time, in any given situation


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Elements of culture A culture must be coherent in order to let all the elements ensure its continuation. The four major elements of culture are: • Language; Primary mechanism for sharing and transmitting information between members of a society. Whorf-Sapir hypothesis: the structure of language has a significant influence on perception and categorization. • Institutions; Links the individual to the group. (Family, political- and social organizations). Malinowski made a list of seven universal principles around which institutions are formed across cultures: -‐ Reproduction ! Blood relationships and marriage; -‐ Territoriality ! Common interests dictated by neighbourhood and vicinity; -‐ Physiology ! Sex, age, physical traits or defects; -‐ Spontaneous tendency to join together ! Clubs, secret societies; -‐ Occupational and professional activities ! Unions, courts, police, arms, schools; -‐ Hierarchy ! Rank, status; -‐ Totality ! Integrates diverse elements above. • Material production; -‐ Artistic productions (music, art); -‐ Intellectual productions (articles, books); -‐ Physical productions (factories, tools, machinery, food, clothing); -‐ Service productions (banks, media, education). These are all inputs as well as outputs. Having a lot of a certain factor can be classified as wealth by one culture, while it is not by another culture. (China and India example page 8, Marketing across cultures by Usenier and Lee). • Symbolic productions. Determine the relationship between the physical and the metaphysical world. In societies where less is explained, more must be related. Culture as a collective fingerprint and cultural superiority Culture is a coherent set of elements to complement each other. They cannot easily be taken out of context and are not good of bad; it all depends on someone’s view. Also, no culture element is superior over the other. We cannot take all of the best elements together and form one ‘best’ culture. Culture and nationality Nationality can be an easy way to divide cultures, but there is no distinct link between nationality and culture since countries have several cultures within them ! Results into conflict in Middle- East at the moment. There are several reasons not the equate culture directly with nation-state: 1. A country’s culture can only be defined by reference to other countries’ cultures. (India is divided into numerous sub-cultures and cannot be one-on-one be compared to Germany). 2. Many nations are multicultural. (Swiss). 3. Political decisions have made new states (straight lines through Africa).


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Sources of culture These sources can be of a big influence in one country, while they can be non-existent in another. (Social class). Also, within countries these factors can be different (north vs south).

Usunier, J.C, Lee, J.A. (2013). Marketing across cultures. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, page 11.

Cultural homogeneity and relevant segmentation: It is difficult for firms to segment international markets, because few countries are truly homogenous on all areas: • Linguistic; • Religious; • Ethnic; • Climatic; • Geographical; • Institutional and political; • Social/income. Actually, the word ‘homogeneity’ means several things: • The existence of a uniform modality throughout the whole population. • An accepted diversity that is officially recognized and supported by the state. • A strong ‘perceived homogeneity’ which is built upon acceptable differences within the national community. The concept of national culture National culture relies on the concept of within-country homogeneity and betweencountry differences and is therefore a starting point for uncovering cultural differences between countries. It can be classified along the six dimensions of Hofstede: 1. Individualism/collectivism; 2. Power distance; 3. Masculinity/femininity; 4. Uncertainty avoidance; 5. Long-term/short-term orientation; 6. Indulgence/restraint. How does culture influences individuals? • Culture has a distinct imprint on individuals. • Personality traits are largely free from the influence of culture. National character and educational practices School has a large influence on someone’s culture because it reinforces appropriate behaviour and teaches skills needed in a particular society. Facebook.com/SlimStuderen

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Culture, competence, and stereotypes Early research thought of non-European people as ‘pre-logical’, but recent research has shown that scores on tests vary among cultures because of the type of questions asked. Therefore there is no universal test to test intelligence among all cultures. Skills and our environment The environment in which we live influences our perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviour and therefore influences our culture. (Example: Climate influences work attitude). Stereotypes Stereotypes serve as simplified intellectual representations of other people. • Promote our differences, which can make them dangerous; • Are seldom very accurate; • Differ among cultures (Example: French are seen different from various cultures). Ethnocentrism and self-reference criteria The costs of adopting your own cultural values are small, while the costs of adopting another culture’s values are big ! clear with immigrants. Culture-shock and self-shock Self-shock: a reaction to difference ! When people from different cultures meet, the interaction can create uncertainty because of the ‘mirror effect’ ! Our self-image is constructed from our perceptions of others opinions and behavioural responses to us. ! In a mono-cultural setting, this image is constructed unconsciously, but in an intercultural setting, this mirror is foreign. ! Maintaining personal identity can be problematic as it: • Is unconscious; • Requires sound intercultural understanding; • Requires good communication skills. Self-shock results from a deep imbalance between the need to confirm personal identity and the ability to do so ! Leads to self-defence mechanisms. Ethnocentrism and self-reference criterion Ethnocentrism: the tendency for people to perceive their own group as the centre and to scale and rate out-groups with reference to their own group. • May result in a lack of interest, and even hate for, the culture of other groups. • Less extreme: relates to the natural tendency of people to refer their own standards and judge others according to these norms = Self-Reference Criterion (SRC, James Lee). -‐ SRC can be reduced or eliminated with some effort: o Define the problem or the objectives as would be done according to the customs of the decision maker’s country; o Define the problem or the objectives as would be done according to the customs of the foreign country; o Isolate the influence of the self-reference criterion on the problem, and identify the extent to which it complicates the decision-making problem; o Refine the problem without the bias related to the SRC and then find the solutions and make decisions that fit with the cultural context of the foreign market. Racism When due to prior prejudices, because of a race, some human beings are inferior in terms of intelligence, creative abilities, moral sense, or some other factor. • Different than cultural hostility.


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Cultural hostility Does not imply prior prejudices, but invokes an emotional response that may come from: 1. Simple interactions with people whose values are different, leading to feelings of unease ! leads to a defensive response; 2. Collective reactions to groups that are culturally different. Hostility can also come from economic competition. Lecture Cultural frame: A set of shared beliefs to help individuals decide the unwritten rules.

Eelen, J. Lecture 1: Introduction [Powerpoint presentation]. Retrieved from slides on 4-‐11-‐2015


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Voorwoord. Mededelingen Aureus:

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