SOFT SYSTEMS METHODOLOGY

SOFT SYSTEMS METHODOLOGY SOFT SYSTEMS METHODOLOGY SUDARSONO 16 SEPTEMBER 2011

© Pusdiklat Spimnas 2011

Tujuan

Membentuk Systems Systems thinker

Menguasai Systems Systems methodology


Peserta PimTi Sebagai Systems Thinker? Peserta PimTi Sebagai Systems Thinker?

Peter Checkland

Kim Dae Jung

Wali/Wawali Solo


TIDAK MUDAH MEMBENTUK SYSTEMS THINKER



Penguatan Sinergi Pemerintah-Masyarakat-Dunia Usaha Dalam Rangka Akselerasi Pencapaian Pembangunan Berkeadilan Qualitative Research 1. Phenomenological 1 Phenomenological 2. Inductive 3. Holistic 4. Subjective/insider centered j / 5. Process Oriented 6. Anthropological worldview 7. Relative lack of control 8. Goal: understand actor’s view 9. Dynamic Reality 10. Discovery oriented

Quantitative Research 1. Positivist 1 Positivist 2. Hypothetical/deductive 3. Particularistic 4. Objective/outsider oriented j / 5. Outcome oriented 6. Natural science world view 7. Attempt to control variables 8. Goal: find fact and causes 9. Static reality assumed 10. Verification oriented

SWOT or BLACK BOX analysis?


Penguatan Sinergi Pemerintah-MasyarakatPemerintah Masyarakat Dunia Usaha Dalam Rangka Akselerasi Pencapaian Pembangunan Berkeadilan

Seeing the company as a System Seeing the issue as a system Seeing the issue as a system


AKSELERASI PENCAPAIAN PEMBANGUNAN BERKEADILAN

PEMERINTAH

MASYARAKAT

DUNIA USAHA

Seeing the issue as a system?


Paradigms


The Complexity Turn

1 The social and cultural sciences have experienced a whole 1. array of incursions over the past fiew decades. 2. This turn derives from development within physics,, biology,, mathematics, ecology, chemistry and economics, from revival of neo-vitalism in social though, and from the emergence of a more general ‘complex structure of feeling’ that challenges some everyday notions of social order. 3 An array of transformations took place, 3. place loosely known as chaos, complexity, non-linierity and dynamical systems analysis. y 4. A shift from reductionist analysis to those that involve the study of complex adaptive (‘vital’) matter. (John Urry, 2005; Global Complexity, 2003, Automobilities, 2005)


Dynamic complexity  Di mana hubungan antara sebab dengan akibatnya y bersifat halus tidak kentara (subtle).  Di mana pengaruh intervensi dalam kurun waktu k tertentu tidak id k begitu b i nampak k (obvious) b i )  Di mana tindakan yang sama memiliki efek jangka panjang yang sangat berbeda dengan efek jangka pendeknya. D Di mana suatu ttindakan ndakan mem memiliki l k sejumlah pengaruh pada suatu bagian yang sangat berbeda dengan pengaruhnya pada bagian lain dalam sistem yang sama. (Senge, 1990)


Qualitative

Quantitative

Systems Thinking Approach

Phenomenological

Positivist

Interpretivism, and Realism

Inductive

Hypothetical/deductive

Seeing interrelationship rather than things (holonic), systemic.

Holistic

Particularistic

A discipline for seeing wholes

Subjective/insider centered

Objective/outsider oriented

Duality of structure, integrative-perspective, both objectivist and subjectivist

Process Oriented

Outcome oriented

1. 2.

A scientific approach to problem-solving Action research

Anthropological worldview

Natural Science world view 1. 2.

Take the world to be holonic Creates the process of enquiry as a holon

Relative lack of control

Attempt to control variables 1. Structuration 2. Wholism

Goal: understand actor’s view

Goal: find fact and causes

1. 2.

Dynamic Reality

Static reality assumed

Dynamic complexity

Discovery oriented

Verification orieted

11. An approach to understanding the behaviour of complex systems over time. time 2. A. reasonably comprehensive understanding of the interrelationships of the various aspects of the problem situation

Optimum solution Improvement for problematical situation


Philosophical approach

Purpose

Ontological position (about the form and nature of reality)

Reality exists Multiple perceptions of reality Systems do exist and do have a clear purpose Systems do exist only to the extent that people agree on the goals, the boundaries and and well-defined boundaries their components

EEpistemological i l i l position ii (about the relationship between the researcher and the researched

Observations Ob i are not coloured l d by b subjective bj i aspects of the scientist or his/her instruments

N l observations Neutral b i are iimpossible ibl

How are phenomena experienced?

Biophysical and social phenomena are experienced as constant, regular, reoccurring and predictable

Biophysical and social phenomena are experienced as dynamic, chaotic, changing and unpredictable

Research design

Strong focus on the testing of hypothesis Focus on the use of quantitative methods p g current pproblem Focus on improving

Less focus on the use of hypothesis Focus on the use of qualitative methods Focusingg on how to realize a desired future situation

Purpose

Objective knowledge Generalization Maximizing efficiency

Socially constructed knowledge to increase our understanding for more effective action Particularities or generalizaions for one particular context Innovations

Constructivist


HARD AND SOFT SYSTEMS THINKING HARD AND SOFT SYSTEMS THINKING

C Jostin Khisty, 1995



Contoh model dalam Hard Systems: Dynamics Knowing Organization (free method system dynamics)

Attributing Competency

Belief in Tech & Ethics

Enacted Opportunity

Identity Ecological Change

Knowledge Identified

Customer Need Solution

Fri cti on of Identi ty

Identi ty Constructi on

B

+ Customer

Revenue

Innovati on/Customi zed Product

+

Identi ty Constructi on of 3 CoP s

Sal es

Training

Shared Knowledge

Knowledge

+

+ Knew Knowledge from Task Quality of Project E Execution ti

Organizational Knowledge Repository

New Project Project Completion

Staff Knowlege Gap

Staff

Sumber: Wahyudi Atmoko, disertasi program doktor





AKSELERASI PENCAPAIAN PEMBANGUNAN BERKEADILAN

PEMERINTAH

MASYARAKAT

DUNIA USAHA

SYSTEMS THINKING


Konsep Serba Sistem: Sebuah adaptive whole Ban+ kerangka+mesin+suku g cadangg lain=

Ban+kerangka+mesin+suku g cadangg lain=

Tidak ada proses komunikasi dan inter relasi

Ada proses komunikasi dan inter relasi

Tidak ada proses kontrol

Ada proses kontrol

Tidak ada layered structure

Ada layered structure

Tidak ada emergent property

Ada emergent property

Tidak ada lingkungan

Ada lingkungan

Bukan sebuah SYSTEM

Sebuah SYSTEM

Bukan adaptive whole

Sebuah adaptive Whole

gundukan suku cadang

mobil

Human Activity System= purpesful activity system= adaptive whole


Akselerasi Pencapaian Pembangunan Berkeadilan = systems apa?

? Pemerintah

Dunia Usaha

Natural systems

Human Activity Systems

Designed Abstract Systems

Masyarakat Designed Physical Systems


Social and Cultural Systems

SOFT AND HARD SYSTEMS THINKING SOFT AND HARD SYSTEMS THINKING SSM Problematic Sit ti Situation

SYSTEM DYNAMICS SYSTEM DYNAMICS

• Improving, Changing, Enhancing • Dealing with complexity

• Seeking solutions • Dealing with complexity Problems

• Action Research • Systems thinking based Methodology

• A scientific approach to problem solving • Systems thinking based Systems thinking based Methodology

• Conceptual Model C t lM d l • No validation Modeling and Simulation • No simulation • A Learning system

• Models • With or without model validation Modeling and • With or without simulation simulation • With or without software


SOFT AND HARD SYSTEMS THINKING SOFT AND HARD SYSTEMS THINKING SSM


Human Activity Systems Human Activity Systems

Designed Abstract Systems Designed Abstract Systems

Seven‐stage model

CLD, SFD, BOT, Archetypes

Two streams of enquiry

With or without simulation


SOFT AND HARD SYSTEMS THINKING 1. Observer (hard systems methodology) system

th the world: systemic ld t i system

system I spy systems which h h I can engineer 2. Observer (soft systems methodology)

the observer’s perceived real world

the process of i inquiry: systemic i t i

the observer’s perceived real world I spy complexity and confusion; but I can organize exploration of it as a learning systems 3. Others: cognitive mapping, causal mapping, SODA.


AKSELERASI PENCAPAIAN PEMBANGUNAN BERKEADILAN ? PEMERINTAH

MASYARAKAT

DUNIA USAHA

?


SOFT AND HARD SYSTEMS THINKING SOFT AND HARD SYSTEMS THINKING SSM


Human Activity Systems Human Activity Systems

Designed Abstract Systems Designed Abstract Systems

Seven‐stage model

CLD, SFD, BOT, Archetypes

Two streams of enquiry

With or without simulation


Akselerasi Pencapaian Pembangunan Berkeadilan k dl Human Activity Systems y y

Systems of Activities

Social systems

Relationships

Interpersonal

Logical dependencies

Elements

Activities (what) Activities (what)

People doing the activities (how) People doing the activities (how)


The conventional seven-stage model of SSM

Problem situation considered problematic

Action to improve the problem situation

Problems situation expressed

Changes: systematically desirable, culturally feasible

Comparison of models and real world

Real world Systems thinking about real world

Root definition of relevant purposeful activity systems f l ti it t

Conceptual models of the systems (holons) named in the root named in the root definition


1.Halaman 1 Halaman 27 s/d 52 Peter Checkland 27 s/d 52 Peter Checkland dan Jim Jim Scholes, 1990 2 Peter Checkland and John Poulter, 2006. 2.Peter Checkland and John Poulter 2006


The general form of purposeful activity model

Activity 1

Activity 2

3

OPERATIONS 4

6

5 7

Monitor 1‐7

Take control Take control action Define measures of performance


MONITORING AND CONTROL

Model dari sebuah tindakan yang punya maksud mengecat pagar Appraise the color pp scheme of d property 2

Decide the scope of the task:‐importance 1 ‐ resources

3

OPERATIONS Prepare fence for paint 4

Obtain paint

Obtain brush

6

5

Apply paint to fence 7

Monitor 1‐7

Take control Take control action Define measures of performance





Problems situation expressed



Real world Systems thinking about real world

Root definition of relevant purposeful activity systems f l ti it t






Stream of Cultural Enquiry: Analysis One, Two, Three (Rich Picture)



Real world Systems thinking about real world Root definition of p p y relevant purposeful activity systems






Problems situation expressed (Rich Picture) expressed (Rich



Real world Systems thinking about real world Stream of Lagic Based q y Enquiry Root definition

Stream of Logic q y Based Enquiry Conceptual models





Problems situation expressed (Rich Picture) expressed (Rich



Real world Systems thinking about real world Stream of Lagic Based q y Enquiry Root definition

Stream of Logic q y Based Enquiry Conceptual models


SSM

CULTURAL BASED STREAM OF ANALYSIS OF ANALYSIS

LOGIC BASED STREAM OF THINKING


CULTURAL STREAM OF THINKING CULTURAL STREAM OF THINKING ANALYSIS ONE

RICH PICTURE ANALYSIS THREE

ANALYSIS TWO



LOGIC BASED STREAM OF THINKING LOGIC BASED STREAM OF THINKING SELECTING RELEVANT SYSTEM

CONCEPTUAL MODEL

MODELLING

CATWOE


SSM : Analisis CATWOE

Elements of CATWOE

Description

Customers

Who are the victims or beneficiearies of the transformation

Actors

pp Who make the transformation happen

Transformation

What are the inputs and (transformed) outputss What makes the transformation meaningful in context?

Weltanschaung Owners Environmental Constraint

Who could stop the transformation process Which elements outside the systems are taken as given




SSM as an Action Research (Surakarta and Depok) 1. To Introduce a new version of social development concept. 2 To identify a set of social development indicators 2. based on the new concept of social development. 3. Basic elements of social intercourse: structural elements cultural elements and social process. elements, process


45


46


47


KABUR

BERTAHAN DAN KELILING

BERTAHAN

Pendatang baru


48

Menolak relokasi

Tanpa relokasi

Mediator

Gerobak bernomor


49

Demo PKL Perda 3/2008 1. Pasal 16 ayat 1, larangan membeli barang dagangan PKL di tempat yang tidak berijin 2. Pasal 16 ayat 3b, KTP Solo

11. Ketidakberhasilan di salam satu tempat p relokasi di belakangg kampus UNS 2. Pembangunan sosial di kabupaten sekitar atau daerah lain yang jauh


MENUJU KEBAHAGIAAN? MENUJU KEBAHAGIAAN?


52




AN APPLICATION OF SOFT SYSTEMS METHODOLOGY TO CONCEPTUALIZE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT FOR THE INFORMAL SECTOR Sudarsono Hardjosoekarto Department of Sociology F Faculty lt off S Social i l and dP Political liti l S Sciences i The University of Indonesia Campus FISIP-UI, Depok 16424 Indonesia Email: [email protected]


Abstract This paper proposes a new version of social development concept which is more sociological in the sense that it emphasizes on the improvement of basic elements of social intercourse, namely structural elements, cultural elements, and process elements. Field research was conducted in two cities to identify fy the extent off social development - as indicated by the improvement of basic elements of social intercourse –in the area of street vendor promotion program. Soft Systems Methodology is being applied as a tool to enquire social development process at the area of the informal sector, to select some related programs or activities that could be identified as the most powerful indicators of social development, and to construct a new version of social development index. Keywords: Soft Systems Methodology, social development index, basic elements of social intercourse, informal sector.


22‐24 November 2011 Venue: Hotel Pullman Dubai Mall of the Emirates KEY NOTE SPEAKER IN SOCIAL SCIENCES Professor John Urry Department of Sociology, Lancaster University, University Lancaster, LA1 4YD.

KEY NOTE SPEAKER IN BUSINESS Professor Peter Checkland Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YD Lancaster, LA1 4YD.


18 Agustus 2011 Dear Sudarsono Dear Sudarsono Hardjosoekarto This is regarding your paper: Title: AN APPLICATION OF SOFT SYSTEMS METHODOLOGY TO CONCEPTUALIZE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM FOR INFORMAL SECTOR Code No.: 310301 Thank you for submitting your revised paper. Congratulations! In communication with the article review team the ERPBSS committee Congratulations! In communication with the article review team, the ERPBSS committee has now decided to fully accept your paper. Thank you Regards, Donya y Saberi Conference Assistant

First International Conference on First International Conference on Emerging Research Paradigms in Business and Social Sciences


JURNAL RISET JURNA RIS T 1

R Rencana P liti Penelitian

A t 2010 Agustus

2

Riset Lapangan

November 2010

3

Riset Lapangan p g

Maret 2011

4

Abstract

30 Maret 2011

5

Draft Pertama

09 Juni 2011

6

Komentar pertama

08 Juli 2011

7

Draft Kedua

10 Agustus 2011

8

K Komentar t Kedua K d

15 A t 2011 15 Agustus

9

Draft Ketiga

16 Agustus 2011

10

Paper diterima p

18 Agustus g 2011



SYSTEMS THINKER SYSTEMS THINKER


+

+

+

lack of democracy +

+

-national

export

competitiveness +

-

+

credibility -

job flexibility in labor marakets

+

industrial restructuring +

restrukturingg of financial institution

+ +

-

+

+

+

money flow

banckrupcy

+

+

pain sharing between Employer and ompleyee

+

+ - unenployment

-

+

foreign investment

+

growth first policy level of economic activity +

speculative l i investment

- national

complain of labor +

+

-

financial crisis -

+

+

foreign currency reserve -

transparancy andd advanced technology +

+

+

+

-

+

surplus in foreign currencies

+

corruption

market p competition +

+

-

government Interruption in financial activity

+

-

import

collusive tie between Politicians and business

loan

BIS ratio

+

-

investment

+

-

interest rate -

+

Peta Kausal Presiden Korea Selatan Kim Dae Jung Peta Kausal Presiden Korea Selatan Kim Dae Jung


value of currency

“Krisis finansial Korea Selatan disebabkan oleh kegagalan lembaga lembaga‐ lembaga keuangan domestik dan h hancurnya d daya saing i nasional, i l serta t tidak adanya demokrasi”

Presiden Kim Dae Jung


CAUSAL MAP PRESIDEN KIM :

“Serba Sistem Krisis Korea Dipercaya Ditandai oleh Systems Building Block: BALANCING”.

Kebijakan b k yg ditempuh d h atas krisis k tsb b adalah d l h penyehatan seluruh variabel dari serba sistem krisis korea yg bersifat balancing melalui reformasi politik dan institusi finansial.


-

Competitiveness of Other countries

+

National competitiveness export

+

+

Cost import

Currencyy values of Other countries

+

+

+ Prosper-thy-neighbour policy

+ +

+

Wealth of nation immigration

Speculative

- investment

-

+

-

-

National credibility

+

+

- -

+

+

+

Opportunity for Speculative investment Capability to defend Against speculative investment

+

Wealth of other +nation

-

Value of currency

-

+

Stock value

-

bankkrupcy

stability Market size

+ Investment +

Interest rate

+

+

opportunity t it

Purchasing power

inflation + Foreign investment

+

-

+

wage

-

Peta Kausal Perdana Menteri Malaysia Dr. Dr Mahatir Muhammad


“Krisis ekonomi moneter Malaysia disebabkan oleh kegiatan investasi spekulatif orang asing yang menggerogoti kekayaan negara”

PM. Mahathir Muhammad


CAUSAL MAP DR MAHATHIR MUHAMMAD :

“Serba sistem krisis Malaysia dipercaya ditandai oleh systems building block Negative Reinforcing Loops (lingkaran setan)”. Kebijakan pemulihan yg ditempuh adalah memotongg lingkaran g krisis yg bersifat lingkaran g setan tsb al dg cara melarang perdagangan ringgit dan menetapkan nilai tukar tetap.


Presiden Soeharto “Pembuatan Mercedez kurang lebih dua k li dari kali d i nilai il i ttambah b h pembuatan b t Vokswagen, maka added value dalam pembuatan pesawat terbang akan berjumlah j puluhan p kali dari added value pembuatan mobil Mercedez”. “Saya yakin, yakin, IPTN dapat bersaing di pasaran internasional”. internasional”. 68


Pembangunan Berkeadilan (2011)

Tokyo 1990


Presiden Soeharto “Langkah Langkahg -langkah g penting p g lainnya y adalah ….., .., menghapuskan monopoli menghapus g p kemudahan-kemudahan serta kemudahan khusus untuk mobil nasional dan Industri Pesawat Terbang Nusantara”. Nusantara”.

70


Presiden BJ Habibie “Kenyataan-kenyataan ini, membangkitkan kembali kesadaran kita bahwa tidak mungkin g kita akan berhasil meningkatkan kesejahteraan rakyat, jika kita tidak sungguh-sungguh membangun ekonomi yang b b berbasiskan k pertanian”. ”

Di era reformasi ini, ini saya menggariskan kebijakan agar pembangunan sektor pertanian t i kembali k b li menjadi j di sektor kt andalan d l dalam pembangunan kita” “

15 Agustus 1998 71


Pailit PT DI, Lompatan PT DI Lompatan Raksasa Yang Terantuk Yang Terantuk di Pengadilan Jakarta (ANTARA News) ‐ Pekik haru dan penuh syukur segera menggema di

ruang Pengadilan Negeri (PN) Jakarta Pusat, Selasa (4/9), ketika majelis hakim memaklumatkan PT Dirgantara Indonesia (DI) memenuhi syarat untuk dinyatakan pailit. Entah apa yang terbayang dalam pikiran ratusan mantan karyawan PT DI saat mendengar gugatan pailit mereka dikabulkan untuk seluruhnya. Mungkin masa depan yang lebih baik, karena kompensasi pesangon dan tunjangan hari tua yang mereka tuntut selama empat tahun dapat segera terbayar melalui pelelangan aset PT DI yang telah dinyatakan bangkrut.


Indonesia Impor Lele dan Teri

IMPOR LELE IMPOR LELE LELE IMPOR 7.500 RP/KG LELE DOMESTIK 10 000 Rp/KG LELE DOMESTIK 10.000

IMPOR BUAH CHINA 73


SYSTEMS THINKING for ADULTS

74


JALAN PANJANG


KENDALA MEMBENTUK PESERTA PIMPTI SEBAGAI SYSTEMS THINKER SEBAGAI SYSTEMS THINKER The image cannot be display ed. Your computer may not hav e enough memory to open the image, or the image may hav e been corrupted. Restart y our computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, y ou may hav e to delete the image and then insert it again.


KETIDAKBERDAYAAN BELAJAR KETIDAKBERDAYAAN BELAJAR 1. 2. 3 3. 4. 5 5. 6.

I am my position yp The enemy is out there The illusion of taking charge The illusion of taking charge The fixation on events The parable of boiled frog The parable of boiled frog The delusion of learning from e experience perience 7. The myth of the management team 77


1. A PAINFUL PROCESS 2. LEARNING DISABILITIES

Instrumen Hukum © Pusdiklat Spimnas 2011

RDG DAMKAR 1999 : Keluar K l RDG 2000: Keluar RDG

UU 5/1974 UU 5/1974

Dj Otda Sekjen

2001 : Tidak Keluar RDG UU 22/1999 Dj 2001 : Tidak Keluar RDG UU 22/1999 Dj Otda

Geser ke Ka Badan Diklat, dll Dosen & Petani Dosen & Petani

2002 : Keluar RDG UU 22/1999 belum ada Keppres 80/2003 Daud: 18 Tahun & Wafat di Tahanan

Hari Sabarno

2010

Oentarto: 3 tahun Gub: Riau, Jabar, Kepri, Wali Kota: Makasar, Medan, dll 79


SYSTEMS THINKING FOR KIDS


SYSTEMS THINKING FOR KIDS 1. We can’t manage dynamic complexity systems by fragmented view 2. It’s difficult for adults to learn about systems thinking 3. Rethinking learning: an expectation to kids education

I believe we should give students a more effective way of interpreting the world around them. They should gain a greater and well founded well-founded confidence for managing their lives and the situation they encounter (Jay Forester, Forester 1994)


11. Love to learn 2. Will to risk 3 Try it 3. 4. Explore it (Mary Shcheetz, 1996) 1. K-12 kids learning systems thinking 2. USA, Taiwan, etc. a A happy learning experience a. b. To enhance their creativity c. To enhance their ppresentingg abilityy d. To enhance their analyzing ability e. To enhance their ability to understand interrelationship


Systems thinking for kids


PAUD Konvensional


Bimbingan Minat Belajar Anak






90


2008 - 2011 12,000 10,800 9,600 8,400 7,200 6,000 4,800 3,600 2,400 1,200

2008

SPP: 175 ribu/siswa Gaji guru minimal 1 juta/bln

2010

Kualitas Masyarakat yang menilai


FEB

JAN

DES

OKT

NOP

SEP

AGUST

JUL

JUN

MEI

APR

FEB

MAR

JAN

DES

NOP

OKT

SEP

JUL

2009

AGUST

JUN

MEI

APR

MAR

FEB

JAN

DES

NOP

OKT

SEP

AGUST

JUL

JUN

MEI

APR

MAR

FEB

JAN

0

2011

Aku k naik k motor k kesekolah k diantar sama ibu naik motor mio motor ibu wa a hitam motor warna moto papa juga j ga warna wa a hitam dijalan j banyak y motor Umur 5 tahun © Pusdiklat Spimnas 2011

Saya kalau sore sore makan bubur ayam pakai krupuk dan kacang trus ppakai kecapp makan sama bunda sama adik rasanya enak sekali kalau bunda buburnya dikasi sambal Usia 6 tahun


Aku mau beli tas baru belinya di pasar pagi tas barunya aku bawa ke sekolah temanku pada lihat tas baruku temanku pada mau tas baruku aku pergi lagi ke pasar pagi aku k ikut ik t bersama b mama aku k senang sekali k li karena k aku k sudah diajak pergi aku masuk kedalam lihat tasnya bagus y aku jjadi mau semuanya y esok harinya y aku semuanya kesekolah tasnya diambil sama mama ……. Usia 6 tahun


Berkualitas, mahal, tidak merata Berkualitas, mahal, tidak


Berkualitas, murah, dan merata biMBA‐AIUEO


Roadmap Pembentukan Karakter Minat Belajar d Systems Thinker dan S Thi k

PAUD STKIP

SMA

SD

SMP


Learning disabilities? Learning disabilities? Systems thinking Soft and Hard SSM

System d dynamics i

Causal Maps NUMBER M h d Method





Stream of Cultural Enquiry: Analysis One, Two, Three (Rich Picture)

Changes: Ch systematically desirable, culturally feasible


Real world Systems thinking about real world Root definition of p p y relevant purposeful activity systems



TERIMA KASIH

100


SOFT SYSTEMS METHODOLOGY

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