Schrijven van een wetenschappelijke publicatie Annemarie van der Zeeuw www.focusoptekst.nl ZIE DE DOWNLOADPAGINA VOOR ARTIKELEN EN HANDOUTS OVER WETENSCHAPPELIJK SCHRIJVEN EN MEER…..
Programma 1. 2. 3. 4.
Kennismaking en leerwensen Het schrijfproces Het ontwerp van je ar@kel of publica@e De opbouw van een wetenschappelijke publica@e (IMRaD)
LUNCH (12.30 – 13.15)
1. Tekstdelen: kernzinnen en alinea’s 2. Wetenschappelijk schrijven: compactheid, lijdende vorm, naamwoords@jl 3. De @jden van het werkwoord Afslui@ng: 17.00 uur
HET SCHRIJFPROCES
Het schrijfproces 5. Reviseren gramma@ca en spelling, s@jl, woordkeuze, helderheid, exactheid
1. Plannen onderzoeksvraag / hypothese bepalen, subvragen, materiaal en methode, lezers, schrijfdoelen
4. Formuleren tekstblokken uitschrijven
2. Informa8e verzamelen literatuurstudie, onderzoek doen, gegevensanalyse, vastleggen onderzoek, 3. Selecteren en ordenen tekstschema ontwerpen per hoofdstuk, lezersvragen formuleren, een volgorde bepalen, tekstkoppen maken
Kenmerken formulering onderzoeksvraag • Je onderzoeksvraag is de kernzin van de inleiding • Hypothese: de afgeleide onderzoeksvraag is een ja-‐nee-‐vraag • De onderzoeksvraag bevat de onderzochte variabelen
Ona\ankelijke en a\ankelijke variabelen Voorbeelden 1. We assessed the effect of early pallia@ve care in pa@ents with advanced cancer on several aspects of quality of life. 2. The phase 3 LUME-‐Lung 1 study assessed the efficacy and safety of docetaxel plus nintedanib as second-‐line therapy for non-‐small-‐cell lung cancer (NSCLC).
Schrijfadviezen • Oefen in het onderscheiden van inhoud & vorm. • Kijk de vorm-‐kunst af bij anderen. • Maak een bouwplan of tekening van je onderzoek of review (mindmap). • Vraag jezelf regelma@g af: in welke fase ben ik?
HET ONTWERP VAN JE ARTIKEL
Ontwerpopdracht 1. Vul de blokken met antwoorden op de vragen die relevant zijn voor jouw tekst. 2. Schrijf telegrams@jl. 3. In tweetallen: licht je ontwerp toe. 4. Laat de ander (je lezer) je bevragen over wat je hebt opgeschreven. 5. Noteer waar je moet aanvullen of verduidelijken.
Het format: IMRaD Inleiding Wat is het object van onderzoek? Wat is er al bekend uit eerder onderzoek? Wat is het belang van het onderzoek? Wat is de hoofdvraag? Materiaal en methode Wat is onderzocht? Hoe? Met welke beperkingen? Onder welke voorwaarden? Resultaten Hoe zien de resultaten eruit? Discussie Wat zijn de belangrijkste bevindingen? Wat valt er af te leiden of te generaliseren? Wat zijn beperkingen? Wat is de waarde van het onderzoek? Welke kri@ek is er mogelijk? Wat zijn de vergelijkingen met ander onderzoek? Hoe nieuw is het? Hoe nu verder? Conclusie Wat is het antwoord op de hoofdvraag?
Vragen als structuurschema ü Elke tekst is een verzameling antwoorden op vragen van de lezer. ü Het IMRaD-‐format biedt de standaardvragen die de schrijver moet beantwoorden. ü De schrijver formuleert zelf de specifieke deelvragen voor de onderdelen van de publica@e.
Leesstrategieën van je lezer • Oriënterend lezen: wat biedt de tekst mij? op vragen geeh deze tekst antwoorden? hoe is de opbouw? • Globaal lezen: waar staan de belangrijkste antwoorden/kernen? hoe is de tekst geformuleerd? • Zoekend lezen: waar staan de antwoorden op mijn (detail)vragen? • Intensief lezen: inprenten (mindmap, samenvaien)
DE OPBOUW VAN DE PUBLICATIE (IMRAD)
Allereerst • Wat heb ik te zeggen? Wat is mijn kernboodschap? (Wat zijn mijn belangrijke bevindingen?) • Welk verschil maakt dat? Wat doet het ertoe? • Voor wie is het van belang?
Inleiding • Journalis@ek onderdeel • Beschrijf het object van onderzoek en het belang van het onderzoek • Ander onderzoek: alleen om de huidige kennis rond het onderzoeksobject te schetsen of om het belang van jouw onderzoek te onderstrepen • Eindig met heldere en precieze omschrijving hoofdvraag (subvragen) of hypothese en doel van het onderzoek
Materiaal en methode • Schrijf al @jdens de studie (klad, beknopt) • Doel van dit hfdst: reproduceerbaarheid onderzoek maar ook en vooral: • Credibility: onderbouwing van betrouwbaarheid
Materiaal en methode Onderdelen: • onderzoeksopzet • studiemateriaal • uitkomstmaten • gegevensverzameling • sta@s@sche analyse
Resultaten • Lees de Instruc@ons to authors • Resultaten verbinden aan hypothesen of verwach@ngen (tekstopbouw) • Uiteindelijke interpreta@e en weging in Discussion
Resultaten • Onvoltooid verleden @jd • Neutrale s@jl (geen waarderingen) • Gebruik tabellen en figuren waar dat je boodschap ondersteunt en verheldert • Data ≠ Resultaten: data zijn feiten, resultaten beschrijven de betekenis van de feiten
Data en Resultaten In 14 untreated individuals, the mean blood glucose concentra@on was 205 ± 10 (SD) mg%. In 16 pa@ents treated with drug X, the mean blood glucose concentra@on was 105 ± 10 mg%. The mean blood glucose concentra@on was 50% lower in the 16 pa@ents treated with drug X than in the 14 untreated individuals [105 ± 10 (SD) mg% v 205 ± 10 mg%, p < 0·∙001].
Discussion Bespreek je bevindingen met anderen Vraag om kri@ek en weerlegging De tekst: eerst de belangrijkste bevindingen Eigen bevindingen vs ander onderzoek Eindig met belang / toepasbaarheid / toekomst • Volg het format van het @jdschrih van publica@e • • • • •
TEKSTDELEN: KERNZIN EN ALINEA
Happiness (1) 1. Lees dit ar@kel globaal. 2. Controleer de aanslui@ng van de discussie op de beschrijving van de onderzoeksvraag in de inleiding 3. Beoordeel de structuur: wat vind je goed, wat kan beter?
Happiness (2) Welke vragen beantwoordt de schrijver in de inleiding? En welke vragen in de discussie?
De eerste zin The introduc@on must not include a review of the literature.
De eerste zin The introduc@on must not include a review of the literature. Only cite those references that are essen@al to jus@fy your proposed study. Three cita@ons from different groups usually are enough to convince most assessors that some fact is “well known” or “well recognised,” par@cularly if the studies are from different countries. Many research groups write the introduc@on to a paper before the work is started, but you must never ignore per@nent literature published while the study is in progress. • An example introduc@on might be:
De piramide kern toelich@ng, argumenta@e achtergronden, details, verdere onderbouwing
De trechter presenta@e thema, achtergronden, voorgeschiedenis, inleiding toelich@ng, argumenta@e kern
Het ladekastje startzin kondigt inhoud aan eerste element / stap / gebeurtenis / aspect
tweede element / stap / gebeurtenis / aspect
derde element / stap / gebeurtenis / aspect
Text 1 Readability formulas calculate how readable a text is by determining the level of difficulty of each individual word and the length of sentences. All types of writers can use these formulas in order to understand how difficult or readable their texts would be for the average reader. However, readability formulas are based purely on what is considered difficult for a na@ve English speaker, and do not take into account problems that may be encountered by non-‐na@ves. In this paper …
Text 2 Current readability formulas are based purely on what is considered difficult for a na@ve English speaker. They fail take into account problems that may be encountered by non-‐na@ves. One thousand five hundred PhD students from 10 countries were asked to evaluate the difficulty of five technical texts from their business discipline wriien by na@ve English speakers. Three key difficul@es were found: unfamiliar vocabulary (typically Anglo-‐Saxon words), unfamiliar cultural references, and the use of humor. The paper also
proposes a new approach to assessing the level of readability of texts to account for such difficul@es.
Text 3 Unfamiliar vocabulary (typically Anglo-‐Saxon words), unfamiliar cultural references, and the use of humor: these, according to our survey of 1500 PhD students, are the main difficul@es non-‐na@ve speakers have when reading a business text in English. Our results highlight the need to adjust current readability formulas in order to take non-‐na@ve speakers into account. The paper also proposes a new approach to assessing the level of readability of texts to account for such difficul@es.
WETENSCHAPPELIJK SCHRIJVEN
Woordkeuze • Precies • Helder • Kernachtig
Exercise Word Choice 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
greatly decreased, reduced by 80% incubated in, grown in, bathed in girls, boys, aher, beginning prevented, blocked -‐, -‐: X varied considerably prevented, inhibited, repressed how x correlated with y during caused, resulted in, led to, increased
4 meanings of ‘with’ • We found a lineair increase in x with a doubling of arterial pressure. • Maximal coronary vasodilata@on with carbochromen had other effects. • The salicylates are rapidly absorbed with a peak plasma concentra@on within 2 h. • With inhala@on of amyl nitrate, lung compliance decreased.
4 meanings of ‘with’ • We found a lineair increase in x with (AND) a doubling of arterial pressure. • Maximal coronary vasodilata@on with (INDUCED BY) carbochromen had other effects. • The salicylates are rapidly absorbed with (REACHING) a peak plasma concentra@on within 2 h. • With (DURING) inhala@on of amyl nitrate, lung compliance decreased.
Kernachtig schrijven
Blaise Pascal 1623 - 1662
Vriend, ik schrijf je een lange brief want ik had geen tijd om een korte te schrijven.
Kenmerken van formele taal He tried to show that he could lose weight and eat his favourite food. He aiempted to prove that losing weight whilst ea@ng his favourite meals was achievable. They tried to find out how this could have happened. The inves@ga@on was aimed at the causes of the phenomenon.
Basis, case, conditions, essentially, feature, function, grounds, instance, nature, situation, type, very.
• • • • • •
The pa@ents were examined on a daily basis. It is too early to judge if this is the case or not. Symptoms of neurological nature.. The diagnosis of x is made on clinical grounds. …at low pH condi@ons. This is essen@ally true, but..
Ohen less is more • • • • • • •
plays an important role -‐> is important because due to the fact that -‐> because a decreased number of -‐> fewer @me period -‐> @me longer @me period -‐ > longer brown in color -‐ > brown it is possible that -‐ > may
Zinslengte
Lange aanloop Based on these proper@es and on previous unpublished valida@on results from Dr. Maggie Lu (at the Industrial Technology Research Ins@tute (ITRI) in Hsin-‐Chu, Taiwan R.O.C.), ITRI was the first to file patents describing glutathione-‐mediated drug delivery to the brain [ITRI, 2005].
Based on these proper@es and on previous unpublished valida@on results from Dr. Maggie Lu (at the Industrial Technology Research Ins@tute (ITRI) in Hsin-‐Chu, Taiwan R.O.C.), ITRI was the first to file patents describing glutathione-‐mediated drug delivery to the brain [ITRI, 2005].
Tangconstruc@e The smallest of the URF's (URFA6L), a 207-‐ nucleo@de (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2-‐terminal por@on of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene has been iden@fied as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H +-‐ATPase subunit 8 gene.
Tangconstruc@e The smallest of the URF's (URFA6L), a 207-‐ nucleo@de (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2-‐terminal por@on of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene has been iden@fied as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H +-‐ATPase subunit 8 gene.
Tangconstruc@e Recently, however, immunoprecipita@on experiments with an@bodies to purified, rotenone-‐sensi@ve NADH-‐ ubiquinone oxido-‐reductase [hereaher referred to as respiratory chain NADH dehydrogenase or complex I] from bovine heart, as well as enzyme frac@ona@on studies, have indicated that six human URF's (that is, URF1, URF2, URF3, URF4, URF4L, and URF5, hereaher referred to as ND1, ND2, ND3, ND4, ND4L, and ND5) encode subunits of complex I.
Tangconstruc@e Recently, however, immunoprecipita@on experiments with an@bodies to purified, rotenone-‐ sensi@ve NADH-‐ubiquinone oxido-‐reductase [hereaher referred to as respiratory chain NADH dehydrogenase or complex I] from bovine heart, as well as enzyme frac@ona@on studies, have indicated that six human URF's (that is, URF1, URF2, URF3, URF4, URF4L, and URF5, hereaher referred to as ND1, ND2, ND3, ND4, ND4L, and ND5) encode subunits of complex I.
Lijdend -‐ bedrijvend
De lijdende vorm • We assessed two samples. • Two samples were assessed (by us). • Jones has found several differences. • Several differences have been found by Jones.
Tense
Dutch
English
Present O.T.T.
Dit wordt aangetoond
This is shown
Past O.V.T.
Dit werd aangetoond
This was shown
Present perfect V.T.T.
Dit is aangetoond
This has been shown
Past perfect V.V.T.
Dit was aangetoond
This had been shown
Tense
Dutch
English
Present O.T.T.
Dit wordt aangetoond
This is shown
Past O.V.T.
Dit werd aangetoond
This was shown
Present perfect V.T.T.
Dit is aangetoond
This has been shown
Past perfect V.V.T.
Dit was aangetoond
This had been shown
…who did it?
• this method has been shown to be more effec@ve.. • this method has been described in… • this method has been observed in… • this method has been found…. Thus: this method is more effec@ve… Or: X showed that this method is more effec@ve..
Effect van de lijdende vorm • It is assumed that.. • It is (generally / widely) assumed that.. OR: -‐ In the present study it is assumed that… -‐ We assumed that… -‐ In this study it is assumed that… -‐ Here it is assumed that….
Als de handelende persoon onbekend is • The subjects were randomly assigned to one of three condi@ons. • The therapeu@cal poten@al of fish oil was dicussed in an editorial in this journal last year. • Scien@fic texts must be spelled correctly.
Ac@ef waar mogelijk In the Introduc@on In the Discussion To vary your style in Methods and Results Presen@ng your own thoughts and considera@ons • In reviews • • • •
• We inves@gated the an@plaque and surface-‐ac@ve proper@es of mouth rinses containing.. ….Addi@onally the effect of daily use was established.. • We obtained informed consent from 48 adults and placed them into either a training group (n = 24) or an untrained control group (n = 24). .. This was done by…. • In summary, we provide, to the best of our knowledge, the first evidence for experience-‐ dependent changes in white maier microstructure.
Waar mogelijk ac@ef • Cancer of the breast, which is known to be a leading cause of death in women, too ohen escapes detec@on in an early stage. • Cancer of the breast, s@ll a leading cause of death in women, too ohen escapes detec@on in an early stage.
• Data were acquired using three different mass-‐ spectrometry set-‐ups. The same online nanoLC configura@on was used for all LC-‐MS experiments. • We acquired data by three different mass-‐ spectrometry set-‐ups. The same online nanoLC configura@on served for all LC-‐MS experiments. • Data were acquired by three different mass-‐ spectrometry set-‐ups. The same online nanoLC configura@on served for all LC-‐MS experiments.
active -> passive • As an alterna@ve method, a mul@copy mean-‐field approach can also be used.
• When the new FMD protocol was applied, acceptable or beier solu@ons were obtained for each benchmark case.
• As an alterna@ve method, a mul@copy mean-‐ field approach can also be used. • A mul@copy meanfield approach is an alterna@ve (method). • When the new FMD protocol was applied, acceptable or beier solu@ons were obtained for each benchmark case. • Aher applica@on of the new FMD protocol, each benchmark case resulted in acceptable or beier solu@ons.
Naamwoordstijl An abstract noun is a word -‐ that describes intangible concepts that have no physical existence -‐ that cannot be perceived through the five physical senses of: hearing, seeing, smelling, tasFng and touching
Naamwoords@jl • We make the assump@on… • The assump@on is made…. • We assume… • To perform an analysis of the func@oning of the system, we are planning to carry out two experiments concerning the start procedure. • To see if it works, we will start the system twice. If possible, replace abstract nouns with verbs
Naamwoords@jl Aher reviewing the evidence we had to come to the
conclusion that an advantage with the new treatment had not been established.
Aher reviewing the evidence, we concluded that the new treatment offered no advantage. of: Aher reviewing the evidence, it became clear that the new treatment offered no advantage.
Naamwoordstijl However, the difficulty and cost associated with the experimental determina@on of structures result in a lag between the number of known protein sequences and their corresponding structures. J1
Naamwoordstijl During this energy minimiza@on, the protein structure moves downhill across the energy landscape defined by the force field, bringing it to an end point whose poten@al energy is lower than before. J2
Naamwoordstijl Attaching to a susceptible host cell surface and internalization of the viral genome are first crucial steps for a virus to initiate its replication successfully. The potential to use the oligomeric form of S1 to trigger a strong immune response in animals therefore could be an interesting aspect to be investigated.
DE TIJDEN VAN HET WERKWOORD
De @jden van het werkwoord TEXT
TENSE
EXAMPLE
General truths
Present simple
HIV is highly prevalent in African countries.
What you did Past simple What you found
We designed and successfully constructed a scaffold-‐free gridiron structure. Inhibi@on resulted in much higher plasma levels. Younger subjects responded beier to treatment.
Discussion
Mix of past and present simple
In our study, significantly fewer mice showed CNS effects …. On the basis of this results, we propose …..
Referring to others
Past simple (+present simple)
Miller showed that the cure rate in infected outpa@ents is 15%.
Past perfect • Immediately aher puncturing, a stopwatch was started and the blood absorbed every 10-‐15 sec with a piece of filter paper un@l all visible bleeding had ceased. • Only those mice that had previously been injected with the study drug were included in the experiment.
VISUALISATIES
Doelen van visualisa@es • • • • •
Aandacht trekken Rela@es of trends zichtbaar maken Complexe informa@e toegankelijk maken Betere inpren@ng Kernpunten overtuigend benadrukken
Eisen • Geef figuur of tabel al@jd een @tel en nummer • Figuur of tabel moet los van de tekst te begrijpen zijn: voeg dus @tel (bijschrih), legenda of verklarende noten toe • Plaats in de tekst al@jd een verwijzing naar de figuur of tabel (voorkom ‘zweven’)
Verwijzen • Uit figuur 4 blijkt duidelijk het effect van…. • De capstan is door de druk naar links verschoven (zie figuur 7). • De tabellen 5 en 6 geven een overzicht van de meetresultaten van… Vermijd hier de lijdende vorm: ‘In figuur 4 wordt getoond hoe…’
Soort visualisa@e • • • •
Tabel: geeh gegevens weer Grafiek: geeh visie op gegevens (selec@e) Schema: geeh rela@es weer Foto’s: beeld van de werkelijkheid
tabel: weergave plus accenten
grafiek: visie op gegevens
schema: rela@es
foto: werkelijkheid
