Ontwikkelingen en Ideeen (Developments and ideas) number 13
2nd edition May 1988
The negotiating grid dr W.F.G. Mastenbroek
Foreword The purpose of this series is to indicate developments and ideas in the domain of management and organization. It concerns developments which the consultants of the Holland Consulting Group/Organisatie Adviesgroep Nederland come upon in their consultancy practice. Annually, several issues are published, mostly in Dutch. More publications are in preparation in English as well. Already published:
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De vergeten dimensie bij automatiseren: de Orgware drs J.J.D.M. Pielage over het invoeren van PC's in midden- en kleinbedrijf
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Klantgerichtheid binnen de organisatie ir drs Willem J. Vrakking over interne blokkades overwinnen
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Informatiesystemen voor industrieel marketing-management prof. dr H.W.C. van der Hart
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Organisatiecampagnes voeren ir drs W.J. Vrakking over programma-management
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Industriale marketing en de interne organisatie prof. dr H.W.C. van der Hart
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Kwaliteitsgroepen in de overheid introduceren drs G.C. Ezerman en drs O.A. Breetveld
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Wie is er tegen kwaliteit en klantgerichtheid? dr W.F.G. Mastenbroek over het belnvloeden van organisatieculturen
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De nieuwe opstelling van centrale stafdiensten drs G.C. Ezerman
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The Negotiating Grid dr W.F.G. Mastenbroek
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Ziekenhuismarketing prof. dr H.W.C. van der Hart over klantgerichte gezondheidszorg
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VerantwoordeliJk en vernieuwend beheer door G. Brand Nieuw licht of een vergeten waarheid?
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Leveren aan bedrijven prof. dr H.W.C. van der Hart over het beheren van een portefeuille van relaties
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Revamping organizations through cultural intervention ir drs W.J. Vrakking
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Vernieuwan: via structuur of cultuur ir drs W.J. Vrakking over cultuurinterventies in organisaties
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Hoe pakken wa de invoering aan? ir drs W.J. Vrakking over vernieuwingen in organisaties
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Dichtgeslibde organisaties drs P.J. van Delden over immobiliteit van mensen
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De markt in het vizier prof. dr H.W.C. van der Hart over marktgerichte aanpak non-profit-sector
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De organisatia als apenrots dr W.F.G. Mastenbroek over macht in organisaties
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Zeven strategieen om leiding te geven aan veranderingen drs G.C. Ezerman (Niet meer leverbaar)
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Wat is ar aan de hand? ir drs W.J. Vrakking over organisaties beoordelen
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Komi de wijsheid echt uit het oosten? prof. dr P.A.E. van de Bunt over Japanse management-methoden Heilloze drammariJ was het gevolg dr W.F.G. Mastenbroek over het voorzitten van onderhandelingen.
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VViilem F. G. Mastenbroek.
The Negotiating Grid This article describes a grid which clarifies personal negotiating styles. Two basic dimensions of negotiating provide the foundation, and these are presented with reference to training conferences organised by the author.
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The Negotiating Grid by Willem F.G. Mastenbroek
Introduction The dilemma negotiators must deal with is mutual dependence and differing interests. The skilful handling of this dilemma demands a degree of versatility and a particular combination of co-operation and competition. An awareness of one's behaviour in these respects is important to perform better as a negotiator. This article describes a grid clarifying personal negotiating styles.
Two Dimensions of Negotiating The behaviour of negotiators may be characterised by two dimensions; (1)
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In the first place; How does a negotiator balance the tension between co-operation and "fighting'? His style will be determined in this respect by the degree to which he, in his attitude and behaviour, demonstrates a mutual dependence and solidarity versus a more aggre;>sive and adversarial behaviour. The vital significance of this behavioural polarity for negotiators has been described elsewhere [1]. The two poles of this behaviour are summarised schematically in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Negotiating as the Balancing of Co-operation and Fighting Co-operative: accommodating lenient, jovial, friendly
Fighting:stubborn, aggressive, irritated, dominating
To illustrate how negotiating has a certain "in between" character and balances co-operation and "fighting", I have assembled a number of examples in Table I.
Table I. Examples of Corresponding Tactics Used in Co-operation, Negotiating and Fighting Co-operation
Negotiation Fighting are exaggerated are emphasised
Obtaining
Goals and
are presented
material
interests
accurately
Facts
complete
as superior
results false
one~sided
presented
-----Influencing
Personal
openly discussed
not taken
used to break-
problems
to support eo
advantage of
down the opponent
the climate
General
your interest is
what deal
what can 1 get
attitude
my interest
will we make
out of this
-----
-----
Influencing
Power-
horizontal,
occasional and
the
balance
not questioned
calculated pulls every
balance of power
questioned at opportunity
Threats and saen as
afe used
are used on
confusion
moderately
any occasion
detrimental
7
~li'1fl
I~
(2)
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In the second place: How exploring is a negotiator? Some negotiators search persistently for solutions which are relatively satisfying for both parties. This can be done without falling into the trap of making concessions. Be flexible and firm! For this purpose an extensive exchange of information and especiallY a variety of try-outs by means of tentative solutions, "thinking aloud" and informal questioning are adequate. Any possible integrative potential will then be fully utilised. Exploring occurs by an active searching for common interest: Are there common presuppositions present? Are there relatively small concessions possible 'which might mean much for the opposite party? And vice versa, can a combination of mutual advantages be created in a package deal?
The basic idea behind all this is Interdependency! Parties are negotiating because they are interdependent. Interdependency means having common interest. So try to make the common good as tangible as possible! (The two poles of this behaviour are indicated in Figure 2.)
Figure 2. Procedural Flexibility: Active versus Passive Active: exploring, seeking background information, searching for alternatives I
Passive: avoiding, staying on one track, repetitive, detached, rigid I
For a proper understanding of the active v. the passive dimension it is essential. to realise that one can be passive in an apparently active manner. This may occur by repeating the same arguments in many different forms, by sticking to one's original premises and rejecting new information, or by making the issue a question of some outspoken principle. Tactically this behaviour can sometimes be effective as long as one realises that one is entrenching oneself and (temporarily) not looking for integrative possibilities. This entrenchm'ent can occur very actively and with much clamour, but in fact is an avoidance of the search towards a compromise. In addition to this model of negotiating, these two dimensions have been seen as fundamental in numerous other studies on interpersonal behaviour. Schutz[2] differentiates between three basic interpersonal orientations: "inclusion", or behaviour that varies from very intensive involvement (active) to complete distance (passive), "control" (fighting) and "affection" (co-operation). Horney[3] distinguishes between "moving away" (passive), "moving against" (fighting) and "moving toward" (co-operation). Zaleznik and Kets de Vries[4] also use these dimensions in their work on
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managerial power. They can also be found in well-known behavioural-scientific instruments such as the "managerial grid" of Blake and Mouton [5] in order to chart managerial behaviour or the "conflict grid" of Thomas[6] in order to clarify conflict management styles.
Personal Negotiating Styles Combining the two dimensions in the way shown in Figure 3 provides us with a grid to describe negotiating styles.
Figure 3. Four Negotiating Styles Passive Ethicalpersuasive style Co-operative
Analyticalaggressive style
------+----__ Flexible-
"Fighting"
Flexibleaggressive style
~
style
Active
I will now describe the main characteristics of the four styles which, each in a particular way, combine the two basic dimensions of negotiating. Also, some clues will be provided about how to negotiate when confronted with a particular style.
(1) The Analytical/Aggressive Style Main elements Careful analysis. Thorough attention to detail. Preference for hard facts and sound logic. Weighs all alternatives ahead of time. Reliance on sound procedures. Keeps things predictable. Holds on to his goals firmly. Not very sensitive to the climate of the discussions. 10
Amasses more and more "evidence" that Tendencies under pressure he is right, becomes stubborn. Over-reliance on procedures. Preoccupation with details. No ability to improvise. Cannot stand any surprise. How to deal with
Be systematic and consistent. Use routine and structure, tie new things to old. Use facts, exercise logic. Do not hurry, pay attention.
(2) The Flexible/Aggressive Style Main elements Wants to get things done, likes accomplishment. Likes to organise and energise others. Takes advantage of opportunities. Ouick to act, likes challenges. Ability to stand high tension, keeps things on the move, comes up with new ideas. Becomes easily impatient and impulsive. 11
Does not concede, even when he knows Tendencies under pressure he is wrong. Becomes angry, tends to coercive pressure. Tries everything within his power to win his case. How to deal with
Be direct. Show independence. Listen to, but be decisive. Capitalise on his need to accomplish. Look for new opportunities, strive for results, appeal to excellence.
(3) The Ethical/Persuasive Style Main elements Trust and belief in common values. Sets high standards. Independent thinking, sticks to principles. Develops proposals in the common interest. Considerate, helpful, dedicated. Often a "bridge" between two parties. Overly concerned with ideals and Tendencies under pressure common values to the point of being unrealistic. Sticks to his case because he is "right" or gives in disappointed. Becomes disillusioned, is set apart. How to deal with
Stress mutual goal setting. Ask for his help. Show concern and recognition of his standards. Tie proposals to common values. Emphasise worth-while causes.
(4) The }(lexible/Compromising Style Main elements Able to sense how people are feeling and thinking.
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Socially skilled, personal charm, diplomatic. Eager to try things out, sensitive to integrative solutions. Tries to influence the climate positively. Flexible in his habits. Humour. Tendencies Unserious, joking. under pressure Reluctant to take a stand, becomes ambivalent. Overcompromising. Gives in to preserve harmony and good will. How to deal with
Be sociable, set a positive climate. Let know when you are pleased. Search for common values. Use humorous appeals.
Concluding Remarks Two basic dimensions of negotiating have been described. They combine into four negotiating styles. The four styles can be used to reflect about one's own style or to provide others with feedback about their negotating behaviour. An awareness of one's style and recognitiorl of the style of one's opponent are important conditions to raise one's potential as a negotiator. In training conferences the grid is easily recognised. Apart from clarifying one's style important other conference learnings are possible. They are summarised below.
Learnings on the Co-operation/Fighting Dimension: A negotiator is faced with a number of dilemmas between co-operation and fighting: "Am I revealing too much of my position or am I too closed about my interests?" "To what extent can I trust the other party; would a sign of distrust harm our relationship?" "Am I too stubborn or too lenient?" 13
These dilemmas sometimes manifest themselves vaguely as uncertainty and doubt and sometimes explicitly in that one falls between two stools. This can make negotiating, especially for inexperienced people, stressful and frustrating. Negotiating is the handling of the delicate balance between co-operation and fighting. People are relatively easily carried along towards fighting behaviour. This is often justified by pointing to the less constructive behaviour of the opponent. But the opponent has exactly the same experience. Suddenly participants experience to their alarm that they are caught in a spiral of hostilities which reinforce each other. Sometimes negotiators learn to like this built-in dilemma characteristic and their control of it tends towards tough tactics. They have found ways to stay relaxed and in contact with their own feelings and simultaneously alert and competitive. A major skill in handling the co-operation/fighting dimension is the ability to separate the different kinds of activities on this dimension. Most important are: •
Firmly going after your interests does not mean showing the other disrespect, irritation and distrust. Separate the relationship from the content!
•
Do not entangle a power struggle with obtaining favourable material results. Firm negotiating has little to do with scoring points, dominating the discussion, threats and manipulations.
Learnings on the ActivelPassive Dimension: An active, exploring attitude makes for more flexibility. On this dimension most people can improve their negotiating skill. Examples of procedural ideas which might be helpful to develop one's skill on this dimension are: •
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Try to have formal .or informal "preliminary talks". Parties survey each other's interest and ideas. They avoid taking a pronounced position;
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•
Do not commit yourself early in the negotiations to a specific solution. Clarify your underlying interests and objectives. Supply information about your side of the case;
•
Attempt to get alternatives. Do not respond too quickly with judgments or counter arguments. Instead look for alternative proposals and solutions;
•
Enlarge the negotiating field. More issues over a longer period of time sometimes increase the chance of a package deal which is relatively favourable to both sides;
•
Let each other score. A relatively modest concession by one party may mean a considerable gain for the other. Try to find these possibilities;
•
Come with a "platform proposal". If one disagrees, instead of defending one's own proposal at all costs, a party simply enquires under what conditions one's proposal would become acceptable, or which modifications would be needed. Next, one does not start arguing but proposes amendments of one's own. Especially on complicated issues with several parties involved, this strategy may prove quite effective. Someone states a general outline of possible agreement This outline is then specified and amended in a number of sessions;
•
Movement through new proposals. If there is a danger of a lasting deadlock, a tactic may be to come with a new proposal. A good technique is to use the least objectionable elements of the last proposal of the other side in one's own proposal,and
•
Movement when a deadlock is imminent: Seek for more and different information instead of correcting and negatively judging information; Search for the problems which lie at the root of the impasse instead of convincing and threatening;
Become more spontaneous instead of more formal, more creative instead of more repetitious; Emphasise equality and mutual dependence (for example, by exploring the negative consequences of a continuing impasse) instead of acting superior or withdrawing; Show that you are disappointed instead of pretending that you do not care, and Adjourn and create informal contacts instead of going on and on with meetings. Notice that none of these tactics contains a concession. In conclusion: The two basic dimensions help in defining one's style. Moreover, they provide a conceptual model to order some very important and specific negotiating tactics.
Abstract This article describes a grid which clarifies personal negotiating styles and is based on two basic dimensions of negotiating: (1)
The way one balances co-operation and "fighting'; and
(2)
The extent to which one shows procedural flexibility.
These two dimensions combine into four negotiating styles: (1) analytical/aggressive, (2) flexible/aggressive, (3) ethical/persuasive, and (4) flexible/compromising. The main characteristics are given for each style, while clues are provided about how to negotiate when confronted with a particular one. Furthermore, the two basic dimensions are clarified by describing the major learnings on these dimensions as experienced by a large number of participants in training conferences on negotiating organised by the author.
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Referenceti 1. Mastenbroek, w.F.G., "A Model for Negotiating", Training and Development Journal, October 1983, pp. 76-9. 2. Schutz, W.C., FlRo, A Three-dimensional Theory of Interpersonal Behaviour, Rinehart, New York, 1958. 3. Horney, K., Our Inner Conflicts: A Constructive Theory of Neurosis, WW. Norton, New York, 1945. 4. Zaleznik, A. and Kets de Vries, M.F.R., Power and the Corporate Mind, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1975. 5. Blake, R. and Mouton, J., Building a Dynamic Corporation through Grid Organisational Development, Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1969. 6. Thomas, K., "Conflict and Conflict Management", in Dunnette, M.D. (Ed.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Rand McNally. Chicago, 1976.
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The author Willem F.G. Mastenbroek is a partner of the Holland Consulting Group/Organisatie Adviesgroep Nederland in Amsterdam. He has been working as a management consultant since 1970. Recent projects concern the development of a more entrepreneurial climate inside organizations. He is a specialist on negotiating problems and has developed various training programs on this topic. Dr Mastenbroek has published several books and more than fifty articles on management of innovation, organization development, cultural change and conflict-handling.
This article has also been published in Journal of European Industrial Training, volume 8, number 4,1984.
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Produktgroep Conflicthantering/Onderhandelen De adviseurs van de Holland Consulting Group hebben een uitgebreide ervaring met de hantering van tegenstellingen van de meest uiteenlopende soort. Deze ervaring is gebundeld in de produktgroep Conflicthantering & Onderhandelen binnen de HCG/OAN. De produktgroep verzorgt verschillende training en en practica. Voorbeelden: • Practicum Onderhandelen. in verschillende varianten: - intern, binnen organisaties - extern met cfienten/opdrachtgeverslachterbannen/commercieel • Conflicthantering • Tegenstellingen in teams • Tegenstellingen tussen groepen/afdelingen • Bemiddelen bij tegenstellingen • Constructieve overlegvergaderingen (Ondernemingsraden en Dienstcommissies). Een specialisme van de produktgroep is het ontwerpen van een programma toegesneden op de situatie van de client. De inzichten en vaardigheden die het beste aansluiten bij de vraag van de opdrachtgever worden geselecteerd en met de opdrachtgever rechtstreeks omgezet in gerichte acties ter oplossing van het probleem. De leiding van de Produktgroep berust bij dr W.F.G. Mastenbroek, firmant van de Holland Consulting Group en drs J.M. Drontmann. Naast dr W.F.G. Mastenbroek is nog een andere firmant van de HCG. drs G.C. Ezerman, actief betrokken bij het werk van de produktgroep. Andere adviseurs/trainers van de produktgroep zijn: mevrouw drs Y.M.E. Berkhoff, drs P.J. van Delden, drs T. van Zonneveld en mevrouw drs K. van Grunsven.
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Holland Consulting Group/OAN Ais maatschap van senior adviseurs bestrijkt de Holland Consulting Group/Organisatie Adviesgroep Nederland (HCG) een breed terrein van advieswerkzaamheden. De activiteiten spelen zich af op drie gebieden: strategische beleidsvorming, herstructurering en cultuurvernieuwing.
Ervaring/specialisaties Strategische beleidsvorming en marketing Marktonderzoeklomgevingsonderzoek Strategievaststelling en -doorvoering Ontwikkeling marketing-beleid Innovatie en R&D-management. Herstructurering Ontwerp van topstructuren Herstructurering staf/lijn-relaties Vorming profit-, budget- of performance centers Doorvoering 'world-class manufacturing'-principes. Cultuurvernieuwing Corporate identity Intern ondernemerschap Professionalisering stafafdelingen Management development Invosring integrale kwatiteitszorg. De HCG voert opdrachten uit voor het bedrijfsleven en (semi-)overheidsorganisaties. Het bureau krijgt opdrachten zowel uit 20% van de top 100 van de Nederlandse bedrijven als ook uit vele middelgrote en kleine bedrijven. In 1987 bijvoorbeeld gaven ondernemingen uit de ban caire sfeer, de bouwnijverheid, de elektronische industrie, de uitgeversbranche en de chemische industrie ons adviesopdrachten. Voorts krijgen wij opdrachten uit de energiesector en van ziekenhuizen. Enkele ministeries, provincies en diverse gemeenten betrekken ons eveneens bij hun vernieuwingsprocessen.
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Bureaufilosofle In het organisatie-advieswerk zijn duidelijke ontwikkelingen te observeren. waarop de HCG niet aileen wi! inspelen maar die ze wi! versterken. Opdrachtgevers prefereren goed afgebakende opdrachten. die meestal in tasen zijn ingedeeld. De HCG geeft in de uit te brengen offertes een tasegewijze aanpak weer. waarbij per tase de noodzakelijke adviesinzet en de voortgangscontrole wordt geformuleerd. Opdrachtgevers stellen het vaak op prijs dat de eigen managers en staffunctionarissen bij het onderzoek of bij de doorvoering van de organisatieverandering worden betrokken. De HCG beperkt zich in die gevallen tot het verlenen van senior-adviessteun en draagt dan veranderingsmethoden en doorlichtingsinstrumenten over aan interne functionarissen. Steeds meer opdrachtgevers vinden het van belang dat men van meet af aan met dezelfde adviseur te maken heeft. De adviseur van de HCG die de initiele contractering verzorgt. is tevens de begeleider en de uitvoerder van de opdracht. Opdrachtgevers vragen om hooggekwalificeerd advieswerk. De HCG is een maatschap van senior adviseurs. die hetzij zeit de volledige uitvoering van een adviesopdracht op zich nemen, dan wei bij de uitvoering een of meer cOllegaadviseurs inschakelen. In het laatste geval heeft de senior adviseur als projectleider de verantwoordelijkheid voor het in het kader van de opdracht te vormen project-team en onderhoudt als zodanig ook de contacten met de opdrachtgever. Afhankelijk van de aard van de opdracht en de wensen van de opdrachtgever werkt een senior adviseur met interne medewerkers van de opdrachtgever in teamverband, dan wei met HCG-adviseurs. Opdrachtgevers hebben belang bij een brede advieservaring van hun adviseurs. De firmanten van de HCG hebben allen een. naar branche en naar type probleemstelling, brede advieservaring. Zij zijn dan ook voor vele opdrachten, indien strikt noodzakelijk, uitwisselbaar. Dit is tevens van belang voor de continurteit van de opdrachtuitvoering.
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Bilzondere kenmerken De HCG kent een relatief platte bureaustructuur: firmanten en medewerkers. Het voorzitterschap van de maatschap rouleert onder de firmanten. De firmanten onderhouden nauwe banden met universiteiten an hogescholan in Nederland, voor e(lkelen van hen in de vorm van een deeltijdverbintenis. Om het vernieuwingspotentleel mede te stimuleren, zijn er ook intensieve contacten met adviseurs en wetenschappers in het buitenland. Voorts zijn firmanten van de HCG regelmatig betrokken als inleider en/of conferentieleider bij o.a. De Baak, NCW en SIOO. Dit verschaft de HCG een speC/fiek karakter. Het bureau is te zien als een onderneming op het sniiylak van bedrijfsleyen en wetenschap. Zo hebben HCG-adviseurs de afgelopen zeven jaar een twintigtal boeken en meer dan honderd artikelen gepubliceerd over hun ervaringen met en inzichten in advieswerk en onderzoek. Op deze wijze konden potentiale opdrachtgevers op geheel vrijblijvende wijze kennisnemen van hun werk. Ter gelegenheid van het eerste lustrum van de HCG werd in 1986 bij Vermande (Lelystad) het boek 'Management van Organisatievernieuwing' uitgegeven; een bundel van een dertigtal artikelen van firmanten en geassocieerden van de HCG rond het thema organisatievernieuwing. De HCG geeft sinds 1983 in eigen beheer de serie 'Ontwikkelingen en Ideean' uit. Hiermee beoogt ze innovaties uit de praktijk van bestuur en organisatie te verspreiden. Eind 1987 zijn 21 delen verschenen. Exemplaren uit deze reeks zijn opvraagbaar bij het secretariaat.
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Holland Consulting Group/OAN Sophialaan 19 1075 BL Amsterdam Telefoon 020-6620102 Telefax 020-796601 Telex TELAM NL 10412
Ontstaan Dpgericht in 1980 Rechtsvorm Maatschap Medewerkers 26 medewerkers, waarvan 19 adviseurs FirmantenlVennoten ing. G. Brand prof. dr P.A.E. van de Bunt drs G.C. Ezerman prof. dr H.W.C. van der Hart dr W.F.G. Mastenbroek ir drs W.J. Vrakking Bureauleiding ir drs W.J. Vrakking voorzitter van de maatschap lid Raad van Drganisatie·Adviesbureaus (RDA) firmanten zijn lid van de Drde van Drganisatiekundigen en ·Adviseurs (DDA)
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