Notes 173. Chapter 2

Notes

Chapter 1 1. The case of Serbian irredentism against Croatia and the ensuing violence following the dissolution of the former Yugoslavia is now generally considered something of an outlier. Looking at other potentially irredentist states—Russia (Near Abroad), Romania (Moldova), Hungary (Romania, Slovakia, Serbia), Germany (Poland, Czech Republic), Poland (Lithuania, Belarus)—we see that military intervention by kin-states is the exception, not the rule. 2. Roger Waldinger and David Fitzgerald, “Transnationalism in Question,” American Journal of Sociology 109, no. 5 (March 2004): 1186. 3. Robert C. Smith, “Migrant Membership as an Instituted Process: Transnationalization, the State and The Extra-Territorial Conduct of Mexican Politics,” International Migration Review (2003): 304. 4. The question: “Do you think Parliament should pass a law allowing Hungarian citizenship with preferential naturalization to be granted to those, at their request, who claim to have Hungarian nationality, do not live in Hungary, and are not Hungarian citizens, and who prove their Hungarian nationality by means of a ‘Hungarian Identity Card’ issued pursuant to Article 19 of Act 62 of 2001 or in another way to be determined by a law which is to be passed?” Text found at http://www.valasztas.hu/main_en.html. A question on the privatization of hospitals was also on the ballot. 5. World Federation of Hungarians (MVSZ) referendum campaign material. “Ne mondj le róluk!” (2005-9-2-06), “Bartók Béla: Ma nem lehetne magyar allampolgár.” (2005-9-2-12), “Soha nem hagynám el a szülo˝földömet . . . De magyar vagyok!” (2005-9-2-15), in Magyarország Politikai Évkönyve 2005-ro˝l, ed. Péter Sándor, László Vass, Ágnes Tolnai (Budapest: Demokrácia Kutatások Magyar Központja Közhasznú Alapítvány, 2006). Jpeg files on accompanying CD-ROM. 6. Constitution of the Republic of Hungary, paragraph 6, article 3. Enacted by Act 31 of 1989, October 23, 1989. 7. Anonymous communication. Also see Mária M. Kovács, “The Politics of Non-resident Dual Citizenship in Hungary,” Citizenship Studies 10, no. 4 (September 2006): 62. 8. Officially known as the Law Concerning Hungarians Living in Neighboring Countries. The vote passed by 92 percent.

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9. This point has been illustrated in other East European contexts. See David Ost, The Defeat of Solidarity: Anger and Politics in Postcommunist Europe (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2005); Zsuzsa Csergo˝, Talk of the Nation: Language and Conflict in Romania and Slovakia (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2007). 10. Kathleen Newland and Erin Patrick, “Beyond Remittances: The Role of Diaspora in Poverty Reduction in their Countries of Origin,” scoping study by the Migration Policy Institute for the Department of International Development ( July 2004), http://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/Beyond_Remittances_0704.pdf. 11. Attila Melegh, “Globalization, Nationalism, and Petite Imperialism,” Romanian Journal of Society and Politics 2, no. 1 (2003): 120. 12. Beatriz Padilla, “Latin American Immigration to Southern Europe,” Migration Information Source ( June 2007), http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/ pring.cfm?ID=609. 13. Stuart Kaufman, Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), 16–18. 14. Zsuzsa Csergo˝ and James M. Goldgeier, “Nationalist Strategies and European Integration,” Perspectives on Politics 2, no. 1 (2004): 26. 15. Rachel Sherman, “From State Introversion to State Extension in Mexico: Modes of Emigrant Incorporation, 1900–1997,” Theory and Society 28, no. 6 (1999): 847. 16. Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 79–106. The logic of state-building vs. nation-building could also result in a decision to disengage from a previous policy commitment regarding a population abroad, as occurred when the German government phased out many of its policies toward ethnic German Aussiedler in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union in the decade following reunification, including the promise of automatic German citizenship. 17. V. P. Gagnon, The Myth of Ethnic War: Serbia and Croatia in the 1990s (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004), 7–27. 18. Yossi Shain, “The Mexican-American Diaspora’s Impact on Mexico,” Political Science Quarterly 114, no. 4 (2000): 665. 19. Sherman, “From State Introversion to State Extension in Mexico,” 847. 20. Laurie A. Brand, Citizens Abroad: Emigration and the State in the Middle East and North Africa (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 216–217. 21. Maria Rosa Garcia-Acevedo, “Politics Across Borders: Mexico’s Policies toward Mexicans in the United States,” Journal of the Southwest 45, no. 4 (Winter 2003): 534–544. 22. Luin Goldring, “The Mexican State and Transmigrant Organizations: Negotiating the Boundaries of Membership and Participation,” Latin American Research Review 37, no. 3 (2002): 68. 23. Brand, Citizens Abroad. 24. Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, 140.

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25. For example, Gagnon, The Myth of Ethnic War. 26. Saideman and Ayres explain this backlash against kin-state engagement as a form of “xenophobia.” Stephen M. Saideman and R. William Ayres, For Kin or Country: Xenophobia, Nationalism, and War (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 2–3. 27. Kim Barry, “Home and Away: The Construction of Citizenship in an Emigration Context,” New York University Law Review 81, no. 11 (April 2006): 24. 28. For more on this debate, see Stephen Deets and Sherrill Stroschein, “Dilemmas of Autonomy and Liberal Pluralism: Examples Involving Hungarians in Central Europe,” Nations and Nationalism 11, no. 2 (2005): 285–305. 29. For example, local referenda on autonomy in the Szekler region of Romania. 30. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Hungary, “Hungary in the World,” http://www.mfa.gov.hu/kum/en/bal/foreign_policy/hungary_in_the_ world/ (accessed March 22, 2010). 31. Lubos Palata, “Slovak Language Law: Slap in the Face,” Transitions Online, July 13, 2009, http://www.tol.cz. 32. György Csepeli and Antal Örkény, “The Changing Facets of Hungarian Nationalism,” Social Research 63 (Spring 1996): 280. 33. For example, Thomas Ambrosio, Irredentism: Ethnic Conflict and International Politics (Westport, London: Praeger, 2001); Saideman & Ayres, For Kin or Country. 34. Most recently in Csergo˝’s Talk of the Nation and Erin Jenne, Ethnic Bargaining: The Paradox of Minority Empowerment (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2007), which both focus on majority-minority relations in states with large Hungarian minorities. 35. A number of books have been published on Russia’s policies toward its diaspora in the Near Abroad. For example, Igor Zevelev, Russia and Its New Diasporas (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2001). 36. Peter A. Hall, “Aligning Ontology and Methodology in Comparative Politics,” in Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences, ed. James Mahoney and Dietrich Rueschemeyer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 394. 37. David A. Lake and Donald S. Rothchild, “Spreading Fear: The Genesis of Transnational Ethnic Conflict,” in The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, Escalation, ed. David A. Lake and Donald S. Rothchild (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 4. 38. Will H. Moore and David R. Davis, “Transnational Ethnic Ties and Foreign Policy,” in Spreading Fear, ed. Lake and Rothchild, 92. 39. David Carment and Patrick James, “Secession and Irredenta in World Politics: The Neglected Interstate Dimension,” in Wars in the Midst of Peace: The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict, ed. David Carment and Patrick James (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997), 13. 40. Lake and Rothchild, “Spreading Fear,” 19.

172 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46.

47. 48.

49.

50. 51.

52. 53.

54.

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Carment and James, “Secession and Irredenta,” 205. Saideman and Ayres, For Kin or Country, 12–23. See discussion in ibid., 33–35. For example, Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, 55–76. Saideman and Ayres, For Kin or Country; Ambrosio, Irredentism. Milena Anna Vachudova, Europe Undivided: Democracy, Leverage, and Integration after Communism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); Csergo˝ and Goldgeier, “Nationalist Strategies and European Integration”; Jeffrey Checkel, “Norms, Institutions, and National Identity in Contemporary Europe,” International Studies Quarterly 43, no. 1 (1999): 83–114. Yossi Shain and Aharon Barth, “Diasporas and International Relations Theory,” International Organization 57, no. 3 (2003): 452. Ilona Kiss and Catherine McGovern, ed., New Diasporas in Hungary, Russia and Ukraine: Legal Regulations and Current Politics (Budapest: Open Society Institute/Constitutional and Legal Policy Institute, 2000); Charles King and Neil J. Melvin, ed., Nations Abroad: Diaspora Politics and International Relations in the Former Soviet Union (Boulder, CO; Oxford, UK: Westview Press, 1998); Oxana Shevel, “The Post-Communist Diaspora Laws: Beyond the ‘Good Civic versus Bad Ethnic’ Dichotomy,” East European Politics and Societies 24, no. 1 (Winter 2010): 159–187. As Hungarian legal scholar Judit Tóth has written: “[T]he formation of the Hungarian population in the Hungarian basin is not (characteristically) related to the migration of people but to the ‘migration’ of state borders in the twentieth century’ and is therefore not a diaspora.” Judit Tóth, “Connections of Kinminorities to the Kin-state in the Extended Schengen Zone,” in The Hungarian Status Law: Nation-Building and/or Minority Protection, ed. Zoltán Kántor, et al. (Sapporo: Slavic Research Centre, Hokkaido University, 2004), 375. “Editors’ forward” in Perspectives of Diaspora Existence, ed. Balázs Balogh and Zoltán Ilyés (Budapest: Akadámiai Kiadó, 2006), 7. Zoltán Ilyés, “Researching and Interpreting Diaspora: Remarks on Social Science Research into the Diaspora Communities of the Carpathian Basin,” in Perspectives of Diaspora Existence, ed. Balogh and Ilyés, 46. Pál Péter Tóth, “Diasporization and Population Development,” in Perspectives of Diaspora Existence, ed. Balogh and Ilyés, 100. Here I draw on work such as, Smith, “Migrant Membership as an Instituted Process”; and Latha Varadarajan, The Domestic Abroad: Diasporas in International Relations (Cambridge, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2010). See Myra A. Waterbury, “Bridging the Divide: Towards a comparative framework for understanding external kin-state and migrant sending-state diaspora politics,” in Diaspora and Transnationalism: Concepts, Theories and Methods, ed. Rainer Bauböck and Thomas Faist (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010), 131–148, for a fuller discussion of these structural similarities. Rogers Brubaker, “The ‘diaspora’ diaspora,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 28, no. 1 (2005): 5–7.

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Chapter 2 1. István Pogány, “Poets, Revolutionaries and Shoemakers: Law and the Construction of National Identity in Central Europe during the Long Nineteenth Century,” Social and Legal Studies 16, no. 1 (2007): 95–112. 2. “Magyar” is the native term for “Hungarian.” It will be used throughout this section to designate Hungarian in the linguistic and cultural sense, as opposed to the territorial sense during the period when the lands of Hungary were part of a multiethnic empire, and not a nation-state. 3. Karen Barkey, “Negotiated Paths to Nationhood: A Comparison of Hungary and Romania in the Early Twentieth Century,” East European Politics and Societies 14, no. 3 (2000): 497–531; Rustem Vambery, “The Tragedy of the Magyars: Revisionism and Nazism,” Foreign Affairs (April 1925): 445–458. 4. Vambery, “The Tragedy of the Magyars,” 477. 5. Ignác Romsics, “Nation and State in Modern Hungarian History,” Hungarian Quarterly 42, no. 164 (Winter 2001), http://www.hungarianquarterly.com/ no164/4.shtml. 6. Vambery, “The Tragedy of the Magyars,” 477. 7. Paul Lendvai, The Hungarians: A Thousand Years of Victory in Defeat (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), 192. 8. For example, the great national poet and martyr of the 1848 revolution, Sándor Peto˝fi, had a Serb background and his parents spoke heavily accented Hungarian. The family name was originally Petrovics, until it was Magyarized into Peto˝fi. See Lendvai, The Hungarians, 220. For more on Kossuth and Széchenyi, see 192–207. 9. In 1867, minorities were 53.4 percent of the population. Pogány, “Poets, Revolutionaries and Shoemakers,” 98. 10. Rustem Vambery, “Nationalism in Hungary,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 232 (1944): 79. 11. Quoted in Romsics, “Nation and State in Modern Hungarian History.” 12. Vambery, “The Tragedy of the Magyars,” 478. 13. Barkey, “Negotiated Paths to Nationhood,” 512. 14. Vambery in “Nationalism in Hungary” writes, for example, that there were two million Slovaks represented by two members of parliament, 79. 15. Joseph Rothschild, East Central Europe Between the Two World Wars (Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1974), 138. 16. Marius Turda, “The Magyar: ‘A Ruling Race’: The Idea of National Superiority in Fin-de-Siecle Hungary,” European Review of History 10, no. 1 (2003): 5–32. 17. András Gero˝, Imagined History: Chapters from the Nineteenth and 20th Century Hungarian Symbolic Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 16. 18. György Ránki, “National Grievances and Right-Wing Radicalism,” in Hungarians and Their Neighbors in Modern Times, 1867–1950, ed. Ferenc Glatz (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 141. 19. Barkey, “Negotiated Paths to Nationhood,” 518–519.

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20. Rothschild, East Central Europe between the Two World Wars, 156. 21. Magda Ádam, “Complete Encirclement: The Establishment of the Little Entente,” in Hungarians and Their Neighbors in Modern Times, 1867–1950, ed. Ferenc Glatz (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 145. 22. István Deák, “Hungary,” in The European Right: A Historical Profile, ed. Hans Rogger and Eugen Weber (Berkley: University of California Press, 1965), 364. 23. Steven Béla Várdy, “The Impact of Trianon Upon the Hungarian Mind: Irredentism and Hungary’s Path to War,” in Hungary in the Age of Total War (1938–1948), ed. N. F. Dreisziger (New York: Distributed by Columbia University Press, 1998), 36. 24. In October 1918, Mihály Károlyi was put into power after a bloodless revolution to dissolve the monarchy and proclaim Hungary’s status as an independent republic. In March 1919, Károlyi was forced to resign after failing to secure favorable conditions for Hungary during the Paris Peace negotiations and the Communist regime of Béla Kun takes power. During the summer and fall of 1919, Kun’s government falls, and Admiral Horthy and his counterrevolutionary forces enter Budapest and carry out the White Terror against “Bolsheviks.” A new conservative right government takes power in January 1920 and Horthy is made Regent of Hungary on March 1, 1920. 25. Deák, “Hungary,” 372. 26. Romsics, “Nation and State in Modern Hungarian History,” quoting Count Ápponyi, leader of the Hungarian peace delegation at Trianon in his essay Justice for Hungary. 27. Gero˝, Imagined History, 11. 28. Miklós Zeidler, “Irredentism in Everyday Life in Hungary during the Inter-war Period,” Regio: Minorities, Politics, Society 2002: 72. 29. Várdy, “The Impact of Trianon upon the Hungarian Mind,” 39. 30. For example, Andrew Fall, “Hungary’s Claim to the Restoration of Transylvania,” Danubian Review 8, no. 3 (1940). 31. George Schöpflin, “Transylvania: Hungarians Under Romanian Rule,” in The Hungarians: A Divided Nation, ed. Stephen Borsody (New Haven: Yale Center for International and Area Studies, 1988), 119. 32. László Kürti, The Remote Borderland: Transylvania in the Hungarian Imagination (Albany: SUNY Press, 2001), 15. 33. Eva S. Balogh, “Hungarian Foreign Policy, 1918–1945,” in The Hungarians, ed. Borsody, 375. 34. Várdy, “The Impact of Trianon upon the Hungarian Mind,” 34. 35. Ránki, “National Grievances and Right-Wing Radicalism,” 141. 36. In fact, Gömbös had been in close contact with the German Nazi party since 1921. Rothschild, East Central Europe between the Two World Wars, 176. 37. Similar covert forms of financial and political support were provided by Germany during this time to ethnic Germans in the East. Rogers Brubaker, “Accidental Diasporas and External “Homelands” in Central and Eastern Europe: Past and Present” (working paper, Institute for Advanced Studies, Vienna, Political Science Series no. 71, 2000), 12, http://works.bepress.com/wrb/10/.

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38. For Romania, Nándor Bárdi, “A Keleti Akció: A romániai magyar intézmények anyaországi támogatása az 1920-as években” [The Eastern Campaign: Mothercountry support for Romanian Hungarian institutions in the 1920s] in Magyarságkutatás, 1995–96, ed. László Diószegi (Budapest: Teleki László Alapítvány, 1996), 143–190. For Czechoslovakia, Béla Angyal, “A csehszlovákiai magyarság anyaországi támogatása a két világháború között” [Support Given to the Ethnic Hungarians in Czechoslovakia by Hungary in the Interwar Period] Regio: Kisebbség, Politika, Társadalom 2000, no. 3: 133–177. 39. Piroska Balogh, “Transylvanism: Revision or Regionalism?,” in Geopolitics in the Danube Region: Hungarian Reconciliation Efforts, 1848–1998, ed. Ignác Romsics and Béla K. Király (Budapest; New York: Central European University Press, 1998), 247. 40. Bárdi, “A Keleti Akció,” 164. The korona was the official currency of the Austro-Hungarian empire from 1892 until 1918. 41. Zoltán Pálfy, “The Dislocated Transylvanian Hungarian Student Body and the Process of Nation-Building after 1918,” in Nation-Building and Contested Identities: Romanian and Hungarian Case Studies, ed. Balázs Trencsényi, et al. (Budapest; Iasi: Regio Books, Editura Polirom, 2001), 181. 42. Bárdi, “A Keleti Akció,” 170–173. 43. Balogh, “Transylvanism,” 247; Angyal, “A csehszlovákiai magyarság anyaországi támogatása a két világháború között,” 168. 44. Bárdi, “A Keleti Akció,” 160–162. 45. Ibid., 175. 46. Rothschild, East Central Europe between the Two World Wars, 166. 47. Balogh, “Hungarian Foreign Policy, 1918–1945,” 62. 48. István Vida, “The Hungarian Question in Paris,” in Hungarians and Their Neighbors in Modern Times, ed. Glatz, 222. 49. Laszlo Deme, “Perceptions and Problems of Hungarian Nationality and National Identity in the Early 1990s,” International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society 12, no. 2 (1998): 308. 50. Andrew Ludanyi, “Programmed Amnesia and Rude Awakening: Hungarian Minorities in International Politics, 1945–1989,” in 20th Century Hungary and the Great Powers, ed. Ignác Romsics (Boulder, CO; Highland Lakes, NJ: Social Science Monographs; Atlantic Research and Publications; New York: Distributed by Columbia University Press, 1995), 307–336. 51. István Deák, “The Past as an Obstacle to Danubian Reconciliation: Introduction,” in The Hungarians, ed. Borsody, 298. 52. Robert R. King, Minorities under Communism: Nationalities as a Source of Tension among Balkan Communist States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 21. 53. Ludanyi, “Programmed Amnesia and Rude Awakening,” 312. 54. King, Minorities under Communism, 76. 55. Pierre Kende, “Communist Hungary and the Hungarian Minorities,” in The Hungarians, ed. Borsody, 283. 56. King, Minorities under Communism, 77.

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57. Ludanyi, “Programmed Amnesia and Rude Awakening,” 312. 58. Kádár famously proclaimed that if Soviet tanks entered Budapest, “I will go into the streets and fight against you with my bare hands.” Quoted in Tibor Méray, Thirteen Days that Shook the Kremlin (New York,: Praeger, 1959), 10. 59. Ignác Romsics, Hungary in the Twentieth Century (Budapest: Corvina, 1999), 404. 60. The Hungarian majority there decreased from 77 to 62 percent. Kürti, The Remote Borderland, 37. 61. Charles Gati, Hungary and the Soviet Bloc (Durham [NC]: Duke University Press, 1986), 160–161. 62. Romsics, Hungary in the Twentieth Century, 329. 63. King, Minorities under Communism, 119. 64. J. F. Brown, Eastern Europe and Communist Rule (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988), 438. 65. King, Minorities under Communism, 44. 66. For example, see speech by the foreign affairs secretary Mátyás Szu˝rös in a lecture given at the Foreign Affairs Institute of Sweden on October 15, 1986. Abridged version available in Mátyás Szu˝rös, “National and International in Hungarian Foreign Policy,” The New Hungarian Quarterly 28, no. 105 (1987): 17–30. 67. Ludanyi, “Programmed Amnesia and Rude Awakening,” 318. 68. Raphael Vago, The Grandchildren of Trianon: Hungary and the Hungarian Minority in the Communist States (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1989), 150. 69. King, Minorities under Communism, 117. 70. Quoted in Kende, “Communist Hungary and the Hungarian Minorities,” 290. Originally printed in the newspaper Frankfurter Rundschau. 71. Schöpflin, “Transylvania,” 138. 72. Rudolf L. To˝kés, Hungary’s Negotiated Revolution: Economic Reform, Social Change, and Political Succession, 1957–1990 (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 230. 73. János Kis, “Nation-Building and Beyond,” in Can Liberal Pluralism Be Exported? Western Political Theory and Ethnic Relations in Eastern Europe, ed. Will Kymlicka and Magdalena Opalski (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 234. 74. Gyula Illyés, “Válasz Herdernek és Adynak” [A Reply to Herder and Ady] Magyar Nemzet, December 25, 1977, and January 1, 1978. 75. George Schöpflin, “Opposition and Para-Opposition: Critical Currents in Hungary, 1968–1978,” in Opposition in Eastern Europe, ed. Rudolf L. To˝kés (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979), 154. 76. To˝kés, Hungary’s Negotiated Revolution, 195. 77. The lack of unity became apparent at the MDF-dominated Lakitelek meeting in 1987. For more on the meeting at Lakitelek, see Sándor Agócs and Endre Medvigy, A Magyarság Esélyei: a tanácskozás hiteles jegyzo˝könyve, Lakitelek, 1987. szept. 27 [Hungary’s Prospects: The Official Record of the Conference, Lakitelek, September 27, 1987] (Lakitelek; Budapest: Antológia; Püski, 1991).

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78. See To˝kés, Hungary’s Negotiated Revolution, 200. 79. Attila Ara-Kovács, Rudolf Joó, and Magyar Demokrata Forum, Report on the Situation of the Hungarian Minority in Rumania: Prepared for the Hungarian Democratic Forum (Budapest: [s.n.], 1988). 80. László Valki, “Hungary: Understanding Western Messages,” in Democratic Consolidation in Eastern Europe, Volume 2: International and Transnational Factors, ed. Jan Zielonka and Alex Pravda (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 282. 81. Reprinted in János Kis, Politics in Hungary: For a Democratic Alternative, trans. Gábor J. Follinus (Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press, 1989), 211–217. 82. András Balogh, “A Kisebbségpolitikai rendszerváltozás kezdete” [The Beginning of Minority Policy Transformation], in Mérleg és Számvetés Tizenhárom Év Után: A magyarságpolitikai rendszerváltás kezdete [Balance and Reckoning After Thirteen Years: The Beginning of the Transformation in Ethnic Hungarian Policy], ed. Csaba Tabajdi (Budapest: Codex Print Kft., 2001), 20. 83. Ludanyi, “Programmed Amnesia and Rude Awakening,” 321–323. 84. Csaba Tabajdi, “Több évtizedes hallgatás után” [After Many Years of Silence], in Mérleg és Számvetés, ed. Tabajdi, 72. 85. Mátyás Szu˝rös, “Hungary, Europe, and the World,” The New Hungarian Quarterly 28, no. 107 (1987): 25. 86. Radio Free Europe, “Minden magyar tagja a magyar nemzetnek” [Every Hungarian is a Member of the Hungarian Nation], in Mérleg és Számvetés, ed. Tabajdi, 144. 87. Imre Szokai and Csaba Tabajdi, “Mai politikánk és a nemzetiségi kérdés” [Our Current Policy and the Nationality Question], Magyar Nemzet, February 13, 1988, reprinted in Mérleg és Számvetés, ed. Tabajdi, 37. 88. John A. Callcott, “U.N. Human Rights Commission Condemns Romania,” United Press International, March 9, 1989. 89. Kende, “Communist Hungary and the Hungarian Minorities,” 477. 90. Judy Dempsey, “Romania Refugees Find Sanctuary in Hungary,” The Financial Times, May 13, 1988. 91. United Press International, “Hungary Signs Accord with U.N. Refugee Agency,” October 4, 1989, http://www.lexisnexis.com. 92. Resolution No. 1048 of 1989. 93. Judit Tóth, “Diaspora Politics: Programs and Prospects,” in New Diasporas in Hungary, Russia and Ukraine, ed. Kiss and McGovern, 97. 94. Pál Köteles, “Nemzeti stratégiát,” in Mérleg és Számvetés, ed. Tabajdi, 131.

Chapter 3 1. András Körösényi, “The Decay of Communist Rule in Hungary,” in PostCommunist Transition: Emerging Pluralism in Hungary, ed. András Bozóki, András Körösényi, and George Schöpflin (London; New York: Pinter; St. Martin’s Press, 1992), 10.

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2. Anna Grzymała-Busse, Redeeming the Communist Past: The Regeneration of Communist Parties in East Central Europe (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 3–8. 3. Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 83. 4. Alex Bandy, “50,000 Rally in Solidarity With Romania’s Ethnic Hungarians,” Associated Press, March 20, 1990. 5. Zsuzsa Csergo˝, Talk of the Nation: Language and Conflict in Romania and Slovakia (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2007), 39–43. 6. László Szekeres, one of the founding members of the Democratic Alliance of Vojvodina Hungarians (VMDK). See “Hungarian Party in Vojvodina Fights ‘‘One of Greatest Assimilations in Europe,” Budapest home service, December 2, 1990, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, December 7, 1990. 7. János Avar, “Sürgetjük a nemzetközi közösséget a kisebbségi jogok “aktív védelmére”: Antall József az ENSZ-ben” [We Are Urging the International Community toward “Active Protection” of Minority Rights: Antall at the UN], Magyar Nemzet, October 2, 1991. 8. Endre Sik and Bori Simonovits, “Jelentés az MTA Kisebbségkutató Intézet Nemzetközi Migráció és Menekültügyi Kutatások Központja által készített közvelemény-kutatássorozat három hullámának eredményeiro˝l” [Report on the Results of Three Waves of Public Opinion Research Series Prepared by the Center for International Migration and Refugee Research of the Minority Research Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences], TÁRKI (unpublished ms, October 2002), 12–13. 9. H. D. Klingemann, Tamás Kolosi, and Péter Robert, “Hungarian 1990 PostElection Survey,” (codebook, Zentralarchiv für Empirische Sozialforschung, University of Cologne, ZA Study 2486), 58, http://www.gesis.org/en/data_ service/eastern_europe/data/codebook/cb2486.pdf. 10. Parliamentary declaration no. 46 of 1990. Quote from György Csóti, an MDF spokesperson for the Foreign Affairs Committee. “Foreign Affairs Committee Submission on Minorities,” Budapest home service, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, May 17, 1990. 11. Created by government resolution no. 1057 dated October 7, 1992. Broadcasting began on December 24, 1992. 12. By Government Decree no. 90 of 1992, dated May 29, 1992. In the spring of 1990 the Secretariat for the Hungarians beyond the borders was split off from the National and Ethnic Minority Office by the Antall government. 13. “Jeszenszky Géza külügyminiszter nyilatkozata elso˝ nemzetközi sajtókonferenciája keretében” [Statement of Foreign Affairs Minister Géza Jeszenszky at his First International Press Conference], May 30, 1990. Reprinted in Mérleg és Számvetés, ed. Tabajdi, 368–369. 14. István Szent-Iványi, speaking for the opposition SZDSZ. “Kisebbségi program: Az SZDSZ aláírna” [Minority Program: The SZDSZ Would Sign It], Köztársaság 1 (1993).

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15. Avar, “Sürgetjük a nemzetközi közösséget a kisebbségi jogok “aktív védelmére.” 16. “Jeszenszky Géza külügyminiszter válasza az Országgu˝lés ülésszakán – a magyar nemzeti kisebbségek ügyében elhangzott képviselo˝i interpellációra” [Reply of Foreign Minister Géza Jeszenszky during the Parliamentary Session—on the Matter of the Hungarian National Minorities], October 30, 1990. Reprinted in Mérleg és Számvetés, ed. Tabajdi, 377–380. 17. András Bozóki, Magyar Panoptikum (Budapest: Kávé Kiadó, 1996), 213. 18. László Valki, “Hungary: Understanding Western Messages,” in Democratic Consolidation in Eastern Europe, Volume 2: International and Transnational Factors, ed. Jan Zielonka and Alex Pravda (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001) 287–290. 19. George Schöpflin, “From Communism to Democracy in Hungary,” in PostCommunist Transition, ed. Bozóki, Körösényi, and Schöpflin, 106. 20. “Az Országgyu˝lés hat pártja parlamenti frakcióinak nyilatkozata a trianoni békeszerzo˝dés aláírása 70. évfordulója alkalmából” [Declaration of the Six Party Factions of Parliament on the Occasion of the 70th Anniversary of the Signing of the Trianon Peace Treaty], June 1, 1990. Reprinted in Mérleg és Számvetés, ed. Tabajdi, 370–371. 21. Speech at the third MDF party congress, “Folytatta munkáját az MDF III. Országos gyu˝lése—Antall József beszéde” [The MDF Continues Its Work]. Reprinted in Háttérinformációk-Dokumentumok: A Szomszédos államokban élo˝ magyarokról. II. Kötet – Kormányprogramok és kormánypolitika 1990-to˝l, ed. Pálné Haraszti (Budapest: Orszaggyu˝lési Könyvtár Képviselo˝ Tájékoztatási Osztály, 2001), 469. 22. “State Secretary for Defence Heads Committee for Re-erection of Trianon Memorial,” Budapest home service, April 2, 1991, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, April 5, 1991. 23. “Prime Minister Calls for Reconsideration of Horthy’s Historical Role,” Hungarian Telegraph Agency (MTA), August 23, 1993, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, August 26, 1993. 24. András György Lengyel, “Szent-Iványi István: alaptalan a nemzetietlenség vádja” [István Szent-Iványi: The Accusation of Being Unnational is Baseless], Magyar Hírlap, September 8, 1992. 25. Michael Shields, “Hungary backs its exiles,” The Independent, August 20, 1992. 26. Judith Tóth, “Diaspora Politics: Programs and Prospects,” in New Diasporas in Hungary, Russia and Ukraine: Legal Regulations and Current Politics, ed. Ilona Kiss and Catherine McGovern (Budapest: Open Society Institute/Constitutional and Legal Policy Institute, 2000) 116. 27. Josef Makai, “Away from Confrontation: Budapest Has Moved to Reassure its Neighbors,” Balkan War Report, no. 29 (October/November 1994): 19. 28. “Open Letter from HDUR Leader Toekes to Parties in Hungary on Coming Elections,” Népszabadság, April 28, 1994, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, May 4, 1994.

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29. Allies of the MDF included organizations such as Co-Existence (Egyettülés) and the Hungarian Christian Democratic Movement (MKDM) in Slovakia, a faction of the Carpathian Hungarian Democratic Alliance (KMDSZ) in Ukraine, and the To˝kés wing of RMDSZ in Romania. 30. Silvia Mihalikova, “The Hungarian Minority in Slovakia: Conflict Over Autonomy,” in Managing Diversity in Plural Societies: Minorities, Migration and Nation-Building in Post-Communist Europe, ed. Magda Opalski (Ontario: Forum Eastern Europe, 1998), 155. 31. “Jeszenszky Géza külügyminiszter válasza az Országgu˝lés ülésszakán.” 32. “Premier Antall Assumes ‘Spiritual’ Leadership of Hungarians Beyond the Borders,” Hungarian TV (Budapest) August 16, 1992, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, August 22, 1992. 33. Valki, “Hungary,” 296. 34. Cabinet Chief Endre Marinovich reiterating Antall’s position. MTI Econews, “Cabinet Chief—Press Reactions to Antall’s Statement,” July 9, 1991; Also see Valki, “Hungary,” 298–299. 35. “Hungarian Premier: Slovakia’s Admission to Council of Europe Should Be Postponed,” as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, Monitoring Report, June 28, 1993. 36. Margit Bessenyey Williams, “European Integration and Minority Rights: The Case of Hungary and Its Neighbors,” in Norms and Nannies: The Impact of International Organizations on the Central and East European States, ed. Ronald H. Linden (Lanham, Boulder: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), 238–239. 37. See “MDF Spokesman Explains Party’s Foreign Policy Line,” Hungarian Radio (Budapest), March 25, 1994, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, March 28, 1994. 38. Milena Anna Vachudova, Europe Undivided: Democracy, Leverage, and Integration after Communism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005) 37–59. 39. George Schöpflin, “The Hungarian Exception? The Quiet National Question,” Balkan War Report, no. 29 (October/November 1994): 17. 40. Valki, “Hungary,” 299. 41. “Kisebbségi program: Az SZDSZ aláírna.” 42. Erin Jenne, Ethnic Bargaining: Democracy, Leverage, and Integration after Communism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 2–6; 45–48; 95. 43. Janusz Bugajski, Nations in Turmoil: Conflict and Cooperation in Eastern Europe (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), 161. 44. Makai, “Away from Confrontation,” 18. 45. Nándor Bárdi, “Cleavages in Cross-Border Magyar Minority Politics, 1989–1998,” Regio: Minorities, Politics, Society 2000: 11. 46. A bilateral treaty on “Good Neighborly Relations” was signed with Ukraine on December 6, 1991, and was preceded by a Declaration of Principles on Guaranteeing the Rights of National Minorities, which was signed on May 31, 1991. The treaty with Ukraine was soon followed by similar agreements with Croatia, Slovenia, and Poland.

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47. Williams, “European Integration and Minority Rights,” 235. 48. István Csurka, “Néhány gondolat a rendszerváltozás elso˝ két esztendeje és az MDF új programja kapcsán,” Magyar Fórum, August 20, 1992. 49. “Tom Lantos Meets the Press in Budapest,” Hungarian News Agency (MTI), as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, September 1, 1992. 50. “Press Conference Indicates Antall-Csurka Reconciliation and Cabinet Reshuffle,” Hungarian Radio (Budapest), January 24, 1993, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, January 27, 1993. 51. SZDSZ representative Balint Magyar, quoted in “HDF National Convention— Opinions,” MTI Hungarian News Agency, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, January 23, 1993. 52. In April 1994, 45.29 percent of those polled considered the MDF most likely to improve the situation of ethnic Hungarians abroad. H. D. Klingemann and Gábor Tóka, “1994 Hungarian Election—Pre-Election Studies 1992–1994,” (codebook, Zentralarchiv für Empirische Sozialforschung, University of Cologne, ZA Study 3056), 174, http://www.gesis.org/en/data_service/eastern_europe/ data/codebook/cb3056.pdf. 53. Ibid., 31. 54. As a contrast, 91.9 percent felt that increasing pensions and social benefits were important. Ibid., 45, 195. 55. Sik and Simonovits, “Jelentés az MTA Kisebbségkutató Intézet Nemzetközi Migráció és Menekültügyi Kutatások Központja,” 12–13. 56. TÁRKI, “Hungary Study in ISSP (International Social Survey Program) 1995 National Identity Survey Codebook,” (Zentralarchiv für Empirische Sozialforschung, University of Cologne, May 1998), http://www.social-sciencegesis.de. 57. Klingemann and Tóka, “1994 Hungarian Election—Pre-Election Studies 1992–1994,” 109, 174. 58. Ibid., 203. 59. “Funeral Speech Praises Antall’s Policy towards Hungarians Abroad,” Duna TV (Budapest), as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, December 21, 1993. 60. “Boross Meets Ethnic Hungarian Leaders,” Hungarian News Agency (MTI), as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, February 11, 1994; “Boross on Hungarians Abroad, Farming Subsidies & the Media,” Hungarian Radio (Budapest), as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, December 29, 1993. 61. The idea of niche emergence comes from Jens Rydgren, “Is Extreme RightWing Populism Contagious? Explaining the Emergence of a New Party Family,” European Journal of Political Research 44, no. 3 (2005): 418. 62. Barnabás Rácz and István Kukorelli, “The ‘Second-Generation’ Post-Communist Elections in Hungary in 1994,” Europe-Asia Studies 47, no. 2 (March 1995): 261. 63. Government of Hungary, “The Programme of the Government of the Republic of Hungary, 1994–1998,” ( July 1994): 91.

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64. Government Resolution no. 1021 of 1995 and no. 104 of 1997. 65. Laws no. 136 (CXXXVI) and 81 (LXXXI). 66. Approximately 1 billion, 324 forints. László Lábody and István Íjgyártó, “Kormánypolitika—pártpolitika—határon túli magyarok” [Government Policy— Party Politics—Hungarians beyond the Border], in Magyarország Politikai Évkönyve 1995–ro˝l, ed. Sándor Kurtán, Péter Sándor, László Vass (Budapest: Demokrácia Kutatások Magyar Központja Közhasznú Alapítvány: 1996), 356. 67. “The Programme of the Government of the Republic of Hungary,” 93. 68. See “A Magyar-Magyar Csúcstalálkozó Közös Nyilatkozata” [Joint Statement of the Hungarian-Hungarian Summit], in A Státustörvény: Dokumentumok, Tanulmányok, Publicisztika [The Status Law: Documents, Essays, Articles], ed. Zoltán Kántor (Budapest: Teleki László Alapítvány, 2002), 159–161. 69. Makai, “Away from Confrontation,” 19. 70. “The Programme of the Government of the Republic of Hungary,” 113. 71. April 13, 1991, edition. Quoted in Mátyás Eörsi, “Egy érzés béklyójában: A státustörvényro˝l” [In the Fetters of a Feeling: About the Status Law], Magyar Narancs, June 28, 2001. Reprinted in A Státustörvény, ed. Kántor, 502–506. 72. Bill Lomax, “The Structure and Organization of Hungary’s Political Parties,” in Party Structure and Organization in East-Central Europe, ed. Paul G. Lewis (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 1996), 36. 73. Csilla Kiss, “From Liberalism to Conservatism: The Federation of Young Democrats in Post-Communist Hungary,” East European Politics and Society 16, no. 3 (2003): 743. 74. Tamás Fricz, “The Orbán Government: An Experiment in Regime Stabilization,” in From Totalitarian to Democratic Hungary: Evolution and Transformation, 1990–2000, ed. Mária Schmidt and László Gy. Tóth (Boulder: Social Science Monographs, 2000), 523. 75. In 1994, Fidesz had only 2.6 percent party membership and 37 regional and local party offices. James Toole, “Straddling the East-West Divide: Party Organization and Communist Legacies in East Central Europe,” Europe-Asia Studies, 55, no. 1 ( January 2003): 105–107. 76. This characterization is attributed to József Torgyán, the leader of the Smallholders’ Party. András Bozóki (Professor of Political Science, Central European University), interview with the author, May 6, 2003; Antal Örkény (Professor of Sociology and Director of the Minority Studies program, Eötvös Lorand University), interview with the author, April 16, 2003. 77. Ivan T. Berend, “Jobbra Át! (Right Face) Right-Wing Trends in Post-Communist Hungary,” in Democracy and Right-Wing Politics in Eastern Europe in the 1990s, ed. Joseph Held (Boulder: East European Monographs, 1993), 122. 78. Kenneth Ka-Lok Chan, “Strands of Conservative Politics in Post-Communist Transitions: Adapting to Europeanization and Democratization,” in Party Development and Democratic Change in Post-Communist Europe, ed. Paul G. Lewis (London, Portland: Frank Cass, 2001), 159–161.

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79. Zsolt Enyedi, “The Role of Agency in Cleavage Formation,” European Journal of Political Research 44, no. 5 (2005), 710. 80. The “gyermekgondozási díj” (also known as the “gyed”), which was a childcare benefit given by the state for each child, and the “gyes” (gyermekgondozási segély), a type of maternity benefit, were both rolled back by the Socialist government, causing a great deal of controversy. 81. Brigid Fowler, “Concentrated Orange: Fidesz and the Remaking of the Hungarian Centre-Right, 1994–2002,” Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics 20, no. 3 (2004): 104–105; and Fricz, “The Orbán Government,” 324. 82. József Szájer, “Van más választás: Polgári Magyarország” [There’s Another Choice: Civic Hungary—Speech Made at the 8th Fidesz Congress, April 19, 1997]. Reprinted in József Szájer, Jogállam, Szabadság, Rendszerváltoztatás: Beszédek, Írások, Dokumentumok, 1987–1997 (Budapest: DAC Alapítvány, 1998), 122–123. 83. Between 1993 and 1997, Gallup polling showed an 18 percent decrease (from 73 to 55 percent) in the number of voters identifying with national feelings. Hungarian Gallup Institute, “Értékrendek és szavazótáborok: Nemzet, vallásosság és tolerancia” [Value Systems and Voter Camps: Nation, Religiosity, and Tolerance] http://www.gallup.hu/Gallup/self/polls/nepszava/nepszava3.html. 84. With the exception of SZDSZ supporters (and MSZP, to a much lesser degree), supporters of all parties became less supportive of strengthening privatization reforms between 1993 and 1997. See Hungarian Gallup Institute, “Generációk, értékek, szavazótáborok” [Generations, values, voter camps], http://www.gallup. hu/Gallup/self/polls/nepszava/nepszava2.html. 85. Gyula Horn, Azok a Kilencvenes Évek . . . [Those 1990s . . .] (Budapest: Kossuth Kiadó, 1999), 36. 86. Quoted in Williams, “European Integration and Minority Rights,” 237. The treaty was finally ratified on June 13, 1995. Slovakia’s parliament took over a year to ratify. 87. Joel Blocker, “Romania/Hungary: Historic Basic Treaty Signed Today” RFE-RL, September 16, 1996. 88. Géza Gecse, “Aláírás után a román-magyar alapszerzo˝désro˝l: Interjú Kovács László külügyminiszterrel” [The Romanian-Hungarian Basic Treaty after Its Signing: Interview with Foreign Minister László Kovács], in Állam és Nemzet a Rendszerváltás Után [State and Nation after the Transition], ed. Géza Gecse (Budapest: Kairosz, 2002), 46–47. 89. “Text of Interview with Hungarian Political State Secretary Csaba Tabajdi by Ferenc Garzo: More Help Instead of Aid—Csaba Tabajdi on National Minority Policy,” Népszava, July 23, 1994, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, July 28, 1994. 90. In Hungarian, Hatpárti Határon Túli Kisebbségi Konzultatív Bizottság. Lábody and Íjgyártó, “Kormánypolitika—pártpolitika—határon túli magyarok,” 357. 91. Horn, Azok a Kilencvenes Évek . . ., 38–40.

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92. Varjú Frigyes, “Pártolandó autonómiatörekvések: Németh Zsolt a liberális és konservatív értékek harmóniájáról, a kormány paternalizmusáról és a határon túli magyarságról” [Supporting Endeavors toward Autonomy: Zsolt Németh on the Harmony of Liberal and Conservative Values, the Paternalism of the Government, and Hungarians beyond the Border], Magyar Nemzet, June 5, 1996. 93. Quoting Fidesz-MPP representative, Zoltán Rockenbauer in Tibor Moldoványi, “Határtalan Érdekeink” [Our Interests Have No Borders], Magyar Nemzet, August 3, 1996. ˝ tényleg csak tíz és fél millió magyar miniszterelnöke: 94. István Bundula, “O Csapody Miklós, az Országgyu˝lés külügyi bizottságának tagja” [He Is Certainly the Prime Minister of Only Ten-and-a-Half Million Hungarians: Miklós Csapody, Member of the Foreign Affairs Committee of Parliament], Magyar Narancs, August 3, 1995. 95. “Hungarian Minister Rejects Opposition Attack over Romania Policy,” Hungarian News Agency (MTI), August 27, 1997, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, August 29, 1997. 96. Lábody and Íjgyártó, “Kormánypolitika—pártpolitika—határon túli magyarok,” 358. 97. Zsuzsa Csergo˝, “Beyond Ethnic Division: Majority-Minority Debate about the Postcommunist State in Romania and Slovakia,” East European Politics and Societies 16, no. 1 (2002): 17. 98. RFE-RL Daily Report,” Slovakia: National Party to Propose Annulment of Treaty with Hungary,” August 1, 1996. 99. Government Office of Hungarian Minorities Abroad, “Report on the Situation of the Hungarians in Romania,” July 1, 2005, http://www.hhrf.org/htmh/ en/?menuid=0404. 100. Attila Ágh, “A Horn-Kormány hintapolitikája” [The Horn Government’s Politics of Opportunism], Magyar Hírlap, August 26, 1996. 101. Coexistence (Együttélés), the Hungarian Christian Democratic Movement (MKDH), and the Hungarian Civic Party (MPP). 102. Ágh, “A Horn-Kormány hintapolitikája.” 103. Interview with Miklos Duray in Népszava. Translated in FBIS-EEU, “Duray Criticizes Hungarian Foreign Ministries,” January 5, 1995. 104. Lábody and Íjgyártó, “Kormánypolitika—pártpolitika—határon túli magyarok,” 359. 105. “Transylvanian Bishop’s Reconciliation Proposals Met Coolly in Hungary,” Rompres news agency (Bucharest), as provided by BBC Monitoring Summary of World Broadcasts, February 19, 1996. 106. “Hungarians from Ukraine Feel Betrayed by Budapest Government,” Hungarian Radio, (Budapest), December 6, 1996, as provided by BBC Monitoring Summary of World Broadcasts, December 9, 1996. 107. “Young Democrats and Ethnic Hungarians in Romania Discuss Reconciliation Process,” Duna TV (Budapest), March 5, 1996, as provided by BBC Monitoring Summary of World Broadcasts, March 6, 1996.

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108. “A Magyar-Magyar Csúcstalálkozó Közös Nyilatkozata,” 159. 109. Népszabadság, “Horn: Támogatjuk a kisebbségek jogvédelmét” [Horn: We Support the Legal Protection of Minorities], July 5, 1996. 110. Attila Ara-Kovács, “Státusigények és leheto˝ségek” [Status Claims and Opportunities], Népszava, November 16, 1999. 111. Karen Dawisha and Stephen Deets, “Political Learning in PostCommunist Elections,” East European Politics and Societies 20, no. 4 (2006): 693. 112. Enyedi, “The Role of Agency in Cleavage Formation,” 699. 113. Fowler, “Concentrated Orange,” 87. Another poll conducted between October and November 1995 showed MSZP and FKGP almost tied in support (14.1 and 13.7 percent, respectively) “if the general election was held next Sunday.” Data from TÁRKI, “Hungary Study in ISSP,” 146. 114. Fowler, “Concentrated Orange,” 90. 115. SZDSZ: 14 to 5 percent undecided; FKGP: 43 to 18 percent; MSZP: 24 to 12 percent. Ibid. 116. Tamás Papp (Office Manager, Hungarian Human Rights Foundation), interview with the author, April 24, 2003; Interview with analyst for Department of Strategic Analysis, Government Office for Hungarian Minorities Abroad, April 28, 2003. 117. Interview with advisor to the Foreign Affairs Committee of the Hungarian Parliament, May 22, 2003. 118. “Hungarian Premier Says Status Law Is ‘National Reunification’ across Borders,” Hungarian Radio, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, October 25, 2001. 119. András Klein, “Néhány gondolat az Orbán-kormány külpolitikájáról” [Some Thoughts about the Orbán Government’s Foreign Policy], Pro Minoritate 7, no. 1 (1999), http://www.hhrf.org/prominoritate/1999/99tel010.htm. 120. Speech by Zsolt Németh in “A határon túli magyarokról szóló törvényjavaslat parlamenti vitája” [Parliamentary Debate about the Draft Law on Hungarians Living in Neighboring Countries], reprinted in A Státustörvény, ed. Kántor, 94–98. 121. Papp, interview. 122. Interview with member of the Secretariat for Minority Affairs, Office of the Prime Minister, May 23, 2003. 123. Interview with analyst for the Department of Strategic Analysis, Government Office for Hungarian Minorities Abroad, April 28, 2003. 124. Zsolt Németh, speaking as the secretary of the Foreign Ministry in front of parliament on March 23, 1999. Session 57, speech 277, http://www.parlament. hu/naplo98/057/n057_277.htm. 125. “Hungarian Forum Discusses Strategy for Ethnic Hungarians,” Duna TV (Budapest), February 21, 1999, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, February 23, 1999. 126. “Ethnic Hungarian Forum Takes Institutional Form,” Hungarian Radio (Budapest), February 21, 1999, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, February 22, 1999.

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Chapter 4 1. Daniel C. Thomas, The Helsinki Effect: International Norms, Human Rights, and the Demise of Communism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), 27–88. 2. Ferenc Váli, “International Minority Protection from the League of Nations to the United Nations,” in The Hungarians: A Divided Nation, ed. Stephen Borsody (New Haven: Yale Center for International and Area Studies, 1988), 111. 3. Quoted in ibid. 4. Ignác Romsics, Hungary in the Twentieth Century (Budapest: Corvina, 1999), 407. 5. Tabajdi, “Több évtizedes hallgatás után,” [After Many Years of Silence] in Mérleg és Számvetés Tizenhárom Év Után: A magyarságpolitikai rendszerváltás kezdete [Balance and Reckoning After Thirteen Years: The Beginning of the Transformation in Ethnic Hungarian Policy], ed. Csaba Tabajdi (Budapest: Codex Print Kft., 2001), 71–72. 6. Imre Szokai and Csaba Tabajdi, “Mai politikánk és a nemzetiségi kérdés” [Our Current Policy and the Nationality Question], Magyar Nemzet, February 13, 1988, reprinted in Tabajdi, ed., Mérleg és Számvetés Tizenhárom Év Után. 7. Ibid. 8. Attila Ágh, “Europeanization of Policy-Making in East Central Europe: The Hungarian Approach to EU Accession,” Journal of European Public Policy 6, no. 5 (1999): 842. 9. Tibor Navracsics, “A Missing Debate? Hungary and the European Union,” (University of Sussex European Institute Working Paper Series 21, 1997), 13–15, http://www.sussex.ac.uk/sei/1-4-10-1.html. 10. Agnes Batory, “The Political Context of EU Accession in Hungary” (working paper, The Royal Institute of International Affairs, European Programme, November 2002), 2–3, http://www.chathamhouse.org.uk/publications/ papers/.../3052_hungarian.pdf. 11. Ágh, “Europeanization of Policy-Making in East Central Europe,” 843. 12. Batory, “The Political Context of EU Accession in Hungary,” 4–5. 13. Judith Tóth, “Connections of Kin minorities to the Kin-state in the Extended Schengen Zone,” in The Hungarian Status Law: Nation-Building and/or Minority Protection, ed. Zoltán Kántor, et al. (Sapporo: Slavic Research Centre, Hokkaido University, 2004), 373–374. 14. Interview with advisor to the President of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and former Vice President of the Government Office for Hungarian Minorities Abroad, May 13, 2003; Interview with public foundation director, May 8, 2003. 15. Péter Kovács, “A schengeni vízumrendszer és a határon túli magyarok” [The Schengen Visa System and the Hungarians Beyond the Border] in Schengen: A magyar-magyar kapcsolatok az uniós vízumrendszer árnyékában [Schengen: Hungarian-Hungarian Relations in the Shadow of the EU Visa System], ed. Judit Tóth (Budapest: Lucidus, 2000), 31–33.

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16. Navracsics, “A Missing Debate?,” 16. 17. “Hungarian Daily Reviews Four Years of EU-Hungarian Relations,” Népszabadság, April 3, 2002, as provided by BBC Monitoring World Reports, April 4, 2002. 18. Zsuzsa Csergo˝ and James M. Goldgeier, “Nationalist Strategies and European Integration,” Perspectives on Politics 2, no. 1 (2004): 28–29. 19. Acquis communautaire refers to all real and potential rights and obligations of EU membership; the accession acquis is the whole body of EU law and practice. 20. Julia Gelatt, “Schengen and the Free Movement of People Across Borders,” Migration Information Source, Migration Policy Institute (October 1, 2005), http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/print.cfm?ID=338. 21. Heather Grabbe, “The Sharp Edges of Europe: Security Implications of Extending EU Border Policies Eastwards” (The Institute for Security Studies, Western European Union, Occasional Papers 13, March 2000), 10–11, http:// www.iss.europa.eu/nc/actualites/actualite/browse/62/article/the-sharp-edges-ofeurope-security-implicationsbrof-extending-eu-borders-policies-eastwards/. 22. Giuliano Amato and Judy Batt, “The Long-Term Implications of EU Enlargement: The Nature of the New Border” (report, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, European University Institute with The Forward Studies Unit, European Commission, April 1999), 56–58. 23. “Hungarian Foreign Minister Explains “Tough” Talks with EU, Regional Policy,” TV1 (Budapest), July 12, 1998, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, July 13, 1998. 24. Judit Tóth, “The Application of Justice and Home Affairs and the Position of Minorities: The Case of Hungarian Minorities,” (Centre for European Policy Studies Policy Brief no. 18, March 2002), 7, http://www.ceps.be/book/ application-justice-and-home-affairs-and-position-minorities-case-hungary. 25. János Hargitai, Fidesz representative and then speaker of the Budget and Economic Affairs Committee of Parliament in “A határon túli magyarokról szóló törvényjavaslat parlamenti vitája” [Parliamentary Debate about the Draft Law on Hungarians Living in Neighboring Countries] in A Státustörvény: Dokumentumok, Tanulmányok, Publicisztika [The Status Law: Documents, Essays, Articles], ed. Zoltán Kántor (Budapest: Teleki László Alapítvány, 2002), 87–88. 26. Zsuzsa Csergo˝ and James M. Goldgeier, “Virtual Nationalism,” Foreign Policy no. 125, ( July/August 2001): 77–78. 27. Barna Bodó, “Schengen—The Challenge,” Minorities Research no. 3 (1999), http://www.hhrf.org/kisebbsegkutatas/mr_03/cikk.php?id=1237. 28. “Editor’s forward” in Tóth, ed. Schengen: A magyar-magyar kapcsolatok az uniós vízumrendszer árnyékában, 10. 29. Tibor Szabó, “Az anyaország és a határon túli magyar közösség közötti jogviszony kiépítésének elso˝ lépése” [The First Step in Building a Legal Relationship Between the Mother Country and the Communities of Hungarians Beyond the Border]. Reprinted in Zoltán Kántor, ed., A Státustörvény: Dokumentumok, Tanulmányok, Publicisztika (Budapest: Teleki László Alapítvány, 2002), 51–52.

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30. György Csepeli and Antal Örkény, “The Changing Facets of Hungarian Nationalism,” Social Research, no. 63 (1996): 280. 31. Antal Örkény (Professor of Sociology and Director of the Minority Studies program, Eötvös Lorand University), interview with the author, April 16, 2003. 32. Imre Borbély, “Külhoni magyarok—Egy nemzetpolitikai szükségmegoldás” [External Hungarians: A Nation Policy Stop-Gap Measure] Magyar Demokrata no. 37–40 (2000), http://www.demokrata.hu/. 33. “Vita a Ketto˝s Állampolgárságról: Interjú Csoóri Sándorral, a Magyarok Világszövetsége elnökével, 1998 április 12” [Debate about Dual Citizenship: Interview with Sándor Csoóri, the President of the World Federation of Hungarians, April 12, 1998] in Géza Gecse, ed., Állam és Nemzet a Rendszerváltás Után (Budapest: Kairosz, 2002), 75. 34. Fidesz representative László Németh in “A Ketto˝s Állampolgárságról: Kerekasztal, 1998 április 19,” 79–80. 35. István Benyhe, “Ketto˝s állampolgárság a Kárpát-medencében?” [Dual Citizenship in the Carpathian Basin?] Magyar Kisebbség 2–3, no. 16–17 (1999), http:// www.jakabffy.ro/magyarkisebbseg/index.php?action=cimek&lapid=12&cikk=m 990201.htm. 36. Gyula Horn, Azok a Kilencvenes Évek . . . (Budapest: Kossuth Kiadó, 1999), 366. 37. “Demand of Dual Citizenship for Ethnic Hungarians “Unfeasible”—Foreign Minister,” Hungarian Radio (Budapest), April 6, 1998, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, April 7, 1998. 38. “Citizenship by Declaration of Hungarian Origin Political Nonsense—Minister,” MTI News Agency (Budapest), March 22, 1999, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, March 24, 1999. 39. Erika Törzsök, “Látványpolitika” [A Politics of Appearances], Élet és Irodalom, January 4, 2002. 40. “Ethnic Hungarian Party Branch Criticizes Leadership over Dual Citizenship,” Duna TV (Budapest), April 17, 1998, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, April 29, 1998. 41. “Ethnic Hungarians Change Their Minds over Dual Citizenship Demand,” Hungarian Radio (Budapest), April 7, 1998, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, April 9, 1998. 42. Miklós Patrubány, “Tervezet a külhoni magyar állampolgárság jogintézményének alkotmányos létrehozása: Patrubány Miklós, a Magyarok Világszövetségének elnökének ajánlása, 2000 augusztus 20” [Plan for the Constitutional Creation of the Legal Institutions of Foreign Hungarian Citizenship: Recommendation of Miklós Patrubány, President of the World Federation of Hungarians, August 20, 2000]. Reprinted in A Státustörvény: Dokumentumok, Tanulmányok, Publicisztika, ed. Kántor, 38–44. 43. Borbély, “Külhoni magyarok.” 44. Gecse, “A Ketto˝s Állampolgárságról: Kerekasztal, 1998 április 19” [About Dual Citizenship: Roundtable, April 18, 1999] in Állam és Nemzet a Rendszerváltás Után [State and Nation after the Transition], ed. Géza Gecse (Budapest: Kairosz, 2002).

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45. Janos Mártonyi in “A határon túli magyarokról szóló törvényjavaslat parlamenti vitája,” 78–79. 46. Jon E. Fox, “National Identities on the Move: Transylvanian Hungarian Labour Migrants in Hungary,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 29, no. 3: 461. 47. Speech by Dr. László Pósán of the Foreign Affairs Committee in “A határon túli magyarokról szóló törvényjavaslat parlamenti vitája,” 81–82. 48. Attila Melegh, “Globalization, Nationalism, and Petite Imperialism,” Romanian Journal of Society and Politics 2, no. 1 (2003): 120. 49. János Kis, “The Status Law: Hungary at the Crossroads,” in The Status Law Syndrome, ed. Kántor, et al., 154–156. 50. Judit Tóth (Professor of Law, Szeged University, former government advisor on immigration and minority issues), interview with the author, April 12, 2003. 51. Csaba Tabajdi, “Tájékoztató a szomszédos államokban élo˝ magyarokról szóló törvény tervezetéro˝l” [Information About the Draft Law on Hungarians Living in Neighboring Countries] in A Státustörvény: Dokumentumok, Tanulmányok, Publicisztika, ed. Kántor, 122–123. 52. Szabó, “Az anyaország és a határon túli magyar közösség közötti jogviszony kiépítésének elso˝ lépése,” 48–49. 53. Csaba Tabajdi, “A kedvezménytörvény értékelése” [Evaluation of the Benefit Law] in A Státustörvény: Dokumentumok, Tanulmányok, Publicisztika, ed. Kántor, 126. 54. László Veress, “Határon túli támogatások—elmélet és gyakorlat” [Cross-Border Subsidies—Theory and Practice] in Kántor, A Státustörvény: Elo˝zmények és körülmények [The Status Law: Precedents and consequences], ed. Zoltán Kántor (Budapest: Teleki László Alapítvány, 2002), 129–130. 55. Interview with director of public foundation for Hungarian cross-border support, May 8, 2003. 56. Hargitai speech in “A határon túli magyarokról szóló törvényjavaslat parlamenti vitája,” 87. 57. This is how Orbán’s move was described by Csaba Tabajdi, an MSZP parliamentary representative, and the Socialists’ head of minority issues. Quoted in “Hungary: End-of-Year Interview with Premier on All-Hungarian Policy,” Duna TV (Budapest), December 17, 2000, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, December 18, 2000. 58. Adrian Nastase, Protecting Minorities in the Future Europe: Between Political Interest and International Law (Bucharest: Monitorul Oficial, 2002), 47–49. 59. I thank Judit Tóth for her insights on this point. 60. Interview with advisor to the Foreign Affairs Committee of the Hungarian Parliament, May 22, 2003. 61. Szabó, “Az anyaország és a határon túli magyar közösség közötti jogviszony kiépítésének elso˝ lépése,” 50. 62. Martonyi speech in “A határon túli magyarokról szóló törvényjavaslat parlamenti vitája,” 80. 63. Interview with analyst for the Department of Strategic Analysis, Government Office for Hungarian Minorities Abroad, April 28, 2003. 64. Interview with public foundation director, May 8, 2003.

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65. Judith Tóth, “Pulling the Wool over Hungarians’ Eyes,” Regio: Minorities, Politics, Society (2002): 137. 66. Tabajdi, “Tájékoztató a szomszédos államokban élo˝ magyarokról szóló törvény tervezetéro˝l,” 123–124. Also see Zoltán Kántor, “A státustörvény és a magyar nemzetpolitika” [The Status Law and Hungarian National Politics] Provincia 2, no. 5 (2001), http://kantor.adatbank.transindex.ro/belso.php?k=32& p=2997. 67. Tóth, “Pulling the Wool over Hungarians’ Eyes,” 150. 68. Interview with public foundation director, May 8, 2003. 69. Tóth, “Pulling the Wool over Hungarians’ Eyes,” 133. 70. Tabajdi, “Tájékoztató a szomszédos államokban élo˝ magyarokról szóló törvény tervezetéro˝l,” 121. 71. Speech given on March 23, 1999, session 57, speech 289, http://www.parlament. hu/internet/plsql/ogy_naplo.naplo_fadat_aktus?p_ckl=36&p_uln=57&p_ felsz=274&p_felszig=290&p_aktus=50. 72. “A határon túli magyarokról szóló törvényjavaslat parlamenti vitája,” 96. 73. “Outgoing Hungarian Prime Minister Sums up Results, Says Farewell,” TV2 (Budapest), May 15, 2002, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, May 16, 2002. 74. Miklós Bakk, “Egy törvény és jövo˝képei” [A Law and Its Future Prospects] Provincia 2, no. 5 (2001), http://epa.oszk.hu/00200/00266/00012/c000236. html. 75. Ibid. 76. Zoltán Tibori Szabó, “RMDSZ: szakítópróba—Mítosszá válhat a romániai magyarok egységes politikai képviselete” [RMDSZ: Trial Separation—The Romanian Hungarians’ Unified Political Position May Become a Myth] Népszabadság, August 14, 2002. 77. Mátyás Eörsi (Deputy Leader SZDSZ Parliamentary Group), interview with the author, April 9, 2003. 78. Tabajdi, “A kedvezménytörvény értékelése,” 129. 79. See Zoltán Kántor, “Re-institutionalizing the Nation,” Regio: Minorities, Politics, Society 8 (2005): 46–48. 80. From the documentary film by Gábor Ferenczi, “Magyar Igazolvány” [Hungarian Certificate] (Budapest: 2003). 81. Egry, “Státustörvény és nemzetpolitikai stratégiák.” Also see Traian S¸tef, “Magyar igazolvány” [Hungarian certificate] Provincia 2, no. 5 (2001), http:// epa.oszk.hu/00200/00266/00012/c000234.html. 82. Most studies in fact conclude that there was little incentive for laborers to apply for the work permits associated with the Status Law, as it was cheaper and easier to continue working illegally in Hungary. See Antal Örkény, ed., Menni vagy Maradni? Kedvezménytörvény és migrácios várakozások [To Go or to Stay? The Benefit Law and Migration Expectations] (Budapest: MTA, 2003). 83. Törzsök, “Látványpolitika.” 84. Quoted in Kántor, “A státustörvény és a magyar nemzetpolitika.”

Notes 85. 86. 87. 88.

89. 90.

91.

92.

93. 94. 95.

96. 97.

98. 99. 100.

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See Szabó, “RMDSZ: szakítópróba.” Tabajdi, “A kedvezménytörvény értékelése,” 126. Eörsi, interview. Csurka’s speech during the April 21, 2001, general parliamentary debate on the Status Law draft. “A határon túli magyarokról szóló törvényjavaslat parlamenti vitája,” 118–119. Michael J. Jordan, “Despite Austrian Uproar, Hungary Courts Far-Right,” The Christian Science Monitor, February 24, 2000. Miklos Haraszti, “The Real Viktor Orbán,” openDemocracy, May 1, 2002, http://www.opendemocracy.net/debates/article.jsp?id=3&debateId=55&article Id=358. Interview with advisor to the president of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and former vice president of the Government Office for Hungarian Minorities Abroad, May 13, 2003. For example, Law No. 70/1997 on Expatriate Slovaks and Changing and Complementing Some Laws and Law 150/1998 Regarding the Support Granted to the Romanian Communities from All Over the World. For a good comparison of these and other similar laws see Brigid Fowler, “Fuzzing Citizenship, Nationalizing Political Space: A Framework for Interpreting the Hungarian ‘Status Law’ as a New Form of Kin-State Policy in Central and Eastern Europe,” ESRC One Europe or Several? Working Paper Series 40, no. 2 (2002), http://www.one-europe.ac.uk/pdf/w40fowler.pdf. András Klein, “Néhány gondolat az Orbán-kormány külpolitikájáról,” Pro Minoritate 7, no. 1 (1999), http://www.hhrf.org/prominoritate/1999/99tel010.htm. Tamás Papp (Office Manager, Hungarian Human Rights Foundation), interview with the author, April 24, 2003. Venice Commission, “Report on the Preferential Treatment of National Minorities by their Kin-State,” (Venice Commission at its 48th Plenary Meeting, October 19–20, 2001), 2, http://venice.coe.int/docs/2001/CDLINF(2001)019-e.html. László Sólyom, “What Did the Venice Commission Actually Say?,” in The Status Law Syndrome, ed. Kántor, et al., 365–370. Quoted in Walter Kemp, “Applying the Nationality Principle: Handle with Care,” Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe, no. 4 (2002), 12, http://www.ecmi.de/jemie/download/Focus4-2002_Kemp_Kymlicka.pdf. Speech by Zsolt Németh in “A határon túli magyarokról szóló törvényjavaslat parlamenti vitája,” 97–98. Kemp, “Applying the Nationality Principle: Handle with Care,” 13. “Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of the Republic of Hungary and the Government of Romania concerning the Law on Hungarians Living in Neighbouring Countries and Issues of Bilateral Co-Operation.” Reprinted in The Hungarian Status Law, ed. Kántor, 546–550. RFE/RL Newsline, “Hungary’s Socialists Slam Status Law Memorandum,” 6, no. 3, Part II (7 January 2002); László Szo˝cs, “Hungary: On the Books” Transitions On Line, 18 December–7 January, 2001, http://www.tol.cz.

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102. Office of Hungarian Minorities Abroad, “Összefoglaló a Balázs Ferenc Intézet által a magyarországi lakosság határon túli magyarsághoz való viszonyról 2001 novemberében végzett szociológiai kutatásról” [Summary of the Sociological Research Conducted in November 2001 about the Relationship of the Hungarian Population to the Hungarians beyond the Border by the Ferenc Balázs Institute], http://www.hhrf.org/htmh/?menuid=040201&news014_id=1081. 103. Poll numbers from Socio Balance survey conducted in April 2001. Summary of poll in “A törvény létrejöttének kronológiája” [A Chronology of How the Law Came About], in A Státustörvény, ed. Kántor, 586. 104. Hungarian Gallup Institute, “Pártpreferenciák szerint változik as Orbán-Nastase megállapodás megítélése” [Opinion of Orbán-Nastase Agreement Fluctuates According to Party Preference], January 21, 2002, http://www.gallup.hu/Gallup/ release/nastase020121.html. 105. Approximately 700,000 people applied for a certificate in Romania alone by 2003.

Chapter 5 1. László Kövér, “The Choice of the 21st Century,” Magyarország Politikai Évkönyve 2002-ro˝l, eds. Sándor Kurtán, Péter Sándor, and László Vass (Budapest: Demokrácia Kutatások Magyar Központja Közhasznú Alapítvány, 2003), CD-ROM. 2. Agnes Batory, “Election Briefing No. 1: Europe and the April 2002 Hungarian Parliamentary Elections” (working paper, European Parties Elections and Referendums Network, Royal Institute of International Affairs), 3, http:// www.sussex.ac.uk/sei/documents/paper1hungary.pdf. 3. József Debreceni, “From Heaven to Earth—Viktor Orbán in 2002,” in Magyarország Politikai Évkönyve 2002-ro˝l. 4. Gábor Gavra, “A Fidesz és a népszavazás: Vissza a petícióhoz” [Fidesz and the Referendum: Back to the Petition] Magyar Narancs (December 16, 2004). 5. Debreceni, “From Heaven to Earth.” 6. Gábor Halmai, “The Swamps of Neoliberal Hegemony: Polgári Körök in “Transitional” Hungary,” in Crises and Conflicts in Post-Socialist Societies: The Role of Ethnic, Political and Social Identities, ed. S. Fischer and H. Pleines (Stuttgart: Ibidem, 2008), 103–114. 7. Viktor Orbán speech, Dísz Tér, Budapest, May 7, 2002, http://polgari-kor.hu. Author’s translation. 8. Gábor Halmai, “Nationalist Frames as “Stimulant Anesthetics”: The Hungarian Case of Right-wing Anti-Liberalism” (master’s thesis, Department of Sociology & Social Anthropology, Central European University, Budapest, 2004), 41–42. 9. Hungary’s EU membership was overwhelmingly approved in an April 2003 referendum. Turnout, however, was only 46 percent. 10. Parliament of the Hungarian Republic, Act 57 of 2003 on amendments of Act 62 of 2001.

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11. Tibor Löffler, “Flexible Separation,” Magyarország Politikai Évkönyve 2002-ro˝l. 12. Former MDF vice-president Csaba Hende even became one of the main leaders of the Civic Circles organization. Ágnes Tolnai, “The Formation of Civic Circles and Their Main Activities in 2002,” Magyarország Politikai Évkönyve 2002-ro˝l. 13. “For a normal Hungary” eventually became one of the MDF’s campaign slogans. 14. Ibolya Dávid, “Konservatív Kiáltvány” [Conservative Manifesto] Népszabadság, June 9, 2004). 15. Lájos Pogonyi, “Nem fideszes szemfényvesztés” [It’s Not Fidesz Trickery: Interview with Dávid Kovács] Népszabadság, October 30, 2003. 16. Available at http://www.jobbik.com. 17. András Tóth, “Settling With the Past: The Agent Affair in 2002,” Magyarország Politikai Évkönyve 2002-ro˝l. 18. Lájos Pogonyi, “Nem volt világos stratégiánk—mondja Bogár László, an Orbánkormány volt politikai államtitkára” [We Didn’t Have a Clear Strategy—Says László Bogár, the Former Political Secretary for the Orbán Government] Népszabadság, January 4, 2003. 19. Gavra, “A Fidesz és a népszavazás.” 20. Gabriela Ilonszki and Sándor Kurtán, “Hungary 2004,” European Journal of Political Research 44 (2005): 1037. 21. Gavra, “A Fidesz és a népszavazás.” 22. See Chapter 1, note 4, for full text of question on ballot. 23. Maria M. Kovács, “The Politics of Non-Resident Dual Citizenship in Hungary,” Citizenship Studies 10, no. 4 (2006): 62. 24. Zoltán Kántor and Balázs Majtényi, “A Ketto˝s állampolgárság—népszavazás, politikai vita, érvek” [Dual Citizenship—Referendum, Political Debate, Principles], in Romániai Magyar Évkönyv 2004/2005, ed. Bodó Barna (Temesvár: SzórványAlapítvány-Marineasa Kiadó, 2005), http://kantor.adatbank.transindex.ro/belso. php?k=32&p=3535. 25. Gavra, “A Fidesz és a népszavazás.” 26. Ibid. 27. Kántor and Majtényi, “A Ketto˝s állampolgárság.” 28. Zsolt Németh, “Ketto˝s állampolgárság és nemzeti deficit” [Dual Citizenship and National Deficit], Magyar Nemzet, November 11, 2004. 29. Gábor Harrach, “Népszavazás elött” [Before the Referendum], Népszabadság, September 22, 2004. The article posited that without dual citizenship, of the 35–50 percent of the ethnic Hungarians in the various communities who were favorable to resettlement, only about 3–5 percent were determined to do so at any cost. 30. MSZP campaign material: “Ön szerint a magyar munkaero˝piac fel tudja venni az új álláskereso˝k tömeget? A felelo˝s döntés: 2x nem.” (2005-9-2-23) [“Do you think the Hungarian labor market can absorb a swarm of new job seekers? The responsible decision: Vote no.”] From Magyarország Politikai Évkönyve 2005-ro˝l.

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31. Kántor and Majtényi, “A Ketto˝s állampolgárság.” 32. Németh, “Ketto˝s állampolgárság és nemzeti deficit.” 33. László J. Kulcsár and Cristina Bradatan, “Politics without Frontiers: The Impact of Hungarian Domestic Politics on the Minority Question in Romania,” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 40 (2007): 311. 34. Mária Kovács calculates that 81 percent of the Hungarian electorate either failed to participate or voted “no.” Kovács, “The Politics of Non-resident Dual Citizenship in Hungary,” 59. 35. Gavra, “A Fidesz és a népszavazás.” 36. Zoltán Kántor, “Nemzetpolitika, 2005,” in Magyarország politikai évkönyve 2005-ro˝l, 598–607. 37. This description of diaspora policy in M. László Feren, “Átalakuló nemzetpolitika” [Nation Policy Being Transformed] Magyar Narancs 19, no. 10 (March 8, 2007), quoting a source in the Prime Minister’s Office. 38. Kántor, “Nemzetpolitika, 2005,” 601. 39. Nándor Bárdi, “A Szükség mint esély: Lehetséges-e a magyarságpolitikát szakágazatként elgondolni? (I)” [Necessity as Opportunity: Is it Possible to Imagine Diaspora Policy as a Professional Field? Part I] Kommentár no. 5, 2006: 43. 40. Feren, “Átalakuló nemzetpolitika.” 41. Judit Simon and László Szu˝cs, “Stratégiaváltás és intézményi reform a magyar nemzetpolitikában” [Change of Strategy and Institutional Reform in Hungarian Nation Policy] Erdélyi Riport, May 3, 2007. 42. Quoted in László Mihály, “A tét most a felzárkózás vagy a leszakadás” [The Stakes Now are Joining Together or Falling Behind], Új Magyar Szó, March 22, 2007. 43. Erika Törzsök, “Kiszabadulva a félelem fogságából” [Escaping from the Prison of Fear] Európai Tükör 9, no. 4–5 ( July–August 2004): 20–21, http://www.mfa. gov.hu/NR/rdonlyres/DAE9710C.../0/eutukor_2004045.pdf. 44. Feren, “Átalakuló nemzetpolitika.” 45. Attila Z. Papp, “Oktatási támogatások a határon túli magyar közösségeknek, 2003–2006,” Educatio 1 (2006), http://www.mtaki.hu/docs/kulkapcsolati_ strategia/papp_z_attila_oktatasi_tamogatasok_educatio_2006.pdf. 46. Törzsök, “Kiszabadulva a félelem fogságából,” 21. 47. Nándor Bárdi, “Magyar-magyar párbeszéd a támogatáspolitikáról, 2004–2007” [Hungarian-Hungarian Dialogue about Support Policy] Regio: kisebbség, politika, társadalom 18, no. 4 (2007): 133–134, http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00036/00068/ pdf/128-164.pdf. 48. Törzsök, “Kiszabadulva a félelem fogságából,” 21–22. 49. Interview with Zsolt Németh, “Ethnic Kin Politics Earns No Votes in Hungary— Opposition Spokesman,” Hungarian TV M2 (Budapest), April 8, 2004, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, April 8, 2004. 50. Bárdi, “Magyar-magyar párbeszéd a támogatáspolitikáról,” 136. 51. Law II/2005, amended April 2005, http://www.szulofold.hu. 52. Kántor, “Nemzetpolitika, 2005,” 600. 53. The Government of Hungary, “Hungary’s Renewed Nation Policy,” http://mfa. gov.hu/kum/en/bal/Archivum/Archives/nation_policy_affairs.htm.

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54. Simon and Szu˝cs, “Stratégiaváltás és intézményi reform a magyar nemzetpolitikában.” 55. Implementation and competitive funding decisions would then be made by the three expert policy panels. See interview with Ferenc Gémesi, state secretary responsible for foreign policy and nation policy of the Prime Minister’s Office in Boróka Parászka, “Határon túli politikán túl, nemzetpolitikán innen” [Beyond the Border, beyond Politics, within Nation Policy] A Hét, July 13, 2006. 56. Transcript of press conference by Ferenc Gémesi on July 12, 2007. “Ferenc Gémesi: megújult a nemzetpolitika” [Ferenc Gémesi: Nemzet Policy Renewed], http://www.nemzetpolitika.gov.hu/id-471-gemesi_ferenc_megujult_a_ nemzetpolitika.html. 57. Kántor, “Nemzetpolitika, 2005,” 602. 58. Budapest Analyses, “Hungarian Organisations beyond the Border Seek Emancipation from Hungary,” no. 59 ( January 31, 2005); Budapest Analyses, “The Nation Policy Concept of Katalin Szili,” no. 168 (October 9, 2007), http://www.budapestanalyses.hu/. 59. Hungarian News Agency (MTI), “Update—Hungary Ready to Review Parl Resolution on Carpathian Basin Hun Deputies,” February 17, 2009, http:// www.lexisnexis.com. 60. Feren, “Átalakuló nemzetpolitika.” 61. Simon and Szu˝cs, “Stratégiaváltás és intézményi reform a magyar nemzetpolitikában.” 62. Törzsök, “Kiszabadulva a félelem fogságából,” 18–19. 63. Bárdi, “Magyar-magyar párbeszéd a támogatáspolitikáról,” 150. 64. Gémesi, “Megújult a nemzetpolitika.” 65. Government of Hungary, “Hungary’s Renewed Nation Policy.” 66. Törzsök, “Kiszabadulva a félelem fogságából,” 22. 67. This visa, however, has also been referred to as the “Grandmother Visa,” because it is perceived as mostly useful for older members of the diaspora communities who want to visit their families in Hungary. “Use of Hungary’s ‘National Visas’ for Schengen Entry Explained,” Kossuth Radio (Budapest), October 6, 2005, as provided by BBC Monitoring Europe, October 6, 2005. 68. Mátyás Szu˝rös, “Gyengeség és lagymatagság a nemzetpolitikában” [Weakness and Wishiwashiness in Nation Policy] Magyar Nemzet, August 16, 2004. 69. Kántor, “Nemzetpolitika, 2005,” 601. 70. Bárdi, “Magyar-magyar párbeszéd a támogatáspolitikáról,” 150–152. 71. Törzsök, “Kiszabadulva a félelem fogságából,” 24. 72. Speech given on January 16, 2005. Quoted in Bárdi, “A Szükség mint esély 1,” 50–51. 73. Quoted in Mihály, “A tét most a felzárkózás vagy a leszakadás.” 74. Törzsök, “Kiszabadulva a félelem fogságából,” 26. 75. Erika Törzsök, “Színes szo˝ttest: avagy milyen kisebbségpolitikára van szükség?” [What Kind of Minority Policy is Needed?] Élet és Irodalom, 50, no. 20 (May 19, 2006), http://www.es.hu/index.php?view=doc;13442. 76. Gémesi, “Megújult a nemzetpolitika.”

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77. Government of Hungary, “National Responsibility Program,” January 2005, http://www.hhrf.org/htmh/en/?menuid=0401. 78. Törzsök, “Kiszabadulva a félelem fogságából,” 19. 79. Törzsök, “Színes szo˝ttest.” 80. Boróka Parászka, “A nagy közös lehívás—Magar-román tájékozatlanság és félelmek” [Hungarian-Romanian Ignorance and Fears] Népszabadság, June 9, 2007. 81. Mihály, “A tét most a felzárkózás vagy a leszakadás.” 82. Törzsök, “Kiszabadulva a félelem fogságából,” 24–25. 83. Decree 1128 of 2004. Government of Hungary, “National Responsibility Program.” 84. Feren, “Átalakuló nemzetpolitika.” 85. “Magyar-magyar tervek az uniós fejlesztéspolitikáról” [Hungarian-Hungarian Plans about the EU’s Development Policy] Erdély Ma, March 22, 2007; Tibor Kis, “A határok megszu˝nnek, utak kellenek—Magyar-Szlovák regionális fejlesztési tervek” [Hungarian-Slovak Regional Development Plans] Népszabadság, June 11, 2007. 86. Via a number of “Development Policy Information Days” (Fejlesztéspolitikai információs napok) organized by the National Development Agency and the Department for Nation Policy Matters of the Prime Minister’s Office. See “Erdélyben több helyi fórumon ismertetik a magyar kormány új nemzetpolitikáját” [More Local Forums in Erdély to Acquaint People with the Hungarian Government’s New Nation Policy] Vajdaság Ma, April 25, 2007. 87. Interviewed in Simon and Szu˝cs, “Stratégiaváltás és intézményi reform a magyar nemzetpolitikában.” 88. “Hungary Seen Disadvantaged by “Cumbersome” EU’s Stance on Minority Rights [Commentary by Lajos Keresztes, historian and journalist],” Magyar Nemzet, November 3, 2009, as provided by BBC Monitoring Europe, November 5, 2009. 89. Quoting Sándor Csegzi, the vice mayor of Marosvásarhély in Mihály, “A tét most a felzárkózás vagy a leszakadás.” 90. According to Bárdi, 4000–5000 institutions. “Magyar-magyar párbeszéd a támogatáspolitikáról,” 151. 91. Kántor, “Nemzetpolitika, 2005,” 602. 92. Zoltán A. Biró, associate of the Regional and Anthropological Research Center, quoted in Mihály, “A tét most a felzárkózás vagy a leszakadás.” 93. Anna Grzymała-Busse, Rebuilding Leviathan: Party Competition and State Exploitation in Post-Communist Democracies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 1–3. 94. This shows a 3.5 percent total decrease in funding from 2001 to 2007. However, 2001 numbers reflect funding for the HTMH and MVSZ, neither of which appear in the 2007 numbers. 2007 numbers from Government of Hungary, Office of the Prime Minister, Department of Nation Policy Matters, “Jelentés a Külhoni Magyarság Helyzetéro˝l” [Report on the Situation of External Hungarians] (Budapest: 2008), 129–133, http://nemzetpolitika.gov.hu.

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95. “Six More Months—Opinion Poll for Heti Valasz by Perspective Institute,” Heti Válasz, October 29, 2009, http//:hetivalasz.hu/english_hungary/six-moremonths-opinion-poll-for-heti-valasz-25939/. 96. David Ost, The Defeat of Solidarity: Anger and Politics in Postcommunist Europe (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2005) 34–39; Anna GrzymałaBusse and Abby Innes, “Great Expectations: The EU and Domestic Political Competition in East Central Europe,” East European Politics and Societies 17, no. 1 (2003): 64–73. 97. Bela Greskovits, “Economic Woes and Political Disaffection,” East European Politics and Societies 18, no. 4 (October 2007): 40–46. 98. “Magyarország a magyaroké! A Jobbik programja a magyar érdek védelmében, a Nemzetek Európája megteremtéséért” [Hungary for the Hungarians!: The Jobbik Program for the Creation of a Europe of Nations, in the Protection of Hungarian Interests], March 2009, 22–25, http://www.jobbik.hu/sites/jobbik. hu/down/Jobbik-program2009EP.pdf.

Chapter 6 1. Tim Snyder, “The Poles: Western Aspirations, Eastern Minorities,” in Nations Abroad: Diaspora Politics and International Relations in the Former Soviet Union, ed. Charles King and Neil J. Melvin Boulder. CO; Oxford, UK: Westview Press, 1998), 185. 2. This includes about 230,000 Poles in Lithuania, 200,000 in Ukraine, and between 350,000 and 400,000 in Belarus. 3. Stephen R. Burant, “International Relations in a Regional Context: Poland and its Eastern Neighbours,” Europe-Asia Studies 45, no. 3 (1993): 397. 4. The Polish Senate, the lower house of parliament with little independent legislative power, was designated as the main body in charge of relations with the diaspora and given control of the budget to support Poles abroad. One of the permanent Senate committees deals with Emigration and Contacts with Poles Abroad. Polish Communities Abroad Office, “Involvement of the Senate of the Third Republic of Poland in the Life of Poles Abroad,” http://www.senat.gov. pl/k7eng/historia/e14polonia.pdf. 5. Andre Liebich, “Altneuländer or the Vicissitudes of Citizenship in the New EU States,” (Commission for Migration and Integration Research Working Paper Series, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, 2005, no. 5), 12, www.oeaw. ac.at/kmi/bilder/kmi_wp5.pdf. 6. Polish News Bulletin, “Polish-Ukrainian Treaty Protested,” March 25, 1992, http://www.lexisnexis.com. 7. Snyder, “The Poles,” 197. 8. Dariusz Fedor, “Another Repatriation from Soviet Union Possible,” Polish News Bulletin, May 20, 1991, http://www.lexisnexis.com. 9. Prime Minister Hanna Suchocka speaking at the Congress of Poles and Polish Communities Abroad, held in Krakow, Poland, August 19, 1992. Quoted in

198

10.

11. 12. 13. 14.

15. 16.

17.

18.

19. 20.

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

26.

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Polish Press Agency, “Congress of Poles and Polish Communities Abroad Open in Cracow,” August 21, 1992, http://www.lexisnexis.com. For example, statements by Prime Minister Waldemar Pawlak, Polish Press Agency, “PM Says Mass Repatriation From Kazakhstan Unlikely,” September 25, 1994, and later by Prime Minister Leszek Miller, Polish News Bulletin, “Repatriates Await Citizenship,” May 13, 1997, http://www.lexisnexis.com. From September 1996 to December 1997, 334 families repatriate, the majority from Kazakhstan. Polish News Bulletin, “New Law on Foreigners,” January 13, 1998, http://www. lexisnexis.com. Polish News Agency, “Repatriates Dissatisfied with Conditions in Poland,” April 23, 1999. 10 million złotys, about US$2.4 million. Polish News Agency News Wire, “Budget Envisages 2.4 M USD for Repatriation Process,” September 22, 1999, http://www.lexisnexis.com. Polish News Bulletin, “Sejm Approves Repatriation Bill for Wartime Exiles and Kin,” July 3, 2000, http://www.lexisnexis.com. Ryszard Czarnekci of the Christian-National Union party (ZChN). Quoted in Polish News Agency News Wire, “Sejm Adopts Repatriation Law,” July 20, 2000, http://www.lexisnexis.com. Krystyna Iglicka, “EU Membership Highlights Poland’s Migration Challenges,” Migration Information Source (April 2005), Table 1, http://www.migration information.org/feature/print.cfm?ID=302. Officially known as the Procedure of Recognition of the Membership in the Polish Nation or of Polish Origin Bill. See “Poles Living Abroad: A Pole’s Card for Immigrants?,” The Warsaw Voice, September 20, 1999. Armenia, Azerbaijan, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Agata Górny, et al., “Selective Tolerance? Regulations, Practice and Discussions Regarding Dual Citizenship in Poland,” in Dual Citizenship in Europe: From Nationhood to Societal Integration, ed. Thomas Faist (Hampshire, UK: Ashgate, 2007), 147–169. Ibid., 158–163. “Poles Living Abroad.” Górny, et al., “Selective Tolerance?,” 158–160. Longin Pastusiak, “The Senate and the Polish Diaspora,” http://www. sprawymiedzynarodowe.pl/yearbook/2003/pastusiak.html. Speech by Prime Minister Jarosław Kaczyn´ski at a Chicago meeting of Poles abroad on September 15, 2006. “Prime Minister Promises to Better the Legal Status of Poles Living Abroad,” http://www.kprm.gov.pl/english/060915-1.htm. For example, the Belarusian foreign minister said that the law could “seriously destabilize interethnic relations in our country, spark tensions in Belarusian society, disrupt its stability, and give rise to mistrust between Belarusian nationals of different descent.” RFE-RL Newsline, “Belarus Worried about ‘Polish Charter’ Law,” February 11, 2008.

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27. Snyder, “The Poles,” 181. 28. Nathaniel Copsey and Aleks Szczerbiak, “The Future of Polish-Ukrainian Relations: Evidence from the June 2004 European Parliament Election Campaign in Poland” (Sussex European Institute Working Paper Series no. 84, May 2005), 21, http://www.sussex.ac.uk/sei/documents/wp84.pdf. 29. Wojciech Kosc, “Defending Rights: A Delicate Balance,” Transitions Online, August 18, 2005, http://www.tol.cz. 30. Stephen M. Saideman and R. William Ayres, For Kin or Country: Xenophobia, Nationalism, and War (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 141. 31. Constantin Iordachi, “Politics of Citizenship in Post-Communist Romania: Legal Traditions, Restitution of Nationality and Multiple Memberships,” in Citizenship Policies in the New Europe, ed. Rainer Baubock, Bernhard Perchning, and Weibke Sievers (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2009), 188. 32. Irina Culic, “Eluding Exit and Entry Controls: Romanian and Moldovan Immigrants in the European Union,” East European Politics and Societies 22, no. 1 (Winter 2008): 165. 33. Eniko˝ Horváth describes the use of dual nationality in this way as the “Russian/ Romanian model” of kinship regulation. In her Mandating Identity, Citizenship, Kinship Laws and Plural Nationality in the European Union (Amsterdam: Kluwer Law International, 2008), 154. 34. Irina Culic, “Dual Citizenship Policies in Central and Eastern Europe” (Institutul Pentru Studierea Problemelor Minortatilor Nationale, Working Papers in Romanian Minority Studies, no. 15, Cluj Napoca, 2009), 18, http:// ispmn.gov.ro/wp-content/uploads/2009/02/culic31.pdf. 35. Iordachi, “Politics of Citizenship in Post-Communist Romania,” 190. 36. Vladimir Socor, “Moldova Refuses Mass Conferral of Romanian Citizenship,” Eurasia Daily Monitor, 4, no. 48 (March 9, 2007). 37. Iordachi, “Politics of Citizenship in Post-Communist Romania,” 203. 38. Christian Iordachi, “Dual Citizenship and Policies Towards Kin Minorities in East-Central Europe,” in The Hungarian Status Law: Nation Building and/or Minority Protection, ed. Kántor, et al. (Sapporo, Japan: Slavic Research Center, Hokkaido University, 2004), 250. 39. Iordachi, “Politics of Citizenship in Post-Communist Romania,” 197–198. 40. Culic, “Dual Citizenship Policies in Central and Eastern Europe,” 19. 41. Iordachi, “Politics of Citizenship in Post-Communist Romania,” 194. 42. Ibid., 202–204. 43. Alina Mungiu-Pippidi, “Romania,” in Nations in Transit 2008: Democratization from Central Europe to Eurasia, Freedom House (Washington, D.C.: Freedom House, 2008), 466, http://www.freedomhouse.hu/images/fdh_galleries/ NIT2008/NT-Romania-final.pdf. 44. Associated Press, “Romania Swamped with 800,000 Citizenship Applications by Moldovans,” February 28, 2007, http://lexisnexis.com. 45. Ryan Kennedy, “Moldova: An EU Invasion Waiting To Happen,” RFE-RL Newsline, February 1, 2007.

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46. Constantin Iordachi, “Romanian Citizenship Offer to Moldovans: Exaggerated Fears in the European Union” (European Union Democracy Observatory, European University Institute, Florence, May 12, 2009), http://www.eui.eu/ Documents/RSCAS/.../20090511-EUDO-romania.pdf. 47. Commentary by Ovidiu Nahoi, “Beware Citizenship!,” in Adevarul, April 27, 2009, translated in “Romanian Commentary Highlights Risks of Granting Citizenship to Moldovans,” BBC World Monitoring, April 28, 2009. 48. Commentary by Alina Mungiu-Pippidi, “Big Confusion,” in Romania Libera, April 23, 2009, translated in “Commentary Deplores Romanian Foreign Policy on Moldova; Text of Report by Romanian Newspaper,” BBC World Monitoring, April 28, 2009. 49. Croatia is another interesting example of this. See Francesco Ragazzi, “Annexation without Territory? Diaspora Politics and Irredentism in Post-Dayton Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegonia” (paper presented at the Association for the Study of Nationalities Annual Convention, Columbia University, New York, April 2009). 50. Graham Smith, “Transnational Politics and the Politics of the Russian Diaspora,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 22, no. 3 (May 1999): 508. 51. Igor Zevelev, Russia and Its New Diasporas (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2001), 69–74; Smith, “Transnational Politics and the Politics of the Russian Diaspora,” 507; Saideman and Ayres, For Kin or Country, 175–177. 52. Igor Zevelev, “Russia’s Policy toward Compatriots in the Former Soviet Union,” Russia in Global Affairs 1 ( January–March 2008), http://eng.globalaffairs.ru/ numbers/22/1174.html. 53. Timothy Heleniak, “Russia Beckons, But Diaspora Wary,” Migration Information Source (October 1, 2002), http://www.migrationinformation.org/ feature/display.cfm?ID=56. 54. Sergei Blagov, “New Fears Arise over Repatriation of Ethnic Russians,” Asia Times, October 23, 2001. 55. Zevelev, “Russia’s Policy toward Compatriots in the Former Soviet Union.” 56. Igor Torbakov, “Kremlin Calls on Compatriots to Come Back to Mother Russia,” Eurasia Daily Monitor 3, no. 129 (February 19, 2006). 57. Paul Goble, “Moscow’s Program for the Repatriation of Compatriots Collapses,” Window on Eurasia, June 11, 2009. 58. Peter Roudik, “Russia: Legal Aspects of War in Georgia,” The Law Library of Congress, September 2008: 9–11. 59. Zevelev, “Russia’s Policy toward Compatriots in the Former Soviet Union.” 60. Charles King and Neil J. Melvin, “Diaspora Politics: Ethnic Linkages, Foreign Policy, and Security in Eurasia,” International Security 24, no. 3 (1999): 134–137. 61. Zsuzsa Csergo˝ and James M. Goldgeier, “Virtual Nationalism,” Foreign Policy 125 (2001): 76–77. 62. Maria Koinova, “Kinstate Intervention in Ethnic Conflicts: Albania and Turkey Compared,” Ethnopolitics 7, no. 4 (2008): 375–378.

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63. Erin Jenne, Ethnic Bargaining: The Paradox of Minority Empowerment (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2007), 2–10. 64. Iordachi, “Dual Citizenship and Policies towards Kin Minorities in East-Central Europe,” 249–250. 65. See Zeynep Kadirbeyoglu, “Changing Conceptions of Citizenship in Turkey,” in Citizenship Policies in the New Europe, ed. Rainer Baubock, Bernhard Perchning, and Weibke Sievers (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2009), 293–311. 66. Rey Koslowski has called this the “commodification of citizenship.” See “Challenges of International Cooperation in a World of Increasing Dual Nationality,” in Rights and Duties of Dual Nationals: Evolution and Prospects, ed. Kay Heilbronner and David Martin, (The Hague: Kluwer Law, 2003), 157–182. 67. David Fitzgerald, “Rethinking Emigrant Citizenship,” New York University Law Review 81, no. 11 (April 2006): 105. 68. Robert C. Smith, “Diasporic Membership in Historical Perspective: Comparative Insights from the Mexican, Italian and Polish Cases,” International Migration Review 37, no. 4 (2003): 728. 69. See Anna Grzymała-Busse and Abby Innes, “Great Expectations: The EU and Domestic Political Competition in East Central Europe,” East European Politics and Society 17, no. 1 (2003): 64–73; and Zsuzsa Csergo˝ and James M. Goldgeier, “Nationalist Strategies and European Integration,” Perspectives on Politics 2, no. 1 (2004): 21–37. 70. Another work that focuses primarily on “elite persuasion” as a cause of nationalist conflict is Jack Snyder, From Voting to Violence: Democratization and Nationalist Conflict (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), see especially 45–91. 71. For a specific example of this see Venice Commission, “Report on the Preferential Treatment of National Minorities by their Kin-State,” (Venice Commission at its 48th Plenary Meeting, October 19–20, 2001), 2, http://venice.coe.int/ docs/2001/CDL-INF(2001)019-e.html. Erin Jenne also makes this point in her Ethnic Bargaining, 19–37. 72. The concept of “active leverage” comes from Vachudova, Europe Undivided, 105–137. 73. The Szekler region is an area in Romania with a large concentration of Hungarian-speaking people, who have maintained a unique identity and have a history of partial autonomy. 74. Czech News Agency, “New Party Wants to Attract Ethnic Hungarians, Slovaks,” June 9, 2009, http://www.lexisnexis.com. 75. George Schöpflin, “Hungary as Kin State,” in Minority Policy in Eastern and Central Europe: The Link Between Domestic Policy, Foreign Policy and European Integration, ed. Katlijn Malfliet (Leuven: Garant, 1998), 36. 76. Csaba Tabajdi, quoted in Hungarian News Agency (MTI), “EU Lacks Mechanism for Conflict Management, Says Hungarian MEP,” September 15, 2009. 77. “Hungary Seen Disadvantaged by “Cumbersome” EU’s Stance on Minority Rights (Commentary by Lajos Keresztes, historian and journalist),” Magyar Nemzet, November 3, 2009, as provided by BBC Monitoring Europe, November 5, 2009.

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Index

acquis communautaire 95 Ahtisaari Plan 13, 166 Alliance of Free Democrats (SZDSZ) diaspora policy reform and 117, 119, 122–23, 125, 127–29, 131–32, 134–35 domestic politics and 55–56 European integration and 109–10, 114–15 Hungarians abroad and 46 nationalism and 61–62, 65–67, 71–74, 76, 78, 81–82 Amsterdam Treaty (1990) 94 Antall, József 5, 56–57, 59, 61–68, 70, 73–74, 80, 84, 122 Arrow Cross movement 37 assimilation diaspora and 19, 109, 126 dual citizenship and 98 EU and 94 labor permits and 101 nationalism and 27, 29, 34–35, 38, 41, 162 policies regarding 9 resistance to 7 Romania and 154–55 Schengen and 97–98 Serbia and 57–58 Status Law and 103, 107 Austro-Hungarian Empire 26, 61 autonomy Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy 28

cultural 57 decision-making and 59 Fidesz and 85, 104, 107, 141 future as political issue 164 Magyarization and 28–29 minority rights and 63–64 nationalism and 66–67 Poland and 148 political debate regarding 13 Romania and 134–35 Soviet influence and 40–41 Status Law and 111, 131 territorial 77–81 Ayres, R. William 153 Balsai, István 121 Bartók, Béla 3–4 Basescu, Traian 155, 157 Basic Treaty 79–80 Bauer, Tamás 109 Benefit Law 105 Bethlen, István 33, 35–36 Boross, Péter 70 Bugár, Béla 165 Carment, David 16 Ceaucescu, Nicolae 66 center-Right bloc 53–54, 56, 75, 81, 94, 121, 123, 149 Central European Free Trade Area (CEFTA) 64 Central Office of the Alliance of Social Associations (TESZK) 34, 35

216

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Index

Christian Democratic People’s Party (KDNP) 56, 72, 75, 78, 81 citizenship dual 3–5, 10–11, 15, 98–99, 117–18, 123–28, 131–32, 134, 141–42, 150–51, 154–58, 161, 164 ethnic 15, 96, 161 extraterritorial 90, 112–13, 145–46, 155, 158 nonresident 3, 15, 100, 118, 124, 126, 131, 139 repatriation 145–46, 148–50, 152, 156–61 restitution of 153, 155–57, 163–64, 167 Civic Alliance 81 Civic Circles 119–20, 122 clientelism 9–10, 14, 23, 35, 62, 66, 90, 108, 118, 128–32, 139, 143, 164–65 coethnics assimilation and 34, 38 citizenship and 7, 15 dual citizenship and 123, 125–26, 146 European Union and 89, 91–92, 95–99, 116 internal politics and 68, 78, 117, 130 nationalism and 21 Poland and 147–49, 152 Serbia and 57 Status Law and 101 transborder networks and 26, 48, 54, 57–58, 130, 140, 143, 162–63 treatment by Hungarian government 3, 5, 60, 61 communism 26–27, 32, 50, 53, 91–93, 135, 143, 147–48, 152, 154–55 nationalism and internationalism during 37–49 See also post-communist era

Communist Party 26–27, 53, 55–56, 73–76, 78, 145 former members in government 72, 120, 122–23 Copenhagen Council 93, 121 Croatia 3, 57, 90, 123 CSCE Final Act. See Helsinki Final Act Csergo˝, Zsuzsa 7 Csoóri, Sándor 62, 98 Csurka, István 67–68, 110 Czechoslovakia 30–31, 34, 35, 37, 39, 41, 43–44, 55, 57, 111 Dávid, Ibolya 121 Davis, David R. 16 Dawisha, Karen 81 Deets, Stephen 81 Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania (RMDSZ) 56–57, 63, 66, 79–80, 99, 107, 127, 164–65 Department of Minority and Nation Policy Matters (Kisebbség- és Nemzetpolitikáért Felelo˝s Szakállamtitkárság) 133 diaspora policy as development policy 135–39 domestic politics and 55–60 dual citizenship and 123–28 kin-state nationalism and 65–71 overview 53–55 party-building strategy and 72–81 policy reform 128–130 politicization of 60–65 reframing discourse of 83–85 restructuring Hungarian-Hungarian relations 130–35 right-wing consolidation and 81–83 2002 election and 118–23 dual citizenship 123–28 dual monarchy 28 Duna TV 58, 62 Duray, Miklós 85, 99

Index Eastern Campaign 34 Ekeus, Rolf 113 ethnic identity cards 5, 9–10, 100–101, 105, 108, 110, 112, 152 EU accession treaty 9, 89 European Union (EU) Fidesz and 76, 84, 87 Hungary and 9, 14, 20, 22–23, 50, 63, 65, 73, 89–116, 132, 135–37, 139, 142, 145 kin-state policies and 2–3, 6, 14 membership of Eastern European nations 89–116, 118, 129–30, 162–67 MSZP and 78, 120–21, 123, 129 norms 12, 18 Poland 150–51, 156 Romania and 127, 156–58 Russia and 146 sovereignty and 5 Fidesz (Federation of Young Democrats) diaspora politics and 72–81, 117–31, 133, 137, 140–42, 144 EU norms and 93–96 future of 164–65 labor permits and 102 nationalism and 53–55, 70–71 political coalitions 81–87 rise to power 21–22, 90 Schengen and 96–100 Status Law and 104, 106–10, 111, 113–16 Fidesz-Hungarian Civic Party (FideszMPP) 76–78, 80, 81–83, 96, 98 Fidesz-Hungarian Civic Union (FideszMPSZ) 122–29 FKGP. See Independent Smallholders’ Party Fodor, Gábor 74 Forum of External Hungarian Organizations (HTMSZF) 165

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217

Forum of Representatives of the Carpathian Basin (KMKF) 132–33 French Revolution 27 Gábor Bethlen Foundation 46 Georgia 2, 159 Gömbös, Gyula 33, 36 Göncz, Arpád 56 Gorbachev, Mikhail 48, 92 Government Office of Hungarians Abroad (HTMH) 58–59, 62, 73, 85, 102, 106, 132–33, 135, 139, 165 Grzymała-Busse, Anna 139 Gyurcsány, Ferenc 123, 126, 131–33, 135, 141–42 Haider, Jörg 111 Hapsburg monarchy 21, 25, 27–30 Helsinki Final Act 64, 91–92 Hitler, Adolf 37 Homeland Fund (Szülo˝föld Alap) 131–33, 137, 140 Horn, Gyula 63, 73, 77–78, 80, 99 Horthy, Miklós (Admiral) 32–33, 37, 61 HTMH. See Government Office of Hungarians Abroad Hungarian Civic Party (MPP) 76–78, 80, 81–83, 96, 98, 165 Hungarian Coalition Party (MKP) 85, 165 Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF) diaspora policy and 53–56, 60–63 ethnic Hungarians and 50 Fidesz and 21–22, 83, 121, 123 fragmentation 81 kin-state nationalism and 65–71 minority affairs and 48 politics and 72–76, 78, 86 post-communist rule 45–46, 93, 144 Hungarian Guard (Magyar Garda) 141

218

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Index

Hungarian-Hungarian summit (magyar-magyar csúcs) 73, 79–80 Hungarian National Council of Transylvania (EMNT) 165 Hungarian Revolution (1848) 28 Hungarian Socialist Party (MSZP) changing political strategy 122–23 creation of 56 diaspora policy and 65, 68–70, 72–73, 117–20, 135–39 dual citizenship and 123–28 ethnic Hungarians and 63 Fidesz and 128–30 future of 164 Hungarian-Hungarian relations and 131–35 kin-state nationalism and 70–71 politics and 75–83, 86, 93, 139–42 Schengen and 99 Status Law and 103, 106, 108, 114–15 Hungarian Socialist Workers’ Party (MSZMP) 55–56 Hungarian Standing Conference (MÁÉRT) 85, 100, 104, 106, 120, 128, 132, 141, 165 Hungarian Truth and Life Party (MIÉP) 68, 75, 110, 111, 119 HZDS. See Movement for a Democratic Slovakia Iliescu, Ion 66, 79 Illyés Foundation 59, 130, 133 Illyés, Gyula 44 immigration 95–97, 102, 107, 109, 111, 114, 124, 149–50, 158, 162 Independent Smallholders’ Party (FKGP) 56, 72, 75, 80–82 Irredenta statue 61 irredentism 1–5, 10, 15, 17–18, 23, 30, 32–34, 37–38, 41, 49, 61, 65, 145, 148, 155, 157, 162, 165

James, Patrick 16 János Apáczai Foundation 85, 133 János Arany Foundation 72 Jeszenszky, Géza 59, 63–64 Jobbik (Movement for a Better Hungary) 122, 141–42 Kádár, János 40–43, 45, 48, 55, 78, 92 Kazakhstan 147–49, 152 Khrushchev, Nikita 39 kin-state engagement European norms and 91–96, 110–15 explained 6–15 kin-state nationalism 65–71 puzzle of 3–6 regional relations and 110–15 Schengen dilemma and 96–101 Status Law and 101–10 KMKF. See Forum of Representatives of the Carpathian Basin KMKSZ. See Ukrainian Hungarian Cultural Federation in Transcarpathia Kosovo 13, 57, 166 Kossuth, Lájos 28 Kovács, Dávid 122 Kovács, László 77 Kovács, Mária 124 labor permits 101–2, 105, 109–10 Lake, David 16 Lantos, Tom 67 László Teleki Foundation 59 Little Entente 31, 42 MÁÉRT. See Hungarian Standing Conference Magyarization 27–30, 32 Markó, Béla 99 Mártonyi, János 95, 99 Mecˇiar, Vladimir 79 Medgyessy, Péter 122–23

Index MIÉP. See Hungarian Truth and Life Party MKP. See Hungarian Coalition Party Moldova 153–60, 163–64 Moore, Will H. 16 Most-Híd (Bridge) Party 165 Movement for a Democratic Slovakia (HZDS) 79 MPP. See Hungarian Civic Party MSZMP. See Hungarian Socialist Workers’ Party MSZP. See Hungarian Socialist Party MVSZ. See World Federation of Hungarians Nagy, Imre 39–40 Nagy, László 99 Nastase, Adrian 112, 113, 115 nation-building 7, 18, 21, 147–48, 156–57, 162–63 “nation” (nemzet) policy 39, 103, 106, 133, 136 National Refugee Affairs Office (OMH) 35 nationalism during communism 37–49 Hapsburg Era and 27–30 post-communist 49–51 Treaty of Trianon and 30–37 Nationalities Law (1868) 28 nationalization 15, 100, 135, 147, 159–60, 163 Nazism 1, 5, 37, 111 Németh, Miklós 48 Németh, Zsolt 85, 99, 107, 128 New Handshake (Új Kézfogás) Foundation 72, 130, 133 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 60, 63–65, 78, 89, 93 Orbán, Viktor diaspora politics and 74, 80, 119–20 dual citizenship and 99, 119–20, 122–25, 128

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219

ethnic Hungarians and 83–84 European integration and 94, 96 rise to power 74 Status Law and 101, 104, 106–7, 111, 113–15 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) 93 Patriotic People’s Front (PPF) 42 Patrubány, Miklós 100, 124 Peto˝fi, Sándor 28 Poland Charter Bill (Karta Polaka) 150–52, 161, 163 communist rule and 39 diaspora politics and 19, 23, 55 European Union and 93 kin-state politics and 145, 147–56, 161, 163 Schengen and 95 solidarity 45, 55 Popular Literary Association (NIT) 35 post-communist era diaspora politics and 59–60, 76, 89, 90, 93, 108, 117, 142 European Union and 108, 112, 145, 163 Hungary and 4–5, 20–21, 167 irredentism and 15 kin-state relations and 2, 3, 17, 25, 27, 36, 46, 49–51 MDF and 86, 93, 144 Poland and 147–48, 161 Schengen and 95 Status Law and 108, 116 See also communism post–World War II treaties 37 Pozsgay, Imre 44 Prague Spring 42 Putin, Vladimir 158–59 Rákóczy Alliance 35 Rákosi, Mátyás 39–40

220

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Index

Regional Coordinating Forum (REF) 132 Repatriation Bill 149 revisionism 10, 26, 30–38, 41, 47, 49, 63, 67, 69, 73, 75, 86, 94, 142, 150, 162, 165 RMDSZ. See Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania Rockenbauer, Zoltán 74 Romania CEFTA and 64 Communist rule and 37, 39, 41–48, 55, 56 diaspora policy reform and 118, 124, 127, 129, 131, 134–40 ethnic Hungarians in 3–4 EU and 9, 23, 89–91, 96–101, 108, 111–14 Hungary and 29, 33–35, 63–64 nationalism and 20, 66, 77, 79–80, 145–47, 153–65 treaties 12 Trianon and 30–31, 37 Rothchild, Donald 16 Rothschild, Joseph 29, 31 Russia citizenship and 146, 158–59 diaspora politics and 7 Georgia and 2 Moldova and 154 Poland and 149, 152 Saideman, Stephen 153 Sapientia University 84 Schengen Agreement 9, 15, 89–90, 94–98, 100, 110, 112, 116, 117, 126, 141, 150–51, 156, 163, 167 SDZSZ. See Alliance of Free Democrats Secretariat for Hungarian Minority Affairs 58–59, 73 Serbia 3, 9, 20, 56–57, 64, 89–90, 96, 123, 126, 135, 166

64 Counties Youth Movement (HVIM) 141 Skubiszewski, Krzysztof 148 Slota, Jan 138 Slovak National Party (SNS) 133, 138 Slovakia ethnic Hungarians in 3, 20, 131 EU and 12, 14, 23, 112–13, 118, 121, 129, 136–39, 165–66 Hungary and 12, 14, 23, 63–64, 77, 133–34 kin-state policy and 89–91 nationalism and 29, 79 Schengen and 95–97, 99–100 Trianon and 33 South Ossetia 2, 159 sovereignty 2, 5, 7–8, 10, 12, 17, 32, 40, 50–51, 54, 60, 91, 94, 96, 104, 112–13, 124, 145, 155, 158, 161, 164, 166–67 Soviet Union Eastern Europe following rule 1, 9, 53, 57, 144, 163 Helsinki Final Act and 91 nationalism and 38–43, 46, 48, 49 Poland and 147–50, 153–55 political reform and 91–92 rule in Eastern Europe 27 Russia and 158–59 Stalin, Joseph 38–40 State Accounting Bureau (Állami Számvevo˝szék) 130 state-building 7, 18, 154 Status Law citizenship and 150, 161 crafting and expansion of 101–6 defense of 120–21 domestic politics and 22, 87, 106–10 ethnic ID cards and 9 European Union and 167

Index Fidesz and 22, 87, 90, 100–16, 131, 144 kin-state action and 12, 20 nationalism and 117, 120–21, 124, 126 passage of 5 subsidies for diaspora institutions 140 Szabó, Tibor 102 Szálasi, Ferenc 37 Széchenyi, István 28 Szekler National Council (SZNT) 165 Szent-Iványi, István 66 Szili, Katalin 132 Szokai, Imre 47 Szu˝rös, Mátyás 47 Tabajdi, Csaba 47 Tamás, Pál 138 Tisza, István (Prime Minister) 29 To˝kés, László 62–63 Torgyán, József 81 Törzsök, Erika 130, 136, 138 Transylvania 33, 36, 37, 44–47, 57, 84, 98, 153, 155 treaties Basic Treaty 79–80 post–World War II 37 with Poland 148 with Romania 63, 77, 155 with Slovakia 63 with Ukraine 67 See also Amsterdam Treaty; EU accession treaty

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Treaty of Amsterdam (1997) 94–95 Treaty of Trianon (1920) 4, 26, 30, 143 Ukraine 3, 20, 57, 67, 80, 90, 95, 96, 98, 126, 147–48, 150, 153–54, 164 ethnic Hungarians in 3, 57, 80, 90, 126 Hungary and 67 independence 57 kin-state policy and 20, 95–96, 98 Poland and 147–48, 150 Romania and 153–54, 164 Ukrainian Hungarian Cultural Federation in Transcarpathia (KMKSZ) 66 United Nations (UN) 47, 57, 59 Velvet Revolution 55 Venice Commission 112–13 Vienna Award 37 Voronin, Vladimir 155 Warsaw Pact 40, 48, 91 World Federation of Hungarians (MVSZ) 62, 85, 98–100, 124–27 World War I 1, 26, 29, 30, 63, 152–53, 163 World War II 5, 26, 37, 42, 61, 64, 111, 147, 154, 163 Yugoslavia 30–37, 39–40, 42, 57–58, 64, 96