Teori/Model Belajar Mengajar dan Aplikasinya dalam Online Learning Oleh : Ir. Sutrisno Koswara, MSi Disampaikan pada PELATIHAN INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN FOR ONLINE LEARNING Paket 1 : TEACHING AND LEARNING CONCEPT FOR ONLINE LEARNING
Bogor, 15 Mei 2006 Penyelenggara : SEAFAST CENTER-IPB
Sebagai seorang eLearning specialist sangat penting untuk tidak hanya menyadari adanya teori dan model belajar mengajar, tetapi juga secara sadar menerapkannya dalam membuat materi belajar mengajar (disain instruksional).
Terdapat 3 Kelompok Teori Belajar-Mengajar : 1. Berkaitan dengan Faktor-faktor yang Mempenga-ruhi Efektifitas Bahan Ajar. 2. Berkaitan dengan Proses dan Model-model Disain instruksional 3. Berkaitan dengan Evalusi Belajar-Mengajar
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Teori yang berkaitan dengan Factors Affecting Instruction • Teori dan Model yang dikembangkan oleh Bloom, Rosenshine & Furst, dan Kolb mempengaruhi bagaimana peserta ajar dapat terlibat dalam materi yang dipresentasikan. • Teori-teori atau konsep-konsep tersebut dapat dijadikan pegangan pada saat membuat bahan ajar dan secara memungkinkan perbaikan yang kontinyu. • Jika bahan ajar tidak mencapai tujuan yang ditetapkan, kita dapat mempelajari salah satu teori tersebut untuk membantu mengidentifikasi masalahnya
Teori yang berkaitan dengan
Processes & Models for Instruction •
Model-model seperti Gagne's nine steps, ASSURE, ADDIE, ACTIONS, dan the Dick & Carey memberikan pedoman untuk mendisain dan mengembangkan bahan ajar.
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Model-model tersebut ada yang bersifat spesifik seperti ACTIONS model yang hanya digunakan untuk memilih teknologi yang diperlukan, sampai yang bersifat komprehenship berupa proses langkah demi langkah untuk mendisain bahan ajar.
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Sebagai seorang eLearning specialist – anda diharapkan untuk membangun atau mengaplikasikan model yang paling cocok untuk memenuhi keperluan peserta ajar.
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Teori yang berkaitan dengan
Evaluation •
Evaluasi merupakan bagian penting dalam eLearning dan harus direncanakan dan mempunyai tujuan.
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Pada Pelatihan ini hanya diperkenalkan salah satu model yang berkaitan dengan evaluasi yaitu Kirkpatrick's 4 Levels Model. Tetapi perlu diketahui, masih ada beberapa model yang berkaitan dengan evaluasi.
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Menurut model Kirkpatrick, evaluasi terhadap jalannya proses belajar-mengajar (kursus/training atau kuliah online) da;pat membantu pengelala menjadi dipercaya, dihormati dan dibutuhkan.
TIMELINE OF LEARNING THEORIES
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Taksonomi Bloom • "Bloom's Taxonomy" dikembangkan pada 1956 ketika Benjamin Bloom bekerja bersama suatu tim ahli psikologi pendidikan untuk mengklasifikasikan perilaku intelektual. Meskipun pekerjaan Tim tersebut menyangkut tiga domain (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor), Bloom's Taxonomy hanya terfokus pada domain Kognitif. • Bloom's taxonomy telah digunakan oleh instructional designers (offline) untuk membuat program-program pendidikan yang lebih efektif dan untuk membangun pengetahuan dan ketrampilan peserta ajar secara lebih sistematis. • Bloom's taxonomy ternyata juga sama bergunanya jika digunakan sebagai model atau teori dalam pengembangan dan evaluasi online instruction. Salah satu caranya adalah dengan secara sistematis membawa peserta ajar melalui tingkat-tingkat atau level taksonomi, dengan menggunakan online interactive questions, problems, dan activities, peserta ajar dapat mencapai level yang lebih tinggi dalam belajar dan berpikir kritis.
Benjamin Bloom
Benjamin S. Bloom was born February 21, 1913 and lived to be 86 years old. He only recently passed away in 1999. From an educational perspective, he earned his bachelor's and master's degree from Pennsylvania State University (1935) and then went on to earn his Ph.D. in education from the University of Chicago in 1942. Bloom was a researcher, a teacher, and a scholar.
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Struktur Taksonomi Bloom •
Bloom's taxonomy memberikan kerangka yang sangat baik untuk menciptakan online instruction yang efektif.
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Blooms Taxonomy terdiri atas 6 level dalam pembelajaran yaitu Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, dan Evaluation. Seperti terlihat pada Gambar, Taksonomi Bloom bersifat hierarki dimana tiap level didasari oleh level sebelumnya.
Knowledge • Knowledge didefinikan oleh Bloom sebagai berikut : "Involves the recall of specifics and universals, the recall of methods and processes, or the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting" . • Level "knowledge" menitikberatkan pada "recall" terhadap fakta-fakta dan informasi - remembering, memorizing. • Fakta-fakta tersebut membentuk landasan atau dasar-dasar untuk mengerti dan mengaplikasikan informasi. • Untuk suatu bentuk pengetahuan apa saja terdapat sekumpulan fakta yang sangat penting. Fakta-fakta tersebut memungkinkan seseorang untuk membentuk suatu generalisasi.
As the content specialist, you will need to carefully determine what facts and information should be included so students will build a solid foundation. Students will not be able to move to higher levels of learning if they do not build a solid knowledge foundation. Be careful to create meaningful learning activities – not just activities to keep the student busy.
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Comprehension •
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Comprehension didefinikan oleh Bloom sebagai berikut : "type of understanding or apprehension such that the individual knows what is being communicated and can make use of the material or idea being communicated without necessarily relating it to other material or seeing its fullest implications". Comprehension menyangkut "understanding" dalam arti luas. Translasi, interpretasi, and extrapolasi merupakan cara-cara untuk membuat peserta ajar dapat meng-"comprehend" bahan ajar. Comprehension juga berhubungan dengan kemampuan untuk menyatakan kembali sesuatu dengan kata-kata sendiri, misalnya mendefinisikan kata biologi dengan cara tidak mengingat definisi yang telah diberikan, tetapi dalam bentuk menyatakan dengan kata-kata sendiri. Menggunakan pertanyaan-pertanyaan untuk membentuk comprehension antara lain : • Menyatakan sesuatu dengan kata-kata sendiri, bukan hanya dengan menyatakan apa yang telah diingat. • Menggambar diagram atau gambar terhadap apa yang telah dipelajari. • Melakukan paraphrase terhadap informasi yang telah diberikan/dibaca.
Application •
Bloom mendefinisikan application sebagai berikut "The use of abstractions in particular and concrete situations".
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Application berhubungan dengan remembering and applying general ideas, rules of procedure, generalized methods, technical principles, or theories. Misalnya, kemampuan untuk memprediksi apa yang akan terjadi terhadap suatu kesetimbangan jika kita menambahkan garam ke dalam air.
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Pertanyaan-pertanyaan Application biasanya hanya cocok dengan aktivitas-aktivitas yang bersifat "hands-on", Tetapi, instruktur dapat mengembangkan effective interactive multimedia tools untuk menstimulasi hands-on experiences.
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Analysis • Bloom mendefinisikan analysis sebagai berikut : "The breakdown of a communication into its constituent elements or parts such that the relative hierarchy of ideas is made clear and/or the relations between the ideas expressed are made explicit". • Analysis berhubungan dengan kemampuan untuk mengerti the parts that makeup the whole. These parts can relate to: • Elements (Ex. The ability to identify unstated assumptions in a report.) • Relationships (Ex. The ability to comprehend interrelationships among ideas in a report.)
Synthesis Bloom mendefinisikan synthesis sebagai berikut "The putting together of elements and parts so as to form a whole“.
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Synthesis refers to creating new knowledge. Coming up with something that has not been stated previously. This can include : • Unique communication (Ex. Ability to report a personal experience in a lab effectively.) • A Plan (Ex. Ability to plan a lesson for a particular topic.) • Set of abstract relations (Ex. Formulate a hypothesis based on factors involved.)
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Evaluation • Bloom mendefinisikan evaluation sebagai : "Judgements about the value of material and methods for given purposes" . • Evaluation is the highest level within the taxonomy and refers to being able to compile information in such a way as to be able to judge that information. • Evaluation takes place in two steps. First, one establishes the appropriate standards or values, then one determines how closely the "object" meets the standards or values set. • The criteria being evaluated can either be predetermined or detemined by the student. This can include: • asking a student to indicate fallacies in an argument • asking a student to compare a work with highest standards with other works.
Aplikasi Bloom's Taxonomy • •
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Tiap level pada Bloom's Taxonomy menyatakan aktivitas-aktivitas yang berbeda mulai dari "simple recall" sampai "complex evaluation." Peserta ajar dapat diajak untuk “berfikir” dalam berbagai tingkat pemikiran dengan cara memberikan pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang berbeda berdasarkan taksonomi Bloom. Penggunaan Taksomoni Bloom memungkinkan instruktur dapat memberikan pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang lebih merefleksikan materi ajarnya. Being able to recognize and use the taxonomy in instruction is the most important outcome of the lesson. Sometimes you may develop a question or activity and think to yourself - "This question could fit in 3 different categories!" - DO NOT be concerned with classifying the activities you create. It is important to understand the levels in order to generate new and different approaches and questions - but remember that the end goal is to improve instruction not to classify questions.
Applying Bloom's taxonomy provides a means for helping students to become an active part of the learning process instead of being merely a "receiver of knowledge." "Learning by doing" is possible at a desk - but it requires creative and purposeful effort on the part of the instructional designer. Bloom's Taxonomy can help in creating effective instruction.
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Test Your Knowledge on Bloom’s Taxonomy
Test your knowledge by completing the activity below.
BLOOM_DRAGDROP[1].swf
Test your knowledge by completing the quizs below.
bloom[1].swf
bloom_quiz2[1].swf
Gagne's Instructional Theory Robert Gagne teori memberikan 3 konsep esensial dalam instructional design dan training, yaitu : learning hierarchies, conditions of learning, dan events of instruction.
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Robert Gagne Robert Mills Gagne was born in 1916. He earned his undergraduate degree in psychology at Yale in 1937 and in 1940 his Ph.D. in Psychology from Brown University . After he completed his Ph.D. he served in the U.S. Army for five years. Throughout his career he served in roles such as professor, director and researcher at institutions such as Princeton, the University of California, Florida State University, and Air Force Research Centers. One of his later assignments in 1990-91, brought him to Armstrong Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas where he developed instructional design models for military training. Gagne died in 2002 at the age of 85.
Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction • The instructional theory which Gagne put into writing has guided instructional designers for years in traditional settings and continues to guide instructional designers involved in online learning. • Gagne's theory lays down principles that should be addressed when designing instruction: identification of what learning is needed for a particular goal, identification of the internal and external conditions that will enable learning, and steps that one can implement to achieve learning. • It is the “Nine Events of Instruction” (the steps) that provide an important tool for the instructional designer because it allows one to more likely meet the conditions for learning.
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Information vs. Instruction Instruction delivered using technology should NOT be limited to the delivery of information. Careful attention must be given to the design and development so that value-added instruction is created. As noted by Kruse (2000) in the article entitled "Information is not Instruction": "If you don't provide adequate practice, if you don't have an adequate knowledge structure, if you don't provide adequate guidance, people don't learn." Following the steps outlined by Gagne, can greatly assist in creating instruction. Gagne's 9 Events of Instruction include: 1. Gain attention 2. Inform learners of objectives 3. Stimulate recall 4. Present the material 5. Provide guidance 6. Elicit performance 7. Provide informative feedback 8. Assess performance 9. Enhance retention and transfer
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Gagne's Events of Instruction & eLearning Gagne's Nine Step Process to creating instruction can be applied to instructional settings regardless of whether the instruction is face-to-face or online. The challenge in any instruction is to prevent the collection of informative materials that do not serve as learning tools. There is a difference between “information” and “instruction.” Instructional designers must be creative when designing instruction and use tools efficiently and effectively to achieve the steps described.
Test your knowledge of the order of Gagne's Instructional Theory
Factors That Influence Learning Rosenshine and Furst (1973) conducted research to identify teacher behavior that can positively influence student achievement and learning. The five main characteristics identified include clarity, task orientation, student opportunity, variety, and teacher enthusiasm. The factors identified by Rosenshine and Furst offer a guide for teachers in their quest to enhance student learning. Recognition of these factors can assist teachers and instructors in providing the most beneficial learning environment for students.
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Factors That Influence Learning
Rosenshine & Furst
While not much is known about Norma Furst, much is known about Rosenshine.
Barak V. Rosenshine was a student of the Stanford Center for Research and Development in Teaching when the school first began in 1965. His dissertation was titled “A Study of the Ability to Explain.” Rosenshine has been a professor of Educational Psychology at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign since 1973. His work on characteristics that influence learning illustrate his desire to find ways to help teachers be better at helping students learn.
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Relevance for eLearning As an instructional designer, one is always looking for ways to help students learn. One might think that since the factors identified by Rosenshine and Furst relate to classroom teaching that they are not relevant to online learning. As we look at these five primary factors and the additional six factors, we need to ask the questions: What does this list mean for online learning? Are there parts that do not fit the elearning environment? Instructional designers heavily impact the teaching that takes place in an online course because instruction is woven into the fabric of the course. The tone used to convey important meaning, the images used to help one understand, and the opportunities provided for practice each impacts student learning.
Kolb Learning Cycle The Kolb Learning Cycle (also referred to as Kolb's Theory of Experiential Learning) depicts experiential learning in a four phase process including: concrete experience, observation and reflection, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation (Kolb, 1984).
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David Kolb David Kolb, the person behind the Kolb model, was born in 1939. In 1961 he earned a Bachelor of Arts Degree from Knox College and then went on to Harvard to receive his Masters of Arts in 1964 and his PhD in 1967. Kolb is now a Professor of Organizational Behavior at the Weatherhead School of Management, Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio. Kolb continues to work in the areas of experiential learning, career development, and individual and social change. You can learn more about Dr. Kolb by visiting his web site at http://www. Learningfrom experience.com/ .
The Kolb Model - A Guide in Creating and Sequencing Activities The Kolb Learning Cycle approaches learning from an experiential standpoint. Kolb puts forward that learning takes place in a series of phases that are cyclical and that as instructors we can provide activities to facilitate learning. The model focuses on the use of concrete experiences coupled with reflection and feedback. The combination of action and reflection provides opportunities to modify behavior and thus make major improvements through the implementation of many small changes over time.
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ASSURE Model •
The ASSURE model is a system for instructional design developed at Indiana University in1993 by Heinch, Molenda, and Russell. The model was originally created to assist instructors to use technology in the traditional classroom. However, it can be used in the design, development, and delivery of an online course. The ASSURE model uses an acronym to help you remember the six steps that are critical to designing and developing effective instruction.
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The ASSURE Model serves as a guide in the planning and delivery of instruction. It also provides a way to approach the design of materials and lesson plans in a systematic way by assisting in the organization of instructional procedures. The step involving the selection of instructional methods, media, and materials is of particular importance in the area of online learning.
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The ASSURE MODEL
ADDIE Model • The ADDIE Model is not complicated. It is merely a five-step process of designing instruction. • Understanding these five steps and how they are interrelated can assist us as we build our own model for designing effective instruction.
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ADDIE Model
ACTIONS Model
The ACTIONS Model (also known as the Bates Model) identifies factors that can guide the selection and use of educational technologies. This model is a decision-making model in that it can assist in the selection of media or technologies to include in an online course or program. The ACTIONS Model was developed by Tony Bates in 1995 as a set of criteria to use in the “selection of technologies” to use in education. The seven areas (access, cost, teaching & learning, interaction & userfriendliness, organizational issues, novelty, and speed) are used as a guide in matching the most appropriate technology with enhancing learning.
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Tony Bates
Dr. Tony Bates is the Director of Distance Education and Technology and Continuing Education at the University of British Columbia, Canada. Dr. Bates is heavily involved in the area of distance education. He is the author of several books and has worked in the area of educational media for more than 20 years. He holds a bacheldors degree in psychology from the University of Sheffield and a PhD in educational administration from the Univeristy of London. His website is located at http://bates. cstudies.ubc.ca
ACTIONS Model
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Dick & Carey Systems Approach Model • The purpose of the instructional process is to bring about learning. • The Dick and Carey model is a systems approach that involves all components: the learner, the instructor, the instructional materials, and the learning environment. • This model was first published in 1978.
Dick, Carey and Carey Walter Dick earned graduate degrees from Penn State in psychology and educational psychology. He is currently a professor at Florida State University teaching classes on instructional systems design, instructor-led instruction, and performance systems analysis.
Lou Carey and James O Carey are both located at the University of South Florida. Lou Carey conducts research on Classroom Measurement/ Assessment, Learner-Centered Assessment, Educational Program Evaluation, and Research in Instructional Design. James O Carey currently works in the area of school media specialists' roles and responsibilities and design & development of web-based distance learning. James O Carey
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The Dick & Carey Systems Approach Model The systems approach developed out of over 25 years of research in the area. The Dick and Carey Model depicts all phases of the interactive process from goal identification to summative evaluation. Each step leads toward a defined goal. The systems approach or view encourages us to look at all the components not just the content.
Test your knowledge of the Dick and Carey Model by clicking below.
The Dick & Carey Systems Approach Model
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Kirkpatrick's Model of Evaluation •
Kirkpatrick's model for evaluation was first proposed in 1959. As you look at the model you will find it to be a very straight forward model. Evaluation is an important process that is often neglected. The reasons for evaluating our instruction are endless. As shared by Kirkpatrick, evaluation of your training helps you to become trusted, respected and needed.
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As shared previously, there are four levels in Kirkpatrick's Model for Evaluation. These four levels represent a specific order in which to evaluate a program; with each step the process becomes more difficult, yet more informative.
Donald Kirkpatrick Donald L. Kirkpatrick earned his B.A. in accounting in 1948, his M.B.A. in personnel management in 1949, and his Ph.D. in personnel guidance and counseling in 1954, all from the University of Wisconsin at Madison . He has received numerous awards including the Gordon M. Bliss Memorial Award as the outstanding trainer from the American Society for Training and Development in 1983. Kirkpatrick is Professor Emeritus at the University of Wisconsin . He has held professional training and human resource positions with multiple companies.
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Kirkpatrick's Model of Evaluation
TERIMA KASIH ATAS PERHATIANNYA
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