How to use the Expert Skinfold Caliper (Fat Measurer)

How to use the Expert Skinfold Caliper (Fat Measurer)

For Accurate and Affordable Body Composition Assessment

Inclusief gebruiksaanwijzing in het Nederlands

Content 1.0

Skinfold Method ......................................................................................................................... 4

2.0

How to use the Expert Fat Measurer .......................................................................................... 5

2.1

A) Preparation for Accurate Measurements ........................................................................... 5

2.2

B) Skinfold Sites....................................................................................................................... 5

2.3

C) Taking the Skinfold Measurements ..................................................................................... 6

3.0

Estimating % fat for adults ......................................................................................................... 7

4.0

What Does My % Body Fat Mean? .......................................................................................... 12

5.0

Determining Your Recommended Weight ............................................................................... 13

6.0

Body composition and children ................................................................................................. 14

7.0

Principles of successful lifetime Weight Control ..................................................................... 17

7.1

Principle #1: Set Realistic Goals ......................................................................................... 17

7.2

Principle #2: Aerobic Exercise is the key to Weight Loss and Weight Maintenance .......... 17

7.3

Principle #3: Build More Muscle To Lose Fat ..................................................................... 18

7.4

Principle #4: Dieting Can Make People Fat ........................................................................ 18

Nederlandstalige gebruiksaanwijzing / Users manual in Dutch:...................... .............................. 20

References ............................................................................................................................................. 28

Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide

2

Tables and Figures Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7

Percent Fat estimates for Women Percent Fat estimates for Men Percent Fat estimates for Men Percent Fat estimates for Women Body Composition According to percent Body Fat (Men). Body Composition According to percent Body Fat (Women). Sum of Skinfolds’ (mm) (Calf and Tricep)Health Fitness Standards for Boys and Girls Percentile Norms for the Sum of Triceps and Subscapular Skinfolds (mm) for Boys, Ages 6 - 18 Percentile Norms for the Sum of Triceps and Subscapular Skinfolds (mm) for Girls, Ages 6 - 18

8 9 10 11 12 12 14

Table 10

Average Caloric Requirement Per Pound of Body Weight Based on Lifestyle Patterns and Gender

19

Figure 1

Skin, Fat and Muscle

4

Figure 2

The Pinch

4

Figure 3

Placement of the Caliper

4

Figure 4

Skinfold Sites

6

Table 8 Table 9


15 16

3

1.0

Skinfold Method

The Skinfold Method is based on the principle that the thickness of fat under the skin is an accurate representation of the amount of fat elsewhere in your body. Approximately half of the body’s fatty tissue is directly beneath the skin (subcutaneous). Figures 1, 2 and 3 illustrate the basic skinfold measurement technique.

Figure 1 – Skin, Fat and Muscle

Figure 2 – The Pinch

Figure 3 - Placement of the Caliper

By pinching a fold of skin, you are measuring a fold of skin and a fold of fat together. It is important that you pull the skin and attached fat away from the underlying muscle. By measuring the thickness of skinfolds (a fold of skin and fat, not muscle) at various sites on the body, total % of body fat can be determined. The skinfold measurement at various sites are used in a prediction equation to estimate body density and then are converted to percent fat. The skinfold technique has been found to be a reliable and valid method of determining % body fat when compared to the underwater weighing method. It is inexpensive, portable and appropriate in both laboratory and field settings such as physical education classes, athletic teams, fitness centres, YM/YWCAs and by individuals in the privacy of their homes.


4

2.0

How to use the Expert Fat Measurer

Prior to taking skinfold measurements you should consider the following recommendations to insure the most accurate results:

2.1

A) Preparation for Accurate Measurements 1. Allow yourself considerable practice using the Caliper. Take measurements one at a time at the various sites in rotational order. Repeat the measurements at each site. How consistent are your measurements at each site? 2. Be careful to use the appropriate anatomical landmarks to locate the precise sites for measurement. 3. If you are doing pre- and post-assessments, the measurements should be done at the same time of day. The best time is early in the morning to avoid water hydration changes resulting from activity and exercise. This can increase skinfold size. 4. Measurements should avoid not to be taken immediately after exercise or when an individual is overheated. The shift of body fluid to the skin will increase the skinfold size. All measurements are taken on the right side of the body and directly on the skin, not through clothes.

2.2

B) Skinfold Sites 1. Abdomen

A vertical fold taken about one (1) inch to the right of the umbilicus.

2. Axilla

A vertical fold on the midaxillary line at the level of the xiphoid process of the sternum.

3. Biceps

A vertical fold on the front of the arm over the biceps.

4. Calf

A vertical fold on the inside (medical side) of the right lower leg at the largest part of the calf muscle.

5. Chest

A diagonal fold halfway between the shoulder crease and the nipple.

6. Subscapular

A fold taken on a diagonal line coming from the vertebral border to 1-2 cm. From the inferior angle of the scapula.

7. Suprailium

A diagonal fold above the crest of the ilium (on the side of the hip).


5

8. Thigh

A vertical fold on the front of the thigh, midway between the knee and hip.

9. Tricep

A vertical fold on the back of the upper arm, half way between the shoulder and the elbow.

Chest

Subscapular

Axilla Tricep

Bicep

Suprailium

Abdomen

Lower back

Thigh

Calf

Figure 4 – Skinfold Sites.

2.3

C) Taking the Skinfold Measurements 1. All measurements should be taken on the right side of the body with the person standing. 2. Locate the anatomical sites. 3. Grasp a double thickness of skin firmly with the thumb and one forefinger, pulling the fold slightly away from the muscular tissue. 4. The caliper is held perpendicular to the fold. With your thumb on the serrated portion of the caliper, slide the caliper open. 5. Place the caliper approximately 1 cm (¼ inch) below the finger hold. Slowly allow the caliper to close around the fold. Release the thumb so that full tension is exerted on the skinfold. 6. Take the reading to the nearest ½ mm. For 1 to 2 seconds after the thumb has been released. 7. Reopen the caliper to remove and carefully close the caliper. Do not allow the spring to snap the caliper closed. 8. Each site is measured three (3) times. The readings should be taken without delay to avoid excessive compression of the skinfold. Releasing and refolding the skinfold is required between readings. The average of the two (2) closest readings is recorded.


6

3.0

Estimating % fat for adults

Many equations have been developed using skinfold measurements to estimate % body fat. These equations are termed population specific. They have been developed from homogeneous samples or similar subjects (age. gender). Thus, the applicability of the particular equation limited to use with similar subjects. To avoid the use of multiple equations, generalized equations have been developed using samples varying in age and body fatness. This provides for the use of one equation rather than several to estimate % body fat. The following equations are generalized equations for the predicting body density of adult men and women using the sum of seven (7) skinfolds (Jackson and Baumgartner, 1991):

Men Body Density (BD) =

1.112000 – 0.00043499 (A)* + 0.0000055 (A)2 - 0.00028826 (B)*

Women Body Density (BD) =

1.0970 – 0.00046971 (A) + 0.0000056 (A)2 - 0.00012828 (B)*

A=

Sum of seven skinfolds (Chest, Axilla, Triceps, Subscapular, Abdomen, Suprailium and Thigh)

B=

Age in years

Body density is converted to percent body fat using the following formula (Siri, 1961): % fat

= 495

- 450

BD

Computer programs have been or could be developed to determine body density and percent body fat after the skinfold measurement have been taken. However, research by Durnin and Rahaman (1967) and Jackson and Pollock (1985) found that two different sums of four and three skinfolds for males and females were highly correlated with the sum of seven (7) skinfolds. Computer-generated tables have been developed using the 3-site and 4-site locations to provide an easy and quick way to estimate percent body fat. Table 1 & 2 provide percent fat estimates for women using the sum of three skinfolds (Chest, Suprailium and Thigh) and form men using the sum of three skinfolds ( chest, Abdomen and Thigh). For example, if the skinfold measurements for a 25 year old female are: A) Triceps B) Suprailium C) Thigh

= = =

16 10 32

Total

=

58

The percent body fat would be 23.0 %


7

Table 1 – Percent Fat estimates for Women (Sum of Triceps, Suprailium, & Thigh) Sum of SkinFolds (mm)

23-25 26-28 29-31 32-34 35-37 38-40 41-43 44-46 47-49 50-52 53-55 56-58 59-61 62-64 65-67 68-70 71-73 74-76 77-79 80-82 83-85 86-88 89-91 92-94 95-97 98-100 101-103 104-106 107-109 110-112 113-115 116-118 119-121 122-124 125-127 128-130

Age of the last year Under 22 9.7 11.0 12.3 13.6 14.8 16.0 17.2 18.3 19.5 20.6 21.7 22.7 23.7 24.7 25.7 26.6 27.5 28.4 29.3 30.1 30.9 31.7 32.5 33.2 33.9 34.6 35.3 35.8 36.4 37.0 37.5 38.0 38.5 39.0 39.4 39.8

23-27 9.9 11.2 12.5 13.8 15.0 16.3 17.4 18.6 19.7 20.8 21.9 23.0 24.0 25.0 25.9 26.9 27.8 28.7 29.5 30.4 31.2 32.0 32.7 33.4 34.1 34.8 35.4 36.1 36.7 37.2 37.8 38.3 38.7 39.2 39.6 40.0

28-32 10.2 11.5 12.8 14.0 15.3 16.5 17.7 18.8 20.0 21.1 22.1 23.2 24.2 25.2 26.2 27.1 28.0 28.9 29.8 30.6 31.4 32.2 33.0 33.7 34.4 35.1 35.7 36.3 36.9 37.5 38.0 38.5 39.0 39.4 39.9 40.3

33-37 10.4 11.7 13.0 14.3 15.5 16.7 17.9 19.1 20.2 21.3 22.4 23.4 24.5 25.5 26.4 27.4 28.3 29.2 30.0 30.9 31.7 32.5 33.2 33.9 34.6 35.3 35.9 36.3 37.1 37.7 38.2 38.8 39.2 39.7 40.1 40.5

38-42 10.7 12.0 13.3 14.5 15.8 17.0 18.2 19.3 20.5 21.6 22.6 23.7 24.7 25.7 26.7 27.6 28.5 29.4 30.3 31.1 31.9 32.7 33.5 34.2 34.9 35.5 36.2 36.8 37.4 38.0 38.5 39.0 39.5 39.9 40.4 40.8

43-47 10.9 12.3 13.5 14.8 16.0 17.2 18.4 19.6 20.7 21.8 22.9 23.9 25.0 26.0 26.9 27.9 28.8 29.7 30.5 31.4 32.2 32.9 33.7 34.4 35.1 35.8 36.4 37.1 37.6 38.2 38.7 39.3 39.7 40.2 40.6 41.0


48-52 11.2 12.5 13.8 15.0 16.3 17.5 18.7 19.8 21.0 22.1 23.1 24.2 25.2 26.2 27.2 28.1 29.0 29.9 30.8 31.6 32.4 33.2 33.9 34.7 35.4 36.0 36.7 37.3 37.9 38.5 39.0 39.5 40.0 40.4 40.9 41.3

53-57 11.4 12.7 14.0 15.3 16.5 17.7 18.9 20.1 21.2 22.3 23.4 24.4 25.5 26.4 27.4 28.4 29.3 30.2 31.0 31.9 32.7 33.4 34.2 34.9 35.6 36.3 36.9 37.5 38.1 38.7 39.2 39.7 40.2 40.7 41.1 41.5

Over 58 11.7 13.0 14.3 15.5 16.8 18.0 19.2 20.3 21.5 22.6 23.6 24.7 25.7 26.7 27.7 28.6 29.5 30.4 31.3 32.1 32.9 33.7 34.4 35.2 35.9 36.5 37.2 37.8 38.4 38.9 39.5 40.0 40.5 40.9 41.4 41.8

8

Table 2 – Percent Fat estimates for Men (Sum of Chest, Abdominal, & Thigh Skinfolds) Sum of SkinFolds (mm)

8-10 11-13 14-16 17-19 20-22 23-25 26-28 29-31 32-34 35-37 38-40 41-43 44-46 47-49 50-52 53-55 56-58 59-61 62-64 65-67 68-70 71-73 74-76 77-79 80-82 83-85 86-88 89-91 92-94 95-97 98-100 101-103 104-106 107-109 110-112 113-115 116-118 119-121 122-124 125-127

Age of the last year Under 22 1.3 2.2 3.2 4.2 5.1 6.1 7.0 8.0 8.9 9.8 10.7 11.6 12.5 13.4 14.3 15.1 16.0 16.9 17.6 18.5 19.3 20.1 20.9 21.7 22.4 23.2 24.0 24.7 25.4 26.1 26.9 27.5 28.2 28.9 29.6 30.2 30.9 31.5 32.1 32.7

23-27 1.8 2.8 3.8 4.7 5.7 6.6 7.6 8.5 9.4 10.4 11.3 12.2 13.1 13.9 14.8 15.7 16.5 17.4 18.2 19.0 19.9 20.7 21.5 22.2 23.0 23.8 24.5 25.3 26.0 26.7 27.4 28.1 28.8 29.5 30.2 30.8 31.5 32.1 32.7 33.3

28-32 2.3 3.3 4.3 5.3 6.2 7.2 8.1 9.1 10.0 10.9 11.8 12.7 13.6 14.5 15.4 16.2 17.1 17.9 18.8 19.6 20.4 21.2 22.0 22.8 23.6 24.4 25.1 25.9 26.6 27.3 28.0 28.7 29.4 30.1 30.8 31.4 32.1 32.7 33.3 33.9

33-37 2.9 3.9 4.8 5.8 6.8 7.7 8.7 9.6 10.5 11.5 12.4 13.3 14.2 15.1 15.9 16.8 17.7 18.5 19.4 20.2 21.0 21.8 22.6 23.4 24.2 25.0 25.7 26.5 27.2 27.9 28.6 29.3 30.0 30.7 31.4 32.0 32.7 33.3 33.9 34.5

38-42 3.4 4.4 5.4 6.3 7.3 8.3 9.2 10.2 11.1 12.0 12.9 13.8 14.7 15.6 16.5 17.4 18.2 19.1 19.9 20.8 21.6 22.4 23.2 24.0 24.8 25.5 26.3 27.1 27.8 28.5 29.2 29.9 30.6 31.3 32.0 32.6 33.3 33.9 34.5 35.1

43-47 3.9 4.9 5.9 6.9 7.9 8.8 9.8 10.7 11.6 12.6 13.5 14.4 15.3 16.2 17.1 17.9 18.8 19.7 20.5 21.3 22.2 23.0 23.8 24.6 25.4 26.1 26.9 27.6 28.4 29.1 29.8 30.5 31.2 31.9 32.6 33.2 33.9 34.5 35.1 35.8


48-52 4.5 5.5 6.4 7.4 8.4 9.4 10.3 11.3 12.2 13.1 14.1 15.0 15.9 16.8 17.6 18.5 19.4 20.2 21.1 21.9 22.7 23.6 24.4 25.2 25.9 26.7 27.5 28.2 29.0 29.7 30.4 31.1 31.8 32.5 33.2 33.8 34.5 35.1 35.8 36.4

53-57 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 8.9 9.9 10.9 11.8 12.8 13.7 14.6 15.5 16.4 17.3 18.2 19.0 20.0 20.8 21.7 22.5 23.3 24.1 25.0 25.8 26.5 27.3 28.1 28.8 29.6 30.3 31.0 31.7 32.4 33.1 33.8 34.5 35.1 35.7 36.4 37.0

Over 58 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.4 12.4 13.3 14.3 15.2 16.1 17,0 17.9 18.8 19.7 20.5 21.4 22.2 23.1 23.9 24.7 25.5 26.3 27.1 27.9 28.7 29.4 30.2 30.9 31.6 32.3 33.0 33.7 34.4 35.1 35.7 36.4 37.0 37.6

9

Table 3 – Percent Fat estimates for Men (Sum of Biceps, Triceps, Subscapular & Suprailium Skinfolds) Skinfolds (mm)

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195 200 205 210

Males (Age in years)

16-29 4.8 8.1 10.5 12.9 14,7 16,4 17.7 19.0 20.1 21.2 22.2 23.1 24.0 24.8 25.5 26.2 26.9 27.6 28.2 28.8 29.4 30.0 30.5 31.0 31.5 32.0 32.5 32.9 33.3 33.7 34.1 34.5 34.9 35.3 35.6 35.9 -

30-39 12.2 14.2 16.2 17.7 19.2 20.4 21.5 22.5 23.5 24.3 25.1 25.9 26.6 27.2 27.8 28.4 29.0 29.6 30.1 30.6 31.1 31.5 31.9 32.3 32.7 33.1 33.5 33.9 34.3 34.6 34.8 -

40-49 12.2 15.0 17.7 19.6 21.4 23.0 24.6 25.9 27.1 28.2 29.3 30.3 31.2 32.1 33.0 33.7 34.4 35.1 35.8 36.4 37.0 37.6 38.2 38.7 39.2 39.7 40.2 40.7 41.2 41.6 42.0 -

50+ 12.6 15.6 18.6 20.8 22.9 24.7 26.5 27.9 29.2 30.4 31.6 32.7 33.8 34.8 35.8 36.6 37.4 38.2 39.0 39.7 40.4 41.1 41.8 42.2 43.0 43.6 44.1 44.6 45.1 45.6 46.1 -


Table 3 & 4 provide percent fat estimates for women and men using the sum of four (4) skinfolds (Biceps, Triceps, Subscapular & Suprailium). For example, if the skinfold measurements for a 35 year old male are: (a) Biceps = 10 (b) Tricep = 11 (c) Subscapular = 17 (d) Suprailium = 22 Total = 60 The percent body fat would be 23.5 %. (Durnin and Womersley, 1974)

10

Table 4 – Percent Fat estimates for Women (Sum of Biceps, Triceps, Subscapular & Suprailium Skinfolds Skinfolds (mm)

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195 200 205 210

Females (Age in years)

16-29 10.5 14.1 16.8 19.5 21.5 23.4 25.0 26.5 27.8 29.1 30.2 31.2 32.2 33.1 34.0 34.8 35.6 36.4 37.1 37.8 38.4 39.0 39.6 40.2 40.8 41.3 41.8 42.3 42.8 43.3 43.7 44.1 -

30-39 17.0 19.4 21.8 23.7 25.5 26.9 28.2 29.4 30.6 31.6 32.5 33.4 34.3 35.1 35.8 36.5 37.2 37.9 38.6 39.1 39.6 40.1 40.6 41.1 41.6 42.1 42.6 43.1 43.6 44.0 44.4 44.8 45.2 45.6 45.9 46.2 46.5 -

40-49 19.8 22.2 24.5 26.4 28.2 29.6 31.0 32.1 33.2 34.1 35.0 35.9 36.7 37.5 38.3 39.0 39.7 40.4 41.0 41.5 42.0 42.5 43.0 43.5 44.0 44.5 45.0 45.4 45.8 46.2 46.6 47.0 47.4 47.8 48.2 48.5 48.8 49.1 49.4

50+ 21.4 24.0 26.6 28.5 30.3 31.9 33.4 34.6 35.7 36.7 37.7 38.7 39.6 40.4 41.2 41.9 42.6 43.3 43.9 44.5 45.1 45.7 46.2 46.7 47.2 47.7 48.2 48.7 49.2 49.6 50.0 50.4 50.8 51.2 51.6 52.0 52.4 52.7 53.0


11

4.0

What Does My % Body Fat Mean?

Now that you have determined your percent body fat, what does it mean? Table 5 presents classification standards by gender and age. This table also identifies the health fitness and high physical fitness category for individuals who wish to do moderate to vigorous physical activity without undue fatigue. For example, the recommended health-fitness standard for a 35 year old female is 29 % or less. The high physical standards for her would be between 19 % and 24 %. You may be somewhat below the high physical fitness standard It is uncommon for highly trained males and females to be as low as 3 % and 12 % (sometimes lower, but perhaps unhealthy) respectively. Remember that 3 % essential fat for men and 12 % for women seem to be lower limits in order to maintain health. Going below these percentages can result in the serious impairment of normal physiological function. A little storage fat (over the essential) is better than none at all.

Table 5 – Body Composition According to percent Body Fat (Men). Age 19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50

Excellent* 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0

Good* 12.1-17.0 13.1-18.0 14.1-19.0 15.1-20.0 16.1-21.5

Moderate** 17.1- 22.0 18.1- 23.0 19.1- 24.0 20.1- 25.0 21.1-26.0

Overweight 22.1- 27.0 23.1- 28.0 24.1- 29.0 25.1- 30.0 26.1- 31.0

Obese 27.1 28.1 29.1 30.1 31.1

Table 6 – Body Composition According to percent Body Fat (Women). Age Excellent* Good* 19 17.0 17.1- 22.0 20-29 18.0 18.1- 23.0 30-39 19.0 19.1- 24.0 40-49 20.0 20.1- 25.0 50 21.5 21.1-26.0 * High physical fitness standard. **

Moderate** Obese 22.1- 27.0 27.1-32.0 23.1- 28.0 28.1-33.0 24.1- 29.0 29.1-34.0 25.1- 30.0 30.1-35.0 26.1- 31.0 31.1-36.0 Health fitness standard.

Excellent 32.1 33.1 34.1 35.1 36.1

From: Hoeger, W.K. and Hoeger, S. (1999) Principles and Labs for Physical Fitness and Wellness, Morton Publishing Company, Englewood, Colorado.


12

5.0

Determining Your Recommended Weight

Before you can determine your recommended weight, you must select the desired health or high physical fitness fat percentage for your age and gender. You must make this decision based on your current percent fat and personal fat and personal health fitness objectives. 1. To determine your pounds of body weight in fat (FW), multiply body weight by your current percent fat (%F) expressed in decimal form: FW = BW x %F 2. Determine lean body weight (LBW) by subtracting the weight in fat (FW) from your body weight in fat (FW) from your body weight (BW): LBW = BW - FW 3. Select your desired body fat percentage (DFP) based on the standards in Table 5. 4. Compute recommended body weight (RBW) using the following formula: RBW = LBW ÷ (1.0 - DFP) For example, a 35-year-old female weights 170 pounds and is 32% fat. What would her recommended body weight (RBW) be at 24%? Gender Age Body Weight (BW)

female 35 170 lbs.

%F

32% (.32 in decimal form)

Step 1:

FW = BW x %F FW = 170 x .32 = 54

Step 2:

LBW = BW - FW LBW = 170 - 54 = 116

Step 3:

DFP: 24% or .24 in decimal form

Step 4:

RBW = LBW ÷ (1.0 - DFP) RBW = 116 ÷ (1.0 - DFP) RBW = 116 ÷ (.76) = 152.6 RBW AT 24% FAT WOULD BE 152.6 lbs.


13

6.0 Body composition and children Childhood obesity increased during the 1980’s (National Children’s Youth Fitness Today (NCYFS, 1985). The prevalence of obesity was higher in the 1980s than it was in the 1960s. In order tot reverse this trend, assessing body composition using the skinfold method is a major effort today by physical educators to help children learn to maintain body fatness in an appropriate range. Adult obesity and the subsequent risk factors of coronary heart disease (CHD), stroke and diabetes have their roots in childhood obesity. For this reason, skinfold tests are included in most of the national health-related youth fitness tests (e.g. Fitnessgram and Physical Best). The Health-related Physical Fitness Test, introduce by the American Alliance of Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) in 1981 was the first national test to include skinfold measurements. The Tricep and Subscapular sites were measured and percentile ranks for the sum of the two skinfolds were established by gender and age (5 years through college) Table 8 & 9, present percentile norms for boys and girls established during the 1980s. Norms indicate how an individual compares to others of his or her age and gender. Norms are a means of comparison and not a health-fitness standard. Because pre-pubescent children are chemically immature (higher water and lower bone mineral content than adults), previously discussed adult equations to estimate % body fat are inappropriate for children. Thus the sum of two skinfolds provides the health fitness standards. The Subscapular site was not easily measured in females without their undressing or wearing loose clothing. In order to establish less invasive procedures, the Calf and the Tricep sites were compared with the Subscapular and Tricep. It was found that the results were very similar. In 1988 Physical Best (AAHPERD, 1988) was published with health fitness criterion standards using the sum of the Calf and Tricep skinfolds. These health fitness standards indicate a sum of skinfold range that a child should fall within in order to maintain a level of health that will help to prevent health problems, now and in later life. Table 7 presents the health fitness standards by gender and age for the sum of the Tricep and Calf skinfolds. Measure your children. Teach them the importance of body composition and health.

Table 7 – Sum of Skinfolds’ (mm) (Calf and Tricep) Health Fitness Standards for Boys and Girls Ages

Males

Females

5 yrs to 18 yrs.

12-25 mm

16-36 mm


14

Fattest

Percentiles

Leanest

Table 8 –Percentile Norms for the Sum of Triceps and Subscapular Skinfolds (mm) for Boys, Ages 6 - 18 age

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

99

7

7

7

7

7

8

8

7

7

8

8

8

95

8

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

90

9

9

9

10

10

10

10

10

9

10

10

10

85

10

10

10

10

11

12

10

10

10

11

11

11

80

10

10

10

11

11

12

11

11

11

11

11

12

75

11

11

11

11

12

12

11

12

11

12

12

12

70

11

11

11

12

12

12

12

12

12

12

12

13

65

11

11

12

12

13

13

13

12

12

13

13

13

60

12

12

12

13

13

14

13

13

13

13

13

14

55

12

12

13

13

14

15

14

14

13

14

14

14

50

12

12

13

14

14

16

15

15

14

14

14

15

45

13

13

14

14

15

16

15

16

14

15

15

16

40

13

13

14

15

16

17

16

17

15

16

16

16

35

13

14

15

16

17

19

17

18

16

18

17

17

30

14

14

16

17

18

20

19

19

18

18

18

19

25

14

15

17

18

19

22

21

22

20

20

20

21

20

15

16

18

20

21

24

24

25

23

22

22

24

15

16

17

19

23

24

28

27

29

27

25

24

26

10

18

18

21

26

28

33

33

36

31

30

29

30

5

20

24

28

34

33

38

44

46

37

40

37

38


15

Fattest

Percentiles

Leanest

Table 9 –Percentile Norms for the Sum of Triceps and Subscapular Skinfolds (mm) for Girls, Ages 6 - 18 age

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

99

8

8

8

9

9

8

9

10

10

11

11

12

95

9

10

10

10

10

11

11

12

13

14

14

15

90

10

11

11

12

12

12

12

13

15

16

16

16

85

11

12

12

12

13

13

13

14

16

17

18

18

80

12

12

12

13

13

14

14

15

17

18

19

19

75

12

12

13

14

14

15

15

16

18

20

20

20

70

12

13

14

15

15

16

16

17

19

21

21

22

65

13

13

15

15

16

16

17

18

20

22

22

23

60

13

14

15

16

17

17

17

19

21

23

23

24

55

14

15

16

16

18

18

19

20

22

24

24

26

50

14

15

16

17

18

19

19

20

24

25

25

27

45

15

16

17

18

20

20

21

22

25

26

27

28

40

15

16

18

19

20

21

22

23

26

28

29

30

35

16

17

19

20

22

22

24

25

27

29

30

32

30

16

18

20

22

24

23

25

27

30

32

32

34

25

17

19

21

24

25

25

27

30

32

34

34

36

20

18

20

23

26

28

28

31

33

35

37

37

40

15

19

22

25

29

31

31

35

39

39

42

42

42

10

22

25

30

34

35

36

40

43

42

48

46

46

5

26

28

36

40

41

42

48

51

52

56

57

58


16

7.0

Principles of successful lifetime Weight Control

Most of us want to maintain recommended body weight (RBW) for either health or appearance reasons or both. Once you have established your current % body fat, desired % body fat, and body weight, you must follow some very important principles to lose fat and successfully control it for the rest of your life. We will identify some of those principles. For a more detailed and complete discussion of weight control principles and strategies, please refer to Principles and Labs for Physical Fitness and Wellness by Werner W.K. Hoeger and Sharon A. Hoeger (Morton Publishing Compan, 1999).

7.1

Principle #1:

Set Realistic Goals

Be realistic as you set your own target weight. If you are above the moderate body fat category or health fitness standard in Table X you should set your goal to bring your body fat down and stay in this category for health reasons. Attaining the excellent category can be extremely difficult for some and perhaps more difficult to maintain. Ask yourself if you are willing to make a commitment to a vigorous lifetime exercise program and permanent dietary changes. The moderate category may be more realistic. Usually a weight problem is the product of a number of years. However, too many individuals want to lose weight in a very short time. A successful lifetime weight control program can only be established by implementing new lifetime exercise and eating habits. This will take time. Your log term goal may be to reduce your body fat from 30% to 20%. Your short/term objective may be to decrease body fat 1% each month. This will encourage regular body fat assessment (skinfold technique) and help maintain motivation and renewed commitment to your long-term goal.

7.2

Principle #2:

Aerobic Exercise is the key to Weight Loss and Weight Maintenance

Fat is the primary fuel of muscles. In order for muscle to use fat efficiently as fuel, it requires oxygen (aerobic). The secret to fat burning is to exercise at the right level to utilize stored fat. If you exercise too hard or not hard enough you will utilize body sugar for fuel and not fat. Aerobic exercise done correctly will burn fat and improve the ability of enzymes to burn more fat as you increase intensity. Bailey (1994) defines aerobic exercise as the following: 1. Lasts at least twelve minutes without stopping. 2. Gets you breathing deeply but not out of breath. 3. Uses the muscles in the thighs and buttock (p. 73). Consult your local fitness expert for an exercise prescription or choose an activity you enjoy and get moving.


17

7.3

Principle #3:

Build More Muscle To Lose Fat

Muscle tissue uses more energy (fuel) than fat at rest. As muscle size increases, so does the amount of fuel an individual uses at rest to sustain resting metabolism. Remember the primary fuel of muscles is fat. If you increase the size of muscle tissue, more fat will be used at rest and during exercise. Even small increases in muscle mass will have an effect. Loss of muscle mass is associated with increased % of body fat as we age. As we lose muscle our resting metabolism does not need as much fuel and thus we retain more fat. Thus, participating in a strength-training program along with aerobic exercise is important in preventing and reducing excess body fat.

7.4

Principle #4:

Dieting Can Make People Fat

For years we assumed that the key to weight loss and maintenance was the energy-balancing equation. This stated that as long as calorie input equalled calorie output, a person would not gain or lose weight. If caloric output exceeded input, a person would lose weight. While logical and simple, the equation does not work for everyone because of genetic and lifestylerelated individual differences which determine the number of calories required to maintain or lose weight. The most common explanation for individual differences in weight loss and weight gain has been the variation in human metabolism. However, many experts questioned whether this factor alone could account for all the variation. In response the setpoint theory was proposed. Research studies have identified a weight-regulation mechanism (WRM) in the hypothalamus of the brain that regulates how much the body should weigh. It is thought that this mechanism has a setpoint that controls both appetite and the amount of fat stored. Setpoint is hypothesized to work like a thermometer for body fat. Some people have high settings and others have low settings. Everybody has his or her own certain body fat percentage that the body attempts to maintain. Our instinct to survive tells the body that fat storage is vital and sets an acceptable level of fat. Poor lifestyle habits may cause the level to gradually climb Under strict caloric reduction the body may make extreme metabolic adjustments in an effort to maintain its setpoint for fat. The amount of energy the body needs to maintain life at complete rest may drop rapidly and the individual may be on a plateau for days or even weeks without losing much weight. Dietary restriction alone will not lower the setpoint, even though you may lose weight and fat. Your survival mechanism will activate in response to your nearfasting diet and lower your metabolism. You are able to function at a much lower rate. When


18

you go back to a normal caloric intake or even slightly reduced intake, you will quickly regain the fat loss as the body strives to regain a comfortable fat store. Low calorie diets will not alter the setpoint, but will slow down the resting metabolic rate and actually increase body fat. Such diets will also deprive the body of basic daily nutrients required for normal function. Table 9 offers some general guidelines for estimating daily caloric intake according to lifestyle patterns. These are estimates and serve as a starting point form which individual adjustments can be made. Under no circumstances should a person go on a diet that calls below 1200 and 1500 calories for women and men respectively. The important question is how can I lower my setpoint so the body will feel comfortable at a lower fat percentage. It appears that the only way to lower the setpoint is by the following: 1. Aerobic exercises and; 2. A diet high in complex carbohydrates (grains and potatoes) and low in fat. The preceding represents the four (4) main principles of a successful weight control program. Successful lifetime weight loss, maintenance and recommended body composition can only be attained with a moderate reduction in caloric intake combined with an aerobic and strength-training program.

Table 10 –Average Caloric Requirement Per Pound of Body Weight Based on Lifestyle Patterns and Gender Calories Per Pound Women* 12.0

Men Sedentary - Limited physical 13.0 activity Moderate physical activity 15.0 13.5 Hard Labour - Strenuous physical 17.0 15.0 effort * Pregnant or lactating women add three calories to these values. (From: Hoeger, W.K. And Hoeger, S. 1999. Principles and Labs for Physical Fitness and Wellness, Morton Publishing Company, Englewood, Colorado)


19

Gebruiksaanwijzing Expert Skinfold Caliper (Huidplooidiktemeting)


20

1.0

Huidplooi methode

De Huidplooi Methode (huidplooidiktemeting) is gebaseerd op het principe dat de hoeveelheid vet onder de huid een accurate indicatie geeft van de hoeveelheid vet elders in het lichaam. Circa de helft van het vetweefsel in een lichaam bevindt zich direct onder de huid (onderhuids). Figuur 1, 2 en 3 illustreren de basishandelingen van de huidplooidiktemeting.

Figuur 1 – Huid, Vet en Spier

Figuur 2 – Knijpen

Figuur 3 – Plaatsing van de Caliper

Wanneer u een huidplooi meet is het belangrijk dat de plooi wordt weggetrokken van het onderliggende spierweefsel. Op deze wijze meet u een plooi welke bestaat uit huid en vet en niet uit spierweefsel (deze plooi wordt verder aangeduid met huidplooi). Door de dikte van de huidplooi op diverse plaatsen van het lichaam te meten kan men het totale percentage (%) lichaamsvet bepalen. De resultaten van de metingen op diverse plaatsen worden gebruikt in een formule welke de lichaamsdensiteit1 / lichaamsdichtheid voorspeld. Deze uitkomst kan vervolgens geconverteerd worden tot lichaamsvetpercentage. De huidplooidiktemeting wordt gezien als een betrouwbare methode om het lichaamsvetpercentage te bepalen. Hiernaast is het een relatief goedkope, niet plaatsgebonden en uitermate geschikte methode welke toepasbaar is voor vele doeleinden.

1

Densiteit is de concentratie van materie uitgedrukt in massa per volume-eenheid


21

2.0

How to use the Expert Fat Measurer

Voorafgaand aan de huidplooidiktemetingen dient u de volgende aanbevelingen in acht te nemen om zo de meest accurate resultaten te behalen:

2.1

A) Voorbereidingen voor accurate metingen 1. Stel uzelf in staat de caliper meerdere malen uit te proberen. Neem diverse malen metingen op verschillende huidplooimeetpunten en vergelijk de uitkomsten en controleer hoe consistent deze zijn. 2. Zorg dat u bekend bent met de juiste plaatsen waar de huidplooi gemeten dient te worden (zie verder paragraaf 2.2.). 3. Wanneer u meermalen over tijd meet, zorg ervoor dat de metingen worden gedaan op een gelijk tijdstip. Het beste is vroeg in de morgen. 4. Metingen dienen niet direct na inspanning te worden gedaan. De vochtverplaatsing naar de huid zal de huidplooi vergroten. 5. Alle metingen moeten aan de rechterzijde van het lichaam worden gedaan, direct op de huid (niet door de kleding).

2.2

B) Huidplooi meetpunten: 1. Buik

Een verticale plooi circa 1,5 / 2cm. rechts van de navel.

2. Oksel

Een verticale plooi in het midden, recht onder de oksel ter hoogte van de tepel.

3. Biceps

Een verticale plooi aan de voorzijde van de arm op de biceps.

4. Kuit

Een verticale plooi aan de binnenzijde van het rechteronderbeen ter hoogte van het breedste punt van de kuitbeenspier.

5. Borst

Een diagonale plooi halverwege de schouder en tepel.

6. Schouder

Een diagonale plooi op de bovenrug, onder het laagste punt van het schouderblad. Neem de plooi 45 graden (diagonaal) in het verlengde van de onderkant van het oplopende bot.

7. Heup

Een verticale plooi aan de bovenzijde van het darmbeen (aan heupzijde).


22

8. Dij

Een verticale plooi aan de voorzijde van de dij, halverwege de knie en heup.

9. Tricep

Een verticale plooi aan de achterzijde van de bovenarm, halverwege de schouder en elleboog.

Borst

Schouder

Oksel Triceps

Biceps

Heup

Buik

Onderrug

Dij

Kuit

Figuur 4 –Huidplooi meetpunten.

2.3

C) Werkwijze Huidplooidiktemeting; 1. Alle metingen dienen genomen te worden aan de rechterzijde van het lichaam in staande positie. 2. Lokaliseer elk van de meetpunten. 3. Grijp stevig een plooi tussen duim en wijsvinger. Trek de plooi weg van het spierweefsel. 4. De Caliper dient loodrecht ten opzichte van de plooi te worden gehouden. De Caliper kunt u met uw duim (op het geribbelde deel) openen. 5. Plaats the Caliper circa 1 cm onder de vingergreep. Sluit de Caliper langzaam om de huidplooi. Laat uw duim los zodat de volledige spanning van de Caliper zich op de huidplooi begeeft. 6. Lees de Caliper af, neem hierbij de dichtstbijzijnde ½ mm. Wacht met aflezen echter wel 1 a 2 seconden nadat u uw duim heeft losgelaten van de Caliper. 7. Heropen de Caliper en verwijder deze van de huidplooi. 8. Elk punt dient driemaal te worden gemeten. Hierbij dient u de Caliper wel van de huidplooi af te halen en de meting in zijn geheel opnieuw uit te voeren. Het gemiddelde van de twee meest overeenkomende metingen wordt als resultaat van de meting gebruikt.


23

3.0

Schatten van lichaamsvetpercentage van volwassenen

Er zijn vele formules ontwikkeld welke op basis van huidplooimetingen het lichaamsvetpercentage bepalen. Deze formules zijn echter veelal populatiespecifiek. Ze zijn ontwikkeld voor homogene groepen (gelijke leeftijd, geslacht of vetpercentage). Het gebruik van deze formules beperkt zich zodoende tot deze specifieke groepen. Om niet per geval te bepalen welke formule geschikt is, zijn er algemene formules opgesteld welke ongeacht leeftijd, geslacht en vetpercentage toepasbaar zijn. De volgende formules zijn gestandaardiseerde formules om lichaamsdensiteit te bepalen voor zowel mannen als vrouwen door gebruik te maken van zeven (7) huidplooimetingen (Jackson and Baumgartner, 1991):

Lichaamsdensiteit Mannen (BD) = 1.112000 – 0.00043499 (A)* + 0.0000055 (A)2 - 0.00028826 (B)* Lichaamsdensiteit Vrouwen (BD) = 1.0970 – 0.00046971 (A) + 0.0000056 (A)2 - 0.00012828 (B)* A=

Som van zeven huidplooimetingen (Borst, Oksel, Triceps, Rug, Buik, Heup en Dij)

B=

Leeftijd in jaren

Lichaamsdensiteit wordt geconverteerd naar lichaamsvetpercentage d.m.v. de volgende formule: (Siri, 1961): % vet = 495

- 450

BD Er zijn diverse computerprogramma's ontwikkeld om de lichaamsdensiteit en het percentage lichaamsvet te bepalen nadat de huidplooimetingen zijn genomen. Echter, onderzoek door Durnin en Rahaman (1967) en Jackson en Pollock (1985) concludeert dat er twee verschillende opsommingen van vier en drie huidplooimetingen voor mannen en vrouwen sterk zijn gecorreleerd met de som van zeven (7) huidplooien. Naar aanleiding hiervan zijn Computergegenereerde tabellen ontwikkeld om met behulp van de 3 of 4 huidplooimetingen op eenvoudige en snelle wijze om het lichaamvetpercentage te schatten. Tabel 1 (Pag. 8) en 2 (Pag. 9) bevatten lichaamvetpercentage schattingen voor vrouwen met behulp van de som van drie huidplooimetingen (triceps, heup en dij) en voor mannen met behulp van de som van drie huidplooien (borst, buik en dij). Bijvoorbeeld, als de huidplooi metingen voor een 25 jarige vrouw zijn: A. Triceps B. Heup C. Dij Totaal

= = =

16 10 32

=

58

Het vetpercentage zal dan 23.0 % zijn. Expert Skinfold Caliper – User’s guide

24

Tabel 3 (Pag. 10) en 4 (Pag. 11) bevatten lichaamvetpercentage schattingen op basis van de som van vier huidplooimetingen (biceps, triceps, rug en heup). Bijvoorbeeld, als de huidplooi metingen voor een 35 jarige man zijn:

(a) Biceps = (b) Triceps = (c) Rug = (d) Heup = Totaal =

10 11 17 22 60

Het vetpercentage zal dan 23.5 % zijn.


25

References Bailey, C. (1994). Smart Exercise, Burning Fat, Getting Fit. Houghton Mifflin, New York, New York. Durnin, J.V.G.A. and Rahaman, M.M. (1967). The assessment of the amount of fat in the human body from measurements of skinfold thickness. British Journal of Nutrition 21: 68189. Durnin, J.V.G.A. and Wormersley, J. (1974). Body fat assessed from total body density and its estimation from skinfold thickness: Measurements on 481 men and women aged 16 to 72 years. British Journal of Nutrition 32: 77-92. Hoeger, W.K. And Hoeger, S. 1999. Principles and Labs for Physical Fitness and Wellness. Morton Publishing Company, Englewood, Colorado) Jackson, A.S. and Baumgartner, T.A. (1991). Measurement for evaluation in Physical Education and Exercise Science. Wm. C. Brown, Dubuque, Iowa. Jackson, A.S. and Pollock M.L. (1985). Practical assessment of body composition. The Physician and Sports Medicine 13: 76-90. Lohman T.G. and Pollock, M.L. (1981). Which caliper? How much training. Journal of Physical Education and Recreation 52: 27-29. National Children’s Youth Fitness Today (NCYFS) (1985). Summary of findings from National Children and Youth Fitness Study. Washington D.C.: Department of Health and Human Services. Siri, W.E. (1961). Body composition from fluid space and density. In J. Brozck and Hanschel (Ed.), Techniques for measuring body composition. Washington D.C.; National Academy of Science. Vlasak I.M. and Hartung G.H. (1980). Analysis of FAT-O-METER Skinfold Caliper for Body Composition Field Testing. Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas.


26

How to use the Expert Skinfold Caliper (Fat Measurer)

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