contents Chapter 12 nederlandse samenvatting

contents

Chapter 12 nederlandse samenvatting

187

Nederlandse samenvatting

Hart- en vaatziekten Hart- en vaatziekten, zoals hartinfarcten en perifeer vaatlijden, zijn de voornaamste doodsoorzaak wereldwijd en in Nederland. In 2005 stierven naar schatting 44.1 duizend mensen in Nederland aan harten vaatziekten [1]. Verstopping van de bloedvaten, en de hiermee gepaard gaande ischemie, leiden tot schade van de omliggende weefsels. Huidige chirurgische therapieën zijn gericht op het hestel van de doorbloeding, waardoor de ischemie wordt verholpen, maar zijn niet gericht op het voorkomen van ontsteking [2;3] of het induceren van weefsel regeneratie. Hetgeen onderzoek naar nieuwe therapieën noodzakelijk maakt. Herstel van de doorbloeding van ischemische of beschadigde weefsels is essentieel voor regeneratie. Ischemische episodes in het hart of de perifere weefsels leiden tot de nieuwvorming van bloedvaten (neovascularizatie) vanuit het reeds bestaande vaatbed via angiogenese [4] of de vorming van coronaire arteriën via artheriogenese [5]. Beide processen worden gestuurd door een scala aan cytokines en groeifactoren, mechanische stimuli en circulerende cellen, zoals endotheelvoorlopercellen (EPC). Echter, in patiënten die lijden aan harten vaatziekten kan deze natuurlijke vaatnieuwvorming disfunctioneel zijn en onvoldoende om de weefseldoorbloeding te herstellen (hoofdstuk 3). Dus, hoewel de complexe processen achter vaatnieuwvorming continue worden verduidelijkt, blijft er een klinische behoefte aan therapieën die het natuurlijke proces van vaatnieuwvorming ondersteunen en/of vervangen. Dit soort therapieën biedt vasculaire regeneratieve geneeskunde in het tissue engineeren van ‘designer bloedvaten’ (deel I) en ‘therapeutische vaatnieuwvorming’ door middel van stamceltherapie (deel II).

Vasculaire Regeneratieve Geneeskunde Regeneratieve geneeskunde richt zich op de regeneratie van vitale en duurzame weefsels na acute of chronische schade [356]. Vasculaire regeneratieve geneeskunde is een multidisciplinair onderzoeksveld dat onder andere ontwikkelingsbiologie, ‘biomedical engineering’ en de chemische wetenschappen beslaat en zich richt op het verbeteren van de klinische problematiek van patiënten met vasculaire aandoeningen. Hierin richt vasculaire regeneratieve geneeskunde zich op het creëren van nieuwe therapieën die specifiek gericht zijn op de inductie of het herstel van de doorbloeding. Een belangrijke benadering hierin is het genereren van ‘designer bloedvaten’ (of bloedvat tissue-engineering) door in vitro endotheelcellen (EC) en gladde spiercellen (SMC) te combineren met afbreekbare biomaterialen. Een tweede, conceptueel verschillende, benadering is de in vivo inductie van neovascularizatie door stamcel therapie. EC zijn van vitaal belang binnen de vasculaire regeneratieve geneeskunde. EC bevatten natuurlijke antistolling- en vaatvormende eigenschappen. Echter, de beperkte beschikbaarheid en korte levensduur van EC [44] zijn limiterend binnen de vasculaire regeneratieve geneeskunde. Endotheelvoorlopercellen (EPC) kunnen zich ontwikkelen naar EC en hebben een lange levensduur (hoofdstuk 5). Daarom kunnen 189

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chapter 12 EPC een bijdrage leveren aan de regeneratieve capaciteit van de bloedvaten door de beschadigde EC te regenereren [357]. EPC ontstaan in het beenmerg uit de hematopoetische stamcel [296]. Er zijn twee beschreven populaties EPC die onderscheden kunnen worden op basis van expressie van de eiwitten CD34 en CD14 [64], de tijd van ontstaan in celkweek [62] en de potentie tot klonale expansie [63]. Gemeenschappelijk hechten EPC aan de extracellulaire matrixcomponenten gelatine en fibronectine, kunnen EPC geacetyleerd low-density lipoprotein opnemen en binden EPC lectines van Ulex europaeus. Daarnaast brengen EPC, na celkweek, eiwitten tot expressie die kenmerkend zijn voor EC, zoals CD31, VECadherin (CD144), von Willebrand Factor en eNOS [315;316]. In dit proefschrift is onderzoek gedaan naar de mogelijkheid om EPC te gebruiken voor in vitro tissue-engineering van ‘designer bloedvaten’ (deel I) en ‘therapeutische neovascularizatie’ (deel II). Het onderzoek beschreven in dit proefschrift richt zich op de (moleculair) biologische mechanismen die plasticiteit en differentiatiecapaciteit van EPC waarborgen, omdat kennis van deze processen de klinische implementatie van regeneratieve geneeskunde bevorderen.

DEEL I: TISSUE-ENGINEERING VAN ‘DESIGNER BLOEDVATEN’ Het genereren van een endotheelcellaag op (afbreekbare) biomaterialen Tissue-engineering van bloedvaten richt zich op de creatie van klein-diameter bloedvaten door EPC te differentiëren op (degradeerbare) biomaterialen. Naast hechtbaarheid en mechanische versteviging, dient het biomateriaal celadhesie, celdifferentiatie en groei te ondersteunen. Degradatie van het biomateriaal, tezamen met de generatie van een nieuwe extracellulaire matrix door de cellen, converteert het tissue-engineered bloedvat (TEBV) naar een volledig natief bloedvat in vivo. Omdat de CD14+ EPC in een hogere frequentie in de circulatie aanwezig is dan de CD34+ EPC (respectievelijk 10-20% versus 0.01-0.1% van de witte bloedcellen); lijkt de CD14+ EPC een geschikte bron van EC om ‘grote weefsels’, zoals een bloedvat, te tissue engineeren. In hoofdstuk 2 hebben wij onderzocht of CD14+ EPC uit de circulatie van gezonde vrijwilligers kunnen differentiëren naar EC op degradeerbare biomaterialen. Het merendeel (>70%) CD14+ EPC differentieerde naar EC in vitro en had expressie van EC-specifieke eiwitten, als CD31, VE-Cadherin, von Willebrand Factor en eNOS. Om een vitaal klein-diameter bloedvat te creëren dat zelfhelende capaciteit bevat zijn cellen nodig met een hoge proliferative capaciteit en dus een lange levensduur. De kortstondige proliferatie, en dus beperkte levensduur, van CD14+ EPC (hoofdstuk 2) kan de integriteit van een TEBV dus negatief beïnvloeden. Echter, in hoofdstuk 7 is aangetoond dat in combinatie met CD34+ EPC, de proliferatie van CD14+ EPC niet meer kortstondig is, maar constitutief. Hiermee is kan dan ook de integriteit van een TEBV worden gewaarborgd. Omdat bloedvat tissue-engineering zich richt op de creatie van autologe TEBV hebben we in hoofdstuk 3 onderzocht of EPC in patiënten met verhoogd risico op cardiovasculaire aandoeningen zijn aangetast door ziekte. In patiënten met 190

chronische nierziekten beschrijven we numerieke en functionele disfunctie van EPC; deze disfuncties vormen een nieuwe uitdaging binnen bloedvat tissue-engineering en strategieën om deze disfuncties te overkomen zullen in de toekomst moeten worden onderzocht.

De generatie van gladde spiercellen in (degradeerbare) biomaterialen Een ‘designer bloedvat’ bestaat niet enkel uit een biomateriaal met een laag EC, maar dient een laag van gladde spiercellen (SMC) te bevatten. Deze SMC zorgen voor stabiliteit van het bloedvat en zijn contractiele eigenschappen. SMC kunnen uit vaatbiopten worden geisoleerd en mogelijk ook uit circulerende voorlopercellen [139;181;358]. Sata en collegae hebben beschreven dat de hematopoëtische stamcel, de voorloper van de EPC, via endotheel-naar-mesenchym transdifferentiatie (EnMT) kunnen differentiëren naar SMC [359]. EnMT is een proces waarin EC hun phenotype verliezen en het phenotype van mesenchymale cellen tot expressie gaan brengen. Dit concept heeft geleid tot de hypothese dat ook EPC EnMT kunnen ondergaan en dus een bron van SMC kunnen zijn voor tissue-engineering (hoofdstukken 4 en 5). Als ‘proof-of-principle’ hebben we in hoofdstuk 4 laten zien dat neonatale EC (HUVEC) EnMT kunnen ondergaan en transdifferentieren naar SMC via TGF-β1afhankelijke mechanismen. EnMT van HUVEC resulteert in het onstaan van een delende populatie vasculaire SMC die functioneel niet verschillen van natuurlijke SMC [165]. Daar tissue-engineering gebruik maakt van 3D scaffolds voor de creatie van een TEBV, is in hoofdstuk 4 onderzocht of EnMT geïnduceerd kan worden in deze 3D scaffolds. EnMT in de 3D scaffolds verliep eender als in de celkweken. Vervolgens is in hoofdstuk 5 onderzocht of EPC EnMT kunnen ondergaan. De toevoeging van TGF-β1 en PDGF-BB aan EPC kweken resulteerde in verminderde expressie van EC-markers, i.e. CD31, CD144, eNOS, vWF, VEGFR-2 en Tie2, en toegenomen expressie van SMC-markers, i.e. SM22α. αSMA, calponine en SM-MHC2. EPC-afkomstige SMC hadden een gelijke contractiele functie als ‘echte’ vasculaire SMC. Echter, telomerase expressie, een characteristiek kenmerk van stam- en voorlopercellen, ging verloren gedurende het transdifferentiatie proces (hoofdstuk 5).

Richting ‘Designer Bloedvaten’ Tissue engineeren van klein-diameter bloedvaten is meer dan het differentieren van de juiste celtypen (EC & SMC). Een natuurlijk bloedvat bevat een intimae bestaande uit vasculaire cellen en hun basaal membraam, en een buitenste adventitia bestaande uit extracellulaire matrix en fibroblasten. Deze adventitia is belangrijk voor de mechanische sterkte van het bloedvat. In hoofdstuk 6, worden de mechanismen die achter EPC differentiatie naar EC en transdifferentiatie naar SMC schuilgaan samengevat en wordt de huidige ontwikkelingen in biomateriaal design beschouwd die bijdragen aan de creatie van een TEBV. Deze biomaterialen moeten aan een aantal biologische principes voldoen; (1) het biomaterial moet de architectuur van het weefsel (e.g. poreusiteit) weerspiegelen, (2) het biomateriaal moet de sterkte van het weefsel en zijn dynamische eigenschappen evenaren, (3) het biomateriaal moet celhechting bevorderen, (4) het biomateriaal moet in staat zijn om celdifferentiatie en celgroei te 191

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chapter 12 induceren en te sturen, en (5) het biomateriaal moet degraderen zodat het TEBV door het lichaam omgezet kan worden naar lichaamseigen weefsel. Voor elk van deze biologische principes zijn afzonderlijke biomaterialen gefabriceerd (hoofdstuk 6). Echter, de huidige uitdaging voor ontwikkelaars van biomaterialen is om deze biologische principes te verenigen in een biomateriaal en tissue-engineering paradigma. Vanuit een biologisch perspectief zijn de moleculen en mechanismen waaruit EPC differentiatie en plasticiteit ontstaat geïdentificeerd (hoofdstukken 2, 4, 5 en 7), terwijl ontwikkelingen in biomateriaal design de mogelijkheid bieden om deze moleculen, i.e. VEGFa, bFGF, TGF-β1 en PDGF-BB, te integreren in nieuwe ‘slimme biomaterialen’ (hoofdstuk 6). Deze beide ontwikkelingen leiden tot de mogelijkheid een biologisch-actief-, klein-diameter vaatconstruct te creëren dat de mogelijkheid bevat zijn eigen ontwikkeling te reguleren (Figuur 1A).

1. CVD Patient

2. Isolatie solatie van circulerende cir circuler irrculer cule l ende d EPC & CD14+ EPC CD C CD34 D34+ EPC

DEEL II: THERAPEUTISCHE NEOVASCULARIZATIE Therapeutische neovascularizatie benut de inherente angiogene capaciteit van humane EPC voor de behandeling van weefselischemie. In theorie leidt implantatie van humane EPC tot een verhoogde herstelcapaciteit na vaatschade, en mogelijk tot de inductie van neovascularizatie. Wij en anderen hebben getracht om de vorming van microvasculaire netwerken te induceren in vivo, door CD34+ EPC te implanteren bij muizen [100;268;360;361]. Hoewel het implanteren van CD34+ EPC leidt tot de vorming van een microvasculair netwerk, is er weinig bewijs voor actieve incorporatie van CD34+ EPC in deze netwerken (hoofdstuk 8) [274]. Wel wordt actieve rekrutering van (muis-afkomstige) CD14+ EPC waargenomen, hetgeen de suggestie wekt dat CD34+ EPC endotheelceldifferentiatie van CD14+ EPC beïnvloed.

4 4a Differen ntiatie van EC en SMC ntia 4a. Diff Differentiatie

192

SMC

EC

MCP-1, M MC CP C P--1 P 1,, IL-8 1 ILIL L-8 b bFGF, FG GFF, F, V VEGFa, E Fa, EG Fa, a HGF HGF HG GF

CD14+ EPC CD34+ EP EPC PC C

In vitro endotheelcel differentiatie In hoofdstuk 7 wordt de interactie tussen humane CD34+ EPC en CD14+ EPC geanalyseerd. Na angiogene stimulatie vormen deze cellen cel-cel contacten, hetgeen de suggestie dat deze cel-cel contacten van invloed zijn op de EC differentiatie en mogelijk proliferatie van deze EPCs. Met behulp van verscheidene in vitro experimenten, hebben wij aangetoond dat human CD34+ EPC inderdaad de EC differentiatie door CD14+ EPC beïnvloeden (hoofdstuk 7). Echter, in tegenstelling tot onze hypothese was deze interactie niet afhankelijk van cel-cel contacten tussen de CD34+ en de CD14+ EPC, maar berustte deze interactie op paracrine mediatoren die door de CD34+ EPC worden gemaakt en uitgescheiden (hoofdstuk 7). De humane CD34+ EPC kan een scala aan groeifactoren en cytokines produceren met een pro-angiogene functie [276]. In hoofdstuk 7 beschrijven wij dat de humane CD34+ EPC een hoge productie van de pro-angiogene groeifactor HGF hebben. HGF kan zijn receptor cMET innerveren op het celmembraam van de CD14+ EPC. Deze innervatie leidde tot een toename van EC differentiatie door CD14+ EPC van 65% tot 95% van alle adherente CD14+ EPC. Daarnaast steeg de proliferatie van CD14+ EPC 10-voudig (hoofdstuk 7). Dus, co-cultivatie van humane CD34+ EPC en humane CD14+ EPC leidt tot superieure endotheelcel differentiatie in vitro in vergelijking tot

3b. Implantation van EPC in het ischemische weefsel

3a. a. Celkweek k k van EP EPC PC

5a. Uitzaaien van cellen op een tubulair biomateriaal

Tissue Engineered Bloedvat

Myocard infarct

A

6a. Herstel van de doorbloeding met een tissue-engineered bloedvat als bypass

4b. b Induction d va van angiogenese door paracrine mediatoren

Neovascularizatie in vivo

Myocard infarct

5b. Herstel van de doorbloeding door toegenomen microvasculair netwerk

B

Figure 1. Plasticiteit van endotheelvoorlopercellen in vasculaire regeneratieve geneeskunde. Circulerende EPC bezitten de plasticiteit om te differentieren naar EC en SMC. Deze gespecializeerde celtypen worden om tubulaire degradeerbare biomaterialen uitgezaaid om een getissue engineered bloedvat te verkrijgen (A). Een andere voorbeeld van EPC plasticiteit is de secretie van pro-angiogene factoren. In reactie op ischemie beginnen humane EPC pro-angiogene cytokines en groeifactoren te produceren en uit te scheiden. Deze pro-angiogene cytokines en groeifactoren induceren sprouting angiogenese van het omliggende endotheel waardoor de ischemie verholpen wordt.

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chapter 12 beide celtypen in monoculture. Daarom kan de hypothese zorden gesteld dat coimplantatie van humane CD34+ EPC en humane CD14+ leidt tot effectieve inductie van in vivo neovascularizatie.

In Vivo Neovascularizatie In hoofdstuk 8 is onderzocht of neovascularizatie kan worden verhoogd door de gecombineerde implantatie van humane CD34+ EPC en humane CD14+ EPC in muizen. Muizen die deze gecombineerde celimplantatie kregen vertoonde inderdaad een hogere neovascularizatie dan muizen die een van beide celtypen ontvingen. Tevens werd integratie van CD14+ EPC in deze nieuwe capillairen geobserveerd, echter in lage aantallen. De cellulaire incorporatie van CD14+ EPC kan dus niet de toegenomen vaatnieuwvorming veroorzaken (hoofdstuk 8). CD34+ EPC en CD14+ EPC kunnen beide pro-angiogene factoren produceren en uitscheiden , e.g. VEGFa, IL-8 en HGF. Daarom hebben wij in het tweede deel van hoofdstuk 8 onderzocht of in co-cultures van CD34+ EPC en CD14+ EPC de productie van deze factoren is veranderd en beschrijven we de geamplificeerde productie van MCP-1 en bFGF. Omdat neovascularizatie enkel beïnvloedbaar leek te zijn via paracrine mediatoren, hebben wij gehypothetiseerd dat neovascularizatie geïnduceerd kan worden enkel door de administratie van deze factoren. Daarom hebben we in naakte muizen Matrigel-carriers subcutaan geïmplanteerd die geladen waren met een pentet aan proangiogene factoren, i.e. IL-8, MCP-1, HGF, VEGF en bFGF. Dit pentet aan groeifactoren was inderdaad in staat om neovascularizatie te induceren (hoofdstuk 8). Samenvattend, therapeutische neovascularizatie is een multifactoriaal process dat georkestreerd wordt door humane EPC via paracrine mediatoren (Figuur 1B). De vorming van microvasculatuur wordt geïnitieerd door de productie van pro-angiogene groeifactoren en cytokines, i.e. IL-8, MCP-1, HGF, VEGFa and bFGF, door human CD34+ EPC en CD14+ EPC. Deze factoren induceren sprouting angiogenese van het resident endotheel hetgeen de nieuwe bloedvaten vormt.

Nederlandse samenvatting EC en SMC kunnen vervolgens gebruikt worden in het tissue engineeren van een ‘designer bloedvat’ dat het vermogen bezit om te reageren op zijn omgeving, zelfvernieuwende capaciteit bezit en dus zichzelf kan herstellen na schade. Daarnaast, in het bestuderen van de functie van EPC in neovascularizatie, hebben we het natuurlijke proces van neovascularizatie ontrafeld, en zijn nu in staat dit proces te induceren met behulp van ‘slow-release’ depots die pro-angiogene mediatoren, i.e. IL-8, MCP-1, HGF, VEGFa en bFGF, afgeven (hoofdstuk 9). De inductie van neovascularizatie in een klinische setting kan hierdoor zijn toekomst vinden niet in stamcel therapie, maar in het gebruik van ‘smart-release’ depots die pro-angiogene mediatoren afgeven. Dit soort materialen kunnen via het ‘off-the-shelf’ principe worden gefabriceerd, hetgeen zeer gewenst is voor klinische applicatie.

Conclusies Het concept van vasculaire regeneratieve geneeskunde bestaat reeds drie decennia. Echter, de ontdekking van de EPC slechts 12 jaar geleden heeft nieuwe inzichten tot stand gebracht aangaande de ontwikkelingsprocessen die ten grondslag liggen aan EC differentiatie, neovascularizatie en herstel van het vaatstelsel na schade. Het begrijpen van de fenotypische variatie tussen EPC en hun functionele plasticiteit heeft ertoe geleid dat we EPC kunnen gebruiken voor regeneratieve therapieën. Ten eerste, het concept van bloedvat tissue-engineering is geëvolueerd van een technisch tijdperk, waarin men trachtte de grove anatomie van een bloedvat te recreëren, naar een tijdperk waarin we de natuurlijke ontwikkelingsprocessen kunnen gebruiken om een vitaal en natuurlijk bloedvat te creëren. In dit proefschrift hebben wij beschreven dat humane EPC de intrinsieke capaciteit bezitten om te differentiëren naar functionele EC en SMC op degradeerbare biomaterialen. Deze EPC-afkomstige 194

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