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Contents of the Dissertation
UNiversity of Pannonia PhD School for Linguistics and Education
Kis Ádám
Text in the digital space PhD Thesis: Abstract
Contents of the Dissertation
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Contents of the Dissertation Abstracts .............................................................................................................3 Summary of the Special Literature.............................................................5 Preface.................................................................................................................7 Contents ..............................................................................................................9 Introduction.....................................................................................................15 The Computer Enters the World of Writing Tools ............................... 15 The Electronic Text................................................................................ 16 Objectives ............................................................................................... 16 At a Boundary of Eras...................................................................................19 Motive..................................................................................................... 19 Periods of the Information Technology ................................................. 20 Summary ................................................................................................ 40 Language – Text – Text Media ....................................................................43 Text – from the Aspect of the Computer............................................... 43 The Relationship of Language and Text ............................................... 47 Text as the Material of Communication ............................................... 49 Language, Physics, and Physiology ...................................................... 52 The Computer in the World of Language ................................................63 Terminology and Content ...................................................................... 63 The Creation of the Computer and the von Neumann Principle......... 64 Text in the Digital Space ....................................................................... 69 Text as Subject of Computer Processing............................................... 77 Text as Content...................................................................................... 83 Text on the Computer ...................................................................................87 Fundamental questions of Text Processing .......................................... 87 Text-related Operations on the Computer.......................................... 105 Writing on the Computer..................................................................... 109 The Computer as Text Media....................................................................123 The Textual Entirety and its Name on the Computer ....................... 123
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The Boundaries and the Internal Structure of the Textual Entirety ..............................................................................................123 Transport of Text ón the Internet........................................................125 Processing Text on the Computer ........................................................128 Computational Presentation ....................................................................149 The Visible Form of Digital Texts........................................................149 The Printed Text...................................................................................151 Conclusions................................................................................ 163 The Galaxy Metaphor...........................................................................163 Main Points Appendices.....................................................................................................169 Additional Essays .................................................................................169 Bibliography..........................................................................................191 Notes .....................................................................................................195
Thesis Overview Objectives of the Thesis The thesis focuses on computer activities related to text and the qualities of the computational representation of text, considering the crucially important aspect that computers now operate in global networks and are not isolated any longer. The thesis – examines the qualities that make a computer suitable for text processing; – studies how much a text changes if it is available on a computer or through a network; and – studies how our knowledge broadens about text by examining the fact that the is available on a computer or through a network. In addition to the theoretical research, we study the ‘daily computer life’ of a text, i.e. the thesis reviews the procedures of computational text processing and aims at drawing linguistic conclusions: therefore, we will not only study how the computer shapes the language to its requirements and how it uses the language itself but also examine what effects this may have.
The background of the thesis The most important sources reviewed are the following: 1. Tivadar Thienemann: The rudiments of literary history [Irodalomtörténeti alapfogalmak]. Tivadar Thienemann was a Professor of German Studies at the University of Pécs and at Pázmány Péter University in Budapest. His doctoral thesis entitled The Rudiments of Literary History discusses primarily the history of narrative communication (Thienemann regards narrative and literature as practically equal concepts). He takes a chronological approach, therefore he draws a comparison between moral history and communication technology starting on the epigraphic stone slabs and ending logically – considering the time of birth of the literary work in question – on printed books. Thienemann apparently discusses the development;
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however, he strongly suggests value-centered dialectics which György Poszler summarizes in the Afterword to The Rudiments of Literary History as follows: “... this new masterpiece will modify but will not recall, change or efface the previous one. A new social situation inspires a new question, a new question inspires a new answer.” (Poszler 1985). The reason why Thienemann's work was the first in our discussion is its date of publishing. However, we must emphasize that this work has a special connection to McLuhan’s work: it substantially amends and puts McLuhan’s work in a historical frame. As we can see from László Halász’s book cited below, the concepts ofThienemann and McLuhan are so much interconnected that it can hardly be by mere accident; however, no personal connection could be discovered. 2. Marshal McLuhan: The Gutenberg Galaxy The substantial theoretical background of the thesis is McLuhan’s Gutenberg Galaxy. The idea of drawing a comparison between the ages of history and text processing technology stems from this work. The correspondence between the historical changes of ages and the development stages of cultural technology are far from being trivial, especially since the interrelations of earlier ages are rather obscure. Our cultural space – in Szabolcs Parragh’s words – can be described as follows: Science, literature and law were all wedged in between the cognitive barriers of written literature once they were institutionalized, and our communication was established through books and in writing. Whatever was beyond this sphere had finally been conquered by written literature, when they became thematic in written discourses, were examined, systematized and converted into a written format. Writing evolved in an oral world with a history of thousands of years, operating well or poorly, and has reformed it in the past few millennia. This process of transformation is unmistakenly still in progress today. (Parragh, 1999)
McLuhan, within this cultural sphere, as a contemporary, emphasizes the importance of the invention of printing. This world of text mainly resembles the writer’s aspect since the writer himself finds this one natural; however, McLuhan stresses the reader: he no longer seeks the historical correlations in the new technical advances available to the writer. A book is a technical innovation; its stages of processing may be unknown to the writer himself, however, he adapts himself to them, and reluctantly though, shall master its crafts (proofreading, correction rounds and printing). At the same time, the book format controls the reader's receptivity, therefore, communication is driven into a specific channel (the same way as writing itself set the place for the source of information within communication). According to McLuhan, this circumstance, these new formal elements do not only form an integrated entirety with the text, but also considerably influence the cultural structure of mankind. We can conclude that the text – paraphrasing Tolcsvai Nagy’s words – is rather product than production. Its creator spends a relatively short period of time with his intellectual production, which, subsequently, becomes independent and will not be connected to its creator any longer. Although we believe that the text created is independent of the technical aspects of its visualization (in the present thesis, this is called the ‘Exegi monumentum’ effect); however, the impact on the audience cannot be made independent of the number of copies. From this aspect, the invention of printing, i.e. the development of the industrial technology of text duplication is particularly significant. 3. László Halász (ed.): End of the Gutenberg Galaxy? The pamphlet edited by László Halász (End of the Gutenberg Galaxy?) aims at summarizing the scepticism opposing McLuhan’s ideas. This effort is rather strange, and this is the defense of the representatives of a cultural age. At this point Thienemann’s study becomes important (which I also found in Halász’s volume of studies). Among others, Thienemann examines the problem of development and so, puts McLuhan's ideas into a historical perspective.
The background of the thesis
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This volume draws its texts from a vast pool. Its bibliography characterizes well all those who directly (or indirectly – even before the birth of the concept of the Gutenberg Galaxy) spoke of McLuhan’s ideas. These, among others, were Walter Benjamin, Charles Basinger, Hauser Arnold, Frank Kermode, Adam Schaff and Susan Sontag. The significance of this volume lies in the fact that several texts of McLuhan’s, which had previously been unavailable to Hungarian readers, were published (1985); and thus, it was possible to express opinions directly, instead of relying on quotations and legends. Although the thesis endeavours to argue against the wellfoundedness of the vision of the catastrophe attributed to McLuhan, the corner point of the idea is the new approach in cultural history, and thus, the work edited by László Halász is a fundamentally important source. 4. John von Neumann: The Computer and the Brain [A számítógép és az agy], and John von s Neumann: The Development and Use of the Advanced Mathematical Machines [Az újabb matematikai gépek fejlődése és kihasználása] John von Neumann’s role is peculiarly intellectual in the creation of today's computers since we cannot regard Neumann as the physical creator or inventor of the computer. His merits include the fact that it was he who realized the importance of the computer’s adaptability and established its theoretical basis. This theoretical grounding, which may aim basically and, according to Neumann as well, at mathematics and some related fields of studies, proves to be a linguistic one. We may say that Neumann made the computer ready for language purposes already in his plans; however, the technological advancement was not available at the time. On the one hand, the studies cited show what theoretical capabilities make a computer suitable for the representation of text. On the other hand, we will see that these text processing capabilities are far from being human and that the computational and human thinking are fundamentamentally supplemental. This, the idea of replace ability is unfounded, whether it may arouse illusions or fear.
5. Gábor Prószéky – Balázs Kis: On the Computer – In a Human Language [Számítógéppel – emberi nyelven ] This volume records part of the knowledge on language technology available at the beginning of the third millennium, primarily that of the written language. The knowledge on language technology included in this work will form the knowledge base of the dissertation in the given field. The dissertation does not intend to concentrate on language technology itself, but more on the impact language technology has on books, and the reading of books in particular. Thus, the dissertation will marginally deal with the language technology advances, such as spell check or machine translation. However, the volume mentioned is a direct antecedent of the thesis since the parts describing the metacommunication of the printed text were written by the candidate. 6. Ádám Kis: Word 97 – six-hour sessions on six occasions [Word 97 6×6 órában ] This work is a student's book for an earlier version of the word processing program ‘Word’ , and is an antecedent of the thesis from many aspects. The candidate formed his views on the computer’s textual metacommunication and on the representation of the text when writing this book, and the fundamentals of these were included in the thesis. 7. Kristóf Nyíri – Gábor Szécsi (ed.): Verbalism and the Written Word, the History of Communication Technologies from Homer to Heidegger [A szóbeliség és írásbeliség. a kommunikációs technológiák története Homérosztól Heideggerig]. This volume of studies edited by Nyíri and Szécsi further discuss McLuhan’s ideas about the cultural change of ages: here, we can read about the transitional stage between verbalism and the birth of the written word. McLuhan, in the Gutenberg Galaxy, could not study the communicational function of the computer, therefore, his vision proved valid only for a short period of time. Although Michael Heim’s study entitled Heidegger and McLuhan: The Computer as Component apparently describes McLuhan’s encounter with the computer, the results proved to be short-lived once more. Although
The Applied Method and its Arguments
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McLuhan could learn – under Heidegger’s influence – the novelty of word processing, it was of no use since he could not yet see the epoch-making change, or rather, the threat: the establishment of the internet. The articles written by Michael Heim, Walter J. Ong, Erick A. Havelock and József Balogh were direct sources of the dissertation from the collection. These writings are discussing the same topic, they are all about McLuhan’s work, partly supplementing and extending it to different ages, partly founding the system that eventually resulted in the galaxy theory. The relationship between the computer and the text is a practical problem for information technology; although it is not a central issue, it accompanies the history of the computer from von Neumann’s introduction to the age of the PC. Neumann’s theoretical foundation, a landmark in history, suggests that the computer’s mechanism is closely related to the text, therefore we may understand it as a text itself. Prószéky aptly describes the relationship between the computer and the text at a technical level, here, we can apply any of his works. However, the relationship between the internet and the text has not been described so satisfactorily in the literature I encountered. We must also mention Zoltán Bódi’s study entitled The Language of the Internet. Internet Users and the Language of the Internet in the Hungarian Society [A világháló nyelve. Internetezők és internetes nyelvhasználat a magyar társadalomban], which is mainly a sociolinguistic approach and Eszter Kárpáti's The Notion of the Text [A szöveg fogalma], which have links to the thesis primarily at the point of hypertextuality.
The Applied Method and its Arguments The structure of the thesis builds on the following flow of ideas of demonstration and analysis: 1. First, we will record the relationship between language and text in a given approach. In view of the aims of the thesis, this part discusses material and technical issues (to the detriment of logical-
semantical questions) since – predicting the outcome – it is this field where the computer is mainly connected to the text. 2. Secondly, we will review the history and purpose of the computer, focusing on the language possibilities and antecedents rather than giving an entirely general overview. 3. These introductory parts will be followed by a presentation of the living relationship between computer and text with a pragmatic approach (tools, technologies and effects), including the overview of the topic-related theories. 4. Finally, we shall make an attempt at locating the computer and the internet in the history of textual communication and show that this final stage is just as revolutionary as the evolution of handwriting or the invention of printing were. This train of thoughts is mainly a didactic one, its relevance lies not in the discovery of new facts but more in the linking of the known facts to each other, and grouping them accordingly. It follows Thienemann’s and McLuhan's initiatives on the relationship between technology and communication, in a way extrapolating them on the basis of the new facts that these writers could not know of.
Format of the Thesis The main part consists of 11 chapters, including the Introduction and the Conclusion. In the Appendices there are 5 subsidiary studies that provide supplementary information to the main part of the thesis (in the main part there are references to them). This is followed by the Bibliography which lists the sources of nontechnical quotations and website references as well. The typographical design of the dissertation – as a metacommunication solution – is part of the dissertation. This is different from the general rule to the format of a thesis; the design is close to a book format. A guided understanding of the text is helped by the consistent system of headings: in general, there are five headings (in only 7 cases was it necessary to involve a sixth heading). The headings are not numbered, in accordance with the fact that this custom is becoming obsolete in the re-
Contents of the Thesis
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levant literature, undoubtedly due to the hypertextual features of computational text. The header is the basis of the system of headings: on the outer edge of the left-hand page we can find the text of Heading 2, on the outer edge of the right-hand page we can find Heading 3, and, as a mirror-image, on the inner edges of both pages we can see the text of Heading 1. This helps the reader in orientation when the text is not processed in a linear way. The typography of the body text is also diversified. The basis, in accordance with book page-setting rules, is justified, indented paragraphs, however, after empty areas (headings, figures and tables) there is no indentation applied. According to the requirements of book typography, the font type used is Palatino Linotype, and the font size is 10.5 points. For legibility, the relatively small font size is fully compensated by the relatively large line spacing (16 points). To highlight certain elements in the text, we used bold and italic font styles. The quotations and notes have a different typography (for the quotations: font style – italic, character spacing, indented paragraphs and for the notes: smaller font size and intended paragraphs). In the body text, there are two types of notes: the short, referential data are collected in the footnotes (there are only 18 such notes). The larger volume of data and supplementary notes to the body text are listed in the endnotes. The structure of the Contents page is clear and analytical. Apart from striving for perfection and covering a wide scope, the purpose is to help the reader find his way in the manifold syllabus of the book.
Contents of the Thesis The Introduction presents the computer as a new writing utensil, and shows that a new text form was born with it, namely, the machine language. Certain sections of the Introduction discuss the objectives and concepts of the thesis, and finally, position the topic within linguistics. The chapter entitled At a Boundary of Eras begins with identifying the initial concept. It is followed by the description of the ages of information technology and McLuhan's galaxy theory. The history of the methods of communication is presented in block diagrams and tables, de-
picting the chronological stages of the text from the monumental stone slabs, handwriting, and printing, to typewriting and the appearance of the Internet. This is followed by short analyses describing the individual ages from the aspect of content. After the historical overview, we will continue with the description of the digitalized representation of the text as applied today, ensued by an analysis of the Internet’s contentmanipulation capabilities. In the scope of our research are the triformity of the carrier, the text and the contents, with special emphasis on the history of the latter one. Analyzing the history of the text will lead to the world of the text, namely, the Internet. The chapter entitled Language – Text – Text Media examines the text from the aspect of the computer. This involves the examination of the general understanding of texts (seen in dictionaries, encyclopedias and student's books), and the discussion of questions related to the language of the text. In the next part, the thesis focuses on the text as the material of mental communication, considering the distinction between the verbal and the written language. In connection with the physical and physiological aspects of the language text, we will study interaction and narration, from the entire life-cycle of the text, i.e. from the thought to the reaction of the receiver. This train of thought will provide the platform for the discussion of the text media, i.e. the materialized appearances of the text, especially the characteristic features of the writing itself. The chapter entitled The Computer in the World of Language begins with the need to use unambiguous terminology in computing (e.g. computer, data, program, binary system, stored program), then describes the modern existence of computers, the importance of networks. After this, we will examine the features of texts available on the internet. Here, we will analyze in detail what a piece of computational text is. The second part of the chapter regards the text as the material of computer processing. We will examine the different procedures of text processing on the computer, and the issues regarding computer content. The chapter entitled Text on the Computer discusses the question exposed at the end of the previous chapter. In this chapter, we will apply the computer procedures described above to the text, then, we will classify the texts according to their appearance and storage methods. After this, we
Main Findings of the Thesis
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will introduce the technology of the representation of text (with a short review of the history of technology). We will present the procedures of word processing, the input, the creation and editing of a computerized text. The chapter entitled The Computer as a Text Media discusses library and archival functionality of the computer, i.e. the existence and storage of text on the computer. Its most important element is carrying the text through the network of computers. Word processing represents what formatting can be applied in case of this type of text (computer typography). In the part on Computational Presentation, we will examine the visible format of a computer text. Within this, we will study in detail the printed text created on the computer, and after that, we will introduce the different ways of electronic appearances and the technical and organizational features (e.g. e-mail, screen appearance, projection). The Conclusion details and assesses the galaxy metaphor, and puts it in the perspective of the new text media, i.e. the computer operating in a network. In the Appendices there are additional essays. These contain examples and sources to the concepts of the thesis. The study entitled On books downloadable from the internet examines the economic and ethical questions of book piracy (digitalizing and distribution). Text recording on the keyboard of the typewriter is a study of keyboards and their application technologies. The study entitled Letter Cases discusses the technical and semantic aspects of upper-case and lower-case texts. Spelling check describes the most frequently used language technology processes. Entitling studies the questions of how to cut a narrative text into paragraphs. The thesis ends in a detailed Bibliography and the endnotes.
Main Findings of the Thesis 1. The way the text and the computer found each other is as important an event as the evolution of alphabetical writing or the invention of printing.
2. New ways of duplication methods opened by the digital storage and carrying of the text, and so, the monopoly of the printed books had been greatly reduced. 3. Digital technology broke down the barriers of space and time: the digital text fulfilled the known world (even beyond Earth) as spoken word fulfills the space available to human perception. 4. A network of digitalized texts has evolved, which is basically autonomous, and which is just as much a copy of the mental sphere as printed books are. 5. Digitizing makes the proprietary content public property once more, thus reduces the level of cultural alienation that printed books caused. 6. The global network of computers creates one mental sphere that is rather abstract to the capacity of the human mind. 7. By the physical and logistical unification of computers in the world, i.e. by the creation of the Internet, a new hyperglobal sphere has evolved, in which both analogous and abstract communication break through the barriers of space and time and globally draw together communicators. The changes of ages of textual communication have all been revolutionary. In our days, two such changes can be regarded as historic: one is chirography, i.e. the evolution of the culture of handwriting that Plato is an eminent representative of and the other one is the book culture, whose emblematic figure was Gutenberg. The chirographic change was first a serious attack on fiction: from this point on, the written text had higher prestige. This approach was further enhanced by the birth of printing, which became the symbol of credibility for centuries. Obviously, these phenomena were in connection with their being exceptional, with the higher costs of investments and modifications, since it is far more expensive to write or print something than to say it. Assessing it afterwards, we can say that the development of chirography had an enormous impact: through one generation, a whole people be-
Main Findings of the Thesis
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came literate. (Of course, the number of Athens Greeks was not too high.) We must add, however, that written communication, to a certain degree, broke away from the verbal one: the majority of the society could still not read or write, not even those who were in direct contact with writing. Most people still communicated orally, and those who were in contact with writing, dictated and listened to readings. As a change of ages, the invention of printing had a different, a directly opposite effect. In a technological sense this was not the revolution of writing, but more that of reading: writing became industrialized, and became independent of individual people's competence. The writer himself got nothing from Gutenberg, however, the activity of reading went through a revolutionary change: it became faster and became silent. This was both a condition and a consequence of the democratization of communication.
* In reflection of the above can we assess the appearance of the electronic, digital text, i.e. the role of computers as text-carriers. First of all, we can say that, with the application of the word processor, we were given those industrial tools that earlier, at the birth of printing, to a certain degree, alienated people from writing. However, what is of even higher importance is the integration of individual texts by the internet. This, on the one hand, reproduces the mental community which comes into existence through oral communication, and, on the other hand, apart from reproducing it, also extends its spatial and time limits. At the level of text as well, these tools realize the same “global village” that McLuhan had a vision of. Such global integration of text has both technological and legal consequences. On the one hand, these repeatedly become sources of debates and conflicts, while, on the other hand, necessitate clever solutions. The first such problem is the question of textual integrity. As it is known, the consistency of the text, its philological integrity is a product of chirography: in oral communication and oral narration every performance results in a new version of the text. The demand for protected and guarded text arose only with the invention of printing. The computerized text is theoretically suitable for the protection of this integrity; however,
it can also be easily altered. Moreover, the ease of change is not a sole right of the author. Anybody can do that. The other closely connected question is how to ensure and maintain intellectual property rights regarding the content and the text itself. To guarantee this technically, it is becoming more and more difficult, and furthermore, certain legal trends have evolved that question the legitimacy of private property when talking about content. We are contemporaries, witnesses to this change of communication technology. This entails two tasks: on the one hand, we must guard the values of earlier ages, while, on the other hand, we must give way to the new ones. The metaphor of the Gutenberg galaxy has appeared in certain cases as Cassandra’s prophecies. In reflection of this, we must show what the real, irreplaceable values of the printed texts are (consistency), and what the new textual world may offer: the breaking down of spatial and time barriers in information exchange. We must find a modus vivendi of how printed and electronic books can co-exist. However, we can see a symbiosis of the two cultures evolving (there are books that are available both in an electronic and a printed format).
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Publication in this theme 1994 A számítógépes szövegszerkesztők másodlagos kommunikációs eszközei. Magyar Nyelvőr, 118: 168–83. 1997 A számítógép metakommunikációja. A beszéd, az írás és a számítógépes kommunikáció 1997 http://www.mek.iif.hu/porta/szint/tarsad/nyelvtud/szmtgps.hun Gépszerű helyesírás. Az akadémiai helyesírási szabályzat és a számítógép http://www.mek.iif.hu/porta/szint/tarsad/nyelvtud/gepscikk/gepscikk.htm A számítógép metakommunikációja. A beszéd, az írás és a számítógépes kommunikáció. MANYE VII. kongresszusa, Budapest, 1997 Word 97 6×6 órában. SZAK Kiadó 1999 Az írott párbeszéd. Magyar Tudomány 1999/3. http://epa.oszk.hu/00700/00775/00003/1999_03_13.html Az akadémiai helyesírási szabályzat és a számítógép. Magyar Nyelvőr, 123. sz. 2000 Mit üzen a képernyő? Új alaplap 2000/04/6 Kötődés és elszakadás Új alaplap 2000/04/11 2001 Rövidülő képtelenség, azaz a szakfordító számítógépe. MANYE XI. kongreszszusa, 2001. Pécs 2002 Egy könyvkiadó a magyar számítástechnikai szaknyelvért in Balázs Géza et al. (2002?): Éltető anyanyelvünk. Írások Grétsy László 70. születésnapjára. Tinta, Budapest 2002 Fordítás, terminológia, számítógép MANYE XII. kongresszusa, Szeged 2002. április 2003
A Prescriptive Corpus-based Technical Dictionary. Development of a multi-purpose technical dictionary. (Kis Balázzsal) EACL03, Budapest, April 12-17, 2003 2004 A Neumann-galaxis körvonalai. Előadás a Magyar Nyelvtudományi Társaságban 2004. március 9-én. A Neumann-galaxis a számítógépes szöveg világa. MANYE XIV. kongreszszusa, 2004. április, Nyíregyháza Írás a számítógépen. MANYE-kiskonferencia, 2004. március 2005 A szövegmorféma. Előadás A diskurzuselemzés szerepe a fordítástechnika oktatásában című konferencián. 2005. január 26. Gödöllő Szöveg, szöveghordozó, számítógép. Előadás a Kodolányi János Főiskola és az ELTE BTK Általános és Alkalmazott Nyelvészeti Tanszéke szervezésében tartott tudományos konferencián 20-kiskonferencia, 2005. május 23.05. október A számítógépes szöveg olvasásának anatómiai és pszichikai vonatkozásai. MANYE-kiskonferencia, 2005. 2006 Etűdök morfémára. Előadás a MANYE XV. kongresszusán, Miskolc, 2006. A nyelvtechnológia és a helyesírási szó, avagy van-e a mentális lexikonban szóköz. MANYE XVI. kongresszusa, 2006. Gödöllő Automatikus terminuskivonatolás diszkurzusszerkezetek segítségével. „A magyar mint veszélyeztetett nyelv” Konferencia a Berzsenyi Dániel Főiskolán, Szombathely, 2006. november. 2007 Tipográfia és kommunikáció. Előadás a MANYE XVII. kongresszusán, Kodolányi Főiskola, Siófok, 2007. április Megértés – média avagy a szöveghordozó szerepe az olvasott szöveg befogadásában. Előadás a IX. Balatonalmádi Pszicholingvisztikai Nyári Egyetemen, 2007. június. 2008
19 A vészjelzéstől a világhálóig, avagy a kommunikációs technológia útja a csillagokig. Modern Nyelvoktatás, XIV./1-2 Ki birtoka a szöveg? Előadás a MANYE XVIII. Kongresszusán, Budapest, 2008. április Olvasnivaló média, avagy a szöveghordozó szerepe az olvasott szöveg befogadásában. In. Lengyel Zs. és Navracsics J. (szerk.) Tanulmányok a mentális lexikonról. Veszprém, Pannon Egyetemi Kiadó (megjelenés alatt). Terminology in Team Translation: from Preparation to Quality Assurance (Kis Balázzsal). In Terminologia et Corpora t. 4.(Fóris Á., Pusztay J. (eds) (2007), Current Trends in Terminology, International Conference on Terminology. (megjelenés alatt)
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Web Links Távírókód: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baudot_code Lyukkártyakód: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_card Lyukkártya: http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/026-card.jpg ASCII Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII QWERTY: http://www.maxmon.com/1874ad.htm
