v 't
'
1C "
KATAPENCAI.IIAR
NO. 378 / TAHUN - Vil / 1991
Pern,vataan-pernyataan, bahwa Indonesia mempunyai ketayaaa alam yang rnclimpah masih scring dikemukakan. Kckayaanalam kita itu akan mempunyaimakna lain, kalau dihubungkandenganmasalahkcpendudukankita yang makin padat, Kekayaanalam dan pcnduduk,mcrugakansumberdaya pcmbangunanyangmernertukanpcngclolaan. Tulisan berikut mernbahasaspet managcmensumbcr dala dan pembangunan. Rcdaksi
SUilIBER DAYADANPEI',IBANGUNAN PENDEKATAN MANAJEMEN Jakaria,lSAprit tggt (Businessilews) asr?sensus pendudukyangbaru-barulni ditaksanakan membuatkita disatupihak bergembira,tetepidi lain pihakiuga prihatin.Kta bergembiraoteh karenapertumbuhanpenduduklndanesiatelahmelampauipuncakdan sudahdalam tahapmenurun.Ha! iniberafti,bahwaupayayang dilaksanakan se/akdua putuhtahunterckhirmetalutberbagal langsungm?upuntidak langsung,untukmenurunkantingkat kelahirandan pertumlsaha buhanpenduduktelahberhasilmenekanlalu pertumbuhan peftumbuhan.Di lain pinrx *ita iuga merasaprihatin, walaupunpeftumbuhanpenduduk telahmenurun sampattingkat 7,97o/a, rata-ratadalamdekade 1980-1990, lumlahpertumbuhanpenduduk cukup besar, yaitu seiumlah3,2iuta rata-rataper tahun.Sefiaptahunselama10 tahunterakhlrlni seotaholah terciptalebih darisatu Sngapura baru ditthat,dari segijumtahpenduduknya.Adalah tidak terlalusulituntukmembayangkan jumtahpenduduk lndonesiadi dengan extrapotasi masadepan, betapabesar masalahnyayang ditimbulkan, baik masalah-masatah yang Iangsungmenyangkutsumberdaya manusla,maupun sumbersumberdaya alam dan Iingkungan"Masalah-masa/aft ini berkattandengan pencapaiansasaranpembangunan iangka paniang, yaitu meningkatkanmutu inanusiadan masyarakatlndonesia.Wataupun mutu manusialndonesia'danmutu masyarakat lndonesiamerupakansasaran langka paniang,soai-soa/yang berkaitandenganupaya-upayapencapaian sasaraninl tetahdihadapl pada saaf in,: Olehkarenaltu perlu ditiniau implikasi-imptikasi operasiona/ mengenai masalahiangkapanjang.
')
Penulisadalahpakardalambidangketenagakedaan, Ph.Ddari Uni'rcrsityof California, BerkelelAmerika Scrikat.Sekarang pcjabat tinggi di BA?PEIIAS
Business Newsb094l19-4-I gg1
2C UI4S/A'A'+I4ASALAII FOKOKYANGDIT]ATMPI DALATI PENGELOL,d,NSUI,TTBEN DAYA'IUNUSIA MN ST'ilBENDAYAALAIT Tuiuan jangka paniangdari pembangunan Indonesla,adalahmenlngkatkanmutumanuslaIndonesia dan mutu masyarakatlhdonesla.Dalamupaya mencapalsasardnjangka panjangsalahsatu masalah pokok yang dihadapiadalahdl bldangkependudukan. S e p e r t sl u d a hd l k e m u k a k a ns,e t i a pt a h u ns e l a m a sepuluhtahunterakhirinijumlahpendudukIndonesla meningkatrata-ratadengan3,2 futa orangper tahun. lGlau secarasederhanapertambahan3,2 juta orang per tahuninidiproyeksikan ke depanmakapadatahun 2000,tentu pendudukIndonesiaakan bertambah denganpalingtidak30 jutaorang. ' Pertambaha*penduduk yangcukupbesarini dihadapkandenganjumlahpendudukyang nomor5 besarnyadi dunia,menimbulkanbanyakmasalah manalemendalam rangka mengupayakantercapalnya sasaranmeningkatkan mutu manusiaIndonesiadan mutuseluruhmasyarakat lndonesia. Secara.dasar tentu berbagaikebutuhanpokokmanusiaakanmeningkat. D e n g a nb e r l a l u n y aw a k t u d a n d e n g a ns e m a k i n meningkatnyastandardhidup secaraumum,maka peningkatan kebutuhanlni akanleblhbesartagldiatas kebutuhanpokok. Di bidang ekonomi,salahsatu 'masalahyang dihadapiadalahpenyediaanbarangdan lasadalamlumlahyang meningkatdan ragamyang meningkatpula. Produkslbarangdan jasa yang menlngkatlnl harussekaligusberartlkemampuandaya bell yang meningkatdl kalanganparakeluarga,sehinggadengan demiklanmerekadapatmenikmatipulamelalulpeningkatankonsumslbarang-barang dan jasa yangdihasilkan. Denganlain perkataan,pemerataandaya beli dl kalanganpara keluargamestilahmerupakansasaran agar peningkatanmutu hidup dapat terlaksanasecarir lebihmeratapula. yang membentukmutu Komponen-komponen manusiamaupunmutu masyarakat,bukanhanyayang pendapat, bersifatmaterl.Kebebasanmenyuarakan terutamayang bersifatmenunjangbagitercapainya pembangunan, s€lsaran merupakansatucontohyang dikehendaklsebagaiclri dari prosespembangunan. Kebersamaan dan solidaritasdiharapkansekaligus dapatditlngkatkan, untukmengimbangl kecenderungan yang keterasingan dan anoml biabanyamenyertaltransforrnasimasyarakat. Kemudianprosesitu sendirlharus pula mempunyalclri stabilitasyang dlnamls,yang Business News 5094/194-1991
mendorongdan memupukslfat-slfatsumber daya rnanuslayangdlperklrakandlbutuhkanbagl pembangunan.Slfat-slfatInlantaraldlnadalahyangmenyangkutkualltasmentalsplrltual(keJuangan) sepertl taat menlalankanalaranagama,sertatolerasiyang tlnggl dalam kehidupanberagama,memiliklsemangat yangtinggidankejuanganyangtangguhbaik,sebagai prlbadlmaupunsebagalanggotamasyarakat, serta kualltasIntelektualdankualltasflsik dan kesehatan yang cukup memadalpula. Denganpenlnglatanmutu manushdan mutu masyarakatIndbnesia,makajumlah pendudukranklngke 5 terbesardi dunia,akansemakln dlterlemahkan menJadlkekuatannyatabalk secara moral,ekonoml,politlk,maupunmiliterdanteknologl. Sementaraitu segalasesuatuyang harus dlcapaidlatastetapharusberbarengan dengandipertahankannya kelestarian sumberalam dan lingkungan hldup.Upayapemenuhan kebutuhan fisikmaupunnon fisikhari Ini,tidak bolehmengorbankan kepentingan generasl yang untuk akandatang.Pembangunan yang dlupayakanadalahyangberkelanjutan secaraekonomi, sosial,politikdan secaraflsik. t n i l a hs e c a r ag a r l sb e s a rk o n s e k u e n s i d a r l pertumbuhanpendudukyang menuntutproduk'si barangdan Jasa yang meningkat.Berbagaidimensi mutu hldup balk secaralndlvtdualmaupunkemasyarakatanmeningkat,kelestariansumberatamdan lingkunganhidupperluterusdlpertahankan. Pertumbuhan pendudukmerubahorde faktualsecaraamat berarti, perubahanorde faktualini memerlukanresponseyang sesualpadaordenormatifdan selanjutnyaorda normatlf Inl akantercerminantaralain pada kebijaksanaanyangdftempuh. kebijaksanaan
8AGA]'/UT,TA MEIVGI'SAIII4KAN IlALllAL INI? Disinilahkita perlumenlnJau kembalikonseppokok pembangunan, konsep yang diperlakukan. Sesungguhnya UUD-1945secara normatifmenempatkan manusiasebagalpelaku utama dalam pembangunan.Secaraintuitiffaktualhal ini sudahlama diketahul. Ungkapan-ungkapan sepertlthe manbehind the gun",tergantungmanusianya., dan lain-lainungkapan merupakanbuktl lntultlfmengenaikeutamaan peranmanusiadalamsegalakegiatan.Masalahpelaksanaanyang dlhadapladalahoperaslonalisasi teknis daripadaungkapan-ungkapan normatifini. Tentudibutuhkanpenjabaranlebih lanjut mengenalkeutamaan sumberdayamanuslaInl,sehlnggadldapatpetunjuk.
' - ! - _
,ru
_
-
! _
' ' ' : ' - _ r :
- 5 '
' . ' i '
3C Tabel1 KOEFISIENPRODUKflFITASFAKTOR = 100) (AMERIKA SERIKAT
Ii it i:!
rt4
':. Negara
'i
;! I
,] ':i 4
'1 1 't
rl I .{ t
J
rl .-l
: 1
! I
pe Produk (Materiil) Pekerja yang bekerja 1960
Amerika Serikat Perancis Jerman (Barat) Inggris ':1'' Italla Soviet Rusia Sumber
100 51 51 49 34 31
L975 100 44 91 69 7L 58
per Produk (Materiil) satuan faktor (tenpga kerja dan modal)
1960
L97s
100 53 55 64 47 45
100 96 92 73 .77 55
dalan The Arnerican Productivity S., Comparative : Rosefi.ede, Eeonomic Review, vol. 80 no.4, Sept. 1990, hal 948.'
petunjukoperasionaluntuk menyusunstrategimana,emenpadaberbagaitingkatkeumuman. Dalamkaitanini dapatdikemukakanmanfaat dari konsepfungsiproduksimasyarakatsebagaiawal pencariandan artikulasidari strategimanaiemen sumberdaya manusiadan sumberdaya alam secara Fungsiproduksimengkaitkanhasilprokeseluruhan. denganinputduksijasadan barangdalammasyarakat Walaupunoutputmaupuninput inputyangdibutuhkan. denganhal-halyangdapatdiukur, biasanyaberkaitan n a m u ns e s u n g g u h n yian p u t - i n p uyt a n g m a s u kk e dalamprosespr6duksimasyarakattersebutielas mencakupberbagaijenis yang tidak dapatdiukur, tidakdapatdiukurdenganjelas.Mutu setidak-tidaknya ini sepertikualitasmental,dayakesumber-sumber juangandan lain-lainbanyakditentukanolehsistem masyarakatdi manafungsi produksiberoperasi.ltulah dalam fungsi sebabnyapencapainya-pencapainya produksibanyakditentukanoleh sistem masyarakat ' yangberlaku. Satuhatyangdapatkiia katakandenganrasa kepastianyang tinggi ialah, bahwa kemampuan menghasilkanberbagaiinput untuk produksiamat dan masyarakatdi berbedadi antaranegara-negara sepertidikatakantadi dunia.Perbedaan-perbedaan di banyakditentukanolehsistemekonomi-sosial-politik, produksi proses Sebagai itu contoh berlangsung. mana dapatdikemukakankaryadari Bergsonyang rnemfaktor{aktor,baiktenagakerja bandingkanproduktffitas secarasendirimaupuntenagakerjadan alat-alatmodal secarakombinasi,bagi berbagainegaraBaratdan Uni ini dapatdilihatpadaTabel1. Soviet.Perkembangan Business News5094/19-4-1991
Menuruttabelini kemampuan menghasilkan tenaga kerjaperangkatankerjayangbekerjapadatahun1975 dalambentukIndeks,adalahAmerikaSerikat100, Perancis94,Jerman91, Inggris69, ltalia71 dan USSR 58. Jadikemampuan menghasilkan di SovietRusia itu adalahyangterendah. Jugabilamana dibandingkan kemampuan menghasilkan seluruhfaktor,makaproduktifitasrata-rataSoviet,Rusiaijuga yang terendah. Untuktahun1975indeksiniadalah.55 dan Amerika Serikat100.Bahkandenganmenggunakan data-data ClA, produktlfrtas total Soviet Rusia menurundengan 0,7%antaratahun1975-1980 dan menurundengan 0,30,6 dalamtahun1980-1985. C o b a k i t a l i h a ts e g i l a i n d a r i k e m a m p u a n menghasilkan oleh berbagaibangsadi dunia. Kita manfaatkankonsep'growthaccounting"yaitu mempertumbuhanyang perhitungkan sumber-sumber dalam sejarahpemdialamioleh bangsa-bangsa pokok yang ingindikemukaPertanyaan bangunannya. nilaitambah kanadalah,sejauhmanapertumbuhan yang dialamioleh satubangsabersumberdari bertamproduktibahnyainputdi satupihakdan meningkatnya tenaEakerja litastotalfaktor-faktorproduksi,khususnya danmodaldilainpihak. S e p e r t i d a p adt i l i h a tp a d aT a b e l2 s u m b e r pertumbuhan dapatdibagimeniadidua : bertambahnya input,khususnyamodaldan tenagakerjadan meningkatnyaproduktifitasatau kemampuanmenghasilkan maju dari faktor-faktoryang ada. Untuknegara-negara p e r t u m b u h a nilai p e r i o d e 1 9 4 7 1 9 7 3 dari dalam atau50o/o bersumberdari tambahrata-ata5,4o/o,2,7o/o pertumbuhanprodukttfitas total seluruhproduksi.Sele-
4C Tabel 2 PERTUMBUHAN MI.AI TAMBAI{, PERTUMBUIIAN DAN PERTUMBUIIAN PRODUKTIVTfAS TOTALFAKTORINPUT
INPUT
Pertumbuhan (l) Netara ProdukNilai Tambah vitas FDGIRA I,IA,JU Belgia Kanada Derulark P€!ancis Jerman Barat ILalia Jepang Belanda NorweEia Swedia IngEri.s Amerika Selikat
1949 1947 1960 1950 1950 1960 1952 1960 1952 ' 1960 1960 1951 1960 1953 1949 1949 1960 1947 1960
-
5S 60 73 62 60 73 60 73 60 73 73 60 73 65 59 59 73 60 73
Rata-!ata f,EGARA BERKEHEAilG 1950 Argentina 1960 1950 Brasilia 1960 Ai 1{ ' 1950 1960 1950 Kolombia 1960 1950 Ekuador 1951 Yunani 1330 Eonduras . 1$JJ Hong Kont ''1960
- 60 - 74 - 60 - 74 - 60 - 74 -.50 - 74 : 62 - 65 - 62 : 60 - 70 1 9 5 9 /6 0 India L978 179 1953 - 65 Irlandia 1952 - 58 Israel 1960 - 65 1355 - 60 Korea SelaLan 1960 - 73 1950 - 60 Meksiko 1960 - 74 1350 - 60 Peru 1960 - 70 1947 - 65 Fllipina t972 - 80 Singapura 1959 - 65 Spanyol 1955 - 60 Taiwan 1963 - 75 Turki 1950 ,: 60 Venezuala . 1960 - 74 :- : ' . ^ ' a : ' . Rata-rala NEGARA SGIALIS/KC?IUNIS 1953 - 65 Bulgaria 1953- 65 Cekosliwakia 1953 - 65 Eungaria 1961 - 65 Polandia 1953 - 65 Rurnania 1950 - 62 Uni Soviel 1953-63' Yugoslavia Rata-raga
Input
5,90 8,20 5,40 6,00 4,80 10,90 5,00 5,60 5,40 3,40 2,50 3,80 3,70 4,30 5,40,
2,05 3,50 1,80 1,64 2,90 3,00 3,60 3,00 3,80 3,10 4,50 2,30 2,60 2,88 2,50 L,2A z,LO 1,40 1,30 2,70
0,90 1,70 3,30 L,87 2,OO 2,90 4,70 2,40 2,30 1,60 6, 40 2,70 ann 2,52 0, s0 1,30 1,70 2,30 3,00 2,70
3,30 4,10 6,80 7,30 3,50 4,40 4,60 5,60 4,72 6,90 4,52 8,25 s, 10
1,05 0,70 3,65 1,60 0,85 1,20 0,95 2,10 2,t8 2,39 1,40 2,40 4,24
2,25 3,30
2,95 5,20 5,10 - 34 ,, 59 10
:
'
-0,18 6,24 .4',70 .: 2,00 3,90 9,80 3,40 11,00 4,22 2,00 4,10 9,70 1,60 6,55 2,lO 5,60 0 4,50 . ,70 5,30 1,50 2,50 5,75 o , oog 8, oo 11,20 . " 5,ZO 3 ,LZ 5,24 6,40 ,'2,23 7,85 2,t5 '5,10 0.60 2,OO 6,30 ' -172,,05 00 6,50 6,60 11,10 6,30 11,80 8, 20
3,30 2,74 1,78 2,20 5,32 t,8z 4,78 2,50
q
1q
5,70 2,65 3,20 3,65 2,54 4,52 3,tz 5, 85 4,82 6,42 2,70 5, 90 7,60 ztaa
4,05 3,50 5,20 qon
3,25 8,01 6,18 2,L2 4, L 7 5,70 4,40 4,30 9,20 . 4,26 4,72 4,40 5,73 4,48 7, 0 2 5,70
Susiber l Chenery, H., Robinson, S. & Syrquin, M. : and Growth, A HorLd Ban* "Industrj.alisation 1386, haL. 20 - 22. Reseach Publicalion'l,
991 Business News5094/19-4-1
jumlahfaktorbihnyabersumberdari pertumbuhan produksi. negara-negara Untuk faktor sosialisyaitu prosentasi Rumania, USSRdanYugoslavia, Bulgaria, ini YangJerendahadalahBulgariasebesar adalah350,6. Selebihnyaadalahbersumberdari pertambahan 26,40/o. produksiuntuknegara-negara berkemfaktor-faktor 1 bang.Prosentasiiniadalahrata-rata31olo. Apa sebabada perbedaanyang besardan pehumbuhan konsisten diantarasumber-sumber dalam berbagaisistem? Yangjelasberbagaisistemini memberikan ruanggerakyang amatberbedakepadaenergiyang bersumberpadaTalusia untukmenyatakan diridan kekuatanyangbersumberpadadiri manumeniadikan pertumbuhan. sumber Salahsatu karakterisia sebagi sasipokokuntukmenyatakanperbedaanini adalah bahwanegara-negara sosialismenganutsistemyang tersentralisasi sedangkannegara-negara maju menganut sistemyanglebihbersifatdesentralisasi. Negaranegaraberkembangmenganutsistemmanaiemen yangterobang-ambing sumber-sumber antarakedua polaitu.'Namun akhir-akhir ini dalammasasepuluh tahunterakhirini banyaknegaraberkembang termasuk lndonesia,'telah berupayabergerakke arahyang lebih bersifat -t,""nn desentralisasi. J*"nrrO dengansentralisasi dan desenpembentukan protralisasiadalahyang menyangkut gramproduksimasyarakatsecarakeseluruhandan program pembentukankesejahteraanmasyarakat Kiranyajelas,bahwaproduksi secarakeseluruhan. untukmemenuhi kebutuhan konsumsi dilaksanakan kesejahteraan masyarakat. dalamrangkameningkatkan Persolannya adalah,bagaimana sistemkesejahteraan masyarakat initerbentuk. Dalamsistemyangterpusat penentu?l program ini be.nlyk s.ecara =d-ilaksanakan lebihterpusat.Dalarnsistemyangtersebar,hal-halini dilaksanakan secaralebihtersebarolehbanyak pusatpusatpengambilan keputusan dan sistempelaksanaan. yang terpusatpengambilan Dalamsistem keputusan yang oleh satu organisasi besar dimonopoli bernama Pemerintah. Praktistidakterdapatpersaingan untuk .kebaikan'. Dalamsisternyang tersebar menghasilkan t e r d a p a pt e r s a i n g a dn i a n t a r ab a n y a kp i h a ku n t u k hal-halyangbaikdandibutuhkan. menghasilkan
5C
-l
masingSebagaisatu generalisasiumum dapat dikata- adalahprogramproduksiyangdisusunoleh kan,bahwasistemyangtersebarinitelahmeningkatkan masingrumahtanggaperusahaanuntuk dilaksanakan tersebut.Pemikiranyang samajuga bukansaiaproduksiyanglebihefisien olehperusahaan terbentuknya produksilainnya dan produktiftetapiiuga sekaligusyang sesuaidengan berlakubagi rumahtangga/organisasi Maka penyesuaian apayanqdianggapoleh masyarakatsebagaikesejahte- selainperusahaan-perusahaan. dan kebutuhanakanlebihefektif raannya.Sistemyangtersebarini sekaligusberfungsi antarapenyediaan Bilamanaada kesalahanatau sebagaimediayang amat efektifbagi upayamencer- dapat dilaksanakan. inidapatdilokalisir makakesalahan kekurangsesuaian, daskankehiduPanbangsa. di manahal ini terladidan Sistemyang tersebarini sekaligus,merupakan padaorganisasi-organisasi keseluruhan. tempat-tempatlatihandan tempat perlombaanbagi tidakperlumenggangu sesuaiini penting informasiyang Penyediaan prestasidan lebih banyakorang untuk memperlihatkan olehkarenafungsiproduksiperludiarah. a l a hs a t u w u i u d peranannya m e n u n j u k k a nk e p e m i m p i n a n S yangjelas kesejahteraan adalah kanuntukmemenuhifungsi pembebasandari peniaiahansesungguhnya kemerdekaanbagi pembentukanprogramkesejahte- tidakakansamauntuksernuakelompok/organasasi. itu bukan hanya raanserta pelaksanaanoleh masyarakatIndonesia Apalagibilamanakesejahteraan tidak pernahada' Dalam menyangkutkebutuhanpokok,tetapi kebutuhanlainsendiri,yang sebelumnya zaman penjajahanorang Indonesiakurangmendapat lain selainkebutuhan.Makaberbagaikelompokorang untukmenentukan ataurumahtanggatidakakanmemilikifungsikeseapalagipengembangan kesernpatan bagidirinyaserta jahteraanyangidentiksecarateknissatusamalain. keseiahteraan sendirifungsi-fungsi ini ditentukan Bilamanafungsi keseiahteraan tidak mendapattanggungjawabuntukmelaksanakan usahaataukelompok sendiriolehorganisasi,badan inikeseiahteraan program-program yang maka bukansaiaarus inforbersangkutan, Secara singkat dapat dikemukakanbahwa orang energidanmateriyang berasaldari manusia masitetapijugaenergidanmateriakanterfokussecara informasi, dapatdimanfaatkansecaraoptimaldalampembentu- voluntair,secaraefektifdan efisien. pengalaman upayabersama Sesungguhnya k e g i a t a no l e h l e b i hb a n y a k k a np r o g r a m - p r o g r a m besaryang hal-hal mencapai tersebar untuk k e l o m p o k / o r g a n i s am s ia n u s i ad a l a mm a s y a r a k a t secara banyakterdapatdalam dengan secaraumumsudahdisepakati, dalamsistemyang tersebardibandingkan revolusiIndonesia sistemyang terpusat.Selanjutnyafungsi kesejahteraan sejarahIndonesia.Pengalaman melawanpenjajahadalahbuktinyatabetapa ditentukanbukansecaraterpusattetapi 1945-1949 masyarakat lndoneenergidan materimanusia-manusia secaratersebar.Untuksuatuekonomi,keduaupayaini informasi, yaitupenentuanpelakufungsi produksicianfungsi siayangterhimpundalamberbagaiprogramtindakan yangtersebardi seluruh masyarakatterkait secae organikmela- yangdibentuksecarasukarela kesejahteraan lui sistemharga.Ambillahinformasisebagaicontoh' pelosoktanahair,telahdapatberhasilmengusirpenjaKitamemaklumiperanvitaldaripadainformasidalam iahSecarasingkatdapatlahdikemukakanbahwa dan produktifitaskeputusanefisiensi mempengaruhi sumberdaya manuyangdibuat.Baikdibidangmilitermaupun bilamanadiinginkanpemanfaatan keputusan pertumbuhan yang dominan,maka bagi sia sebagaisumber upayakhususdilaksanakan di bidangnon-militer penilaiansertapengaturaninformasiyang tidakada alternatiflain kecualimengarahsistemmapengadaan, kegiatanorganisasi najemensumberdayasecaralebihterdesentralisasi. dibutuhkanbagi program-program inilahyangtelahterjadidi banyak Dalamsistemyang tersebarmaka Upayadesentralisasi bersangkutan. penyediaan informasiini jugatersebar.Penyediaan negara.Di lndonesiadi bidangekonomiupayadesenProsesini akan yang tralisasisudahsejak1983dilaksnakan. oleh pihak-pihak informasiini tentudilaksanakan program-pro- dan perluberlanjutterusbukanhanyadi bidangmalangsungterlibatdalampembentukan ekonomitetapijuga manaieg r a mk e g i a t a nC . o n t o hy a n g p a l i n gm u d a ht e l i h a t naiemensumber-sumber
lri
lil n !i f!
i I I
Business News5094i19-4-1991
6C
m e ns u m b e rp o l i t i kd a n s o s i a l - b u d a y aK.e p e r l u a n di berbagaibidangini kiranyajelasoleh desentralisasi karenainput-inputyang dibutuhkanbagi pembentukan dan produksibukantah kesejahteraan fungsi-fungsi ekonomi,tetapi iuga katagorihanya katagori-katagori yang telahdikesebagaimana katagorinon-ekonomi pendapatyang mengemukakan mukakan.Urnpamanya konstruktifsecaratidak terhambatnrerupakanbukan h a n y as u a t uk e b u t u h a nt e t a p i j u g ap e n t i n gd a l a m rangkamenchecksejauhmanasistemproduksitelah -bersama. bergerakke arahyang dikenhendaki Arahyangdikendakibersamaini mencakup sumberalamdan inputbagi kelestarian didalamnya l i n g k u n g a nh i d u p .W a l a u p u nm a n u s i am e r u p a k a n bagiandarialamdan tidakterpisahdarialam,tetapi p e r l u l a hd i t e k a n k a no t o n o m i m a n u s i a d a l a m vis a vis sumberalamdan keputusan-keputusannya lingkunganhidup.Dalamhubunganini manusiabertindak sebagaipemimpinyangarifdengankeputusanyangarif. Keputusan-keputusan yang arif keputusannya ini perlutercerminbukansajadalamfungsiproduksi masyarakattetapijuga dalamfungsi kesejahteraan yang diinginkanoleh masyarakatbersangkutan.Sebagaimanasistemproduksidan keseiahteraan disusun makakegiatanmelestarikan secaraterdesentralisadi, sumberdam dan lingkunganhidupini perlutercermin ' -:': : .'' ": . secaratersebarpula. Tentu desentralisasikegiatanmasyarakat sebagaiupayamemaksimumkan sumbanganmanusia yangberkelanjutan bagisumberpertumbuhan bukanlahhalyangbaru.Yangbaruadalahpembuktian secara ini secara teknisbahwarupanyasistemdesentralisasi makromerupakan sistemyangunggul- lebihunggul darisistemterpusatsebagaipendekatanpokok masuatumasyarakat. Bukti-buhi najemensumber-sumber yangsayamaksudadalahyangmenyangkut dilepaskannyasistemyangterpusatolehnegara-negara dan khususnya di negara-n6gara sosialis.Bagi masyarakat, negara-negara berkembangkadarcampurandalam jelasmengarahkepadadesentrasistemekonominya pemikiran yang lisasi.Sejalandenganitu sistem-sitem didasarkanatassemangatdan anggapanpokoksentra-
lisasidalampengeiolaan sumberdaya masyarakat perluditinjaukembali. Denganmengatakanbahwadesentralisasi merupakan arahyangditujudalammanajemen sumber-sumber, tidaklahberartibahwasentralisasi kegiatan-kegiatan tertentutidakdibutuhkan. Untukmendapatkanpertumbuhanoptimal daripadaproduktifitas faktorJaktorsecarakeseluruhanuntukmeningkatkan masyarakatsecaraoptimal,makadiperlukanadanya "optimalmix"antarasentralisasi dan desentralisasi. Dapatdibayangkanbahwafungsi-fungsipemerintahan tertentu,tidaktepatuntukdilaksanakan secratersebar. Seorangpenulisdi bidangini mengemukakan sebagai berikut, - -, "Thosefunctionsthatare essentialtothe survivalof a nation,servicesthat benefitfrom economiesof scaleandstandardization in production, thatdepend on largenetworks of facilitiesor a hierarchlyof services, that can onlybe distributedequitablyby a governmentlargeand powerfulenoughto redistributewealthin the face of opposition,that create spillovereffects,or that dependon massivecapital investments, may be betteradministratedby central -governement, thanby decentralized unif. Fungsilain dalamPemerintahan dapatdan perludipertimbangkan untukdilaksanakan secaralebih tersebar.Darititikpandangini makaparadigmalama bahwaimplemetasi dapatdilaksanakan secaratersebar tetapipengambilankeputusanperludilaksanakan peniniauan secaraterpusat,memerlukan kembali. Kita bersyukurbahwabangsakita telah memipokok berupaPancasila liki nilai-nilai dan UUD-1945 b e r i k u tp e n g a l a m a np e m b a n g u n a n s e c a r at e r u s menurussebagaipeganganmelaksnaKan perubahn Denganpegangan-pegangan pokok dan peningkatan. perlu ini makaberbagaiupaya diusahakanke arah desentralisasi kegiatandisegalabidangdalamupaya partisipasi meningkatkan dan mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa.Inifahagendapekerjaanrumahyang urgen yang perludilaksnakansebagaisalahsatu persiapan jangkapanjangkedua. memasuki erapembangunan
@) News5094/19-4-1991 Business
1B
.
INTRODUCTION
Statements saying that Indonesia has abundant natural resources have still been often expressed.--The abundant natural resources would have a different meaning if linked to the problems of out increasing. densityof population. Natural resources and the population constitute the development resources which need management. The fotlowing article, deals with the management aspect of NO.37alYEAR-vll
/19€1
lesources and development' The Editor
ANDDEVEI.OPMENT, RESOURCES APPROACTI A MANAGEI'IENT By: SayutiHasibuan
*l -)
Iakonq Apfl 1$ (BusinessNews) to be he result of the recentpopulatiotl censushas nude us happy, btu also caused us 'lTe concemed. are happy becattsethe Indonesian population growth which has reached u peah has started to go downhill.
This nteans tlnt the efforts that have been made in the last twenty
yean, dfiectly or indirectly, to decreasethe binlt and growtlt rates of the population have succeeded.' On the other hand, we olso became concerned, despite the fact that the populat:ion growth has dmpped to an sverageof 1.977oper year in the 1980-1990decade,that the population growth rate is aho rather ltigla rgaghing an average of 3.2 mittiot: per year. In terms of the number of population, each y€s in the last 10 years as if anotlrcr Siltgapore has come into being. It is not too dfficutt to imagine with extrapolation, the total population of Indonesia.in the future, the seious problems that will be created, both problems that have a direct beaing with human resources, and thosi relcted to nstural resources and, the envirowttent. Theseproblems are related to the achievernent of the tsrgetsof the lony te:rmd.evelopment,namely tlrc promotion ol the quatity of the people and the community in Indonesia. Althottglt the quality of the Indonesian person and of the Indonesian people constitutes a long-temt target,problenzs relating to efforts to reach these targets are already faced now. Therefore it is necessaryto sttrdythe operotiorta! imptications of the long-term ospect.
')
Al erpcrt in naapower, the writer ii a Ph.D. from the Unitjleisity of C.aliforni4 Berkelen the United States. At pr€sert, hc is a hiqh official at the National Development Ptanning Board (BAPPEIIAS).
BusinessNews5O94/194-1991
28 THE MAIN PROBLEMS FACED IN THE MANAGEMENT OF ITI]MAN AND
human resources which the development may need. These characteristics inciude those relating to the quality
NATURALRESOURCES
of spiritual/mental being such as devojion to religious lmshings, and a high tolerance in religious life, high spirit and fighting spirit as a person as well as member of the
The iong-term aim of the development in Indone_ sia is to improve the qualiry of the Indonesian person and that of the Indonesian community. In the efforts to reach the long-term aims, one of the main problems faced concerns population affairs. As mentioned above, each year in the last ten years, the Indonesian population in-
community, and adequate intellectual and physical quality. With increased quality of the Indonesian person and communiry, the total population ranking 5th in the world, will be increasingly translated into actual power, morally,
creased by an average of 3.2 million per year. If the increase of 3.2 millioa people per year is in a simple way projected into the future, by year 2000 the Indonesian
economically, politically, militariiy and technologicaily. In the meantime, everything that has to be achieved as nnentioned above must go parallel witb the conservation of natural resources and the environment.
popuiation would have increased at least with 30 million. This large increase of the population, the 5th
Efforts to meet today's physical as well as non_physical needs must not sacrifice the interests of future genera_
biggest in the world, creates a host of problems concera_ ing management within the framework of efforts to reach the aim of improving the qualiry of the Indonesian person
tions. The development being undertaken must be sus_ tainable economically, socially, politically and physically. In broad lines these are the .o,r."qu"n..s of the
and that of the Indonesian community. Basically, several daily needs of the people would obviously increase. With the passageof time and the increasing living standard in generai, the rising needs would further go up over the daily necessities. In the economic field, one of the problems faced is the supply of goods and sen,ices in increasing quantiqv as well as variety. The increasing production of goods and services should also be coupled with an improving purchasing
population growth which demand increasingproduction of goods and services. Various dimensions of the quality of life of the individual and the community also increase, and it is also necessary to constantly preserve natural re_ s o u r c e sa n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h c h a n g e st h e f a c t u a l o r d e r v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y , a n d t h e change in this factual order needs a response according to normative order, and this normative order would be reflected among other things in the policies taken.
power of the families, enabling them through increased consumption of the goods and services produced, also to enjoy life. In other words, the improvement of the purchasing power of all families shouid be made a target, with
HOW ARE THESE ALMS ACTIIEVED ?
a view to promoting the quality of life covering all the
It is here that it is necessaryfor us to review the main and current concepts of development. Actually, the Constitution of 1945 normatively places the people as the
layers of the population. The components which form the quality of the person as well as of the community, ale not only material. things. Freedom of expression, particularly those in support of the achievement of the targets of the developmeat, is one desirable example of the features of the development process. The sense of belonging and solidarity is expected also to be promoted to counter-balance the tendency for isolatiou and anomy which normally acompany the transformation of the community. But then, the process itself should also be dynamically stable, which would encourage a-ndnurture thc characteristics of
Business News5094/19-4-199 1
main performer ia development. Intuitively aad actually this is already known for a long time. Expressions like 'the man behind the gun", "depends on the person',, and others, are intuitive proof of the importance of the role of man in all kinds of activities. The problems of implementation faced concern the technical operationallisation of said normative expressions. Obviously, further deliberations are necessaryon the main role of human resources, which may produce operatiooal guidelines for the drawing up of a management strategy at various generai levels.
:!qiar'-a3t *:jA5,*.-g;,-'d!l:;g;'*:*ig!:&$!e;J-;n;;'':'u***'*:L5'1;*'$::
3B '
Tablc 1 FACTOR OF PRODUCTIWry COEFFICIENT = 1m) (UNIIED STATES
Producc (rnaLerial) per worker emPloYed
Countries
1 95 0 Ihe
United
States
France Ilest
GermanY-
The United
Kingdon
source:
L975
1950
L975
100
100
100
100
51
44
OJ
96
51
91
65
92
49
69
64
IJ 11
7L
Italy Ihe
Product (naterial) unit per factor (manpover and capital)
Soviet
Union
JI
qQ
45
55
in The American Productivity s., comparative Rosefiede, Economie Review, vbl. 80 no'4, Sept' 1990, page 948'
In this context mention should be made about the benefit of the' concept of the function of producton by the community as the beginning of the search for and articulation of the strategy of human and natural resources management as a whole. The function of production links the result of the production of goods and services within the society with the necessary inputs- While output or input is ordinarily linked ts fhings that can be measured, hbwever, actually the inputs which go into the production
ments could be observed in Table 1. In this Table 1 could see that the capacity to produce labour of each labourforce employed in 1975 in the form of an index, the U n i t e d S t a t e s g e t s 1 0 0 , F r a n c e 9 4 , G e r m a n y 9 1 ' ,t h e United Kingdom 69, Italy 71, and the USSR 58' Thus, the production capacity of the Soviet Union is the lowest' Also a comparison of the capacity to produce all the factors, will show that the average Soviet productivify is also thb lowest. For 1.975,the index is 55 and the United States
process of the sociery obviously cover various matters that cannot be measured, at least clearly. The qualiry of these resources, such as mental qualiry, fighting spirit and others
gets 100. Even using the data of the CIA, the total Soviet
is largely dependent on the system of the sociery in which the function o[ production operates' One thing that we can say with certai;ity is that
Let us look at a different aspect of the production capacity of various nations in the world. We use the
the capacity to produce various inputs for production varies a great deal among the countries and societies in the world. These differences as mentioned before, are consicleratrlydependent on the economic-social-political system under which the production process takes place' As an example we may mention the work of Bergson who made a comparison of the factors of productivity, both with regard to manpower on an individual basis, and manpower and capital goods combined, in various Western countries and &e Soviet Union' These develop-
BusinessNews5094/'19'4-1991
productivity dropped by A.7% in the 1975-1980period and decreasedby Oj% in the 1980-1985period.
accounting", which is taking into consideration the sources of growth of the nations in the history of their development. The main question that
concept on'growth
arises is that to what extent does the vaiue added of a nation has its source in the increase in input, on the one hand, and the i-ncreasein productivity of the totai produc' tion factors, particularly manpower and capital, on the other. As it is obvious in Table 2, the sources of glowth are of two kinds: the increasing inputs, particularly capital and manpower, and the incease in productivity or the
4B Table 2 THE GROUTTH OF VALUE ADDED, GROWTI{ OFINPUTAND THE GROWTTI OF TOTAL PRODUCTIYITY OF INPUT FACTO R
production capacity of the existing factors. In the ad_ vanced countries in the 1947-1973period, the growth of value added by an averageof 5.4Vo,2.7Vo ar 50%. has its
Growth(Z)
Countries
Years Value added
A'VAI{CED COU}ITRIES Belgiuo 1949 Canada 1947 1960 _ Deruoark 1950 France 1950 1960 _ l{esl Germany 1952 1360 _ Italy 1s52 1960 _ Japan 1960 T'he Netherlands 1951 1360 _ 10{? Norway Sweden 1949 The Uaibed Kingdon 1349 1960 _ The Uni.ted States 1947 . 1960 _ Av€rages
59 60 73 62 60 73 60 73 60 73 73 60 73 a<
59 59 73 60 73
Ttr DEYELOPINGCOTJNTRIES ArBenLine 1950 - 60
ChiIe Colombla Equador Grgece Eonduras .llong Kong India Ireland Is!a€l South Korea Mexico Peru The Philippines Stntapor€ Spain Talwan Turkey Vgnezuela Avsrat€
lQAn
-
1950 1960 1350 1960 1950 1960 1950
-
1Q51
-
r,
60 74 60 74 60 74 62 a<
.930 - 62 955 - 60 960 - 70 9 5 9/ 6 0 978/7e ss3 - 65 952 - 58 960 - 65 955 - 60 s60 - 73
s50 - 60
1960 - 74 1oqn
-
a^
1360 - 70 1947 - 65 1372 - 80 10
-
r.955 1963 1 9 5 01960 -
a(
60 /5 60 74
Produc-.InpuL vity
2.95 2.05 0.90 5.20 3.50 1.70 5.10 1.80 3.30 3.51 1.64 1.87 4.90 2.90 2.00 5.90 3.00 z.so 8.20 3.60 4. t a 5.40 3.00 z.4o 6.00 3.80 2.30 4.80 3. 10 1.60 1 0. 9 0 4.50 6.40 5.00 2.30 2.70 5.60 2.60 3.0o 5.40 2.88 2.52 3.40 2.50 0.90 2 , 5 0 _ 1 . 2 0 , .- . . 1 . 3 0 3.80 2.L0 1.70 3.70 1.40 2.30 4. 3 0 1.30 3.00 5.40 2.7O z.7o 3.30 4.10 6.80 7.30 3.50 4.40 ' 4.60 5.60 4.72 6.90 4.52 8.25 9.10
1 .0 5 0.70 3.65 1.60 0.85 t.z0 0.95 z. ra 2.78 2.39 1.40 2.40 4.28
6.24 4.70 I.80 11.00 4.22 9.,70 6.55 5.60 4.50
-0 .18 2.00 3.90 3.40 2.00 4.10 1.60 2.70 -0.70
S,ln1
5.75 2.50 8.00 -0.009 11.20 5.20 5.24 3.72 6.40 2.23 7.85 2.L5 5.10 0.60 6.30 2.00
TBE SOCIALIST/CO|IILHIST COUNTRIXS Bulgarian 1953 - 65 I2.SA Czechoslovakla 1953 - 65 7-00 EunEsry 1953 65 6.50 Poland l-961 65 6.60 Runania 1953 - 65 11.10 The Sovlet Union 1350 - 62 6.30 Yugoslavia 1S53 - 63 t1.80 Average g.ZO
3.30 2 . 74 1.78 2.20 5.32 1.82 4.'t8 2.50
2.25 J. JU J.1)
5.70 3.20 J - b)
3.50 2.54 4. 5 2 a
1t
).61
4.82 6.42 2.70 5.SO 7.60 2.22 5.50 4.05 J.)U
\ )^
3.90 3.25 8.01 6.18 2.12 c.rI 5.70 4.40 4.30 I .20 4. 2 6 4.72 4. 4 0 5.73 4.48 7.02 5.70
Source : Chenery,.E_., Robinson, S. & SyrErin, M; : "fnductlialisation and Growth, i Woifa Aant Resaacb Publi.caLi.on", 19g6, page ZO _ 22, -
source in the growth of productivity of the total production. The remainder have their source in the growth of the number of production factors. For the socialist coun_ tries, such as Bulgaria, Romania, USSR and yugoslavia, tie percentage is 35%. The lowest, 26.4Vo, is that of Bulgaria. The rest have theiil"ources i., the increase in production factors for the developing countries. The percentage stands at an average af.31Vo. Why is there a big and consistent difference between the sources of growth in the various systems? It is obvious that the various systems provide widely different movement opportunities to energy having its source in man to express themselves and become a powei with its source in man itself as the source of growth. One of the main characteristics to express these differences is that the socialist countries follow the cen_ tralized system, whiie the advanced countries follow the more decentralized system. The developing countries follow the system of management of the sources fluctuat_ rngbefween the fwo patterns. In the meantime in the iast lO years, many developing countries, including Indonesia, have been trying to move towards a more decentralized system. Centraiisation and decentralisationhere concern the formulation of production programs of the community as a whole and the program on welfare for the people as a whole. It is obvious that production is carried out to meet consumption needs with a view to promoting the welfare of the society. The problem is how the welfare system of the sociefy is formed. Under this centraiized system, the programs are more carried out in a more centralized manner. Under the decentralizedsystem,these matters are carried out more decentralized by many decision making centres and the implementation system. Usder the centralized system, decision making is monopolized by one big organisation called the Government. practically there is no competition to produce *virtuesn, Under the
Business News5094/19.4-l99.1
r
:
1 .. l
-
-,--il.-:z:i---
l.' | :'
l'/
i-
'--.
-...r'--:
/ // 5B
1",/ decentralized system,there is competitionbetweenmany
activities. The most obvious example is a production
sidesto producegoodandnecessary things.
program formed by each company household for implementation by the company. The same thought also ap-
I
As generalisationit canbe said that the decentralo.d systemhasnot only increasedthe efficiencyof pro-
I
duction and productivity,but also what the societyseesas
the exception of companies.Therefore, adjustments
I I I
their welfare. This decentralized systemat the semetime
between supply and needs can be carried more effectively.
also t'unctionsas a very effectivemedium in the efforts to
In caseo[ a mistakeor maladjustment,the mistakecan be
I
increasethe inteiligence of the nation.
localized in the organisationsin which this takes place,
f I I I
I
The decentralized system also provides places for
plies to other production households/organisationswith
and they shall not disturb the entire setup.
training and competition for more people to show their
The supply of the right information playsan
performance and leadership. One form of freedom from
important role, becausethe function of production needs
domination is actually freedom in making programs of
to be directed to meet the functions of welfare which
welfare and their implementation by the Indonesian
obviouslywould not be the same with all groups/organisa-
people themselves, which was previously non-existent.
tions. The more so if the welfare not only concerns main
During the colonial era, the Indonesian people practically
necessities,but other needs as well. Therefore, various
had no opportunity, let alone the chance for development,
groups of people or householdswould not have a function
to decide by themselves the functions of welfare for
of welfare which is technicallyidentical one with the other.
themselves, and had no responsibility to implement these
If the functions of welfare depend on the organi-
welfare programs.
sation, business company or the groups of people con-
It can be briefly said that information, energy and
cerned,not only the flow of information, but also energy
the material originating from people can be optimally
and material would be focused voluntarily, effectively and
utilized in drawing up programs of activities by more
efficiently.
groups/orgnisations of people *"ithin the society under a
Actually, experiencein decentralizedjoint efforts
d e c e n t r a l i z e ds y s t e m ,c o m p a r e d t o t h o s e u n d e r a c e n -
t o r e a c h b i g a c h i e v e m e n t sw h i c h h a v e b e e n g e n e r a l l y
traiized system. Furthermore, the function of the weifare
a g r e e du p o n , i s f o u n d o n m a n y o c c a s i o n si n t h e I n d o n e -
o f t h e p e o p l e i s d e p e n d e n t n o t c e n t r a l i z e d - w i s e ,b u t
sian history. The experienceof the Indonesian.revolution
decentraiized-wise. For an economy, these two efforts,
in the 1945-1949period againstthe colonialistswas a con-
viz. the decision on those who carry out the function of
crete proof how information, energy and the materials of
production and the function of the welfare of the peopie
the Indonesian people who were organized in various
are organically linked through the pricing system. Take
action programs formed voluntarily in the different parts
information as arl example. We are aware of the vital role
of the country, succeededin ousting the colonialists.
of information in influencing the efficiency and productivi-
It can be briefly said that if desirable, the utilisa-
ty of the decisions that have been made. In the military
tion of human resources as dominant sources of growth,
and non-military fields, special efforts are mads in the
there is no other alternativebut to direct the management
procurement, evaluation and arangement of information
systemof the resourcesmore decentralized-wise.It is this
needed for the programs of the activities of the organisa-
decentralizedeffort that has been made in various coun-
t i o n c o n c e r n e d . U n d e r t h e d e c e n t r a l i z e d s y s t e m ,t h e
tries. In Indonesia, economic decentralisationhas been
supply of this information is also decentralized. The
carried out since 1983. This process will and needs to be
supply of these informations is cibviously done by the
continued not only in the management of economic re-
parties directly involved in the formation of programs of
sources,but also the management of political, social and
News5094/19-4-1991 Business
6B
tt
i
cultural resources. The need for decentralisationin these various fields is obvious, as the inputs needed for the
sources of the people need to be reviewed. By stating that decentralisation is
the direction desired in the management of resources, does not mean that the centralisation of certain activities is not needed. To reach optimal growth of the productivity of the factors
formation of the functions of welfare and production a." n o t o n l y e c o n o m i cc a t e g o r i e s b , ut alsonon-economic categories as mentioned before in this article. For in_ stAnce,ths free expressionof a constructiveopinion is not onJy a 'eed, but also important to check to wfiat extent the
as a whole to improve the quality of the pgople maximally, an "optimal mix" is needed between centralisation and decentralisation. It can be imagined that the functions of
production system has moved towards the generally de_ sired goals.
cerfain gov€rnments are not suitable decentralized-wise. A writer in this particular field said as follows:
The jointly desired direction covers inputs for the preservation of natural resources and the environment.
"Those functions that are essential to the survival of a nation, services that benefit from the economies of scaie and standardizationin poduction, that depend on large networks of facilities or a hierarchy of services, that can only be distributed equitably by a government large
Although man is part of and inseparable from nature, it is necessaryto stressthe autonomy of people in their deci_ sions, vis-a-visthe naturar resourcesand the environment. In this conjunction, people act as a wise leader with
wise decisions. These wise decisionsshould not only reflected in the functions of production of the people, but also in the functions of welfare desired by the people concerned. As the system of production ald welfare is formed decen_ tralized-wise, the activities of conserving natural resources and the environment needs to be reflected also decentralizsd-wit.. The decentralisation of the activities of the people as an effort to ma-ximize the contribution of people to the sources of growth, is not a new thing. A new thing is the technical proving that this decentraiizedsystem is macro-wise a superior systep :_. superior than the centralized system as a main approach to the management of the resources of a commuaity. The evidence that I have in mind concerns the giving up of the centralized system by the countries and the peoples, especially in the socialist countries. With regard to the developing countries, the mixture content in their economic system obviously moves toward decentr3lisation. In line with this, the systems of thought based on the spirit and notion on centralisation in the management of the
and powerfur engough to distribute wealth in the face of opposition, that create spillover effects, or that depend on massivecapital investrnents may be better administered , by the central government, than by a decentralized unit.. Alother function in Government can be need
to be consideredfor a more decentralizedimplementation. From this point of view the old paradigm thar implementation can be carried out decentralised_wise, but that decision making needs to be carried out centralized wise, should be reviewed. .We are thankful to God that our nation has the main values in the form of the pancasila and the Constitu_ tion of 1945,in addition to the experience in sustainable development as guidance in conducting changes and improvements. With these guidelines, it is necessaryto make various efforts towards the decentralisation of activi_ ties in all Iields to increase participation and to improve the intelligeace of the nation. This is an urgent homework as a.preparation to embark on second long_term de_ velopment.
'@ Business News5094/19-4-l99 1
