This is the original English text of an article published (in Czech) as: Benjamin, Geoffrey. 1996. ‘Sociologie Singapurská.’ In: H. Maríková, M. Petrušek & A. Vodáková (eds), Velký sociologický slovník, Charles University, Prague: Karolinum, vol. 2: 1140–1142.
Singapore sociology (2 April 1991) Origins of sociology in Singapore Sociology had little prominence in Singapore before the mid-1960’s. A few foreign researchers had carried out empirical work on the Chinese and Malay communities in the 1950’s; among these was Maurice Freedman, later to become Professor of Social Anthropology at Oxford University. “Social studies” was included in the courses offered at both Nanyang University (NU) and the University of Singapore (SU), the direct ancestors of the present National University of Singapore (NUS). An internationally well-regarded Dutch-trained sociologist, Syed Hussein Alatas, had introduced a sociological bias to teaching and research in the Department of Malay Studies that he headed for many years at SU and NUS. However, these various activities did not in themselves establish a local sociological tradition or a body of indigenous sociologists. Sociology emerged as an autonomous field only in 1965, with the setting up of a full Department at SU. (Except where otherwise stated, the rest of this article refers solely to the activities of this department and to its lineal successor at NUS.) The foundation professor was Murray Groves, an Australian social anthropologist who instilled a concern for methodological rigour that still marks much of Singaporean sociology. Several of the first batch of students and two of Groves’s faculty appointees were, by the late 1980s, among the senior teachers of sociology in Singapore. Groves was succeeded in 1971 by Hans-Dieter Evers, a German sociologist who had studied in the USA and done much field research in Southeast Asia. Before he returned to Germany in 1974, Evers oversaw a considerable expansion in the range of interests covered by the Department of Sociology, and did much to stimulate empirical research. The Working Papers series, founded by him in 1972 to further these aims (see below), still serves as an important repository of the Department’s research findings and, more recently, of its sociological thinking. A German connection has continued over the years through the appointment of relatively senior scholars as visiting professors: this helped to leaven the NUS Department’s heavily empirical orientation with a concern for wider theoretical issues. At Nanyang University, Sociology became available as part of a mixed degree program from 1976, but no full department was ever founded there before the university itself was merged with the University of Singapore. Sociological orientations Sociology in Singapore emerged as an exogenous, mainly American, creature. Local and regional influences had little to do with its theoretical shaping during the early years, despite the wholly regional and local orientation of the empirical work that was done. Between 1965 and 1980, the Department of Sociology was staffed almost entirely by American-trained sociologists and British-trained social anthropologists. These were largely non-Singaporeans at first, but as the Department expanded they were joined by Singaporean and other Asian scholars who had returned from studies overseas, and by a
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smaller number of Europeans and Americans who had already done research in Southeast Asia. However, the postgraduate training of these newer appointees remained similar to that received by the initial group of teachers. Consequently, the dominant trend in Singapore sociology was the application of avowedly “functionalist” analysis to empirical material gathered by quantitative survey techniques. A smaller, though quite characteristic, trend was the use of intensive ethnographic methods. Initially, research focused on local issues: a body of reliable data relevant to the needs of the Department’s students had to be produced. Throughout the 1960’s and 1970’s, Singapore (which had become an independent republic in 1965) was undergoing rapid social, cultural and economic change, generated by the government’s intensive program of social engineering. (Sociological ideas played some part in this, through the guiding hand of the cabinet minister in charge, Goh Keng Swee, who had obtained a PhD from the London School of Economics in the 1950’s.) Moreover, Singapore was a classic “plural society”, the population’s considerable heterogeneity resulting from the interplay of a mixed migrant background (China, South Asia, Indonesia, Europe) with a long colonial history and a newly emerging industrial base. The extensive public housing program – which by 1991 saw 86 percent of the population living in Government-built apartments – was still in its early phases. Consequently, much of the initial research was motivated by a wish to compare the new high-rise conditions of life with the older village or inner-city ways. Interest in village life has since waned, but the sociology of mass urban living remains a major, though somewhat experimental, focus of interest: no other country has such a large proportion of its population living in public housing. Problems of ethnic, linguistic and socio-cultural complexity formed another major focus of interest. These studies were based either on large-scale surveys aimed at producing national profiles or on small-scale ethnographic investigations into the purported component elements of Singapore’s diverse population. This work continues, but in the 1970’s attention also began to be paid to the institutional framework. Some sociologists realised that political factors – rather than purely “cultural” or “structural” ones – were responsible for much of what was being discovered. By the 1980s, the political dimension was obvious to all. The government of Singapore, under Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew, had begun public discussion of the means by which it would institute its cultural engineering policies. These involved direct intervention in the state-run education system, the public housing program and the mass media. The government paid special attention to language, religion, cultural ideology, family organisation and eugenics. The framework of public discussion centred explicitly on social class and on the “Chinese”/”Malay”/”Indian” characterisation of Singaporean society that had by now become institutionalised. Sociologists at NUS and ISEAS have researched many of these areas, and a substantial body of literature has been produced on ethnicity, ethnic relations, sociolinguistics, demography, social stratification, gender issues, family, religion, the police, and medical sociology. Nevertheless, some gaps remain: kinship studies have inexplicably lapsed, and industry and the educational system have often been regarded by the relevant authorities as too “sensitive” for empirical research. Meanwhile, other interests were being followed up. In the years following 1981, the establishment of NUS on a completely new site witnessed a four-fold expansion of university education and research in Singapore. This involved an increased recruitment of sociologists and social anthropologists (in a ratio of roughly 3:1) as faculty, and a corresponding widening of the orientations represented in the Department of Sociology. Previously, “theory” had meant little more than a concern for methodological
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sophistication within an effectively Durkheimian framework; now it came to refer to different ways of imaging the nature of social relations and their consequences. The functionalists were joined by scholars variously influenced by the ideas of Weber, Marx, Schutz, Lévi-Strauss, Bourdieu, Foucault, Wallerstein, and others. Research activities broadened: Singaporean sociologists no longer held themselves apart from current theoretical debate, and began to make original contributions to the field. Historical sociology emerged as an important new area of research, along with such diverse interests as developmental studies, sociology of the state and modern culture, material culture, and phenomenological issues. Individual sociologists and anthropologists continued to do research in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and India (as well as in Singapore) on a variety of special topics, frequently in areas that had never otherwise been researched at all. Their publications were at first more appreciated overseas than in Singapore; but the increased cooperation between Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia that emerged during the late 1980’s led to a re-evaluation of this work. It was now realised that sociologists working from Singapore had already gained important on-the-ground expertise on other parts of the region. Although no really “big” name has yet emerged from this activity, several members of the Department have gained good international reputations within their own fields of specialisation. No one style of sociology has attained a consensual status in Singapore, but that is neither desirable nor likely in what is now one of the world’s largest university departments specialising in the subject. Institutionalisation Academic sociology is centred almost entirely in the Department of Sociology at NUS, where the Departments of Social Work, Malay Studies and Japanese Studies also teach sociological courses. The Department of Sociology offers a wide range of undergraduate courses towards a three-year degree of Bachelor of Social Science. Those who wish to specialise, and who reach the required standard, may spend a fourth Honours year doing advanced coursework and an empirical research exercise. The quality of the third- and Honours-year students’ work is monitored annually by a distinguished scholar from outside the country, serving as external examiner: Edward Shils, John Barnes and Neil Smelser are among those who have performed this role. The postgraduate degrees of Master of Social Science and Doctor of Philosophy, both by thesis, are also offered; the thesis examiners always include at least one overseas scholar. As of 1991, the Department had a teaching faculty numbering thirty-one; the first-year class enrolment was around five hundred, and the Honours class numbered around twenty-five; there were fifteen Master’s and three PhD students. The size of the teaching faculty and the number of postgraduate students were expected to rise in the succeeding few years. The other main centre of sociological activity is the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS), a statutory body established by the government of Singapore in 1968. Individual sociologists and social anthropologists are employed elsewhere in Singapore as researchers in such government departments as the Housing and Development Board (HDB) and the Ministry of Education, as well as in the commercial sector. Main sociological journals The Department of Sociology at NUS publishes two serials: The Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science, a biannual established in 1973, and the Department of Sociology Working Papers, an occasional publication that amounted to 102 issues between 1972 and 1990. The Department of History at NUS publishes the Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, which 3
regularly includes papers of sociological or social-anthropological interest. ISEAS, in addition to its wide-ranging monographic research publications, produces the mostly sociological journal SOJOURN: Social Issues in Southeast Asia, a biannual established in 1986. Literature on sociology in Singapore Chen, Peter S. J. 1980. Social science research in Singapore. Tokyo: Institute of Developing Economies. 139pp. ———. 1986. “Sociological studies on Singapore society.” In: Basant K. Kapur (ed.), Singapore studies: surveys of the humanities and social sciences, pp. 33–64. Singapore: Singapore University Press. Clammer, John. 1985. “Singapore,” in Yogesh Atal (ed.), Sociology and social anthropology in Asia and the Pacific, pp. 265-310. Delhi: Wiley Eastern and Paris: UNESCO. Chan Kwok Bun and Ho Kong Chong (eds). 1990. Explorations in Asian sociology. Department of Sociology Working papers no. 100. Singapore: Chopmen. 149pp. [A collection of retrospective and review articles on the Working papers nos. 1–99, 1972– 1990.] Department of Sociology handbook. Singapore: National University of Singapore, Department of Sociology. [An annual booklet providing current details of courses taught, Honours, Master’s and PhD theses completed or under way, with complete bibliographies of the teaching faculty’s publications.]
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sociologicky ,
SLOVNIK
UNIVERZITA KARLOVA VYDAVAT ELST Vi KAROLINUM PRAHA 1996
Prace na tomto slovniku organizaene a redakene zajiStoval Sociologicky ustav Akademie ved CR s pomoci odborniku z dalsich akademickych a univerzitnich pracoviSt v ceskych zemich i v zahraniei. V.\ikolllld rcdaUni skupilla Sociologickc!ho lislavu A VCR:
vedouci: Jifi Linhart "I (1988-1990), Alena Vodakova (od r. 1990) dlouhodobi elenove: Vlasta FiScrova. Klara Goldsteinova, Ladislav Hrdy, Otilie Kaitmannova, Hana Mafikova RcdaUlli rada:
vcdouci: Miloslav Pctrusck dlouhodobi elenove a nejbliZSi spolupracovnici: Ivo Baycr, Michallllner, Jaroslav Kapr, Jan Keller, Alena Miltova, Jifi Musil, Jifi Nehnevajsa ." Jan Sedlacek, Zdenek Strmiska, Jan Vlaeil Bibliografickd sfJoluflrdcc:
Vladjslav Dudak, JiT-ina Moulikova, Alcna Zdvol'
pracovnici vypocetni laboratofe Ustavu teorie a historic vCdy AV CR (do r. 1991) Lumir Gatnar, Michaela Proskova (od r. 1991)
sociologie singapurska
hlavni diferenciaci delby prace aj ., a stava se predmetem systematicke -tsocializace (viz ulohu studu apod.) i jistou naplni kult. zmeny (viz tez -tsexualni revoluce). Sexualita se spojuje s hodnotami estetickymi (viz funkce tzv. sex-appealu), nabozenskymi (viz -tcelibat, -taskeze), etickymi (hovofi se 0 sexualni moralce) atd. Lidska sexualita se na rozdil od sexuality zvired, sezonni, instinktivni, stava trvalejsi navykovou dispozici. Transformuje se do struktur ruznych spo!. cinnosti. inspiruje ume!. tvorbu apod. liz stari Rekove uvadeli nasledujici transformace sexu: eros (vasniva, ale duchovne zalozena laska), filia (laska - druzba), storge (laska - neznost), agape (nesobecke oddavani se). Sociologove vetsinou soudi, ze ze sexuality nelze vyvozovat struktury soc. vztahu a forem, nybrz naopak, urcite spo!. struktury determinuji, usmeri'iuji sexualni chovani cloveka (-tprostituce je napr. podle Schelshho institucionalni mravnostni ventil zamereny na absolutni patriarchalni monogamii). K. lmilelillski (1980) rozlisuje ve vztahu k sexualite spo!. vlivy restriktivni, reglementujici lidskou sexualni aktivitu, a liberalni, poskytujici sirsi prostor pro individ. sexualni chovani. Spolecnost sexualitu integruje, ale take ji v jiste mire izoluje a neutralizuje, zivot cloveka sexualizuje i desexualizuje, coz vede ke specif. projevum, jako je napr. narustani predmanzelske pohlavni promiskuity, vznik specif. forem sexualniho chovani (napr. skupinoveho sexu) atd. Spolecnost ale zejm. prideluje muzum a zenam urcite sexualni role a vytvari principy pro jejich spojovani. Standardizace a institucionalizace muzskych a zenskych roli je v ruznych klllturach ruzna (v oblasti Amazon..ky exislUji zenske valecne organizace, v jiste oblasti Sumatry cekaji mladi muzi na to, az si je budou divky namlouvat apod.). V ramci teze kultury se lisi sexualni, resp . eroticke standardy ve mestech ana vesnicich a jsou urcovany pfislusnosti k ruznym demogr. skupinam. Prozivani sexu je ovlivneno prislusnosti k urCitym cirkvim (H. Malewska , 1967). V pretvareni prvotni sexuality v "intelektualizovany erotismus" se uplatnila podle M. FilQ/·a (1977) zejm. premena zeny jako bioI. dIe v intelektualizovany -tsymbol, coz souviselo s premenou rustikalnich kultur v mestske, tedy s urbanizaci, kdy dochazelo ke spojovani sexuality s moralnimi a estetickymi hodnotami, ale soucasne se uplatnil i polygamni muzsky pohlavni pud v ramci institucionalizovaneho pomeru mezi muZi a zenami. Vyvojem se sex zapojoval do stale diferencovanejsich emocionalnich struktur. D. de Rougemont (1956) ukazuje na rozboru mytu 0 Tristanovi a Isolde, ktery poklada za "schema vztahu mezi muzem a zenou" a za symboliku vasne, jak Sf. sexualita erotizuje, tj. citove obohacuje pod maskou -tnarcismu, a jak se laska-vasei'i na Zipade objevila jako protiklad 1140
kfesianstvi a dvorska laska trubaduru jako . smyslne (viz tez -tkult marianskY). Nicmene vyzkumy (W. F. Ogburn , E. W. Burgess, W. J. H. SchelskY aj .) ukazuji, ze se vztahy mezi uvnitr i mimo manzelstvi vyznacuji zmensovan...im··....•...... tickych citu a narustanim vecnosti a ze pro zvecnen tiku se jiz -tmanzelstvi jako instituce zivotniho stes:;U tiky znehodnocllje. Zvecnena erotika vystupuje a konzumni sexuality (hledani pozitku) a vede ke dye vym, soc. podminen)lm a jiz konvencionalizovanyr;: mam eroticko-sexualniho chovani: ,.datingu", co! xualni hra bez pohlavniho aktu, a "pettingu", ~. orgasmu bez koitu (podle W. BernsdOlfa). A: sociology of sexuality F: sociologie de la N: Sexualsoziologie 1: sociologia della sessualitil ---~UL
Lit.: Bel1lsdlllf 11'. : Sexualsoziologie. In : Bel1lsdl!lf W. ed.: w,,~ ......_~ Soziologie. Stuttgart 1969; IlIlile/imki. K. : Seksuologia spoleczna. 1977: Schelsh . H. . Sozi oiogi e der Sexualitat. Hamburg 1955.
so ci 0 log i e sin gap u r s k a - az do poloviny mela jen nevyzn. postaveni. Nekolik zahranicnich zkumniku v so. I. empir. zkoumalo cinske a malajsk~ munity, mezi nimi napr. Maurice Freedman (pozdeji fesor soc. antropologie v Oxfordu). "Socialni studia" zahrnuta v kursech jak na Nanyallg University (NU), na Sillgapurski IIlliverzite (SU), ktere jsou primymi chudci dneSni National University of Singapore Mezinar. uznavany sociolog holandske skoly Syed sein Alates uvedl s-gii na katedru malajskych studii, rou po ll2!loho let na SU a NUS vedl. Tyto aktivity ale zalozily mistni s-gickou tradici a nevytvofily sku domacich sociologu. S-gie jako samostatny obor se vila az v r. 1965 utvorenim oddeleni na SU, k jeho! nosti a Cinnosti jeho pokracovatelu v pfime Iinii se vztahuji nasledujici informace 0 s.s. Zakladajicim sorem byl Murray Groves , austral sky soc. antropolog, vstipil s.s. zajem 0 metodologickou exaktnost. Jeho slednikem od r. 1971 byl Hans-Dieter Evers, nem. log, ktery studoval v USA, zrealizoval mnoho v jihovych. Asii a vubec stimuloval empir. vyzkum. The Workin g Papers , kterou zalozil v r. 1972. stale zi jako dulezity zdroj vyzk. informaci a v posledni tiA'....,'" l.eiC.'i jako pramen s-gicke teorie. Spoluprace s nem. s-gii pokracovala leta i formou hostujicich profesoru (ti prave pn-:,t..;; speli k rozsireni orientace katedry NUS 0 teor. otazkY).. V pods tate ale s.s. vznikala odvozene od am . teor. profilU;;~;; a to i navzdory lokalni regionalni orientaci empir. prace. :',L Mezi r. 1965 a 1980 se ved . sbor oddeleni s-gie na NUS{v... skladal temer vylucne ze sociologu am. skoly a soc. an-.< tropologu brit. skoly. Jak se katedra rozsirovala, pribyH ;:;.
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iJl1 i vedci ze Singapuru a dalsich asijskych zemi, ktefi ..radii ze zamofskych studii, a mensi pocet Evropanu .mericanu, ktefi uz provadeli vyzkum v jihovych. Asii. ,tern studia (i postgradualniho) vsak zustal stejny. Dolan tnim trendem byla aplikace funkcionalisticke anay na empir. m ~ teri al nashromaz?eny kvantitativnimi Illikami. Druhym charaktensllckym trendem bylo pou.ini kvalitativnich etnografickych metod. Zpocatku se kurn soustfedoval na ziskani spolehlivych dat 0 lokalI zalezitostech. J prubehu 60. a 70. I. Singapur (ktery se stal nezavislou Jblikou v r. 1965) prodelaval prudke SOC., kul!. a ekon. ;ny. Ve vladnim programu soc. politiky sehraly urCiroli s-gicke myslenky diky clenu vlady Goll Keng Swee kal doktorat na London School of Economics v 50. I.). ,rne toho byl Singapur klasickou "pluralitni spolecnossrniSeneho migrantskeho obyv. z Ciny, lizni Asie, Inesie, Evropy) s dlouhou kolonialni historii a s rozvijese prumyslovou zakladnou. V dusledku toho byl catku s-gicky vyzkum vetSinou motivovan touhou srovnove zivotni podminky se zpusobem zivota ve starsich nicich a mestech . Zajem 0 vesnicky zivot jiz poklesl , s-gie mestskeho zivota zustava nejvetsim, i kdyz poud experimentalnim stfedem zajmu (napf. proto, ze 'tdne jine zemi nebydJi tak velka cast populace ve SUIt1 by tech). Dalsi velky zajem vzbuzuji problemy etniclingvisticke a soc. kultumi. Tyto studie jsou zalozeny f na rozsahlych pfehledech nar. profilu, nebo na menI etnografickych vyzkumech rozmanite singapurske polce. V 70. I. se zacala venovat pozomost take systemu .ituci. Nektefi sociologove si uvedonlili. ze vaha faktololitickych je casto vetsi nez faktoru jen kultumich ne,trukturalnich, coz souvisi s polit. vyvojem Singapuru. 80. I. vl
povahy soc. vztahu ajejich dusledku. singapursti sociologove zacali originalne prispivat k vyzkumu. K vlivu funkcionalismu se pfidal vliv my slenek M. Webera , K. Marxe , A. SchUlze , C. Levi-Strausse, P. F. Bourdieua , M. Foucaulta, I. M. Wallersteina a dalsich. Objevila se his!. s-gie jako nova dulezita oblast, s-gie statu, modemi kultury , materialni kultury, fenomeno logickych otazek. Sociologove a antropologove pokracovali indi vidu alne ve vyzkumu v Malajsii, Indonesii, Thajsku a Indii stejne jako v Singapuru (casto v oblastech, ktere pfedtim vubec nebyly zkoumany). lejich publikace byly zpocatku vic ocei'iovany v zamori nd v Singapuru, ale zvysena kooperace mezi Singapurem, Malajsii a Indonesii, ktera se rozvinula koncem 80. I., vedla k oceneni jejich prace i zde. Ackoli se neobjevilo zadne skutecne "velke jmeno" ani vlastni "styl" , nekolik sociologu ziskalo dobrou mezinar. povest v ramci svych specializaci. Akademicka sociologie je soustredena temer vylucne na katedre sociologie NUS, ale s-gicke kursy jsou organizovany take pro katedry soc. prace, malajskych studii a japonskych studii. Existuje siroka skala tfiletych kursu koncicich titulem "Bachelor of Social Science". Pro ty, ktefi se chteji dale specializovat, je urcen ctvrty akademicky rok, Nad kvalitou prace studentu 3. a 4. rocniku dohlizi kazdorocne nejaky vyzn. vedec ze zahranici, ktery je rovnez externim zkousejicim (napr. Edward A. Shils , John A. Barnes a Neil J. Smelser) . Postgradualni kursy vedou k titulu "Master of Social Science" a "Doctor of Philosophy" (mezi examinatory je vzdy aspoi\ 1 zahranicni vedec). V r. 1991 mela katedra 31 elenu, do prvniho rocniku se zapsalo kolem 500 studentu-;-v akademickem 4. roeniku jich bylo asi 25 (15 studentu s titulem Master a 3 s PhD). DalSim hlavnim centrem singapurskke s-gicke aktivity je zmineny ISEAS (Institut jihovychodnich asijskych studii), ustanoveny singapurskou vladou v r. 1968. lednotlivi sociologove a soc. antropologove jsou zamestnani i na jinych mistech Singapuru jako vyzkumnici, napr. v Housing and Developmel1l Board (Orad pro bydleni a vyvoj) neboli HDB na ministerstvu vychovy a vzdelani a take v obchodnim sektoru. Oddeleni s-gie v NUS vydava periodikum The Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science, dvourocenku zalozenou v r. 1973. Department of Sociology Working Papers vydava prilditostne publikace (102 mezi r. 1972 a 1990). Oddeleni hi storie na NUS publikuje Journal of Southeast Asian Studies , ktery pravidelne obsahuje clanky s-gickeho a soc. antropol. zamereni. ISEAS krome svych rozsahlych monografickych yyzk. publikaci vydava s-gicky zurnal SOJOURN (Social Issues in Southeast Asia), dvourocenku zalozenou v r. 1986. Department of Sociology Handbook 1141
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vyd;'lvany v Singapuru ka/.dorocne poskytujc inforlllacc o konanych kursech, dizertacnich pracich, udClcnych tituIcch a kompletni bibliografii publikaci uCitelskeho sboru. A: sociology of Singapore F: sociologic de Singapour N: singapurischc Soziologie I: sociologia del Singapore Lit.: Cilell. s..1.: Social Science Research in Singapore. Tokyo 1980; Chell. P. S . .1.: Sociological Studies on Singapore Society. In.: BaJalll. K. - KapilI' eds.: Singapore Studies: Surveys of the Humanities and Social Scicnces. Singapore, 19H6; Ciammer. 1.: Singapore. In: )'oge.,h Alai: Sociology and Social Anthropology in Asia and the Pac ific. Delhi. 1985; Chan Kwok BIIIl - Ho Kong Chong: Explorations in Asian Sociology. In: Working Papers, 1990, C. 100.
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sociologic skandinavska -zahrnujesociologii finskou , sociologii svedskou, sociologii norskou, socioIogii danskou a sociologii na Islandu. I kdyz vyvoj s-gie neprobihal v jednotlivych skandinavskych zemich zcela idcnticky, mel a Illa mnoho spolecnych rysli a vZ
(2 svazky I . I. 1906-190X). Obdobi pl'cd I. svN. 10 ve Finsku bohalsi na anlropol. a s-gicke studie dobi Illczivaleene. Ale finsti elnologove (krom~ ' nwrcka, R. Karstena a G. Lalldtmalla) dobe ve svych vyzkulllech v Maroku, v Jiini 1'>"""" • .' Nove Guinei. Ve 20. a 30. I. dOlllinovalna sk,Uldma~~ univerzitach logicky pozitivislllUS, ktery ovlivnil voj s-gie v teto oblasli, mj . i pozadavkelll nellodlnOlticf'. : zavisle vedy. Profesofi s-gie byli sice jmenovani jii v r. 1926 ku, jcdcn na svedske Abo Academy a druhy na vcrzitc, 0. rok pozdeji dalsi v Helsinkach, ale at valce se ve vetsine skandinavskych zemi s-gie mostatnou institucionalizovanou akademickou WlI~lll'" Finska s-gie se orientovala na soudobou leenos!. V Helsin kach vznikla samostatna katedrlt)i jlllcnovanilll profcsora V. Verkka, znameho Illinality (1937 , 1986). V r. 1940 byla zaloiena ' mard Society (1Insk[1 s-gicka spoleenost), kde se od vyd[\vaji zajimave monografie Transactiolls of lermarck Society, z nichi nektere ziskaly - napf. svazek C/eveages, Ideologies alld Party COlltributiolls to Comparative Political Sn,('inino'v 1964), V nClllz jsou obsazcny pi'ispevky od S. S. M. Lipseta, S. N. Eisenstadta, J. J. Wiatra. M. Abramse aj. V r. 1958 byla ve Finsku vydana vodni uccbnicc s-gie Sosiologia (E. Allardt, Y. ktera 0 4 roky pozdeji vysla i ve 5vedsku. melodologie napsal poeatkelll 60. I. A .•'.\ .... UI....• .... Susiologia vych[lzi vc finsline a svedslin~ od r. skou specialilu pfcdstavuji vyzkumy alkollOll$mlO jsou prov,ldcny od r. 1950, kdy byl zalozen spadajici pod Finnish State Alcohol M Kettil Bruull, 1959, 1973, 1985, a Klaus Miikt~fJlltl Danska s-gie se zacala rozvijel zejm. od roo byl na univerzile v Aarhus jlllellovan Drcllc:>oncm ciolog T. Geiger. 0 rok pozdeji Ilapsal prvni datlS~P9;J1tIl nici s-gic. Geigerovi bylo v r. 1955 vcnovano ve vznikleho skandinavskeho s-gickeho tasoPt~ Sociologica. Vydavalelelll easopisu byIIlHlIlUl~' lll"lJI nization alld Industrial Sociology na L-U,v,;rIlIUKu" I""" of Business Administration, ktery byl zalozen r. ry vedl Geigeruv zak Torbell Agersllap, v~nuj organizacc, industriailli s-gii, s-gii vzdclani a (1%0 , 1963, 19(6). Instilut vydaval rovn~! Nyt.fro SOIll/illldsvidellskabeme (News from Scicnccs). V r. 1950 byl jlllcnovan dalSi Drt)l~>Or;1:1I univcrzilc v Kodani. Byl to Nor K. vadel v te dobe zejm. vyzkulllY soc. ty (1959, 1963). V Kodani byl rovncZzalozcn
