Proceedings of the 1 th International Seminar on Quality and Affordable Education (ISQAE -2012):

Proceedings of the 1th International Seminar on Quality and Affordable Education (ISQAE -2012): “Developing Qualified and Affordable Education System For All”

21 – 23 May, 2012 Grand Sahid Jaya Hotel, Jakarta INDONESIA

Organized by: STATE UNIVERSITY OF JAKARTA

Prof. Dr. Ir. Musliar Kasim, MS –Deputy Minister of Education and Culture, Indonesia

Prof. Dr. Syawal Gultom, M.Pd. – Head of Educational Resource Development and Education Quality Assurance, Ministry of Education and Culture Indonesia Prof. Dr. Bedjo Sujanto., M.Pd - Rector of State University of Jakarta, Indonesia Prof. Dr. Djaali - Director of Graduate Program, State University of Jakarta, Indonesia Prof. dr. Fasli Jalal, Ph.D- Andalas University, Padang, West Sumatera, Indonesia Prof. Dr. Saedah Siraj - University of Malaya, Malaysia Prof. Dr. Noor Azlan Ahmad Zanzali – University Technology Malaysia, Malaysia Ir. Isran Noor, M.Si - General Chief of Indonesian Local Government Association, Indonesia Dr. Ir. Willy M. Yoseph, MM - The Regent of Murung Raya, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia

Prof. Dr. H. Djaali Prof. Dr. Mukhlis R. Luddin Prof. Dr. Saedah Siraj Prof. Dr. Mohamad Bilal Ali Pof. Dr. Yetti Supriyati Prof. Dr. H. Emzir, M.Pd. Dr. Wardhani Rahayu, M.Si. Dr. Yuliatri Sastrawijaya, M.Pd. Dr. Endry Boeriswati, M.Pd.

Foreword On behalf of the organizing committee please allow me to welcome you, guest speakers and participants to this seminar. We also render our gratitute and appreciation for your attendance. This seminar is truly internasional seminar, since it is hosted by three universities, namely: the State University of Jakarta, Universiti Malaya, Malaysia, and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. The guest speakers also come from several countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia and other countries, and attended by participants from various countries, such as: Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, the United Arab Emirate, India, the United States of America, Iran, and the Philippines. To improve social welfare and alleviate poverty, the government of Indonesia has established a policy in the field of eduactional system to fulfill the increasing demands of science and technology and labor market. The objective of the policy is to increase participation rate 100% for elementary education and 96% for secondary education. Even the target has been achieved 94,6% in 2009, it is far from the whole objective. Based on the data of Education Development Index (EDI), several countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Myanmar and Cambodia are in the category of middle level in the EDI countries, while other countries such as Brunei Darussalam is in the higher level. In other words, quality education is still a problem in those countries. The effort to expand the access to affordable education in terms of geographical and economic development, improving the quality and relevance of education, strengthening governance and accountability of educational services must be realized to accelerate the achievement of universal primary education by 2015. Such an effort should be implemented to include: (i) education and competence of tachers; (ii) teachers professionalism; (iii) financial education management and human resource management; (iv) politics of education; (v) the paradigm and politics of education; (vi) development of organizational education; (vii) quality assurance of education; (viii) education and gender equality; and (ix) education for all. Regarding those above issues, the seminar is aimed to produce strategic formulas to solve such a problem, particularly to find a solution how to develop a qualified and affordable education system. In line with that aim, the theme of this seminar is “Developing a Qualified and Affordable Education System for All”.

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This international seminar would not be possible without the contributions and support from our sponsors, partners, and supporters, for which we give our heartflet thanks. We hope our collaboration would contribute a great merit to the development of education in our societies.

Committee Chairman

Ir. Syaiful Anwar, M.Bus., MA State University of Jakarta

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CONTENTS Page Foreword

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Contents

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Message from State University of Jakarta, Indonesia

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Message from University of Malaya, Malaysia

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Message from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia

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Keynote Speaker Prof. Dr. Ir. Musliar Kasim, M.S.

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Guest Speaker Prof. Dr. Syawal Gultom, M.Pd

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Guest Speaker Prof. Dr. Bedjo Sujanto, M.Pd

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Guest Speaker Prof. Dr. Djaali

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Guest Speaker Prof. dr. Fasli Jalal, Ph.D

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Guest Speaker Prof. Dr. Saedah Siraj

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Guest Speaker Prof. Dr. Noor Azlan Bin Ahmad Zanzali

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Guest Speaker Ir. Isran Noor, M.Si

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Guest Speaker Dr. Ir. Willy M. Yoseph, M.M

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The 1th International Seminar on Quality And Affordable Education (ISQAE 2012)

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Reliabilitas Multidimensi Instrumen Tingkat Kepuasan Mahasiswa sebagai Pelanggan Internal Gaguk Margono

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Evaluation of Knowledge Structure of Students in Some Chemistry Topics after Process Workshop Activities Carmencita G. Palanca

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The Correlation among Students’ English Achievement, Students’ Grades, Gender, Parents’ Profession and Parents’ Involvement of State Senior High Schools in Ogan Komering Ulu Regency Silfi Sanda

27-42

Assessing Quality Assurance for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in Malaysia: Reflecting on Its Policy and Processes Abu Bakar Nordin, Saedah Siraj, Norlidah Alias

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Penerapan Penskalaan PCM pada Pengukuran Persepsi Mahasiswa terhadap Dosen Matematika Wardani Rahayu

65-82

Evaluasi Program Supervisi Pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo Astin Lukum

83-102

Research and Trends in The Studies of Native and Non-Native Speaker Teachers of Languages: A Review on Selected Researches and Thesis Fathen Suriati Jusoh, Saedah Siraj, Norlidah Alias, Ghazali Darusalam

103-122

Validating Personality as Determinant Factors of Elementary School Principals Performance I Made Putrawan, Francis Tantri, Sr. Jeanne Marie

123-148

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Using an Authentic Asessment and Effect to Student Metacognitive in Biology Marheny Lukitasari, Akhmad Sukri, Nasrul Rofiah, Anik Dwi Handayani

149-156

Research and Trends in The Studies of School-Based Oral English Assessment from 2003 to 2011: A Review on Selected Journals Nur Diana Mohd Kamal, Saedah Siraj, Norlidah Alias, Mohammad Attaran

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Inappropriateness Index Reviewed from Scoring Techniques Yuliatri Sastrawijaya, Naro Prasetyo

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Designing A Useful Grammar Test at University Level Abid

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Kemahiran Pembelajaran Abad Ke 21: Teknik Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan Mohd. Nazri, Abdul Rahman, Norlidah Binti Alias, Saedah Binti Siraj

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Quality Education: Evaluating Bilingual Program in Piloting School of International Standard Muchlas Suseno

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Test of Item Validity of Performance Test in Pattern Making of Vocational High School Students (SMK) in Denpasar Bali Ni Ketut Widiartini

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Pelaksanaan Kurikulum Tersembunyi dalam Kalangan Pelajar Sekolah Menengah Abdul Rahim Hamdan PM, Mohamad Najib Ghaffar, Ahmad Johari Sihes, Hj Zainuddin Hassan, Nani Herlin binti Jamin Pn.

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Pengembangan Bahan Ajar Perkuliahan Penilaian Pembelajaran Fisika FMIPA UNJ Yetti Supriyati

249-262

The Correlation between Anamnesis Skills Lab, Creative Thinking and Ability to Solve Problem on Students of Medicine Faculty at Krida Wacana Christian University Jakarta Rina Priastini, Budiman Hartono

263-278

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The Problem Solving for Paragraph Writing for Academic Purposes Based on Cohesion and Coherence Widjono Hs.

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Language Acquisition in Prewriting, Drafting, Revising, Editing and Publishing Skills Zalzulifa

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A Policy in Elevating The Educational Qualification in Indonesia 305-312 through The Application of Good University Governance Paradigms Theresia Kristianty Penerapan Asesmen Portofolio dengan Model Pembelajaran Berbasis Produksi Jufrina Mandulangi

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The 1st International Seminar on Quality and Affordable Education (ISQAE – 2012)

Message from State University of Jakarta, Indonesia Assalamu’alaikum Wr.Wb. First of all let us pray praise and gratitude the presence of Almighty God, because with God permits we are still in good health so that we can all attend an international seminar on this day. I think this forum is important, because this kind of academic forum, built and operated by three leading universities are neighboring each other. These three universities (Universiti Malaya, State University of Jakarta, and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia) has long been cooperating in various fields of activities (academic, student exchange, faculty exchange, goodwill visits and so on) to improve the knowledge, skills and friendship to build an academic community. On this day, one of the forms of cooperation that, in the form of an international seminar organized jointly between the three universities of this, we can follow and watch. I warmly welcome and feel optimistic that the model of this kind of concrete cooperation can improve the quality of academic life. Indeed, we are now, we should not sit back and feel of its own. Moreover, such feelings, often, not accompanied by an increase and continual updating of knowledge. And we also understand that the development of science is so very quickly. And often precede the development of science is a growing aspirations of our community in mind (in Asia or ASEAN). We recognize that developments in science that we must grasp with more systematic and continuously, because we also require that what we understand today can help us provide a new understanding of behavior change our lives in times to come. I consider that the issues which was raised at an international seminar this time is very precise and strategic. Important because the issue relates to the real problems being faced by our society, especially those who live in ASIAN region or ASIA. Issues to be discussed at this conference is very compatible with the development aspirations of our society, let alone a region, and of course ASEAN, is expected to make greater contributions to the resolution of societal problems being faced by the world community. Asia and ASEAN become the foundation of an alternative solution to the problem of human life. One of the most important attention on the problems of life are in the area of education. We still have a big homework-completing the disparity between on the one hand there is a tremendous leap in the advancement of science and technology, so that urban communities enjoy more access to

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(service) of modern life; on the other hand we also have to still deal with many of our communities not yet covered by the quality of education services, especially in people residing in remote areas (remote areas). Therefore, the international seminar organized jointly by some of the best universities in the region will give a significant meaning to the emergence of a model 'academic relationship' between members of the education community. In this kind of forum, we can exchange ideas, share understanding, developing academic discourse, so that we will gain a new understanding of what is being developed and what is being shared attention in our efforts to improve the quality of our lives together. I hope that the activities of this international seminar may be maintained and held in rotation, from one university to another. From one country to another. From one city to another. Thus, in addition we can improve the knowledge and skills of each of us, we also can build a more comprehensive understanding of the cultural richness, diversity of life models, thus further enhancing mutual understanding and strengthen ties the oneness of origin in this region. Finally, I extend a welcome to all participants, especially those coming from our friendly countries, hopefully you all can enjoy this kind of academic activity. I also hope that we all can meet, discuss and exchange knowledge on the other occasion with new hope and new inspiration. Once again, I congratulate to held seminar, thank you. Wassalamu'alaikum Wr.Wb. Jakarta, May 21th, 2012

Prof. Dr. Bedjo Sujanto, M.Pd. Rector of the State University of Jakarta

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Message from University of Malaya, Malaysia First of all, I would like to congratulate the State University of Jakarta for organizing the First International Seminar on “Quality and Affordable Education 2012” or ISQAE 2012 and also for inviting the Faculty of Education of the University of Malaya as co-organizer.With the theme of ‘Developing a Qualified and Affordable Education System for All" this seminar is timely and important because quality and affordability will ensure both success and access in education. I am pleased that this cooperative effort between the Faculty of Education of Universiti Malaya and State University of Jakarta will strengthen the ties between our institutions, lead to publication of scholarly works of practical value and usefulness and also provide the basis for further collaborative research in future. I also hope that the next three days (May 21-23) will enable us to explore in depth the issues related to ensuring quality in education and ways to maintain affordability without sacrificing quality. Because in the challenging and competitive globalized world today, education – especially higher education -- is no longer a luxury but a necessity to maintain national competitiveness and population well-being. The Faculty of Education of UM appreciates being given a role to play on this auspicious occasion. Thank you for allowing us to participate and exchange ideas and I hope this is only the beginning of a strong, fruitful and lasting collaboration. Terima kasih dan selamat maju jaya.

Prof . Dr. Saedah Siraj Dean Faculty of Education, University of Malaya

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Message from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia Assalamualaikum warahmatullah hi wabarakatuh Excellency’s, Distinguished Delegates, Ladies and Gentlemen. It gives me great pleasure and privilege to extend to you all a very warm welcome on behalf of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) to this International Educational Seminar which also cohosted together with Universiti Malaya (UM) and Universitas Negeri Jakarta (UNJ). A special thanks goes to the Government of Republic of Indonesia and UNJ for hosting this seminar and for all the facilities which will undoubtedly highly contribute to the success of this Seminar, It is gratifying to note that the agenda of this Seminar covers a wide range of very interesting topics relating to the educational fields. One of the purposes of this seminar is to exchange ideas and I personally think that this is high an opportune time to create and establish contacts and discuss problems of mutual interest among participants with different background and experiences as delegates for this seminar coming from different countries. This is a good start to develop and strengthen capacities of individuals and institution in a joint collaboration. I believe that this seminar will help in building the progress and set an ambitious new version for the future in taking the leap in advanced academic setting. I hope this seminar will provide an opportunity to share our unique perspectives and experiences with other and renew commitment to an important step in strengthening the cooperative network among the institutions. In conclusion, I wish you every success in your deliberations and a very pleasant stay in Jakarta and enjoy the seminars. Hopefully this event is not the last and we may see each other in the next similar seminar.

Associate Prof. Dr. Mohamad Bilal Ali Dean Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

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Keynote Speaker Prof. Dr. Ir. Musliar Kasim, MS started his career as Secretary of the Research Institute of the University of Andalas, Chairman of the Institute for Community Service University of Andalas, Vice Rector for Administration and finance of University of Andalas, Rector of the University of Andalas, Inspector General of the Ministry of National Education, the Deputy Minister of Education and Culture Education. He received his doctorate from the University of the Philippines at Los Banos in 1992 and had attended Training Administration Management for Higher Education in Saga University in Japan. Prof. Dr. Ir. H. Musliar Kasim, MS. Also actively researching and developing SRI Cultivation (The System of Rice Intensification) for Indonesia. He is also initiator and Research Team trial planting of wheat Cooperation between the University of Andalas with Slovakia. The award that has been received are the best graduates student in faculty of agriculture, cumlaude for his master and the best lecturer of Andalas University (1994) and Runner up of The Best National Lecturer Indonesia.

Prof. Dr. Ir. Musliar Kasim, M.S. Vice Ministry of Education and Culture, Indonesia

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Guest Speaker Prof. Dr. Syawal Gultom, M.Pd is a professor in State University of Medan. His educational background are: Doctor degree at educational management , State University of Jakarta. Magister degree was completed at Educational Research and Evaluation, IKIP Yogyakarta. Between 2003 – 2007, Syawal Gultom had been Vice Rector II, State University of Medan. Some of his research are Relationship Between Mathematics and Physics Ability High School Students In accordance with Curriculum 1984 in municipality, Skills Analysis of High School Students To Apply Mathematics in Physics in the municipality of Yogyakarta, Evaluation Research. Reasoning Ability, Numerical Ability and Control Materials Mathematics And Its Relation With the ability to use mathematics in physics, Media Effectiveness Concept Map Functions On The Teaching Calculus I Lectures in the Department of Mathematics Faculty State University of Medan. Beside of, he has participated in SEMINAR, upgrading, WORKSHOPS, and scientific meeting: Experimental Design, Testing relationships: correlation and regression analysis, accuracy of Research Data Processing, Data Analysis Package Using Various Research, Problem Formulation Research: Theory and Applications, World Development Education Technology Education, Development and Implementation of CompetencyBased Curriculum in UNIMED Environment, Development And implementation of Competency-Based Curriculum.

Prof. Dr. Syawal Gultom, M.Pd Head of Educational Resource Development and Education Quality Assurance, Ministry of Education and Culture, Indonesia

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Guest Speaker Prof. Dr. Bedjo Sujanto, M.Pd. is a rector of State University of Jakarta. He received his doctoral degree in State University of Jakarta (IKIP Jakarta) and his master in State University of Padang (IKIP Padang). His specialization is in Educational Management. He joined some training such as National Defense Institute, Internal Management Improvement and Integrated Quality Management. His started his carrer as education consultant in Jakarta Office of Education in some project and research such as Supervisors, School Principals and Teachers Recruitment in Local Autonomy Era Project, Basic Education Development Project, Secondary Education Development Project, Compulsory Education Pilot Project, Subject Matter Teachers Need Analysis Project and Junior Secondary Education Quality Improvement Project and DKI Jakarta Dezentralised Baisc Education Project. Before become the rector he was Vice Dean, Faculty of Education for Academic Affair and Head of Institute for Community Service in State University of Jakarta.

Prof. Dr. Bedjo Sujanto., M.Pd Rector of State University of Jakarta, Indonesia Email: [email protected]

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Guest Speaker Prof. Dr. H. Djaali is Director of Graduate Program in State University of Jakarta, kind a precious University in East Jakarta. He is concurrently a Professor of Education at the State University of Jakarta and also a member of National Standards Bodies of Education. He has 15 years experience at State University of Jakarta. He was the Head of Educational Research and Evaluation Studies Graduate Program, State University of Jakarta and also Chairman of the College of Management Sciences Budi Bakti. Previous to this position he was the Chief Secretary cum Development Program Doctoral Program Graduate State University of Jakarta. He was also a Consultant for The World Bank's Strategic Plan for Development of National Education Ministry, Partnership for Governance Reform in Indonesia UNDP, the Evaluation Team Leader duties Sisdik Police, Police Officer Education Curriculum Development, cosecutively for almost a decade. He received his Professor from State University of Jakarta in 1999. He achieved his Doctoral directly without any Master degree after his graduation in 4 years after. He devoted his life to teaching since graduated in Makassar until now in Jakarta. In addition to teaching at State University of Jakarta, he also taught as a lecturer at several universities flew home and abroad, such as High School of Accounting Sciences Administration of State Institutions, College Police Science, Bhayangkara University Center, Moestopo University, Pakuan University, Northern University Malaysia, Jayabaya University, State University of Makassar and became a member of the Senate of few of the university.

Prof. Dr. Djaali Director of Graduate Program State University of Jakarta, Indonesia

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Guest Speaker Prof. dr. Fasli Jalal, Ph.D received his Ph.D. from Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA at 1991 in the field Science of Community Nutrition with a Minorin Epidemiology and Southeast Asia Studies Program. He was a Deputy Minister of Education, Ministry of National Education Republic of Indonesia during 2010-2011. Before that position, he was Director General of Higher Education, Ministry of National Education (2007-2010), Director General for Quality Improvement of Teachers and Education Personnel, Ministry of National Education (2005-2007), Director General of School Education and Youth, Ministry of National Education (2001-2005), Advisor to the Ministerof National Education Sector Education Resource (2000-2001).He was a delegation leader in Internasional forum to USA, Canada, Italy, Norwegia, Mexico, Chille, Mesir, Brunei Darussalam, Singapore, Jerman, Belanda, Inggris, Australia, Jepang, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippina, Sri Lanka, India, Jordania, and China. Fasli Jalal ia also Keynote Speaker at: E-9 Senior Officers Meeting “ Programs Offered for Collaboration” Jakarta 24 Oktober 2008, International Conference on Higher Education “ The Role of Higher Education Institution in Empowering Community in Indonesia” Malaysia 24 August 2008, The International Education Workshop "Quality Teacher Education" Jakarta 20 - 22 Agustus 2008. Prof. dr. Fasli Jalal, Ph.D is an author and editor for: "Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper-Based Capacity Building of Human Resources of Poor Families", Chairman of the Task Force III TKP3 Commission, the Coordinating Ministry for People's Welfare, May 2004., "Indonesia Human Development Report 2004",

Prof. dr. Fasli Jalal, Ph.D Professor of Andalas University, Indonesia Email: [email protected]

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Guest Speaker Professor Dr Saedah Siraj is Dean of Faculty of Education, University of Malaya. Her specialization areas are Curriculum Development, Curriculum Design, Curriculum Evaluation, Curriculum Management, Curriculum and Instruction, Comparative Curriculum, Future Curriculum, mLearning Curriculum, Family and Children Education. She achieved some awards: Silver Medal Award, International Exposition of Research and Invention of Institutions of Higher Learning (PECIPTA 2009), Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia and University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur Convention Centre (KLCC), Oct 8-10, 2009. (Group Research: Mirroring your teaching style through student’s learning style). As a frofessor in Curriculum and Instructional Technology has contributed in education world: Member of The Council of National Central Curriculum [Malaysia] (July 1, 2009 to June 30, 2011), Evaluator of University of Malaya Research Grant Scheme (UMRG) (2008-2011), Committee of Humanities and Ethics Research Cluster University of Malaya (Jan 2009-Dec 2010), Expert and Main Speaker in the Committee Meeting of Curriculum Design for the Training Institute of Statistics Malaysia, Department of Statistics Malaysia (Dec 26, 2009). [Online] http://www.statistics.gov.my. Professor Dr Saedah Siraj is also author of Kurikulum masa depan (Future curriculum) (1st ed.)., Learning: a new dimension of Curriculum advancement. Pendidikan anak-anak (Children education, Perkembangan kurikulum: teori dan amalan (Curriculum development: theory and practice) (2nd ed.)., Cognition and learning: issues and strategies, Buku teks guru prasekolah komponen Bahasa Melayu (Preschool Teacher’s textbook of Malay Language component, Kurikulum Baru Prasekolah Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia: buku kerja 1 komponen Bahasa Melayu (Preschool New Curriculum Ministry of Education Malaysia: Malay Language component workbook 1, Kurikulum Baru Prasekolah Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia: buku kerja 2 komponen Bahasa Melayu (Preschool New Curriculum Ministry of Education Malaysia: Malay Language component workbook 2). , Kurikulum Baru Prasekolah Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia: buku kerja 3 komponen Bahasa Melayu (Preschool New Curriculum Ministry of Education Malaysia: Malay Language component workbook 3). Prof. Dr. Saedah Siraj Dean of Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, Malaysia Contact no: +6(03) 7967 5000; Email: [email protected] xvi


Guest Speaker Noor Azlan Bin Ahmad Zanzali is Head of Department Science and Mathematics Education Department, Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. He received his Ph.D. at University of Wisconsin, Mdison, United State of America in1987. He has taught at Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia since 1982. Several his works are Managing the holistic assessment system, The continuing issues of mathematics education: The Malaysian experience, Issues in designing an authentic assessment in mathematics education. Plenary Paper in Proceedings of the 4th East Asia Regional Conference in Mathematics Education, Perkembangan dan cabaran pendidikan matematik dalam kurun ke-21. Ceramah Perdana Profesor, Problem posing abilities of primary school children, Evaluating The Levels of Problem Solving Skills Of Secondary School Students, Implementation of the Mathematics Curriculum: Teachers’ beliefs about problem solving, Managing Education for Future Citizenship Proceedings of the 1st Regional Conference on Educational Leadership and Management, Developments and trends in mathematics education, Assessment from the Islamic Perspectice. Holistic Student Assessment System in IKRAM-MUSLEH Schools, The role of Holistic Assessment in IKRAM-MUSLEH schools in the process of Tarbiah (character building), Educational Management from MUSLEH’s perspectives, Improving the quality of mathematics education: Malaysian Experience, Comprehensive indicators of mathematics understanding among secondary schools stduenst, Engineering Elements Profile among First- and Final-Year Engineering Students in Malaysia.

Prof. Dr. Noor Azlan Bin Ahmad Zanzali Head of Department Science and Mathematics Education Department, Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia Email: [email protected]

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Guest Speaker Ir. H. Isran Noor, M. Si. received a master's degree of Development Communication from the University Dr. Soetomo Surabaya. He is also active as a Board of the Association of Muslim Scholars of Indonesia (ICMI) East Kalimantan Region, and had been Secretary of Daily BruneiIndonesia-Malaysia-Phillipines East ASEAN Growth The Area (BIMP-EAGA), Chairman of the Agricultural Extension Society of Indonesia (PERHIPTANI) Province of East Kalimantan, board member of Kosgoro in East Kalimantan, Board Member of Coordination of Student Affairs (BKK) Mulawarman University and Chairman of the Student Representative (BPM) Faculty of Agriculture Mulawarman University. Ir. Isran Noor, M. Si. is also fluent in three foreign languages are active (English, French, and German).

Ir. Isran Noor, M. Si. General Chief of Indonesian Local Government Association of Regency all over Indonesia (APKASI) The Regent of Kutai Timur, East Kalimantan, Indonesia

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Guest Speaker Willy M. Joseph received a Doctor of Educational Management, State University of Jakarta in 2011. A master's degree obtained from STM PPM Jakarta 1995. In addition to formal education, he also had to follow: EIA course of 1987 in Ambon, Personal Management Training Workshop in 1990 in Jakarta, the National Seminar on Wages in 1990 in Jakarta, the National Seminar on K-3 in 1990 in Jakarta, and Workshops employment Rules work in 1996 in Jakarta. In addition to the Regent of Murung Raya, Willy M. Yoseph also as General Manager of PT. Austral Byna of in Muara Teweh and Managing Director of PT. Stars grace Itah of 1999 in Palangkaraya. Also been involved in several companies, including PT. Surya Alam Lestari, Managing Director of PT. Lumber Mighty Jaya, PT. Abaditama embankment, PT. Hargas Industries, PT. Kayu Lapis Indonesia Group, PT. Mangole Timber Producers (Barito Group) and PT. Binareksa Alam Lestari (Barito Group). Until recently he also was Vice Chairman of the Association of Indonesian Regency Governments and Chairman of the Regional Indigenous Council of the District Joyless Raya. Signs Services / Awards ever received by him include: Certificate of UNEP Finance Initiatives Top Participation Roundtable UNEP Finance Initiatives In Tokyo (2003), Memory of Climbing the Great Wall provided the Government of the Republic of China to the Regent Murung Raya at the time of executing visits and cultural promotion in Beijing, China (2004), Certificate in Leadership Award given by the Consultative Assembly of the Republic of Indonesia to the people of Willy M. Yoseph Murung Raya as Regent for the participation in decision Socialization Indonesia People's Consultative Assembly (Year 2009), Charter Mark Satyalancana Wira Karya Honorary President of the Republic of Indonesia which, given the Regents Murung Raya To Top Services - Services to support the Great Development of the National Family Planning Program in the District of Murung Raya (July of 2010), Signs Award Primary Service Star honor by the President in Jakarta to the Regent Murung Raya's commitment in developing education in the District of Murung Raya(August of 2010).

Dr. Ir. Willy M. Yoseph., MM The Regent of Murung Raya, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia xix


The 1th International Seminar on Quality And Affordable Education (ISQAE 2012): Developing Qualified And Afforadable Education System For All ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Rational To improve social welfare and alleviate poverty, government of Indonesia has established a policy in the field of educational system shown by effort of development and relevance of education to comply with the increasing demands of science and technology and labor market needs. For that purpose, participant rate 100% for elementary education and 96% for secondary education has been set up. Such a target has been fulfilled 94,6% in 2009. But the success hasn’t been able to answer the target of MDG’s, because the quality of education can’t be achieved if only viewed from the aspect of enrollment rate. Based on data of Education Development Index (EDI) Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam, Myanmar dan Cambodia are in the category of middle EDI countries while Brunei Darussalam is the highest. In other words, those countries are facing problems related to the quality improvement in education. The effort to expand the access to affordable education in terms of geographical and economic development, improving the quality and relevance of education, strengthening governance and accountability of educational services must be realized to accelerate the achievement of universal primary education by 2015. The program should be implemented to include: (1)education and competence of teachers, (2)professionalism of teachers, (3)financial education management and human resource management, (4)politics of education, (5)the paradigm of education, (6)development of organizational education, (7)quality assurance of education, (8)education and gender equality. In order to implement the program, the seminar is aimed at producing strategic formulas to solve such a problem, particularly to find a solution how to develop a qualified and affordable education system. Theme A. Main Theme : Developing Qualified And Afforadable Education System For All B. Sub-theme: 1. Education Quality Improvement Policy 2. Critical Issues in Expanding Access to Education

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Education Evaluation System Education Partnership Program Education Management Teacher Professionalism Teacher Education System Remote Area Education Early Childhood Education Formal and Informal Education Education Facilities and Infrastructures

Place Grand Sahid Hotel, Jakarta, Indonesia Date 21-23 May, 2012 Call for Papers and Presentation Guidelines ISQAE 2012 welcomes research papers in all fields related to stakeholders of education including policy-makers, administrators, educationists, government representatives, academics, and concerned NGOs. Applicants are invited to participate in the seminar and contribute to the dialogue by presenting papers on the sub-themes mentioned above. The abstract should not be longer than 300 words and be either an MS Word or PDF file sent via email to [email protected]. Paper format can be downloaded on the ISQAE website. (http//isqae2012. ppsunj.org) Each accepted paper will be assigned to a parallel session with relevance theme to be presented by the author. Each paper will presented in 15 minutes followed by group discussion in the panel.

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RELIABILITAS MULTIDIMENSI INSTRUMEN TINGKAT KEPUASAN MAHASISWA SEBAGAI PELANGGAN INTERNAL Gaguk Margono Graduate Program, State University of Jakarta, Indonesia [email protected] ABSTRACT Reliability is consistency of the instrument in measurement whatever it measures. Multidimensional measurements of internal consistency reliability are rarely use dasstratified alpha reliability. Measurement and computation are described using a measuring instrument is the level of student satisfaction. Students’ satisfaction is the level of a student’s felt state resulting from comparing a product’s perceived performance (outcome) in relations to the student’s expectation. Level of student satisfaction with five dimensions consists of tangible, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy. The method in this study used simple random sampling. This instrument has been tested to103 students of Educational Research and Evaluation Study (PEP), the Graduate Program, State University of Jakarta (PPs UNJ). It can be concluded that the level of student satisfaction measuring instrument using alpha stratified reliability coefficien thas high accuracy when compared with Cronbach alpha. Expected in advanced research used other multidimensional reliability formulas. Keywords: multidimensional reliability (alpha stratified coefficient), students’ satisfaction as an internal customer PENDAHULUAN Menurut Lewis dan Smith (1994), pelanggan pendidikan tinggi terdiri dari: (1) pelanggan internal akademik (mahasiswa, fakultas, program studi/jurusan), (2) pelanggan internal administratif (mahasiswa, pegawai, unit/divisi pelayanan), (3) pelanggan eksternal langsung (sekolah, industri, universitas lain), dan (4) pelanggan eksternal tidak langsung (parlemen, masyarakat luas, badan akreditasi, alumni, donor). Di dalam sistem pendidikan tinggi (baik PTN maupun PTS), pelanggan adalah entitas atau

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pribadi paling penting dalam organisasi. Di sini dibahas tentang kepuasan pelanggan internal yakni mahasiswa. Kepuasan mahasiswa adalah pemenuhan kebutuhan dan harapan mahasiswa. Kepuasan itu relatif, tergantung apa kebutuhan dan harapan mahasiswa. Semakin tinggi kebutuhan dan harapan mahasiswa maka semakin sulit untuk mencapai kepuasan mahasiswa. Misalnya, Jurusan Teknik Mesin segmen pasarnya adalah orang yang berminat menjadi mahasiswa Teknik Mesin, sedangkan pelanggan yang harus dilayani oleh Jurusan Teknik Mesin adalah mahasiswa teknik mesin sebagai pelanggan internal. Setelah minat terpenuhi menjadi mahasiswa, maka pelanggan internal punya harapan dan kebutuhan untuk belajar mengenai Teknik Mesin dengan baik, selanjutnya pelanggan eksternalpun akan mempunyai harapan yang sama. Kepuasan mahasiswa adalah suatu keadaan dimana keinginan, harapan dan kebutuhan mahasiswa dipenuhi. Sedangkan suatu pelayanan dinilai memuaskan bila pelayanan tersebut dapat memenuhi kebutuhan dan harapan mahasiswa. Jadi keterkaitan antara kepuasan mahasiswa dengan mutu pelayanan adalah bila mutu pelayanan berkualitas atau tinggi maka kepuasan mahasiswa akan meningkat atau tinggi dengan kata lain mahasiswa akan puas atau sangat puas bila kualitas atau mutu pelayanan dapat dipercaya, diandalkan, dan teruji. Kepuasan mahasiswa dan kualitas pelayanan seolah-olah merupakan sekeping mata uang yang tak terpisahkan diantara keduanya. Kepuasan mahasiswa merupakan faktor esensial dalam Total Quality Management (TQM), karena itu Perguruan Tinggi (PT) harus mengidentifikasi kebutuhan para pelanggan secara cermat dan berusaha memuaskan dengan memandang mahasiswa sebagai pelanggan utama yang harus dilayani. Di dalam mengukur kepuasan mahasiswa digunakan suatu ukuran subyektif atau soft measures sebagai indikator mutu atau kualitas. Ukuran ini disebut lunak (soft), sebab ukuran-ukuran ini berfokus pada persepsi dan sikap daripada hal-hal yang konkret yang disebut kriteria obyektif. Oleh karena berfokus pada persepsi dan sikap maka alat pengukur yang digunakan dapat berupa kuesioner tingkat kepuasan mahasiswa yang dapat diukur melalui mutu atau kualitas pelayanan dari institusi pendidikan tinggi tersebut. Mutu atau kualitas (quality) merupakan suatu istilah yang dinamis yang terus bergerak; jika bergerak maju dikatakan mutunya bertambah baik, sebaliknya jika bergerak mundur dikatakan mutunya merosot. Mutu berarti dapat berarti superiority atau excellence yaitu melebihi standar umum yang berlaku. Sesuatu dikatakan bermutu jika terdapat kecocokan antara syaratsyarat yang dimiliki oleh benda atau jasa yang dikehendaki dengan maksud dari orang yeng menghendakinya. Menurut Idrus et al. (2000) “…the fitness 2


purpose as perceived by the custome.” Misalnya, mutu proses belajar cocok dengan apa yang diharapkan oleh mahasiswa; makin jauh melampaui apa yang diharapkan makin bermutu, jika terjadi sebaliknya, makin tidak bermutu. Langkah pertama mengukur kualitas pelayanan adalah mengidentifikasi karakteristik kualitas pelayanan. Daftar karakteristik ini dapat digeneralisasi dalam berbagai cara dengan menggunakan berbagai sumber informasi. Salah satu cara adalah mencari literatur seperti jurnal yang mungkin memuat dimensi mutu jasa. Peneliti-peneliti seperti Parasuraman, Zeithaml, dan Berry (1985) telah menyimpulkan bahwa mutu jasa dapat diuraikan dengan dasar 10 dimensi. Mencoba untuk mengukur sepuluh dimensi, ternyata pelanggan hanya dapat membedakan 5 dimensi yang disebut ServQual (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, dan Berry, 1988) memberi kesan bahwa dimensi 10 yang asli saling tumpang-tindih satu sama lain. Lima dimensi mutu pelayanan adalah sesuatu yang terwujud (tangible), kehandalan (reliability), daya tanggap (responsiveness), jaminan (assurance), dan empati (empathy). Lebih lanjut tentang dimensi ini dapat dibaca dari publikasi pada kualitas pelayanan jasa oleh Zeithaml, Parasuraman dan Berry (1990). Dimensi pertama dari kualitas pelayanan menurut konsep ServQual ini adalah tangible karena suatu jasa tidak dapat dicium dan tidak dapat diraba, maka tangible menjadi penting sebagai ukuran terhadap pelayanan. Tangible merupakan kemampuan untuk memberi fasilitas fisik kampus dan perlengkapan perkuliahan yeng memadai menyangkut penampilan karyawan/dosen dan pejabat serta sarana umum. Misalnya: ketersediaan ruang menyangkut kelengkapan dan ketersediaan peralatan, kenyamanan dan kecanggihan kampus, fasilitas komputer dan internet, perpustakaan, ruang kuliah, ruang seminar, ruang dosen, media perkuliahan, laboratorium, unit produksi, kantin, pusat bimbingan karir, layanan kesehatan, tempat ibadah, tempat istirahat dan tempat parkir, serta sarana transportasi. Mahasiswa akan menggunakan indra penglihatan untuk menilai suatu kualitas pelayanan dari segala sarana dan fasilitas yang ada. Kedua, dimensi reliability yaitu dimensi yang mengukur kehandalan dari pendidikan tinggi dalam memberikan pelayanan kepada mahasiswanya. Ada dua aspek dari dimensi ini yakni: (1) kemampuan perguruan tinggi untuk memberikan pelayanan seperti yang dijanjikan, dan (2)seberapa jauh perguruan tinggi memberikan pelayanan yang akurat atau tidak error. Dengan kata lain reliability merupakan kemampuan pejabat, karyawan/dosen dalam memberikan pelayanan sesuai dengan yang dijanjikan (tepat waktu), dengan segera, relevan, dan akurat sehingga memuaskan mahasiswa. Contoh: pengembangan administrasi, kurikulum dan penawaran mata kuliah 3


sesuai tuntutan keterampilan, profesi dan dunia kerja, perkuliahan berlangsung lancar sesuai jadwal, penilaian hasil studi obyektif, fair, dan tepat waktu. Ketiga, responsiveness adalah dimensi kualitas pelayanan yang dinamis. Harapan mahasiswa terhadap kecepatan pelayanan hampir dapat dipastikan akan berubah dengan kecenderungan naik dari waktu ke waktu. Responsiveness merupakan kesediaan para pejabat, dosen/karyawan untuk membantu dan memberikan pelayanan sesuai kebutuhan mahasiswa. Contoh: pejabat mudah ditemui untuk diminta bantuan, dosen mudah ditemui untuk keperluan konsultasi, proses belajar mengajar berlangsung interaktif dan variatif serta memungkinkan para mahasiswa mengembangkan kapasitas dan kreativitas, pengelola memberi fasilitas yang memadai sesuai dengan kebutuhan mahasiswa dan dunia kerja. Dimensi keempat dari 5 dimensi kualitas pelayanan yang menentukan kepuasan pelanggan adalah assurance, yaitu dimensi jaminan kualitas yang berhubungan dengan kemampuan institusi dan perilaku frontline staf dalam menanamkan rasa percaya dan keyakinan kepada para mahasiswa. Assurance mencakup kompetensi, pengetahuan, keterampilan, kesopanan, hormat terhadap setiap orang, dan sifat percaya yang dimiliki para staf. Contoh: para dosen menyampaikan kuliah sesuai dengan bidang keahlian/pengalamannya, dosen selalu berusaha menambah wawasan dengan membaca, menghadiri seminar, mengikuti pelatihan, studi lanjut, melakukan penelitian, memiliki sikap dan perilaku baik, serta seluruh jajaran, dan organisasi mencerminkan profesionalisme sesuai dengan yang diatur dalam standar. Berdasarkan banyak riset, ada 4 aspek dari dimensi ini, yaitu keramahan, kompetensi, kredibilitas, dan keamanan. Kelima, empati adalah kemampuan pejabat, karyawan/dosen sehingga memberi pelayanan sepenuh hati, antara lain kemudahan dalam berkomunikasi, perhatian secara pribadi dan pemahaman akan kebutuhan spesifik individual mahasiswa. Contoh: dosen berusaha mengenal nama mahasiswanya, dosen penasehat akademis sungguh-sungguh berperan sebagai konselor, dan sebagai supervisor bukan sekedar editor bahasa, dan pejabat mudah dihubungi baik di ruang kerja, via telepon, email dan sebagainya. Empati ini berkaitan dengan teori perkembangan kebutuhan manusia dari Maslow. Pada tingkat semakin tinggi, kebutuhan manusia tidak lagi dengan hal-hal yang primer seperti kebutuhan fisik, keamanan dan sosial terpenuhi, maka dua kebutuhan lagi akan dikejar oleh manusia yaitu kebutuhan akan ego dan aktualisasi diri. Dua kebutuhan terakhir inilah yang banyak berhubungan dengan dimensi empati. Di bidang ekonomi, bisnis maupun manajemen, penilaian yang baik memerlukan pengukuran yang dapat diandalkan atau dipercaya. Demikian 4


juga pada bidang pendidikan dan psikologi. Menurut Naga (1992) untuk pengukuran pendidikan dan psikologi mencakup beberapa hlm. Pertama, mengukur ciri terpendam yang tak terlihat yang ada pada responden. Kedua, untuk mengukur ciri terpendam tersebut responden diberi stimulus berupa kuesioner atau alat ukur yang tepat. Ketiga, stimulus direspons oleh responden dengan harapan respons mencerminkan dengan benar ciri terpendam yang ingin diukur. Keempat, respons diskor dan dapat ditafsirkan secara memadai. Kemudian, perlu dipertanyakan sejauh manakah skor yang diperoleh dapat mencerminkan secara tepat ciri terpendam yang hendak diukur? Apakah instrumen yang dipakai sebagai stimulus itu mampu mengungkap secara benar ciri terpendam yang tak tampak itu? Kedua pertanyaan tersebut berkenaan dengan validitas. Sedang yang berkaitan dengan reliabilitas, apakah tanggapan yang diberikan oleh para peserta sudah dapat dipercaya untuk digunakan sebagai bahan penskoran bagi atribut psikologis itu? Menurut Wiersma (1986), reliabilitas ialah konsistensi suatu instrumen mengukur sesuatu yang hendak diukur. Reliabilitas menunjukkan sejauh mana hasil pengukuran dengan alat tersebut dapat dipercaya. Oleh karena itu reliabilitas merupakan indeks yang menunjukkan sejauh mana suatu alat pengukur dapat dipercaya atau dapat diandalkan. Bila suatu instrumen dipakai berulang-ulang untuk mengukur gejala yang sama dan hasil yang diperoleh relatif stabil atau konsisten, maka instrumen tersebut terpercaya. Dengan kata lain hasil pengukuran itu diharapkan sama apabila pengukuran diulang. Dengan pendekatan varians, Kerlinger (2000) menyusun dua definisi tentang reliabilitas: (1) adalah proporsi varians “yang sebenarnya” terhadap varians total yang diperoleh untuk data yang didapatkan dengan suatu instrumen pengukur dan dapat dituliskan dalam persamaan rtt  v vt dengan catatan v adalah varians murni dan vt adalah varians total, dan (2) adalah proporsi varians keliru yang dihasilkan dengan suatu instrumen pengukur yang dikurangkan pada 1.00, dengan indeks 1.00 menunjukkan koefisien reliabilitas sempurna, dan dapat ditulis denganpersamaan rtt  1  ve vt , di mana ve adalah varians keliru dan vt adalah varians total. Oleh karena itu reliabilitas merupakan indeks yang menunjukkan sejauh mana suatu alat pengukur dapat dipercaya atau dapat diandalkan. Secara garis besar ada tiga kategori besar dalam pengukuran reliabilitas: (1) tipe stabilitas (misalnya: tes ulang, bentuk paralel, dan bentuk alternatif), (2) tipe homogenitas atau internal konsistensi (misalnya: belah dua, Kuder-Richardson, alpha Cronbach, theta dan omega), dan (3) tipe ekuivalen (misalnya: butir-butir paralel pada bentuk alternatif dan reliabilitas 5


antar penilai (inter-rater reliabiliy)). Selanjutnya instrumen yang baik dan cara pengujiannya ditunjukkan oleh skema pada Gambar 1. Instrumen diberikan kepada sekelompok subjek satu kali lalu dengan cara tertentu dihitung estimasi reliabilitasnya. Pendekatan pengukuran satu kali ini menghasilkan informasi mengenai konsitensi internal instrumen. Konsistensi internal merupakan pernyataan-pernyataan tersebut mengukur aspek yang sama atau merefleksikan homogenitas butir-butir pernyataan. Makin tinggi koefisien reliabilitas, makin dekat nilai skor amatan dengan skor yang sesungguhnya, sehingga nilai skor amatan dapat digunakan sebagai pengganti komponen skor yang sesungguhnya. Ukuran tinggi atau rendahnya koefisien reliabilitas tidak hanya ditentukan oleh nilai koefisien. Tafsiran tinggi rendahnya nilai koefisien diperoleh melalui perhitungan, ditentukan juga oleh standar pada cabang ilmu yang terlibat di dalam pengukuran itu. Makin tinggi koefisien reliabilitas suatu instrumen, maka kemungkinan kesalahan yang terjadi akan makin kecil kalau orang membuat keputusan berdasarkan skor yang diperoleh dalam instrumen tersebut. Pada umumnya pengukuran karakteristik afektif memberikan koefisien reliabilitas yang lebih rendah daripada pengukuran ranah kognitif, karena karakteristik kognitif cenderung lebih stabil daripada karakteristik afektif. Menurut Gable (1986) koefisien reliabilitas instrumen ranah kognitif biasanya kira-kira 0,90 atau lebih, sedangkan koefisien reliabilitas instrumen ranah afektif kurang dari 0,70.Koefisien reliabilitas pada taraf 0,70 atau lebih biasanya dapat diterima sebagai reliabilitas yang baik (Litwin, 1995), sedangkan menurut Naga (1992) koefisien reliabilitas yang memadai sebaiknya terletak di atas 0,75. Pada setiap penelitian yang menggunakan pengukuran psikologis selalu menerapkan pengujian validitas dan reliabilitas. Namun dalam perjalanannya di bidang psikometri, para ahli belum ada kesepakatan tentang koefisien reliabilitas atau rumus yang mana untuk reliabilitas antar peneliti. Pertama, masih banyak peneliti yang dinilai cukup kompeten masih banyak yang kurang tepat dalam melaporkan reliabilitas hasil pengukuran mereka (Thompson, 1994).

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The 1st International Seminar on Quality and Affordable Education (ISQAE – 2012) VALIDITAS KONSTRUK

UJI VALIDITAS Dengan

Disusun berdasarkan teori yang relevan Validitas internal rasional VALID mengukur apa yang hendak diukur (ketepatan)

Konsultasi ahli Analisis faktor

VALIDITAS ISI

UJI VALIDITAS

Disusun berdasarkan rancangan/ program yang telah ada

Dengan membandingkan program yang ada Konsultasi ahli

UJI VALIDITAS Instrumen yang baik

Validita s ekstern al

Disusun berdasarkan fakta empirik yang telah

Dibandingkan dengan standar yang telah terjadi

RELIABEL

Tes Ulang

Digunakan untuk mengukur berkalikali menghasilkan data yang sama (konsisten)

Eksternal

STABILITAS

Kelompok sama waktu berbeda Tes Beda tetapi ekuivalen

EKUIVALEN

Dicobakan dalam waktu yang sama

Gabungan atas

Dianalisis dengan korelasi setelah diuji coba

di Diuji dengan

Konsistensi Internal

Splithalf,-KR20, KR21,-Anova Hoyt, , , Ω

Gambar 1. Skema tentang Instrumen dan Cara-cara Pengujian Validitas dan Reliabilitas(adaptasi dari Sugiyono, 2002) 7


Kedua, masalah yang muncul adalah penggunaan koefisien reliabilitas oleh para peneliti secara monoton tanpa mempertimbangan asumsi yang mendasari koefisien tersebut. Para peneliti tanpa sadarmenggunakan koefisien alpha yang juga dengan tanpa sadar bahwa untuk koefisien ini memerlukan asumsi yang sulit dipenuhi. Jika asumsi tidak dipenuhi maka koefisien alpha yang dihasilkan adalah nilai di batas estimasi terendah. Banyak peneliti hanya terpaku pada penggunaan koefisien alpha dalam mengestimasi reliabilitas. Popularitas koefisien alpha Cronbach ini lahir karena faktor: 1) teknik komputasi relatif mudah, karena hanya memerlukan informasi berupa varians skor total, dan 2) distribusi sampling sudah diketahui sehingga penentuan interval kepercayaan pada populasi sangat dimungkinkan (Feld et.al, 1987). Ketiga, permasalahan yang berhubungan dengan asumsi yang menjadi syarat dalam mengestimasi reliabilitas. Pada ranah empiris selain persyaratan adanya sifat paralel, persyaratan tau-equivalent merupakan tantangan yang cukup berat bagi peneliti dalam menyusun instrumen pengukuran. Hal ini didukung oleh Kamata dan kawan-kawan (2003) yang menemukan bahwa asumsi kesetaraan, daya diskriminasi antar komponen tes dan unidimensionalitas pengukuran merupakan hal relatif sulit dicapai. Jika asumsi essentially tau-equvalent tidak dapat dipenuhi maka koefisien alpha menghasilkan nilai reliabilitas yang sangat kecil, sehingga koefisien tersebut di bawah estimasi. Keempat, wacana pengukuran adalah masalah unidimensionalitas pengukuran. Unidimensionalitas adalah aspek penting dalam mengestimasi reliabilitas. Hasil pengukuran psikologis yang bersifat unidimensi sangat sulit dicapai, terutama dalam konteks domain kepribadian yang kebanyakan memuat area varians-varians traits yang luas. Socan (2000) menulis bahwa analisis faktor yang dilakukan dari beberapa penelitian banyak kasus multidimensi dibanding dengan unidimensi. Masalah asumsi bukan menjadi masalah utama dalam menyusun model konsistensi internal, namun masalah ini menjadi bahan kajian banyak peneliti dalam pengkajian reliabilitas. Seperti penelitian Vehkahlati (2000) yang menyimpulkan bahwa asumsi yang tidak cukup realistis pada teori skor murni klasik adalah asumsi unidimensionalitas skor murni yang secara praktis sulit dibuktikan. Jadi kajian multidimensionalitas pengukuran muncul ke permukaan karena banyak kasus ditemui bahwa juga adanya korelasi antar butir di dalam dimensi tersebut kadang-kadang lebih tinggi dibanding dengan korelasi antar butir dalam tes. Pada pengembangan instrumen pengukuran dalam bidang pendidikan banyak mengasumsikan penggunaan pengukuran yang bersifat unidimensi yang secara konseptual dirumuskan bahwa hanya ada satu jenis 8


faktor kemampuan, kepribadian, sifat, maupun sikap yang diukur oleh satu instrumen pengukuran. Tetapi, banyak penelitian menunjukkan bahwa asumsi unidimensi tersebut sulit dipenuhi dengan ditemukannya beberapa faktor baru yang ikut diukur dalam satu instrumen. Dengan kata lain, instrumen yang bersifat psikologis yang sering dipakai peneliti cenderung bersifat multidimensi. Beberapa alasan pentingnya pengukuran reliabilitas yang bersifat multidimensi seperti dikemukan oleh Widhiarso (2010) dengan uraian sebagai berikut: pertama, karakteristik konstruk psikologis yang umumnya bersifat multidimensi. Kedua, adanya pelibatan aspek-aspek dalam penyusunan instrumen psikologis biasanya diawali dengan penurunan butirbutir dari beberapa aspek teoretis dan kecenderungannya bersifat multidimensi. Ketiga, jumlah butir di dalam instrumen. Jumlah butir yang terlalu banyak dapat menambah potensi penambahan varians error dalam butir sehingga memunculkan dimensi baru dari dimensi yang ditetapkan semula. Jumlah butir dan juga bentuk skala mempengaruhi sikap responden terhadap butir yang kemudian mempengaruhi tanggapan mereka terhadap instrumen. Keempat, teknik penulisan butir. Spector dan kawan-kawan (1997) menemukan bahwa teknik penulisan butir yang memiliki arah yang terbalik antara positif (favorable) dan negatif (unfavorable) dapat membentuk dimensi ukur baru padahal dalam pengambilan data banyak skala psikologi menggunakan teknik penulisan butir yang berbeda arah.Kelima, satuan pengukuran yang berbeda. Pengukuran bidang psikologis cenderung memiliki satuan ukur yang berbeda antara butir satu dengan butir lainnya memiliki kapabiltas yang berbeda sebagai indikator konstruk ukur. Kondisi ini akan menyebabkan hasil pengukuran cenderung bersifat multidimensi. Dengan demikian dapat disimpulkan bahwa pengukuran psikologis, baik mengukur konstruk kognitif maupun nonkognitif sangat rentan terhadap kemajemukan atribut yang diukur (multidimensi). Selanjutnya dengan memahami kecenderungan pengukuran psikologis lebih pada model pengukuran multidimensi dibandingkan dengan model unidimensi, maka diharapkan proses pengukuran psikometris juga melibatkan teknik analisis yang menggunakan model multidimensi. Oleh karena itu dalam penelitian ini penggunaan koefisien alpha terstratifikasi (stratified alpha coefficient) yang diperkenalkan oleh Cronbach, Sconeman, dan McKie (1965) diperlukan untuk mengestimasi reliabilitas instrumen yang terdiri dari beberapa dimensi (subtes). Sama seperti koefisien alpha Cronbach (untuk unidimensi), koefisien alpha terstratifikasi (untuk multidimesi) adalah pengukuran internal konsistensi dengan melibatkan

9


komponen-komponen instrumen. Formula untuk mendapatkan besarnya reliabilitas alpha terstratifikasi ( s ) adalah sebagai berikut: k

s  1 

Keterangan:

2 i

 i 1

2 i

(1   i )

 x2

(1)

= varians butir pada komponen ke –i

 i = reliabilitas komponen ke-i  x2 = varians butir skor total Permasalahan yang telah diuraikan di atas menunjukkan adanya kebutuhan bagi penyusun tes untuk mengetahui ketepatan estimasi antar formula reliabilitas sehingga peneliti dalam penelitiannya dapat memilih formula mana yang paling tepat dan akurat. Seperti juga dalam penelitian ini akan menggunakan koefisien alpha Cronbach dan alpha terstratifikasi. Adapun rumus reliabilitas konsistensi internal alpha Cronbach adalah sebagai berikut:

 k 

 s2 

i  1  2   sx   k  1 

(2)

Keterangan:  = koefisien reliabilitas alpha Cronbach k = banyaknya butir dalam instrumen

s

2 i

s

2 x

= jumlah varians skor butir, dan

= varians skor-skor pada semua butir soal/pertanyaan

Berdasarkan uraian di atas maka untuk organisasi pendidikan seperti Program Studi (Prodi) Penelitian dan Evaluasi Pendidikan (PEP) Program Pascasarjana, Universitas Negeri Jakarta (PPS UNJ) dimunculkan berbagai pertanyaan seperti: Bagaimanakah reliabilitas internal konsistensi multidimensi dari instrumen pengukur tingkat kepuasan mahasiswa sebagai pelanggan internal? Bagaimanakah komparasi antara reliabilitas alpha Cronbach dan alpha terstratifikasi? Manakah yang lebih akurat sebagai pengukur reliabilitas? METODE PENELITIAN Metode yang dipergunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode survei. Survei digunakan di dalam pengumpulan data dan tidak dibuat 10


perlakuan (treatment) atau pengkondisian terhadap variabel yang diteliti, namun hanya mengungkap fakta berdasarkan gejala yang ada pada mahasiswa ataupun responden yang lainnya. Survei sampel di dalam penelitian ini merupakan survei sampel terhadap hal-hal yang tidak nyata (intangible) yakni bila survei menyangkut pengukuran konstruk psikologis atau sosiologis dan membandingkan anggota-anggota populasi yang besar dimana variabelnya tidak dapat langsung diamati. Oleh karena penelitian ini mengukur konstruk psikologis secara tidak langsung dari sampel populasi, maka jelas penelitian ini disebut survei sampel terhadap hal-hal yang tidak nyata (sample survey of intangibles). Instrumen dalam penelitian skala dibuat dua kolom dengan rincian, untuk kolom pertama ini merupakan kenyataan (realitas) atau fakta yang ada dan dipersepsi oleh mahasiswa terhadap kualitas pelayanan yang memuaskannya dengan lima alternatif jawaban mulai dari sangat tidak puas (STPs) nilai 1, tidak puas (TPs) nilai 2, netral (N) nilai 3, puas (Ps) nilai 4, dan sangat puas (SPs) nilai 5. Penskalaan ini untuk instrumen kinerja. Untuk kolom kedua, harapan mahasiswa terhadap institusi dengan skala lima alternatif berdasarkan tingkat kepentingan mahasiswa dengan jawaban mulai dari sangat tidak penting (STPt) nilai 1, tidak penting (TPt) nilai 2, Biasa-biasa (Bb) nilai 3, penting (Pt) nilai 4, dan sangat penting (SPt) nilai 5. Sedangkan ini untuk penskalaan instrumen harapan. Populasi target adalah seluruh mahasiswa UNJ, sedangkan populasi terjangkau adalah seluruh mahasiswa PPs UNJ, namun yang dijadikan sampel dalam penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa Prodi PEP PPs UNJ. Sampel diambil dengan cara pengambilan sampel acak sederhana (simple random sampling) dan dari 200 instrumen yang disebar, diperoleh kembali atau yang kembali sebanyak 103. Penelitian dilaksanakan pada bulan Oktober 2010 sampai bulan November 2010. HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN PENELITIAN Reliabilitas Multidimensi Untuk Instrumen Kinerja Instrumen kinerja ini terdiri atas 32 butir pernyataan kuesioner tingkat kepuasan mahasiswa sebagai pelanggan internal. Ketiga puluh dua butir instrumen ini merupakan hasil penelitian dari peneliti sendiri yang semula 33 butir dan gugur 1 butir. Instrumen yang terdiri dari 32 butir ini dapat dirinci sebagai berikut: 7 butir untuk dimensi tangible, 7 butir reliability, 6 butir responsiveness, 7 butir assurance, dan 5 butir empathy. Untuk reliabilitas konsistensi internal alpha Cronbach diperoleh langsung menggunakan program SPSS sebesar 0,951. Bila diestimasi menggunakan rumus alpha terstratifikasi dapat disajikan pada Tabel berikut ini: 11


Tabel 1. Perhitungan Koefisien Alpha Terstratifikasi Instrumen Kinerja DIMENSI

Varians

Reliabilitas

Tangible 23,582 Reliability 24,045 Responsiveness 18,327 Assurance 23,664 Empathy 14,894 Total 374,466

0,804 0,866 0,86 0,872 0,845

k

s  1

 i 1

2 i

(1   i )



2 x

 1

1– Reliabilitas 0,196 0,134 0,14 0,128 0,155

Varians x (1 – Reliabilitas) 4,622 3,222 2,566 3,029 2,309 15,747

15, 747  0,958 374, 466

Koefisien reliabilitas alpha terstratifikasi sebesar 0,958, sehingga dapat dikatakan bahwa estimasi koefisien alpha terstratifikasi memiliki koefisien yang lebih besar bila dibandingkan dengan koefisien alpha Cronbach yaitu 0,951. Reliabilitas Multidimensi untuk Instrumen Harapan Instrumen harapan ini terdiri atas 32 butir pernyataan kuesioner tingkat kepuasan mahasiswa sebagai pelanggan internal. Ketiga puluh dua butir ini merupakan hasil penelitian dari peneliti sendiri yang semula 33 butir dan gugur 1 butir. Instrumen yang terdiri dari 32 butir ini dapat dirinci sebagai berikut: 7 butir untuk dimensi tangible, 7 butir reliability, 6 butir responsiveness, 7 butir assurance, dan 5 butir empathy. Sama persisi dengan instrumen kinerja di atas. Untuk reliabilitas konsistensi internal alpha Cronbah diperoleh langsung menggunakan program SPSS sebesar 0,974. Bila diestimasi menggunakan rumus alpha terstratifikasi dapat disajikan pada Tabel 2 berikut ini: Tabel 2. Perhitungan Koefisien Alpha Terstratifikasi Instrumen Harapan Dimensi

Varians

Reliabilitas

Tangible Reliability Responsiveness Assurance Empathy Total

18,533 16,332 14,971 15,685 9,815 309,461

0,898 0,901 0,915 0,921 0,906

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1– Reliabilitas 0,102 0,099 0,085 0,079 0,094

Varians x (1 – Reliabilitas) 1,890 1,617 1,273 1,239 0,923 6,941

The 1st International Seminar on Quality and Affordable Education (ISQAE – 2012) k

s  1

 i 1

2 i

(1   i )



2 x

 1

6,941  0,978 309, 461

Koefisien reliabilitas alpha terstratifikasi sebesar 0,978, sehingga dapat dikatakan bahwa estimasi koefisien alpha terstratifikasi memiliki koefisien yang lebih besar bila dibandingkan dengan alpha Cronbach yaitu 0,974. Dari uraian hasil penelitian di atas dapat disusun rangkuman sebagai berikut: Tabel 3. Rangkuman Hasil Penelitian Instrumen Kinerja Harapan

Koefisien Reliabilitas Alpha Cronbach Alpha Terstratifikasi 0,951 0,958 0,974 0,978

Perhitungan untuk dua buah instrumen di atas diperoleh koefisien alpha terstratifikasi lebih besar bila dibandingkan dengan alpha Cronbach. Dengan selisih 0,07 dan 0,04. Namun selisih tersebut apakah mencerminkan keakuratan? Hal ini belum ada kesepakatan antar ahli psikometri. Namun kita di kalangan peneliti di Indonesia sebaiknya setelah mengetahui alat mana yang paling tepat sebaiknya kita mulai memakai/menggunakan alat tersebut secara benar dan memadai. Memang sebagian besar peneliti di kalangan dosen maupun mahasiswa S2 maupun S3 belum mengetahui formula untuk menghitung koefisien alpha terstratifikasi tersebut, jadi kali ini saatnya untuk mengenalkan dan juga menggunakan formula tersebut. Dengan alasan sudah tahu rumusnya dan kebanyakan konstruk psikologis, kepribadian, pendidikan, dan sosial adalah multidimensi, sehingga seluruh peneliti baik mahasiswa maupun dosen berkembang dan makin berkembang untuk menggali lebih dalam lagi tentang koefisien reliabilitas yang lainnya. KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN Berdasarkan hasil uji yang diperoleh di dalam penelitian dapat disimpulkan beberapa hal sebagai berikut: pertama, tingkat kepuasan mahasiswa sebagai pelanggan internal memiliki 5 dimensi yaitu: (a)sesuatu yang terwujud (tangible), (b)kehandalan (reliability), (c)daya tanggap (responsiveness), (d)jaminan (assurance), dan (e)empati (empathy). Oleh karena memiliki 5 dimensi tersebut penelitin mencoba menghitung koefisien reliabilitas alpha terstratifikasi yang memang sudah seharusnya bila

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multidimensi koefisien reliabilitas alpha terstratifikasi. Dengan kata lain pengukuran yang lebih tepat menggunakan koefisien alpha terstratifikasi. Kedua, reliabilitas instrumen untuk keduanya yaitu instrumen tingkat kepuasan mahasiswa sebagai pelanggan internal yakni kinerja dan harapan mendapatkan koefisien yang lebih besar (0,958 dan 0,978) bila dibandingkan dengan alpha Cronbach (0,951 dan 0,974). Saran yang dapat diajukan adalah sebagai berikut: pertama, estimasi instrumen ini perlu diuji lebih lanjut dengan menggunakan teori pengukuran modern seperti teori respons butir (item respons theory) atau rumus lainnya yang peneliti kira masih banyak dan belum diterapkan di institusi PPs UNJ. Oleh karena penelitian ini menggunakan skala lima maka bila perlu dilanjutkan menggunakan berbagai skala lain, misalnya skala diferensial semantik, skala dikotomi, skala Thurstone, dan sebagainya. Kedua, instrumen ini perlu diuji dengan menggunakan sampel yang lebih besar dengan populasi dan setting yang lebih luas serta melibatkan beberapa propinsi sekaligus, juga dengan jenjang sekolah dan jenis universitas atau perguruan tinggi yang berbeda. DAFTAR PUSTAKA Cronbach, L.J., Schoneman, P., & McKie, D. (1965). Alpha coefficient for stratified parallel test. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 25, 291 – 312. Feld, I. S., Woodruff, D. J., & Salih, F. A. (1987). Statistical inference for coefficient alpha. Applied Psychological Measurement, II, 93 – 103. Gable, R. K. (1986). Instrument development in the affective domain. Amsterdam:Kluwer Nijhoff Publishing. Idrus, N. et al. (2000). Quality assurance. Jakarta: Directorate General of Higher Education. Kamata, A., Turhan, A., & E. Darandari, E. (April 2003). Estimating reliability for multidimensional composite scales scores. Paper presented in Annual Meeting of American Educational Research Association at Chicago. Kerlinger, F. N. (2000). Asas-asas penelitian behavioral, terjemahan Landung Simatupang. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press.

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Lewis, R. G., & Smith, D. H. (1994).Total quality in higher education. Florida: St. Lucie Press. Litwin, M. S. (1995). How to measure survey reliabity and validity. London:Sage Publications. Naga, D. S. (1992). Teori sekor. Jakarta: Gunadarma Press. Parasuraman, A. (1988). Servqual: Amulti-item scale for measuring consumer perceptions of service quality. Journal of Retailing, 64(1). Parasuraman, A., Zeinthaml, V. A., & Berry, L. L. (1985).A conceptual model of service quality and its iimplications for future research. Journal of Marketing, 49. Socan, G. (2000). Assessment of reliability when test items are not essentially t-equivalent. In Development in survey methodology, Anuska Feligoj and Andrej Mrvar (Eds.). Ljubljana: FDV. Spector, P., Brannick, P., & Chen, P. (1997). When two factors don’t reflect two constructs: how item characteristics can produce artifictual factors. Journal of Management, 23 (5). Sugiyono. (2002).Statistika untuk penelitian. Bandung: CV Alfabeta. Thompson, B. (1994). Guidelines for author. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54. Vehkalahti, K. (2000). Reliability of measurement scales tarkkonnen’s general method supersedes cronbach’s alpha. Academic Dissertation. Finland: University of Helsinki, Finland. Widhiarso, W., & Mardapi, D. (2010). Komparasi ketepatan estimasi koefisien reliabilitas teori skor murni klasik. Jurnal Penelitian dan Evaluasi Pendidikan, 14 (1). Wiersma, W. (1986). Research methods in education: An introduction. London:Allyn and Bacon, Inc.

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Zeinthaml, V. A., Parasuraman, A., & Berry, L. L. (1990). Delivering quality service: Balancing customer perceptions and expectations. New York: The Free Press.

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EVALUATION OF KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURE OF STUDENTS IN SOME CHEMISTRY TOPICS AFTER PROCESS WORKSHOP ACTIVITIES Carmencita G. Palanca Palawan State University, Palawan, Philippines [email protected] ABSTRACT This study focused on the evaluation of the changes in the knowledge structure of students based on their pre- and post-concept map scores. The students were grouped according on their scores in the Inventory of Learning Process (ILP). The study also explored to determine if changes in knowledge structure is affected by learning mode of students.The study is an intervention type of study using the pre- and post- design involving twenty students. The ILP and the pre- and postintervention concept maps served as the instruments for gathering data. There were 7 process workshop activities, two in chemical equilibrium, three in oxidation-reduction and two in electrochemistry. The study revealed that Group A (10 highest ILP scorers) and Group B (10 lowest scorers in ILP) have comparable knowledge structure based on the pre-intervention concept map scores. The study also shows that both Group A and Group B improved their knowledge level after process workshop activities. But Group A improved their knowledge structure far better than Group B. Group A has a more complex knowledge structure than Group B. Tuning and restructuring were the predominant nature of structural changes in both Group A and Group B. In tuning, the earlier knowledge framework was completely revamped/changed by the addition of an introduced concept, resulting to construction of an entirely new knowledge framework. In restructuring, the earlier framework was simply modified and rearranged because of the addition or deletion of a concept in the first one or two hierarchies of the concept map. The process workshop activities in the selected topics helped improved knowledge structure of both Group A and Group B, although the improvement in the former is greater. Keywords: evaluation, knowledge structure, workshop

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INTRODUCTION The focus of majority of science educators today is to evaluate how students understand scientific concepts because students rarely express correct learning output. This is evidenced by the poor results of examinations and minimal student participation in class discussion as observed by many teachers. These are attributed by student’s difficulty in understanding scientific concepts and poor knowledge restructuring according to some studies. Ogude and Bradley (1994) found that although many students can solve quantitative electrochemical problems in examinations, few are able to answer qualitative questions requiring a deeper conceptual knowledge of electrochemistry. Traditional method of instruction appears to be one of the causes that foster some misconceptions. This study indicates that it is necessary to alter/vary traditional method of teaching. Hanson and Wolfskill (2000) of State University of New York relates that many of their faculty perceive that traditional teaching methods have become less effective at the tertiary level and students are not engaged in their course work as much as in the past. They also believe that more and more students have difficulty in applying concepts when solving problems. Novak (2002) stated that group learning facilitates meaningful learning and new knowledge construction. This also suggests that once students achieve meaningful learning, misconceptions can be avoided. Thus this study used the process workshop approach, a type of group learning that is expected to facilitate and encourage meaningful learning. The proposition is that, if meaningful learning will be achieved, then correct knowledge structuring will be enhanced; as a result, misconceptions will be eliminated. Statement of the Problem This study was concerned with evaluation of changes in structural complexity of knowledge using concept maps before and after intervention the process workshop activities. The study specifically sought to answer the following questions: 1. What are the predominant learning practices employed by students? 2. What are the knowledge structure of the Group A and Group B before and after process workshop activities in the selected topics? 3. Which of the following nature of structural changes accounts for the change in the complexity of students’ knowledge framework after intervention (a) accretion (b) tuning (c) restructuring?

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METHODOLOGY The chemistry topics chosen were chemical equilibrium, oxidationreduction and electrochemistry. The process workshop approach is a student-centered method of teaching. It allows students to initially work independently in performing the activities, then working in small groups to discuss activities, answers to questions, exercises and problems. Fast learners are expected to share their ideas with the group members, and slow learners have the opportunity to ask questions about concepts they find difficult to comprehend. Group outputs are then reported in class followed by class deliberation of the correct answers to questions, exercises and problems. It is in this part of the process workshop that students are given the opportunity to check the different group outputs. In the process workshop, the teacher acts as a facilitator to ensure that students stay on task. It provides students with opportunities to work on time-phased activities that rely on team learning. These in turn promote information processing, critical thinking, communication skills and problem solving abilities needed to boost or improve their knowledge framework. The progressive changes in students’ knowledge structure were determined using the preintervention concept maps and postintervention concept maps. The study also determined the difference in knowledge structuring of Group A and Group B. This study made use of an intervention with pre-and–post test design. The sample of the study consisted of twenty BS Environmental Science freshmen from Palawan State University in Puerto Princesa City. They were taken from one intact section in Chemistry 18 where the whole class was exposed to the process workshop activities. Selection of the sample was based on the students’ scores in the ILP. The sample consisted of the 10 highest scorers in ILP and 10 lowest ILP scorers. The instruments used in the study were Inventory of Learning Process; process workshop activities in chemical equilibrium, oxidationreduction and electrochemistry; and concept maps. DATA ANALYSIS 1. The basis for scoring structural complexity of the concept maps was based on Novak and Simpson’s (1984) procedure, simplified by Markham, Mintzes and Jones (1994). Scoring complexity of knowledge structure of concept maps was based on the following criteria: a. One point was awarded for each correct nonredundant concept, for every valid and scientifically acceptable proposition and for every instance of first correct branching.

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b. Three points was awarded for each additional instance of scientifically correct branching. c. Five points for each correct level of hierarchy. d. Ten points for each valid, scientifically acceptable cross-link. Cross-link scores provide a measure of integration in the knowledge structure. Interconnectedness which offers a more meaningful indicator of the cohesiveness of the knowledge structure was computed using the formula:

(1) Concept map scores in all scoring category (identification of concepts, relationships, hierarchies, branching and cross-links) was prepared separately for each student. The sum scores for each sample were also determined. 2. The following were the basis for acknowledging the nature of structural change: a. Accretion is acknowledged when at least 3 concept labels are added to a prior concept map as compared to post intervention concept maps. This then results to a different elaboration of the concept. Occurrence of accretion indicates weak restructuring of knowledge after intervention. b. Tuning is recognized when any change to the prior concept maps resulted in modification of each concept map meaning by the addition of constraining or constraint variables pictured in post-intervention concept maps. This affects the accuracy and applicability of the original knowledge framework of the prior concept maps. Tuning accounts for a strong or radical restructuring of knowledge after intervention. c. Restructuring of knowledge is recognized whenever a change occurs in the prior knowledge structure as seen in postintervention concept that involves the addition or deletion of one or more concepts to the first hierarchical level of the concept map. This change in knowledge structure after intervention necessitates the construction of a substantially new conceptual framework. The basis for scoring accretion, tuning and restructuring was patterned after the simple dichotomous scoring implemented by Pearsall, Skipper and Mintzes (1997). This involves assigning”0” or “1”. Recording of scores involves independent instance of accretion, tuning 20


and restructuring. A “0” was recorded for no instance of an event, a “1” was recorded for every instance of accretion, tuning and restructuring. This was documented by simple frequency analysis. It is necessary to describe the change in structural complexity of the concept map; hence, the concept maps were compared to determine the trend in change of the frequencies of accretion, tuning and restructuring. 3. The Inventory of Learning Process of the subjects was rated. This was used to identify the predominant learning mode employed by the students. The ten (10) highest scores in ILP are categorized as meaningful learners while the ten (10) lowest scorers are categorized as rote learners. The mean and standard deviation of their ILP scores was computed to determine the predominant learning mode of meaningful learners and rote learners. Predominant learning mode was characterized by a mean score of “1”. 4. Differences in concept map scores, as a function of time, was documented in a series of one-way univariate analyses of variance to determine if there is a significant difference in the concept map cores in all concept map scoring category at 0.05 level of significance. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS Based on the Inventory of Learning Process (ILP), the predominant practices of Group A learners in their potential for verbal and visual encoding mechanism are: summarizing a unit material they learn in their own words; attempting to find answers to questions they have in mind; learning new words or ideas by visualizing a situation in which it occurs; and learning new words or ideas by ssociating them with words or ideas they already know. Their predominant practices for organizational processing are: accomplishing extremely well written reports indicated by high grades in term papers and individual laboratory reports; and resolving conflicts between information obtained from different sources. Group B learner’s predominant learning practices in verbal and visual encoding mechanism are: devising a system for recalling the material they have studied; and learning new words or ideas by visualizing a situation in which they occur.

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Pre- and Post-Intervention Knowledge Structure Chemical equilibrium Group A Group A demonstrated all the cognitive skills in their preintervention concept map in chemical equilibrium. There is an improvement in their knowledge structure after the intervention in all the cognitive skills except for interconnectedness. Group B The knowledge structure of Group B before the intervention is only based on cognitive skills: (a)concept identification and (b)showing relationship of the identified concepts. The intervention improved the knowledge structure of Group B as indicated by the increase in their mean scores on concept identification and showing relationships of concepts and also by the addition two more cognitive skills (forming hierarchy of concepts and showing branching of concepts) in their knowledge framework. Oxidation-reduction Group A Group A demonstrated all the cognitive skills in their preintervention concept map in oxidation- reduction. There is an improvement in their knowledge structure after the intervention in all the cognitive skills except for interconnectedness. Group B The knowledge structure of Group B in oxidation-reduction before and after intervention is only in terms of four cognitive skills: (a)concept identification, (b)showing relationships of concepts, (c)forming hierarchies of concepts and (d)showing branching o f concepts. The knowledge structure of the Group B improved after intervention in the identified cognitive skills. Electrochemistry Group A and Group B The knowledge structure of Group A and of Group B in electrochemistry before and after intervention is only in terms of four cognitive skills: (a)concept identification, (b)showing relationships of concepts, (c)forming hierarchies of concepts and (d)showing branching of concepts. Their knowledge structure improved after intervention in the identified cognitive skills. The increase in the mean scores of Group A is higher than that of Group B.

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Figure 1. Example of a Concept Map (Pre-intervention Concept Map in Chemical Equilibrium) of One of the Learners In Figure 1, the learner identified concepts in her pre-intervention concept map in chemical equilibrium, but was not able to give correct relations between concepts. The most acceptable relational word between concepts are: “involves” that connects “Chemical Equilibrium” with “ Law of Chemical Equilibrium” but not an acceptable link between concept label “ Chemical Equilibrium” and Le Chatelier’s Principle” to concept label “equilibrium expression”, addition of the word describes to the existing relationship in the concept labels- factors affecting chemical equilibrium is a more acceptable relational phrase that connects concept label “Le Chatelier’s Principle with concept labels “change in concentration”, “change in temperature” and change in pressure” excluding “Haber process”. There is a need to rearrange these concepts labels in branched form. The complexity of the learner’s pre-knowledge structure in chemical equilibrium reveals that she only identified concepts and linked her identified concept labels with another concept.

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Table 1. t-test of the Pre- and Post-intervention Overall Concept Map Score of Group A per Cognitive Skill in the Selected Topics

p< 0.05 (two-tailed), s – significant Table 1 showed that when the three concept maps were put together, the Group A realized that the sub-concepts under the three topics could be integrated even better after the intervention. Very large values of standard deviation for each cognitive skill after intervention implies that Group A have extreme concept map scores Table 2. t-test Result of the Pre- and Post-intervention Overall Concept Map Score of GroupB per Cognitive Skill in the Selected Topics

p< 0.05 (two-tailed) s – significant, ns - not significant The t-test result in Table 2 indicates significant difference in identifying concepts and showing relationships of Group B after intervention. The process workshop activities did not significantly improve the cohesiveness of their knowledge structure. This indicates rote learning.

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Nature of Structural Change

Figure 2. Summary of Frequencies of the Nature of Structural Changes of Group A and Group B Legend: PKS- Pre-intervention concept map , KS – post-intervention concept map, 2 – chem’l equil, 3- oxid-red, 4- electrochemistry, OKS1 preintervention concept map, OKS2- post-intervention concept map According to Figure 2, the nature of structural change for both Group A and Group B after intervention in chemical equilibrium is restructuring; in oxidation-reduction, restructuring and tuning; and in electrochemistry and the overall knowledge framework, accretion, restructuring and tuning. The activities in the intervention were not able to foster deeper conceptual understanding in the selected topics. REFERENCES Bojczuk (1982). Electrochemistry Misconception. School Science Review. V.64,545-551. Garnet, et al. (1990). Implications and Research on Student Understanding of Electrochemistry. International Journal of Science Education. V 12 no.2, 147-156.Hanson et al. (1998). Improving Teaching and Learning Process in General Chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education. V 75 no. 2, 143-147. Mintzes J. and et al. (2000). Restructuring knowledge in Biology: cogniyive processes and metacognitive recflections. International Journal of Science Education. Vol. 22 No. 3, 303-323.

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Novak (2002). Meaningful Learning. Science Education . 548-571. Novak et al. (1984). Learning How to Learn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ogude et al. (1994). Ionic Conduction in Electrochemical Cells. Journal of Chemical Education. V 71 no.1 29-34. Posner et al. (1982). Accomodation of a Scientific Conception: Toward a Theory of Conceptual Change. Science Education. V 66, 211-227.

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THE CORRELATION AMONG STUDENTS’ ENGLISH ACHIEVEMENT,STUDENTS’ GRADES, GENDER, PARENTS’ PROFESSION AND PARENTS’ INVOLVEMENT OF STATE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN OGAN KOMERING ULU REGENCY Silfi Sanda Baturaja University, Baturaja, Indonesia [email protected] ABSTRACT Parents’ profession (PP) and parents’ involvement (PI) are very important in improving children’s education, including English as one of the compulsory subjects at school. These factors may enhance the quality of English language teaching if they are used appropriately. The main objective of this study was to find out whether or not there was a statistically significant correlation amongstudents’ grades, gender,parents profession (PP), parents’ involvement (PI) (independent variables) andthe students’ English achievement(SEA) (dependent variable) of the state senior high schools in Ogan Komering Ulu Regency. If there was, then the second objective was to find out the contribution of each independent variable on the students’ English achievement (SEA). This study applied a quantitative correlational research design. The sample consisted of 266 OKU State Senior-HighSchool students, 131 boys and 135 girls. The data were collected using a questionnaire and a test. The results showed that the 12th graders’ achievement was higher than those of the 11th and 10th graders’. All the variables except gender had a positive significant correlation with the SEA with parents’ involvement had the highest significant influence on the SEA followed by students’ grades and parents’ professions. In terms of what grades were the most influenced by PI, it was found that the parents’ involvement had the highest influence on the 12th graders’ achievement (18.9%) followed by the 10th graders’ achievement (16.1%), and then that of the 11th graders’ (7.9 %). Keywords:students’ English achievement, students’grades, gender, parents’ profession, parents’ involvement, state-seniorhigh schools, Ogan Komering Ulu Regency.

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INTRODUCTION In this part of the introduction, the discussion is related to the reasons why English achievement became the main focus of this study. Some reasons in terms of students’ grades, gender, parents’ profession and parents’ involvement had led the writer to conduct this present study on that topic. English is taught as a compulsory subject at the elementary schools, junior high schools, senior high schools and even higher education. However, particularly at the senior high school level, English is one of the subjects to be examined in national examination (Ujian Nasiona/UN), held by the Ministry of National Education in addition to Indonesian, Math, Physics, Chemistry, and Biology (for science program) and Economics, Sociology and Geography (for social program). The English score that must be gained by the students in the national examination is at least 5.5. From year to year it is expected that the students’ English achievement is getting better and better, not only for passing the UN but also for real communication purposes. The result of teaching and learning process can be seen from the student academic achievement. In other words, the purpose of English teaching in senior high schools is to reach communication target. It refers to discourse competences including comprehension and production competences which cover written as well as spoken. The students have to attend 2 X 45 minutes a week ofEnglish teaching and learning process at the Senior High School (SMU) level based on the content of the national education curriculum. In Ogan Komering Ulu RegencyEnglish is taught by English teachers whose educational background is from state and/or private universities in Indonesia. They are either civil servantsor volunteer teachers who have experiences in teaching English (Dinas Pendidikan Kabupaten OKU: 2009). There are fifteen state senior high schools in Ogan Komering Ulu Regency. They are located in eleven regencies. In general, the students’ English achievements in Ogan Komering Ulu Regency is not really good yet in every status and major. The average English score of the UN of both state and private senior high schools (SMA Negeri dan Swasta) in academic year 2008/2009, for science program (IPA) was in the sixth rank and in the twelfth rank for social program (IPS) out of 11 regencies and 4 municipal cities in South Sumatera Province (Dinas Pendidikan Propinsi Sumatera Selatan: 2009). In terms of gender, Eraikhuemen (2003) found out that there is a significant influence of gender on the academic achievement of students. Gender in his research findings showed that male students perform better than female students in senior secondary mathematics. In contrast, Donahue 28


et al’s study (1999) revealed that females outperformed males in 4th, 8th, and 12th grades on the same subject in 1992 and 1994. At the 4th-grade level, however, the males had significant gain scores over those of 1994 while the females remained the same. Furthermore, some studies found out that involving parents in the teaching and learning process can help teachers reach the objectives of teaching and learning. Parents play an important role in the development of education of the children. Parents as the first educator for their children may cause the high or low achievement of the students’ achievement (Alvaera: 2009). The same is true for parents’ profession. Parents whose profession isa teacher have possibility to have more positive attitudesthan thosewhose profession is non-teacher. According to Alvaera(2009), parents’involvement is the most important influence in children’s life outside of school. It is known that parents have important roles in educating their children since early years long before they send them to school to have formal education.Parents also continue to play a key role in shaping and providing direct supports to their children. In relation to other studies, the study done by Diem (2004) revealed that parents’ profession made a different in students’ achievement. That’s why this present study intended to see whether students whose parents are teachers have better achievement than those whose parents are nonteachers. In Indonesia, there are two other related studies done on parents involvement. First, Indrajaya (2007) found the correlation between parents involvement and young learners academic achievement. Then, Yaumi (2008:53) did the study at the university level. She found good correlation between the following factors (parents attention, self concept, independent learning),and the English achievement of Makasar’s students (see also Noble, 2006:4). Finally, many traditional strategies were offered to promote Parents Involvement (PI) based on parents' willingness to visit their child's school (Lunts, 2003:2) because most school meetings and other events are correlated with parents and teachers in the school. Unfortunately, many families have no time to attend Parents Teacher Association (PTA) meeting. Therefore face-to-face communication becomes rare. Actually in this global era such communication is easy to do. Lunts (2003:1) examined new telecommunication technologies, such as voice messaging system, e-mail, internet and web sites, have demonstrated their potentials to support familyschool connection. He argued that effective classroom and school Regency web sites have a positive impact not only on student learning, but also on Parent Involvement (PI). 29


Based on the facts found in the studies above, the writer was interested in finding out the correlation among students’ English achievement, students’ grades, gender, parents profession and parents involvement of state senior high schools in Ogan Komering Ulu (OKU) Regency. The Problems of the Study The problems of this study were formulated in the following questions: 1. Was there any correlation among students’ grades, gender, parents’ profession (PP), parents’ involvement (PI) and students’ English achievement(SEA) of state senior high schoolsin Ogan Komering Ulu Regency? 2. Was there any contribution of students’ grades, gender, parents’ profession (PP), parents’ involvement (PI) on the students’ English achievement (SEA) of state senior high schools in Ogan Komering Ulu Regency? The Objectives of the Study Based on the problems above, theobjectives of this study were (1) to find out whether or not there was a statistically significant correlation among students’ grades, gender,parents’ profession (PP), parents’ involvement (PI) (independent variables) andthe students’ English achievement(SEA) (dependent variable) of the state senior high schools in Ogan Komering Ulu Regency and (2) to find out the contribution of each independent variable on the students’ English achievement (SEA). LITERATURE REVIEW Someone who has done a job of course hopes to get a result from his/her activities. Learning is enduring change in living individual that is not heralded by his/her genetic inheritance. It may be considered a change in insight, behavior, perception, attitudes, motivation or combination of them. Learning always refers to some systematic change in behavior or behavioral disposition that occurs as consequence of experience in some specified situation (Estes in Bigge, 1982:1). Dealing with learning achievement, it is the learner’s proficiency in a second language or foreign language as the result of what has been taught or learned after a period of instruction. Tinambuan (1987:7) states that achievement means that the degree of success in some past learning activities. So students’ achievement here

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means students English scores the test that they took before and after having the treatment during study. Someone believes that the higher the students’ grade the higher achievement they will get. Xiao, et al (2009) found out that as for beliefs about math, there are significant differences between grades 1, 2, and 3 which follow in a descending order. In detail, statistically significant differences in grades exist on the dimensions of knowledge structure, learning ability and learning style except knowledge ability. Beliefs on the learning ability of students in 1st grade are more positive than those of students in 2nd and 3rd grades. In line with that, Yusfardiyah (2010) also found out that the 6th graders who were just about to have final examination had higher achievement than the lower graders (5th and 4th graders’). There have been a number of studies conducted by educational researchers as regards to the students’ achievement factors. Two of them show that gender is also a factor which causes a gap on students’ achievement. Some correlation appears to exist between gender and parents’ involvement in Math. Deal (2003), at the college level, female expectations neither matched nor surpassed male expectations for achieving the highest level of Mathematical success. It is clear that in fact females’ full potential in Mathematics has not been reached at all ages. Even though many females reported being confident in their Mathematical abilities, others did not. While doubt is still being housed in the minds of many who have yet to overcome the belief that females are inferior in their abilities to perform Mathematics at the same level of success as their male counterparts, expectations will continue to favor male students and be a disadvantage to female students. Based on the human nature which is born in the same status every human being is influenced by his/her environment. Therefore, in accordance with the reality, every human being who becomes a citizen of a society, he/she always has the status or position and role. There are several factors that can determine the level of socio-economic status of parents in the community, including education levels, occupations, income levels, environmental conditions where their live, property ownership, and participation in the community activities. According to Vandergrift & Greene (1992) cited in Jesse (1996), parents involvement has two independent components: parents as supporters and parents as active partners. Focusing on one of these components alone is not a sufficient approach to parent involvement. Parents can be active, yet not supportive of the education process. They also 31


can be supportive but not active at the school. The ideal one is the parents who are both supportive and active; but this often is difficult when both parents work outside the home, or when there is an only single parent at home. The writer adapted Epstein’s typology of parents involvement as a framework to organize the findings on this issue of parents involvement and student achievement (Epstein, 1995). This framework assists educators in developing school and family partnership programs. It includes six categories and is described below: 1. Parenting. This category includes the basic responsibilities of familiessuch as providing housing, health care, nutrition, clothing, and safety, and creating home conditions that support children's learning (e.g., purchasing necessary books and other school supplies, providing a place to study, etc.). Parenting also implies that parents are warm and responsive to their children, communicate with them and support their development. 2. Communicating. This type of involvement concerns the basic responsibilities of schools, including establishing two-way communication between family and school. This type of involvement assumes that schools keep parents informed about school matters by sending newsletters or report cards, calling, e-mailing or visiting parents, etc. In addition, parents can also address their concerns to the teacher or school administration either through contacting them directly or through correspondence. 3. Volunteering. According to Brent (2000) cited in Lunts (2003), the term "volunteer" usually refers to persons who devote their spare time to work on a routine basis without monetary compensation, usually under the direction of a school employee, in support of educational activities and school operations. He clarifies, however, that parental engagement in Parent Teacher Association, Parent-Teacher Organization or other types of decision-making organizations involving parents, teachers and, perhaps students and other community members, is not volunteering. 4. Learning at home. This type of involvement suggests that parents are involved in curriculum-related activities occurring at home (e.g., assisting with homework, discussing books with their child, brainstorming ideas for school projects). 5. Decision making. Parents who are involved at this level advocate children's interests. These parents often participate in Parent Teacher Association (PTA), Parent Teacher Student Association (PTSA), advisory councils and committees.

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6. Collaborating with the community. This type of involvement relies on the community understanding helping which the community is the best investment (National PTA, 1998 cited in Lunts (2003)). It assumes that different types of community organizations contribute to schools, students, and families (Epstein et al, 1995). METHOD OF RESEARCH Research Design This study applied a quantitative correlational study. Itdescribed the correlation among students’ English achievement, students’ grades, gender, parents’profession and parents’ involvement of state senior high schoolsin Ogan Komering UluRegency. Subjects of the Study The subjects of this study was the students of state senior high schools in Ogan Komering Ulu (OKU) Regency. Specifically, a total of 4375 students of the first, second and third grade from fifteen state senior high schools in OKU Regency in academic year 2009/2010.There were266 students used as the sample of this study. In order to get the sample of this study, the writer used proportioned stratified random sampling technique. The population from whom the data and information collected were all state senior high schools students in Ogan Komering Ulu Regencybased on grades (10th, 11thand 12th), genders and parents’ profession in academic year 2009/2010. Techniques for Data Collection Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used in order to collect the data. The data were taken by using three kinds of instruments. The main data were collected by a questionnaire and a test. An interview was done to support the information found from the instruments. In this study, the writer used questionnaire, test and qualitative interview as the instruments in order to investigate the correlation among students’ English achievement, students’ grades, gender, parents’ profession and parents’ involvement of state senior high schools in Ogan Komering Ulu Regency. Listening and Reading Test The test was tried out by the writer to 40 students of non-sample (SMA Negeri 5 OKU’s students). The writer found the reliability coefficient of listening test 0.745 which was higher than the standard score (0.70). It means that this questionnaire was reliable. 33


Writing Test In other to estimate the reliability of combined ratings, the writer used alpha coefficient. The result of calculating for writing test gave information about reliability value of writing test was 0.948, which means it was higher than alpha standard score (0.70), thus writing test was reliable. Speaking Test To estimate the reliability of combined ratings, the writer used alpha coefficient. The result of calculating for speaking test was 0.947 which was higher than the standard score (0.70). It means that this questionnaire was reliable. Technique for Analyzing Data After conducting the tests, the writer checked manually the results of the questionnaires on the demographic data and parents’ involvement. In this study, data analysis was conducted in descriptive and statistical analysis. Stage 1: The descriptive analysis The descriptive stage was used to describe the score of the research data. It dealt with the result of the students’ questionnaires, students’ test and parents/teachers interview. Stage 2: The statistical analysis To see the correlation among students grades, gender, and parents profession, and parents involvement (independent) variablesand students’ English achievement (dependent variable). The statistical analysis of Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation coefficient was used. Multiple regressionanalysis was used to see the influences of those factors on students’ English achievement. To run the analysis, SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) 17.0 package windows was used. FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION Students’ English Achievement (SEA) Total In this study, Students’ English Achievement (SEA) was grouped into four categories; excellent, good, average, and poor. Based on the analysis of Students’ English Achievement (SEA), it was found that 40 (15%) students got SEA in poor category, 149 (56%) students got SEA in average category, 77 (29%) students got SEA in good category, and nobody got SEA in excellent category. Parents Involvement Based on the analysis of questionnaires on PI, it was found that 80 (30.1%) parents had involvement in poor qualification, 160 (60.2%) had 34


involvement in average qualification, 25 (9.4%) parents had involvement in good qualification, and 1 (0.4%) parents had involvement in excellent qualification. Figure 3 below describes about parents’ involvement of their children schooling. Students’ English Achievement (Total) Based on Students’ Grades It was found that 22 students (25.58%) of 10th grade had SEA in poor category, 53 students (61.62%) had SEA in average category, and 11 students (12.79%) had SEA in good category. In 11th grade, it was found that 11 students (11.45%) had SEA in poor category, 61 students (63.54%) had SEA in average category, and 24 students (25%) had SEA in good category. On the other hand, the result of 12thgrade showed that 7 students (8.33%) of had SEA in poor category, 35 students (41.66%) had SEA in average category, and 42 students (50%) had SEA in good category. Students’ English Achievement (SEA) Based on Gender (Total) Having calculated the result of the Students’ English Achievement, it was found that out of 266 students, the highest poor achievement was obtained by 20 female students (51.3%) and 19 male students (48.7%). The highest percentage of SEA in average category was obtained by 76 male students (50.7%) and followed by 74 female students (49.3%). There were 40 female students (51.9%) and 37 male students (48.1%) categorized as good. Students’ English Achievement (SEA) Total Based on Parents’ Profession (PP) Having calculated Students’ English Achievement (SEA) based on the Parents’ Profession (PP), it was found that out of 134 students whose parents are teachers: 13 students (9.7%) had English achievement in poor category, 79 students (58.95%) had English achievement in average category, and 42 students (31.34%) had English achievement in good category. On the other hand, out of 132 students whose parents are non teacher: 27 students (20.45%) had English achievement in poor category, 70 students (53.03%) had English achievement in average category, and 35 students (26.51%) had English achievement in good category. Additionally, the Students’ English Achievement (SEA) based on students’ grades and gender indicates that the mean score of 12th grade (69.79) was highest than 11th (64.18) and 10th grade (61.74). For SEA (total), the mean score for male students was 65.61 and for the female students were 64.73. The descriptive analysis indicates that the mean score of teachers (66.67) was higher than non-teachers (63.63). For SEA (total), the 35


standard deviation score for non-teachers was 10.440 higher than teachers (8.812). This study also analyzed the mean score and standard deviation for students’ English achievement based on grades, gender,parents’ profession and parents’ involvement. Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of SEA Based on Grades, Gender, Parents’ Profession and Parents’ Involvement Independent Variables Grades

Gender Parents’ Profession Parents’ Involvement

10th 11th 12th Males Females Teachers Non-teachers Poor Average Good Excellent

Mean

N

Std. Deviation

61.74 64.18 69.79 65.61 64.37 66.67 63.63 61.44 65.26 75.80 81.00

86 96 84 131 135 134 132 80 160 25 1

9.631 9.029 8.985 9.192 10.289 8.812 10.440 9.631 8.400 8.539 .

Additionally, this study was also analyzed to see the mean score and standard deviation of Students’ English Achievement (SEA) based on students’ grades and gender indicates that the mean score of 12th grade (69.79) was highest than 11th (64.18) and 10th grade (61.74). For SEA (total), the mean score for male students was 65.61 and for the female students were 64.73. The descriptive analysis in Table 2 indicates that the mean score of teachers (66.67) was higher than non-teachers (63.63). For SEA (total), the standard deviation score for non-teachers was 10.440 higher than teachers (8.812). The Correlation among Dependent Variable and Independent Variables The correlation between students’ grades and SEA was 0.330 with the significance at the level of 0.000. It means that there was a significant

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correlation since the p-value (0.000) was lower than 0.05, then the null hypothesis was rejected and the alternative hypothesis was accepted. Based on the statistical analysis of genderand SEA that the correlation was -0.045 with significance at the level of 0.461. It means that there was no significant correlation since the p-value (0.461) was higher than 0.05, then the alternative hypothesis was rejected and the null hypothesis was accepted. Additionally, there was also found the correlation between parents’ profession and SEA was -0.156. It means that there was significant correlation since the p -value (0.025) was lower than 0.05, then the null hypothesis was rejected and the alternative hypothesis was accepted. Based on the results, the correlation between parents’ involvement and students’ English achievement was 0.459 with the significance at the level of 0.000. It means that there was positive significant correlation since the p-value (0.000) was lower than 0.05 and then the null hypothesis was rejected and the alternative hypothesis was accepted. Interpretation Students’ grades The 12th graders’ achievement is also higher than those of the 11th th and 10 graders’. This is reasonable because the students of twelfth grades has had longer learning experience which may influence their English achievement. Based on that experience they are better than those of 11th and 10th graders’ who have less learning experience. This can also be caused by their thought and ideas concerning the way of thinking. In line with this fact, Yusfardiyah (2010) found out that the highest grades students who were just about to have final examination had higher motivation than the lower graders. Gender This study also shows that gender has significant influence on the students’ English achievement. Males have been reported to have significantly higher English achievement than females. This finding is in agreement with Yusfardiyah’s (2010), which reported that there is a significant difference between gender in terms of academic achievement. In her studies found out that male pupils’ achievement was better than female pupils’ achievement. However, this study shows that female students in the excellent level were less than the male students. The writer believes that there are indirect effects of grades and parents’ profession on the students’ English achievement. 37


Parents’ profession The findings show that 70 % of the teachers’ children are on the average to good category. Parents whose profession is teachers have possibility to have different attitude from those who are not teachers. In line with this fact, Slavin (2007: 114) also found one important way in which students differ from one another that is in social class. He said that sociologist defines social class in terms of an individual’s income, occupation, education, and prestige in society. The occupation attained by the parents in this study, teachers, is strongly related to the students’ achievement in all state senior high schools in Ogan Komering Ulu Regency. In line with this fact, Diem (2004) found out thatalthough there is no correlation between age and the students' EFL achievement, she found negative significant correlation between the students' achievement and teacher education level and also between the students' achievement and socio-economic status. Parents’ involvement The fact that most of the students’ were having the average level of their parents’ involvement. However, the parents’ involvement was more on the 12th graders than that on the 11th and 10th graders in terms of their achievement. This indicates that most parents tend to have more attention to their children in the 12th grades since these children will follow the national examination soon. Their parents are worried about their children’s failure. This result support Houtenville & Conway’s (2008) study who found that parental involvement has a strong, positive effect on student achievement. They argued that parental effort is consistently associated with higher levels of achievement, and the magnitude of the effect of parental effort is substantial. From those four variables, parents’ involvement had the highest significant influence on the students’ English achievement followed by grades and parents’ profession. Therefore, it suggests that by involving parents in the teaching and learning process can help teachers reach the objective to make the students learn, especially related to their academic life outside of school. Long after direct learning from parents in a child's early years gives the way to formal education, parents continue to play a key role in student success through the activities they do to shape the direct supports of their children. In line with this present study, Halawah (2006) found that low achievement has been associated with students having parents who are less involved in their school work.

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Based on the indicators of each part of the questionnaire, parenting and learning at home have strong influence on the students’ English achievement. Since the highest influence is about the parenting part, it can be concluded that some aspects have strongest effect to the children for example by preparing the facilities, such as books, dictionaries, and computers at home. In fact, only few parents who have time to ask about the students’ English achievement directly to the teacher (school). Parents also have no collaboration with other association to support the English activities. Most state senior high school parents in Ogan Komering Ulu Regency have less attention with the parents’ association. They attended the PTA (Parent Teacher Association) meeting only to know about the results of the parents’ meeting with the school not to give suggestion to increase their children’s achievement. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS This study was proposed to answer whether or not there was a significant correlation among students’ English achievement, grades, gender, parents profession and parents involvement of state senior high schools in Ogan Komering Ulu Regency. Based on the results of the present study and their interpretation, it is clear that from the four variables, students’ grades and parents involvement had a significant correlation with the students’ English achievement but gender and parents’ profession not. However, the correlation is still in the average level. Therefore, the SEA is also not that high. Additionally, the stepwise regression analysis shows that grades (7.9%) and parents involvement (21%) do significantly (p<.050) influence the dependent variable, students’ English achievement (SEA). From the conclusions above, this study leads to the suggestions to some parties as follows.The parents should give maximize their supports to all the activities at school to help improve the students’ English achievement. It is suggests that by involving parents maximally in the teaching and learning process parents can help teachers reach the objective to make the students learn, especially in relation to their academic life outside of school. Considering the importance of applying the parents involvement, the teacher will be able to understand the needs of their students and to promote parents’ involvement either directly or through PTA in order to increase their students’ achievement in learning English. Furthermore, since there still many other problems appear in relation to this study,the teachers may do their own analysis of the performance of their own students on behalf of the ministry of education, South Sumatra 39


province. The researcher had a difficulty in analyzing the data and making the generalization because of the total sample of this study. The researcher admits the limitations of this study due to the fact that the data were only collected in state senior high schools in Ogan Komering Ulu Regency including only 11 schools. Therefore, a future study should include more samples and focus on how parents encourage the learning outcomes of their children by randomly interviewing them based on Regency in South Sumatra. REFERENCES Alvaera, A., Bayan, M. E., & Martinez, P. D. (2009). Teaching approach, perceived parental involvement and autonomy as predictors of achievement. The International Journal of Research and Review, 1, 57-80., Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/parents/landing. March 20, 2010 from Bigge, M. V. (1982). Learning theories for teacher. New York, NY: Haiper and row. Diem, D. C. (2004). Students' age at which EFL is introduced in schools and educational outcomes.TEFLIN 15 (1).Retrieved from journal.teflin. org/index.php/teflin/article/view/77.January 24, 2011 Epstein, J. L. (1995). School/family/community partnerships: Caring for the children we share. Phi Delta Kappan, 76(9), 701-712. Retrieved fromwww.mcrel.org/PDF/Noteworthy/Learners.../danj.asp.Novemb er 10, 2009. Halawah, I. (2006). The effect of motivation, family environment and student characteristics on achievement. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 33 (2), 91-99. Retrieved from www.questia.com/PM. qst?a=o&d=5015930321.March 20, 2010. Houtenville, A. J., & Conway, K. S. (2008). Parental effort, school resources, and student achievement. Science Daily. Journal of Human Resources, 53(2), 437-453. Retrieved from http://www. sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080527123852.htm. November 10, 2009.

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Indrajaya. (2007). Perlunya kerjasama antara guru dengan orangtua dalam meningkatkan aktivitas belajar murid di sekolah dasar. Unpublished graduate thesis. Faculty of Education, State University of Makasar. Retrieved from http://one.indoskripsi. com.February 4, 2010. Jesse, D. (2003). Increasing parental involvement: A key to student achievement. Retrieved from www.mcrel.org/PDF/ Noteworthy/ Learners.../danj.asp.November 10, 2009 Lunts, E. (2003). Parental involvement in children's education: Connecting family and school by using telecommunication technologies. Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal, 6(1), Winter. Retrieved from http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/ win2003/involvement/index.html. November 9, 2009 from. Noble, J. P., Roberts, W., L., & Sawyer, R. L. (2006). Student achievement, behavior, perceptions, and other factors affecting ACT scores. ACT Research Report Series, 2006(1). Retrieved from www.act.org/research/reports/index. January 10, 2010. Tinambuan, W. (1988). Evaluation of achievement. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan kebudayaan. Direktorat Pendidikan Tinggi. P3TK. Undang-undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 20 Tahun 2003 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional. 2003. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan Nasional. Yaumi, M. (2008). Pengaruh perhatian orangtua, konsep diri, dan kemandirian belajar terhadap prestasi belajar Bahasa Inggris siswa kelas X MAN 2 Makasar. Unpublished Graduate Thesis. Educational Technology Graduate School, Jakarta State University. Retrieved from http://www.scribd.com/doc/ 12606909.January 10, 2010. Yusfardiyah. (2010). Correlation between teacher performance and pupils’ achievement based on grade and gender in Kota Palembang. Unpublished Thesis of English Education Study Program, Graduate School, Sriwijaya University, Palembang.

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Xiao, C., Yu, P., & Yan, L. (2009). Influences on affect and achievement: High school students’ epistemological beliefs about mathematics. Journal of Mathematics Education 2 (2), 1-11.

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ASSESSING QUALITY ASSURANCE FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA: REFLECTING ON ITS POLICY AND PROCESSES Abu Bakar Nordin1, Saedah Siraj2, Norlidah Alias3 Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, Malaysia [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] ABSTRACT Owing to a number of reasons among which are the rapid expansion of higher education systems with a diverse range of providers both public and private, and cross-borders; globalization with the demand for trustworthy organizations that can establish confidence due to economic constraints and a shift in priorities from advanced levels to basic education; emphasizing on the need for more effective mechanisms for the professional recognition of higher education credentials and encouraging of professional mobility through a growing number of regional and international integration processes has led many Governments in most parts of the world to focus their attention and their agenda for higher education on issues of quality assurance and quality enhancement . Despite differences in the size and stage of development of their higher education sectors, many governments have decided that traditional academic controls are inadequate to face today's challenges and thus explicit assurances about quality are needed. Organizations such as the European Commission (OECD) for example, have reinforced this trend by their own calls for new structures and new approaches to quality assurance. Malaysia, not to be left has embarked on a number of quality assurance initiatives such as in placing of Malaysian Qualification Framework, encouraging institutions of higher learning to implement ISO 9001 Standard and intensifying collaboration with professional bodies. At the heart of the QA is the issue of the quality of teaching and learning. In the Code of Practice of Institutional Audit (COPIA) and Code of Practice of Program Accreditation as implemented by Malaysia Qualification Agency, the issue of teaching and learning as

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reflected in Curriculum Design and Delivery, and Student Assessment has been dealt extensively. This paper reviewed and examined the current status of national policy and processes for QA in teaching and learning, the extent to which the policy was in place and the process implemented, the nature and the variations of the process implemented in instruction and other academic activities including assessment practices, recent trends and areas of emerging consensus as well as issues likely to shape policy over the next decade, and finally offered recommendations for ways that the Government and institutions of higher learning might embark to hasten the pace of improvement and change in teaching and learning. Keywords :assessing quality assurance, higher education in Malaysia, quality assurance policy and processes, quality assurance for teaching and learning. INTRODUCTION Throughout the world there has been a move to mass higher education, and cross border education involving greater diversity of programs. This expansion of higher education has prompted the rise of a varietyof modes of course delivery hence poses challenges for the efficacy of institutional quality controls. Traditionally, academia has largely been left independent - this largely is in the interests of freedom to provide the environment for scholarship in research and writing. But times are changing. The external pressures for change in universities and colleges are increasing notdecreasing. Public funds are being reduced in many systems, competition is up, studentsare becoming more forthright about getting value for the money paid, government rutiny is increasing and external quality audits are more common. Businesses are critical not only about the skills and knowledge of graduates but abouthow universities and colleges operate. They feel that faculty have an outmoded view of teaching that has failed to keep up with advancing understanding of how to teach effectively. What business leaders say is needed most is assessment of learning as a first step. This leads to the development of a more uniform and systematic approach towards quality assurance in both private and public institutions of higher learning (HEIs). The resultant code of practiceis a design which is hoped to promote public confidence that thequality of higher education is being maintained.

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In Malaysia, in view of achieving the country's aspiration of making the country a centre of excellence for education, a fresh impetus and direction were emplaced emphasising on private sector of the higher education industry including that of transnational sector which was expanded at a rapid phase since 2002. Currently there are 20 public universities, 24 polytechnics, 37 public community colleges, 33 private universities, 4 foreign university branch campuses and about 500 private colleges. In 2010, there were 80,000 international students studying in the country. Many of these private HEIs have established twining arrangements with universities abroad and therefore use the curriculum and materials in the original programs. Since the programs are foreign based but offered locally in Malaysia, they need to undergo stringent quality assurance measures by the agencies from the home country. In addition, they have to undergo theprocesses of validation and accreditation. In carrying out the process a number of related problems such avision and mission statement is insufficiently translated as the strategic plans of the faculty, lack of clarity in stating objectives and measures of performance, incoherence in the programs offered as there is in no clear articulation of goals or students' learning outcomes, and the programs are not getting inputs from research done by the faculty as shown by many developed countries, and all these pointed to a lack of pedagogical skills among the faculty members (Hasan, 2009). QUALITY ASSURANCE FRAMEWORKS Most countries recognize the importance of quality assurance for both their HEIs and their respective programs. Consequently, many of these countries have put in place policies on HEI quality assurance and drew clear frameworks for guidelines to be prepared and enforced. In Great Britain, the country’s Quality Assurance Agency’s (QAA's) academic infrastructure consists of a series of documents covering the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications (FHEQ), Subject Benchmarks, the Code of Practice, the use of Program Specifications and Progress Files (www.ond.vlaanderen.be; Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Countries, 2005; http://www.qaa.ac.uk). While HEIs are not required to conform to every element, the infrastructure provides useful guidelines on what needs to be done to ensure that standards and the quality of the student learning experience are maintained and enhanced. Subject benchmark statements set out broad expectations about degree standards in specific subject areas. HEIs are responsible for setting their own curricula but these benchmark statements are used at subject level to inform course design, delivery and review. They describe what can be expected of a

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graduate in terms of broad subject coverage and the techniques and skills gained on completion of a degree. Program specifications give information about the specific content of a program of study (such as the curriculum structure, delivery methods and assessment), and what knowledge, understanding, skills and other attributes a student taking the program will develop. Code of practice for the assurance of academic quality and standards has ten sections and provides guidelines for institutions on good practice in the management of academic standards and quality (for example, the sections cover; assessment, admissions and external examining). Basically the framework employed covers two parts, quality assurance of the respective HEIs and quality assurance of their programs. In Australia, since 1998 funded institutions have been required tosubmit an Institutional Quality Assurance and Improvement Plan to the Commonwealthas part of the educational profiles process (Higher Education in Australia, 2000). The plans outline the HEI’s goals andaims in the key areas of teaching and learning, research, management and communityservice. Each HEI is required to provide detail of the strategies that have been adopted to achieve the goals and the indicators used to assess the success. In recent years the Government funded the development of a benchmarking manual. The manual provides sixty-seven benchmarks that HEIs canuse to assess themselves against like HEIs. The benchmarks cover the spectrum of HEI activities from teaching and learning to research, finances, internal management and internationalization. In offering programs authorization by law to award higher education qualifications across a range of fieldsand standards set for those qualifications to be equivalent to Australian andinternational standards; teaching and learning that engages with advanced knowledge and inquiry; a culture of sustained scholarship extending from that which informs inquiry and basic teaching and learning, to the creation of new knowledge through research, and original creative endeavour; commitment of teachers, researchers, course designers and assessors, and to free inquiry and the systematic advancement of knowledge. Similar requirements were called for in many other HEIs throughout the world such as at the University of Missouri which moved through this phase and are now taking stock of the effectiveness of quality assurance measures and their impact on academic quality and productivity. In Europe quality assurance policies and procedures underpin framework for all levels of the European Qualifications (Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Countries, 2005). In teaching and learning, quality assurance should include regular evaluation of HEIs, and their programs and subject to regular review of context, input, process and output dimensions, while giving emphasis to outputs and learning outcomes. In the University of 46


Auckland it was reported that major features of the quality system for teaching and learning in the long term planning were establishing procedures and practices both periodic and continuous quality assurance at Departmental, Faculty and University levels, review and assure the quality ofteaching and learning, setting up of committees at various levels responsible for monitoring and suggesting improvement for teaching and learning (Ako Aotearoa Regional Seminars, April 2008).These are embodied in the policy of which some of the features are: 1. All undergraduate courses and teaching are evaluated by students at least once every three years. Postgraduate courses of a significant size (e.g., 10 students or more) are evaluated by students at least once every three years. 2. Each teaching unit maintains a rolling 3-year Student Evaluation Plan, updated annually, for the conduct of course and teaching evaluations. 3. Summative evaluations are conducted using standardized instruments and supplementary questions approved by Teaching and Learning Quality Committee. 4. Student evaluations of courses and teaching are conducted in a way that enables students to provide anonymous feedback. 5. The results of course and teaching evaluations commissioned under Student Evaluation Plans are processed centrally in a timely manner and made available to the relevant teaching staff, Academic Heads and Faculty Deans as appropriate. 6. Teaching and Learning Quality Committee and Deans of Faculties receive annually an aggregate report on evaluation results. 7. Students are informed of any changes to courses and teaching that are made as a result of prior evaluations. Reference (Ako Aotearoa Regional Seminars, April 2008) states that in implementing the policy the following activities and mechanism were emplaced in the processes. Firstly, in the evaluations and reviews of course quality these procedures were adapted. Student evaluations (using the University Course Questionnaire); regular discussions and feedback sessions among contributing staff; processes of program accreditation and departmental reviews and annual performance review of staff by Head of Department were employed. These were done through the following mechanisms. Evaluations of teaching staff by students and peer review – at least once every 3 years of which the results were reported to and monitored by Head of Department, and the academics can commission student evaluations (formative and/or summative) more frequently for their own 47


quality assurance and improvement purposes. The tools used to gather the relevant information are the University Lecturing Questionnaire, University Tutoring Questionnaire, Annual Performance Review of Academic Staff. Similarly in Europe for teaching and learning specific criteria used to assess quality are: quality of curriculum design and content: quality of instruction and teaching; quality of faculty – student relationship: quality of learning facility and quality of infrastructure. STRATEGIC APPROACH TO QUALITY Reference (Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Countries, 2005) notes that in enforcing quality the European standards and guidelines for internal quality assurance within higher education institutions approval, monitoring and periodic review of programs and awards, Institutions should have formal mechanisms for the approval, periodic review and monitoring of their programs and awards. Specific guidelines were developed in order to maintain through effective quality assurance activities which ensure that programs are well-designed, regularly monitored and periodically reviewed, there by securing their continuing relevance and currency. The quality assurance of programs and awards are expected to include: development and publication of explicit intended learning outcomes; careful attention to curriculum and program design and content; specific needs of different modes of delivery (e.g. full time, parttime, distance-learning, e-learning); availability of appropriate learning resources; formal program approval procedures by a body other than that teaching the program; monitoring of the progress and achievements of students; regular periodic reviews of programs (including external panel members); regular feedback from employers, labour market representatives and other relevant organizations; and participation of students in quality assurance activities. In the area of assessment of students the standard set was that students should be assessed using published criteria, regulations and procedures which are applied consistently. The outcomes of assessment have a profound effect on students’ future careers. It is the refore important that assessment emphasized on the learning outcomes. The MQA is committed to the continuous enhancement of quality. Rather than establishing a separate quality and enhancement strategy, MQA has developed an overarching Teaching, Learning and research Strategy. Teaching, Learning and Research Strategy has been developed as a result of a wide consultative process. This Strategy is seen as the main driver for change and for systematic enhancement. Hence the policies in place seek to identify the minimum institution-wide requirements with which all departments and

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centres are expected to comply to a common framework as to ensure consistency of standards, consistency and equivalence in the student experience and to assure a high quality education whilst enabling appropriate diversity in local practices. Institution policies and procedures for developing and maintaining academic standards and for assessing and enhancing the quality of learning opportunities are determined through its deliberative structures. Departments are responsible for their implementation. Schools/ faculties/centres of Studies are expected to monitor and ensure that their constituent departments do this effectively. Schools report on the outcomes of this activity to institution -level committees in order to inform consideration of institution -wide issues or provision, to identify areas of good and effective practice which might be disseminated to other areas of the institution and to identify areas of potential weakness where there may be scope for improvement. It also allows the institution to identify generic trends or themes which may require attention and/or wider dissemination. The key quality assurance and enhancement procedures benefit from the participation of external peer reviewers. Policies and procedures take account of appropriate external reference points and national and international good practice. There is a management framework for the development and support of quality assurance and enhancement, for fostering a climate of review and reflection, and for leading and setting targets for enhancement. MALAYSIAN QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK (MQF) Traditionally in Malaysia, higher education institutions (HEIs), through their senates and councils working in conjunction with the Public Service Department, took the responsibility in ensuring the quality of their programs (Quality Assurance Division, 2005). However, as the practice of quality assurance evolves a much more systematic and rigorous quality assurance system was adapted, devised and put in place. The system will keep on evolving to ensure that the education provided is globally competitive. Left on their own each public HEIs took the initiatives to improve the quality of their institutions. As quality assurance and Total Quality Management (TQM) gain popularity particularly in the private sector and had a major influence on the thinking of the management in industry, many of the public HEIs began to adopt TQM (Shuib at.al., 2008). In many years of trial it is found that its application has been generally more successful when related to administrative processes and service activities, rather than to

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academic functions. Questions were raised with the applications of TQM to improve the quality and standards of HEIs and both in their degree awards and research activities led to the adoption of MS ISO 9000. This development is accelerated as Malaysia opened its door to overseas degrees in the form of twinning programs; and after the passing of Education Act 1996 which opened up the country for the establishments of both overseas and local private HEIs. To complement the issues on quality, ISO 9000 becomes extremely relevant and useful. The standard provides the HEIs with a framework, platform, and a system for the construction of a quality management system that serves the varied interests of the stakeholders. Thus with ISO 9000 certification, the reputation of the HEIs had been enhanced. As after 1996 with the establishment of private HEIs offering transnational programs, issues related to program quality and standards, comparability of quality of education, faculty staff, and facilities need to be resolved and the answer lies in the in the formulation and implementation of quality assurance policy.Through Education Act 1996, The National Accreditation Board (LAN) was established with the mandate to formulate policies on standards and criteria for quality assurance, accreditation of programs and providing advice and making recommendations to the Minister of Education for approval of programs for the private HEIs only. Its objectives are to ensure provision of education in the private HEIs is of high quality and able to meet international standard. This leads to initiatives being taken to study various frameworks of quality assurance from thr different parts of the world including Europe and Japan and particularly those being enforced in New Zealand, Australia and England. Finally five critical areas were selected to be focused and they were general prescription of type of program and its objectives and outcomes, quality of curriculum and assessments; academic and support staff; facilities and resources and quality management systems. A program which fails to meet minimum standards will be recommended for revocation approval which requires necessary actions taken, and the institution monitored by Ministry and LAN to ensure corrective actions are carried out. This is a critical step in which further improvement of the system is undertaken. Standards and quality criteria were developed based on national and international best practices, and also in consultation with stakeholders. An important step taken in ensuring quality of professional programs is the establishment a number of joint technical accreditation committees. This arrangement is highly effective in ensuring quality of professional courses particularly in dealing with recognition issues, reducing cost, duplication and wastage of manpower whilst maintaining standards of professional 50


programs. Other challenges some of which are solved through improving the quality system include ensuring that the students get good education, equality of access, funding, strengthening internationalization initiatives and dealing effectively with issues of cross-border recognition. This is witnessed in forms of admission into graduate programs in foreign universities in such countries as in the United Kingdom, Japan, the United States and Egypt; research collaboration with foreign universities, staff and student exchange and formulation of joint degrees. The consolidation of the quality assurance system came out with the formulation and issuing of Malaysian Qualifications Framework (MQF) (Shuib, 2008). In the Framework nine areas were proposed for quality assurance and enhancement. These nine areas were: vision, mission goals and learning outcomes; design of the educational program and teaching-learning methodology; student assessment; student selection and support system; academic staff/faculty; educational resources; program evaluation; leadership and governance and; continuous quality improvement. These prescribed areas formed the basis for the formulation the Code of Practice for Quality Assurance which functioned as program standards of many disciplines, post graduate standards, procedures, and reports of bench marking outcomes, good practices, and training. Mustaffa et.al.(2008) mentions that the principle under pinning the MQF revolves around the anticipation, and thus, avoidance of faults, and the improvement of learning management and the products. Basically, it involves setting of standards, organizing of working procedures and reviewing the attainment for further improvement. In Malaysia Education Summit 2005, in the discussion on the findings of thequality assurance processes in public HEIs as in (Hasan, 2009) mooted the idea that self-motivation for quality is the answer, not compliance with thousands ofbureaucratic laws and regulations. Institutional self-evaluation is the key to qualitybecause only then one can be sure that quality is continuously maintained, improved and enhanced. The Codes of Practice for Program Audit (COPPA) and the Codes of Practice for Institutional Audit (COPIA) thus provide comprehensive guidelines on general requirements in the nine areas mentioned. For each of these areas criteria or indicators were developed and standards set. Standards are defined as the expected level of attainment for each criterionand served as a performance indicator. Standards are specified at two levels of attainment: benchmarked standards and enhanced standards. Benchmarked standards are standards that must be met while enhanced standards are standards which are deemed desirable.

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TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE MQF Under pinning quality assurance is a great concern with the quality of teaching and learning. This is true of all the quality assurance systems as practiced in most parts of the world as stated earlier. Hence the emphasis on the program of studies and each course within it as offered by a respective HEI should have clear statement of program aims, objectives and learning outcomes. These will also be indicated in each of the courses offered within the program. The quality of a program is ultimately assessed by the ability of the learner tocarry out their expected roles and responsibilities in society. As mentioned earlier for each criterion in the main quality areas and in their sub-areas benchmarked standards and enhanced standards were set. In determining objectives and learning outcomes for both the program and the courses some of the requirements stated in COPPA are that the program and courses must define aims, objectives and learning outcomes and make them known to the internal and external stakeholders. The program and course objectives must reflect the key elements of the outcomes ofhigher education that are in line with national and global developments. For academic autonomy it is expected that an academic institution to have sufficient autonomy over academic matters, and such autonomy should be reflected at the departmental level where the program and courses are being offered.Consequently, the benchmarked standards set are that the department must have sufficient autonomy to design the curriculum and to allocate the resources necessary for its implementation to ensure the achievement of learning outcomes. The academic staff must be given sufficient autonomy to focus on areas of theirexpertise, such as curriculum development and implementation, academic supervision of students, research and writing, scholarly activities, and academically-related administrative duties and community engagement. For the enhanced standards it is hoped that the HEIsinvolved having a clearly stated policy on conflict of interest, particularly inthe area of private practice and part-time employment. Mean while the boundaries of academic autonomy for the department and the academic staff should continue to expand reflecting the intellectual maturity of the HEIs. In the area of curriculum design and delivery five sub-areas were given due attention and they are academic autonomy, program design and teaching-learning methods, curriculum content and structure, management of the program, and linkages with external stakeholders.In an area of academic autonomy an institution is expected to have sufficient autonomy over academic matters. Such autonomy should be reflected at the departmental level where the program is being offered. The benchmarked standards set are that the department must have sufficient autonomy to 52


design the curriculum and toallocate the resources necessary for its implementation to ensure the achievement of learning outcomes. The academic staff must be given sufficient autonomy to focus on areas of his expertise, such as curriculum development and implementation, academic supervision of students, research and writing, scholarly activities, and academically-related administrative duties and community engagement. In program design and teaching-learning methods, the benchmarked standards are that the department must have a defined process by which the curriculum isestablished, reviewed and evaluated. The process must involve the academic and administrative staff of the department. The program must be considered only after a needs assessment hasindicated that there is a need for the program to be conducted. The program must be considered only after the resources to support the program have been identified. The program content, approach, and teaching-learning methods must beappropriate and consistent, and supports the achievement of the program learning outcomes. There must be a variety of teaching-learning methods in order to achieve the eight domains of the learning outcomes and to ensure that students take responsibility for their own learning.For the enhanced standards some of the hopes deemed achievable are that the curriculum should encourage multi-disciplinary approaches to enhance personal development of the student through electives, study pathways and othermeans, which should be monitored and appraised, and the needs analysis for the program should involve feedback from externalsources including market, students, alumni, peers, and international experts whose commentaries should be utilized for purposes of curriculum improvement. In curriculum content and structure it is expected that a teachinglearning environment can only be effective when the curriculum contentand structure of a program continually keeps abreast with the most current development in the field of study. Thus the benchmarked standards set are that the program must incorporate the core subject matter essential for theunderstanding of the concepts, principles and methods that support the program outcomes. And also the program must fulfill the requirements of the discipline taking into accountthe appropriate discipline standards and international best practices for the field. In the area student assessment it is crucial that the procedure in quality assurance is able to drivestudents towards learning. Convincing and reliable evidence is in the measures of student learning outcomes in the forms of examination results, assignments, research works, and experience acquired and competencies displayed during industrial training. The result of assessment also forms the basis in awarding qualifications. Hence, methods of student assessment have to be clear, consistent,effective, reliable and in 53


line with current practices and must clearly support the achievement of learning outcomes. Particular attention is addressed in assessment principles, methods and practices, and aligned with program content and outcomes. This is translated into benchmarked standards that the assessment must be consistent with the levels defined in the MQF, the eight domains of learning outcomes and the program standards. For the assessment methods the benchmarked standards are set in terms of the frequency, methods, and criteria of student assessment -- including the grading criteria whichmust be documented and communicated to students on the commencement of the program, while assessment must be summative and formative, a variety of methods and tools must be used appropriately to assess the learningoutcomes and competencies, mechanisms must be installed to ensure the validity, reliability, consistency,currency and fairness of the assessment methods, and the assessment system must be reviewed at appropriate scheduled intervals. Other requirements set in the benchmarked standardsare that student assessment results must be communicated to the student with in reasonable time, changes to student assessment methods must follow established proceduresand regulations and communicated to the student prior to their implementation, there must be mechanisms to ensure the security of assessment documentsand records. Lastly, the program grading, assessment, and appeal policies and practices must be publicized. Questions raised on the implementation of MQF in teaching and learning. As MQF is being implemented particularly in teaching and learning a number of macro-level issues were raised. For this paper these macro-level issues are issues related to: 1. What are quality assurance initiatives undertaken by HEIs? 2. To what degree quality assurance specifications based on MQF being pursued at the faculty and department levels (program and course levels)? 3. What are the mechanisms employed by HEIs to determine and to ensure compliance on the parts of sthe academicians? 4. What is the overall reaction by the academic staff with regards to the implementation of the quality assurance using MQF? METHOD A survey was undertaken for this study. Ten public HEIs and private HEIs were selected to provide the data. Information sources are from the documents such as those found in course files, minutes of meetings and circulars; and interviews with academic staff. In gathering the data four trained researchers were employed, and they were specifically instructed to

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gather specific information. In doing this they were given interview protocol and guide on what information to look for from the available documents.The data gathered are mainly descriptive and hence they were presented descriptively in the findings. FINDINGS ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE MQF IN TEACHING AND LEARNING Renewed quality assurance initiatives were undertaken through a number of phases. Many HEIs such as Universiti Utara Malaysia, University of Malaya and Universiti Teknologi MARA in the early phase started emplacing MS ISO9001: 2000 framework. In 2002 for example, the certification of MSISO9001: 2000 was bestowed uponUniversity of Malaya which then verified that it hasfulfilled the requirements of the said standard and is endorsed to practice aquality management system. University of Malaya Quality Management System (QMS) encompasses all the core processes at the University which includes, teaching and learning, research and consultancies, and their supporting services. Internal qualityassessmentinvolves self-studybestowed upon each of the faculties or schools. In the first instance, program review or assessment rests on the self-appraisal by the program committee or staff involved. Legitimate self-appraisal processes are guided by the mission and strategic plan of the university, department and the learning outcomes of the program under review. It was observed that a necessary part of theself-appraisal is the collection, presentation and analysis of relevant data about the program. Specifically, a self study process involves collection and revision of dataabout the faculty and its educational program, identification of strengths, areas of concern and opportunities, discussion of strategic planning to ensure sustainability ofthe strengths and ways of addressing problems and lastly, making recommendations for further quality enhancement. To facilitate the implementation of the academic Quality Assurance all public HEIs, and some private ones have established quality assurance units or centres with the functions of planning and implementing quality assurance systems, liaising with Malaysian Qualification Agencies (MQA) and departments within each respective HEI, and providing training and guidance to the HEIs staff. A brief survey of a number of HEIs indicates that there are various degrees of compliance to the requirements set in the MQF. Evidence of the compliance is found in various forms of documentations such as minutes of the meetings within each HEI and also with external stakeholders, letters corresponded to relevant persons and agencies, course files of the academics, student course assessments and assignments, examination

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results, and course assessments by various parties. Other evidence of compliance is found in the experience recorded and competencies of the academic staff displayed in the forms of their researches and writing activities, involvement in consultancy works and also in administrative capacities such as heads of departments, deans and others. One clear indication of the degree of compliance can be witnessed in staff course files. Many HEIs formulated various forms in an attempt to capture teaching and learning for courses offered. The number of forms issued varied and some even have as much as nine. They include course proforma, course outline, student learning time, program objectives or learning outcomes by domains and levels, course objective or learning outcomes by domains and levels, and student assessment-by domains and levels. In the pro-forma, for example the form must state a number of basic information such as learning outcomes, course summary and modes of assessment. The learning outcomes have to cover a number of prescribed domains. These domains are knowledge, practical skills, social skills and responsibilities, values, attitudes and professionalism, communication, leadership and team skills, problem solving and scientific skills, information management and lifelong learning skills, and managerial and entrepreneurial skills. In trying to adhere to the set of procedures and comply with the standards set, UMhas improved its QA procedures tremendously. Newton (2000:153-162) realizes that QA can improve quality assurance procedures in universities. The danger is that it notnecessarily improves the quality of student learning. In the present quality assurance systems, quality is defined and monitored by those outside the university. Commonly,it is quantity not quality that is measured. In teaching among others, the reviewers tend to pay attention to the number of graduating students, the grades they attain, theteacher to student ratio and student to computer ratios. In research, concerned is onthe number of refereed journal articles and the size of research grants. This in turn steers the sort of assessments that are used in universities. The danger of this is that those within the university might abrogate their responsibility for defining and assuring the quality of assessment. The process of ensuring compliance of quality assurance activities involved both internal and external auditing. In the internal quality auditing The institution’s internal quality assurance auditing begins with the process of preparing the database of the self-study analysis of each program. The committee sets up by the HEI allocating the task of writing each section in the database to the most appropriate andknowledgeable person in the committee. A coordinator, a person who is familiar with the nine areas ofstandards as outlined in the COPPAand Guidelines on Standard of Specific 56


Disciplines at Bachelor Degree will ensure that:all specific criteria in each nine area of standards are answered; sufficient reliable data and information are provided; the accuracy and consistency of data across sections of the database; the write-up is done and arranged according to the sections and sub-sections; required in the COPPA and wherever necessary, related quality document in the Quality Management. In some HEIs SIRIM’scertification MS ISO 9001: 2000, is also included in the database. Other forms of feedback from students, staff and stakeholders were obtained as to provide inputfor continuous quality improvement and self-study analysis. At the end of this process a team of internal auditors was than appointed by the HEI to study the documents prepared and conduct site visit to ensure compliance of the system. In the external quality assurance the HEI must first conduct a selfreview and produces self-study report which is not just anevaluation but which includes the institution’s proposed quality improvement plans. The self-study report and database cover nine areas of standards in which each area is divided into several criteria which cover input and performance or management indicators. The panel of external assessors or auditors constituting mainly of peerswho will study the self-review report and other documents provided, and conducts a site visit would at the end of the process provide recommendations to be used by HEI to implement its own continuous improvement plans. In the past most academicians believed that they were sole experts in their field and hence they were the best teachers in their fields. It is true if one refers to the mastery of the content knowledge; however, teaching also involves pedagogical content knowledge, pedagogical skills and suitable personal disposition apart from having a conducive learning environment. In the quality assurance program all those factors were reviewed and made known to those concerned in order for the teaching and learning process to be improved. There is no doubt that many of the academicians today are aware of this benefit, but some perceive the exercise to be burden some. An overall view of the academic staff on the Quality assurance review processes was quite positive. For many of them the Quality assurance review provided an opportunity for HEIs to be aware of the status of quality of the programs in the faculties. Most agreed that engaging in QA program reviews have them to gauge the quality of their courses and program. In the process of preparing the documents and in executing them these academicians have interact and engaged among themselves and also with experts outside which helps to improve their collegiality and professionalism among them. The process improved programs by pointing out the strong and weak points and areas for improvement. Program reviews promote program self knowledge 57


because it involved critical self evaluation by program groups. The outcomes of program reviews help to improve program planning. The internal self evaluation reports provided a baseline for continual improvement processes. There is no doubt that quality audits can improve the quality of teaching and learning. Nevertheless, certain academicians and students sometimes feel disempowered by external quality assurance. Researchers, teachers and students in universities should be given a chance to comply with intrinsic standards of excellence rather than withthose imposed from outside. In quality assurance one has to adhere to a set ofprocedure and comply with a set of standards. The most common objection is that it promotes a ‘culture of compliance’ within the university. As pointed by Harvey and Knight (1996), the demands on teaching staff to respond to external monitoring can adversely affect efforts to enhance the student learning experience. The evaluation process contributed to the build-up of a selfevaluation culturein UM. The evaluation has further assisted UM in becoming more reflexive about their practice, and the institutions have made their education programs more transparent to the public and students. Program reviews identified gaps in programs that were already integrated and offered. Provided a platform of inculcating the culture of peer review system in UM. Inculcated quality practices at faculty and program level, where quality is seen as an integral part of teaching and learning processes. CHALLENGES AND RECOMMENDATIONS In reviewing the findings of this brief survey it is found that a number of challenges have to be faced particularly in implementation at the faculty and department levels, and new initiatives have to be undertaken in order to improve the system. Setting up of quality assurance units or centres is an important prerequisite step forward; however translating of the policy and the processes into action poses a problem. Lacking of clear empirical evidence of the positive effect of quality assurance exercise or review on either teaching or learning creates doubt of the usefulness of such an exercise among the academicians. In many case studies (Brennan and Shah, 2000) reported that the introduction of teaching quality assessmentthat is more attention given to the teaching function within the institution – to talking about teaching, and to monitoring teaching, led to more time devoted to the monitoring of teaching at the expense of time dedicated to teaching itself. To overcome these problems perhaps quality assurance review needs to be sensitive to the work load faced by the academicians by being critical and selective in exacting them to the quality assurance exercise as insensitivity to the task performed by the academicians may lead to the

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defacement of their status as academicians. Perhaps the number of forms they have to fill may need to be reduced and details of information required may need to be less duplicative. For the sake of meeting the criteria and standards many of the specifications which lack flexibility have to revise so that teaching would be able to accommodate reflection and freedom to propose, enact or even to choose from many of one’s own ideas. In other words teaching should be a combination of both science and art. In actual fact, academic auditing renders great potentials. Brennan, & Shah (2000) draws on studies on the outcomes of academic audit procedures in the UK, New Zealand, Hong Kong and Sweden argues that academic audits have placed attention to enhancing teachingand learning on institutional agendas. They have also helped to clarify responsibility for improving quality in teaching and learning at the individual, academic unit, faculty, and institutional level. Quality assessment can also affect the relative powers between students and academics. Students can be empowered by contributing their views and experiences to the assessment process and by using the public reports produced by the quality assurance system in making decisions about what and where to study (Harvey and Knight, 1993:9–34). On the other hand, Dill (2000: 187-207) point out that most studies reinforce the view that quality is about compliance and accountability and has contributed little to the improvement of the student learning experience. They argued that, in most countries, external quality monitoring makes no attempt to encourage quality in learning, but tends to be driven by accountability requirements. Newton (2000) reports that in his case study, there was little support among staff for the view that student learning experience perse had been improved. Rather academic staff associated the quality assurance system with improved‘discipline’ and ‘technology’ for validation, monitoring, and external scrutiny. Furthermore, it is argued that changes in learning outcomes are not necessarily linked to quality assurance mechanisms. Where positive changes to the student learning experience have taken place, theseare not necessarily directly attributable to the existence of a quality assurance system as in Newton (2000) and ,it is argued, the existence of external quality arrangements provides, at the best, a legitimation for internally-driven innovation (Dill 2000: 187-207). It is argued that other factors completely outweigh the impact of external quality monitoring on student learning. Although teaching is often an idiosyncratic and individualistic activity there are fundamental pedagogical elements which each academic staff should master before teaching is able to be improvised and be artistic. Time management, clarity about the outcomes of learning, sensitivity to monitoring, assessment and feedback at the right time and parts of learning, 59


and ability to motivate students at the right time are some of these fundamental elements. Quality assurance as a system is able to provide clear and coherent guides particularly for the novice academic staff. For HEIs encouraging teachers to share their practice would help not only impact on outcomes for learners but also would help in enhancing teaching skills across the academic staff, young and old. In order to achieve this, HEIs need to help the academic staff overcoming their inhibition about sharing the information on teaching and learning. HEIs also have to hold and cultivate a culture of a curriculum meeting of the highest standards so that none of the academic staff is left unaware of what is taking place in the process of improving the teaching and learning process and in accepting quality assurance as an integral part of the process. Information on the process, whether it is about the strength or the weaknesses would be useful in program or course improvement as well as in staff development. Many unintended or collateral outcomes are found as quality assurance exercise is enforced. Some academic staff have the tendency to shift to a defensive mode due to the intensity of the program review criteria, thus resulting in staff not being honest about the quality of their provision. Some succumbed to the circumstancesand resulting in not really being committed or convinced of what they asked to do, but do not display objection to what is asked of them to do. Some dishonestly take the opportunity to display their best performance in order to gain rewards while some others openly air their grievances at the system and at the university. It is also sometimes true that quality assurance exercise and review findings were wrongly used as information to rationalizeand confirm academic staff promotion or demotion or even redeployment. Of course program review findings are also used as a tool to promote personal agendas of those who managed the HEIs. For whatever purpose the quality assurance review is intended to be used and used, one must try to ensure that teaching and learning should benefit from the exercise carried out. Program and course review undertaken at department and HEI level, is a source where academic staff look at the way a course was taught and for them to decide on any improvements or changes to be made. In this process a number of reliable sources of feedbacks were used and hence the feedbacks are much more helpful as they reflect the needs from different stakeholders, both immediate and long term. However, to carry this exercise demands the cooperation and good will of all those from which information is necessary. The pressure of time constraint needs to be taken into consideration. To do it yearly may pose a burden to those who are already overburden, even for the students. Therefore programs or courses with large

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enrolments or of strategic importance may employ a five or a ten-year cycle under the HEI’s program review. Many of the earlier issues on implementation of quality assurance relate to the lack of trust among key players in the system. It is often mentioned in literatures as in (Harvey and Newton, 2004) notes that in order for academicians to accept and implement changes, they must trust andown the process in which the problems are defined and the solutions are designed. This is certainly the case in quality assurance exercise. Only if the academicians accept quality assurance astheir own activity, will the system be successful. Thus emplacing of the self-evaluation and self-report can be useful in getting and building the trust of the academic staff. Recognising the importance of creating this trust the new systems of quality assurance that have emerged internationally include both intrinsic and extrinsicelements providing elements of self-study or self-evaluation, and review by peers. Selfstudy has the advantage of being cost-effective, providing a high sense of ownership by the institution or unit being reviewed, and increasing the likelihood of improvements to follow from evaluation. Despite the issues raised and challenges faced, it is important that HEIs and their academic staff be involved with the exercise in a positive way. A study should be undertaken to explore the impact of quality assurance practices on teaching and learning. In such study good indicators of success in teaching and learning should be both in the forms of process and the products. For the process the indicators may be in terms of type of learning activities, degree of student participation, active learning time etc. While product indicators one can refer to the number of students who have successfully completed all components required for a qualification compared to the total number enrolled, student progression to higher level study, student retention in the program and even student marketability. CONCLUSION Owing to a number of reasons among which are the rapid expansion of higher education systems with a diverse range of providers both public and private, and cross-borders; globalization with the demand for trustworthy organizations that can establish confidence due to economic constraints and a shift in priorities from advanced levels to basic education; emphasizing on the need for more effective mechanisms for the professional recognition of higher education credentials and encouraging of professional mobility through a growing number of regional and international integration processes has led many Governments in most parts of the world to focus their attention and their agenda for higher education on issues of quality

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assurance and quality enhancement . Despite differences in the size and stage of development of their higher education sectors, many governments have decided that traditional academic controls are inadequate to face today's challenges and thus explicit assurances about quality are needed. Organizations such as the European Commission (OECD) for example, have reinforced this trend by their own calls for new structures and new approaches to quality assurance. Malaysia, not to be left has embarked on a number of quality assurance initiatives such as in placing of Malaysian Qualification Framework, encouraging institutions of higher learning to implement ISO 9001 Standard and intensifying collaboration with professional bodies. At the heart of the quality assurance is the issue of the quality of teaching and learning. In Code of Practice of Program Accreditation as implemented by Malaysia Qualification Agency, the issue of teaching and learning as reflected in Curriculum Design and Delivery, and Student Assessment has been dealt extensively. This paper reviewed and examined the current status of national policy and processes for QA in teaching and learning, the extent to which the policy was in place and the process implemented, the nature and the variations of the process implemented in instruction and other academic activities including assessment practices, recent trends and areas of emerging consensus as well as issues likely to shape policy over the next decade, and finally offered recommendations for ways that the Government and institutions of higher learning might embark to hasten the pace of improvement and change in teaching and learning. REFERENCES Sharifah Hapsah Syed Hasan. (2009). Responses to global ranking (THES) in Malaysia 5THEUA Convention European Higher Education Institutions 18‐21 March 2009, Prague, Czech Republic. The QAA Academic Infrastructure: Mapping Northumbria's Processes. www.ond.vlaanderen.be/hogeronderwijs/bologna/documents/Stan dards Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Countries. (2005). European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education, Helsinki: Pikseri Julkaisupalvelut

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The

Higher Education Credit Framework for England. (2008). http://www.qaa.ac.uk/academicinfrastructure/FHEQ/EWNI08/ or http://www.qaa.ac.uk/england/credit

Higher Education in Australia. (2000). Occasional Paper Series, Higher Education Division Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs Common wealth of Australiaor (Internetcopy) www.dest. gov.au/highered/occpaper/00g/00g.pdf Ako Aotearoa Regional Seminars April 2008 akoaotearoa. ac.nz/.../n1403whole-of-organisation-approaches Quality Assurance Division (2005). Rating for quality assurance report in public universities of Malaysia, Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia. Mustaffa Kamal Shuib, Sharifah Norul Akmar Syed Zamri, Rosman Abdullah, Fatimah Said & Rohani Yusof. (2008). Implementation of quality assurance in Public higher education institutions: University of Malaya experience. Quality Assurance Management Unit, University of Malaya. Newton, J. (2000). Feeding the beast or improving quality?: academics’ perceptions of quality assurance and quality monitoring’, Quality in Higher Education, 6(2),153-162. Harvey, L. and Knight, D. (1993). Defining Quality, Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education Journal 18 (1), pp. 9–34. Brennan, T. &Shah, T. (2000). Managing Quality in Higher Education: An International Perspective on Institutional Assessment and Change. Buckingham: The Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press. Dill, D. D. (2000). Designing Academic Audit: Lessons learned in Europe and Asia. Quality in Higher Education, 6 (3), 187-207. Harvey, L. & Newton, J.(2004). Transforming Quality Evaluation, Quality in Higher Education, 10(2).

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Van Vught, F.A. (1994). Intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of quality assessment in higher education, in Westerheijden, D.F. Brennan.& Maasen, P.A.M. (Eds.) Changing Contexts of Quality Assessment: Recent trends in West European higher education (Utrecht, Lemma).

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PENERAPAN PENSKALAAN PCM PADA PENGUKURAN PERSEPSI MAHASISWA TERHADAP DOSEN MATEMATIKA Wardani Rahayu State University of Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia [email protected] ABSTRACT This research was held to learn about: (a) points of good quality perception as a result of PCM application survey,(b)student’s perception towards lecturer, (c) different perception towards man lecturer and woman lecturer and d. different perception toward lecturer on mathematic subject based on education program’s type. This research was held on UNJ’s Faculty of Mathematics and Science 2010/2011. The perception instrument towards lecturer content 25 item which the validity has been analyze using IRT measurement. The sampling analysis used Quest, SPSS, and LISREL. The outcome of this research shows that (a) man and female students have different perception on their mathematic lecturer (b) there are significantly different perception toward their mathematic lecturer based on the type of their education’s program. Student’s perception on regular education’s program and non regular education program, each has significantly different perception on pure mathematic program’s student. But, perceptions on mathematic lecturer regular and non regular education program has no different. Keywords: PCM, student’s perception PENDAHULUAN Dunia pendidikan di Indonesia telah mengalami berbagai pembaharuan selaras dengan kemajuan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi. Pada jenjang pendidikan tinggi, pembaharuan tersebut meliputi, antara lain penyem-purnaan kurikulum pendidikan tinggi, peningkatan kualitas dosen, terutama pemberian kesempatan yang seluas-luasnya kepada dosen untuk melanjutkan studi ke jenjang strata yang lebih tinggi. Selain itu, juga diperkuat dengan lahirnya (a) Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 30 Tahun 1990 tentang Pendidikan Tinggi (dalam Grasindo, 1991); (b) Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 20 Tahun 2003 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional (Depdiknas, 2003); dan (c) Undang-Undang

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Republik Indonesia Nomor 14 Tahun 2005 tentang Guru dan Dosen (dalam BP. Karya Mandiri, 2006). Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa peran guru dan dosen dalam dunia pendidikan di Indonesia memiliki peran dan kedudukan yang sangat penting sehingga mendapat perhatian khusus dari negara. Menurut Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia nomor 30 tahun 1990 tugas dosen dalam menentukan kelulusan mahasiswa, sebagai berikut: “Terhadap kegiatan dan kemajuan belajar mahasiswa dilakukan penilaian secara berkala yang dapat berbentuk ujian, pelaksanaan tugas, dan pengamatan oleh dosen” (Bab V, pasal 15, ayat 1). Tugas seorang dosen di perguruan tinggi identik dengan tugas seorang guru di sekolah. Tana’ Renggina Saronggalo (1983) pernah mengungkapkan bahwa ada guru yang: (a) masih kurang menyadari tanggung-jawabnya yang mulia (manusiawi), yang dipercayakan kepadanya (b) sikap dan perilakunya belum berpedoman pada kode etik profesinya; bahkan sebagian besar guru di Indonesia masih belum memenuhi syarat ciri-ciri profesi. Bahkan, ada dosen yang tega membunuh mahasiswinya gara-gara hubungan gelap (Republika, 27 April 1995). Kondisi ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat seseorang pengajar yang belum mampu melaksanakan tugas dan berperilaku sebagaimana persyaratan yang ditentukan ketika melamar sebagai guru atau dosen. Berkenaan dengan kode etik guru, Gibson (dalam Sardiman, 1993) mengungkapkan bahwa kode etik guru itu sebagai suatu pernyataan formal yang mengatur tingkah laku guru. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa kode etik guru merupakan semacam penangkal dari kecenderungan prilaku manusiawi seseorang guru sekolah atau dosen perguruan tinggi yang ingin menyeleweng, agar tidak jadi berbuat yang demikian. Kismanto (1993) pernah mengungkapkan bahwa dosen di perguruan tinggi merupakan sebuah korps palang pintu kemapanan lintas generasi bangsa, yang ketika berhadap-hadapan dengan tugas kewajibannya selaku pengajar, terkadang mudah melakukan “manipulasi” terhadap hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan perkuliahan mahasiswa dengan mengatasnamakan “kekuasaan mutlak“ yang bersangkutan. Ungkapan ini terkesan memojokkan keberadaan dosen dalam melaksanakan tugasnya, namun hal ini justru memberikan rambu-rambu tentang sepak terjang dosen secara objektif. Berkenaan dengan keberhasilan mahasiswa menyelesaikan perkuliahan, diungkapkan oleh Aminuddin (Manuntung, edisi 10 Maret 1993), bahwa sebanyak 39 mahasiswa Universitas Negeri mendapat sanksi “drop out” sebagai akibat mereka tidak mampu menyelesaikan studinya hingga batas yang ditentukan. Kondisi ini mengisyaratkan bahwa antara lain, mereka belum berhasil lulus untuk satu atau berberapa mata kuliah yang diprogramkan. Kelulusan perkuliahan ditentukan oleh dosen yang membina.

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Situasi demikian dapat menimbulkan berbagai kesan berkaitan dengan peran dosen yang membina, baik bersifat subjektif maupun objektif. Pemahaman seseorang terhadap suatu hal berperan dalam pemunculan persepsi seseorang tentang hal tersebut. Kedalaman pemahaman yang dimiliki seseorang terhadap sesuatu hal cenderung berbeda. Menurut Thoha (2007), persepsi adalah proses kognitif yang dialami oleh setiap orang di dalam memahami informasi tentang lingkungannya baik lewat penglihatan, pendengaran, penghayatan, perasaan dan penciuman. Walgito (2009) faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh dalam memepersepsi sesuatu adalah apa yang ada dalam diri individu yang disebut dengan faktor internal dan apa yang ada di luar diri individu yang disebut faktor eksternal, meliputi stimulus dan lingkungan. Uraian tersebut menujukkan bahwa keberadaan sosok staf pengajar dalam menjalankan tugasnya tidaklah semua dari mereka dapat bekerja dan berperilaku dengan sempurna seperti yang diharapkan oleh pemerintah. Hal demikian dapat menimbulkan berbagai kesan atau persepsi yang bersifat positif ataupun bersifat negatif Hambleton, Swaminathan, & Rogers (1991) mengungkapkan bahwa dalam teori pengukuran terdapat dua pendekatan, yaitu teori tes klasik dan teori tes modern (teori respons butir). Teori respons butir berusaha mengatasi kelemahan yang muncul pada teori tes klasik. The Partial Credit Model (PCM) merupakan bagian dari model IRT, sebagai model pengukuran yang digunakan untuk menskala soal-soal bentuk respons terkonstruk (Fitzpatrick, et al., 1996); sebagai jenis penskalaan, bersama-sama the graded respons model (GRM), untuk penskalaan pada perangkat tes dengan item campuran (Sykes & Yen, 2000); dan sebagai salah satu model pengukuran lanjut yang memiliki ketelitian dan efisiensi dalam praktik pengukuran (Baker, Rounds, & Zevon, 2000). Kondisi di atas menunjukkan bahwa PCM merupakan model pengukuran dengan pendekatan IRT yang digunakan dalam penskalaan instrumen. Program studi di FMIPAUniversitas Negeri Jakarta (UNJ) diantaranya Pendidikan Matematika dan Matematika. Selain itu, UNJ menyelenggarakan jenis program pendidikan Reguler, pendidikan Non-Reguler dan program Murni. Keberadaan dosen Matematika bagi mahasiswa di lingkungan program studi Matematika khususnya, dan mahasiswa UNJ di samping merupakan penentu bagi keberhasilan atau kegagalannya dalam menempuh program kuliah, juga di mata mahasiswa keberadaan para dosen dapat menimbulkan berbagai persepsi terhadapnya. Namun demikian, persepsi tersebut belum tentu sama di antara masing-masing mahasiswa, baik mahasiswa laki-laki maupun perempuan, dan juga bagi mahasiswa program pendidikan Reguler, pendidikan Non-reguler, ataupun program Murni.

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Secara psikologis, laki-laki berbeda dengan perempuan. Beberapa perilaku menunjukkan perbedaan, antara lain anak laki-laki cenderung antisosial, lebih agresif; sedangkan perempuan lebih bersifat menahan diri (dependency dan passivity) namun lebih mampu secara verbal (Mischel, 1976). Selain itu, kaum perempuan (wanita) memiliki ciri yang “besorged” open, dan bersifat lebih hetero-sentris; sedangkan kaum laki-laki bersifat lebih egosentris, lebih “zakelijk” dan lebih banyak menggunakan pikirannya (Kartono, 1986). Keberadaan mahasiswa dapat dibedakan menurut jenis kelaminnya, yaitu laki-laki dan perempuan. Keikutsertaannya pada kegiatan belajarmengajar, mereka mempunyai hak dan kewajiban yang sama, baik dari pihak lembaga maupun dosennya. Selama perkuliahan berlangsung secara bersama-sama mereka dapat mengamati segala aksi atau atribut staf pengajarnya. Oleh karena adanya hubungan timbal balik, mereka akan memberikan perhatian yang lebih terhadap dosen yang memberikan perkuliahan daripada dosen lainnya. Berarti, perilaku dosen yang teramati oleh mereka, gerak-gerik selama memberikan perkuliahan, dan lainnya akan memberikan kesan atau persepsi khusus. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui: (a) butir-butir persepsi yang berkualitas sebagai hasil aplikasi penskalaan PCM, (b) persepsi mahasiswa terhadap dosen Matematika, (c) perbedaan persepsi terhadap dosen Matematika antara mahasiswa laki-laki dan perempuan, dan (d) perbedaan mahasiswa terhadap dosen Matematika menurut jenis program pendidikan. METODE PENELITIAN Penelitian ini merupakan jenis ex post facto. Sampel dipilih terutama mahasiswa program studi pada FMIPA UNJ. Penentuan sampel secara proporsional, yakni program studi yang menyelenggarakan program pendidikan Reguler, Non-reguler, dan Murni. Data dikumpulkan menggunakan instrument yang disusundengan menerapkan penskalaan PCM, yakni setiap butir persepsi disediakan sejumlah alternatif pilihan jawaban. Alternatif pilihan jawaban tersebut adalah sangat tidak setuju, tidak setuju, kurang setuju, antara setuju dan tidak setuju (ragu-ragu), agak setuju, setuju, sangat setuju. Instrumen persepsi Instrumen Persepsi Persepsi tersusun atas factor (a) ilusi, (b) pemilikan karakter, dan (c) kapasitas ingatan terhadap objek. Masingmasing faktor persepsi mencakup (a) keahlian bidang studi matematika, (b)pribadi sebagai dosen, (c) keahlian mengajar, (d) wawasan nasionalisme (kebangsaan),. Penyusunan instrument persepsi menggunakan kisi-kisi,

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menurut Sumadi Suryabrata (2000) memuat: (a) rekaan teoretis, faktor, (b) komponen, (c) indikator, dan (d) pernyataan.

Gambar 1. Model Pengujian Konstruk Psikologis Persepsi terhadap Matematika dengan SEM Keterangan: ξ1 :Variable laten Persepsi (eksogen) η1, η2, η3 :Variable laten komponen (sub komponen) persepsi (Endogen) yi(i=1, 2, 3, …) :Indikator-indikator persepsi Analisis data penskalaan PCM menggunakan bantuan Program QUEST untuk mendapatkan estimasi parameter person, yaitu persepsi terhadap staf pengajar matematika setiap responden. Persepsi terhadap Matematika tidak dapat diukur secara langsung. Oleh karena itu, pengukuran persepsi terhadap Matematika menggunakan langkah berikut: a. Aplikasi Partial Credit Model pada setiap butir pernyataan persepsi. b. Pengujian konstruk psikologis melalui pengujian validitas konstruk dengan SEM (Structural Equation Model) menggunakan Program LISREL. HASIL PENELITIAN Penentuan Person-Fit Data penelitian dikumpulkan dengan melibatkan person sebanyak 408 mahasiswa. Data penelitian berupa respons yang diberikan oleh setiap mahasiswa terhadap masing-masing butir instrument persepsi. Respons69


respons yang berhasil dikumpulkan, selanjutnya digunakan sebagai landasan untuk memilih person yang fit terhadap model. Mahasiswa yang memiliki Infit MNSQ dan Outfit MNSQ besar dikeluarkan dari kelompok mahasiswa. Dari 408 mahasiswa terdapat lima mahasiswa yang dikeluarkan sehingga terdapat 403 yang dilibatkan dalam analisis lebih lanjut. Hasil selengkapnya terlihat pada tabel 1. Tabel 1. Hasil Analisis Person-Fit

Penentuan Item-Fit Pemilihan butir-butir yang fit terhadap model pengukuran dilakukan berdasarkan hasil analisis pada opsi Fitmap. Pemilihan butir melibatkan keseluruhan sampel yang berhasil dikumpulkan. Hasil pemilihan dipilah menjadi dua kelompok, yaitu butir persepsi yang tidak atau kurang fit dan butir yang fit terhadap model. Hasilnya menunjukkan bahwa dari 30 butir persepsi, terdapat 5 butir yang tidak atau kurang fit, yaitu butir 1, 9, 23, 28, dan 30. Dengan demikian, terdapat 25 butir persepsi yang fit terhadap model PCM, yaitu butir 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, dan 29.Semua butir persepsi merupakan bagian dari kelima aspek penyusun persepsi, yaitu keahlian bidang studi, keahlian mengajar, pribadi sebagi dosen, wawasan nasional, dan wawasan terhadap mahasiswa. Berdasarkan hasil analisis di atas, setelah dikelompokkan diperoleh butir-butir persepsi mahasiswa terhadap dosen matematika yang sesuai dengan model pengukuran, yaitu sebanyak empat butir untuk kelompok KBS; enam butir untukkelompok KM; lima butir untukkelompok PD; lima butir untuk kelompok WN; dan lima butir untuk kelompok WM. Pengujian Validitas Konstruk Validitas konstruk berkenaan dengan validitas alat ukur yang digunakan dalam pengumpulan data. Pengujian validitas konstruk instrument persepsi dimaksudkan untuk menunjukkan bahwa butir-butir persepsi 70


disusun berdasarkan teori yang mendasarinya. Selain itu, pengujian persyaratan terhadap instrument persepsi ini dimaksudkan untuk membuktikan bahwa instrumen tersebut hanya mengukur satu jenis trait latent.Pengujian dilakukan dengan menggunakan Stuctural Equation Modeling (SEM), yang melibatkan seluruh sampel penelitian dengan menggunakan bantuan Program LISREL. Operasionalisasi pada SEM menggunakan metode estimasi WLS. Sampel yang dilibatkan berukuran 403 mahasiswa. Hasil analisis SEM dengan LISREL dalam bentuk estimasi, dapat dilihat pada Gambar 2. Berdasarkan hasil analisis SEM, pada uji Goodness of fit untuk uji model overall diperoleh harga indicator Root Mean Square Residual, RMR = 0,40; Goodness of Fit Index, GFI = 0,93; Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index, AGFI = 0,91; dan Parsimony Goodness of Fit Index PGFI = 0.77.Selain itu, uji Goodness of fit model berdasarkan uji parameter hasil estimasi dalam Uji-t menunjukkan hasil yang signifikan untuk keseluruhannya. Hasil analisis SEM dengan LISREL dalam bentuk T-value yang berkenaan dengan variabel Persepsi, diperoleh pada tabel 2. Tabel 2. Koefisien Estimasi Parameter Gamma pada Variable KBS, KM, PD, WN, WM Variabel KBS KM PD WN WM

Persepsi Γ

T

Signifikansi

0,78 1,03 0,62 0,70 0,74

69,61 81,98 42,03 49,56 59,65

Sangat signifikan Sangat signifikan Sangat signifikan Sangat signifikan Sangat signifikan

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.

Gambar 2. Hasil Analisis SEM dengan Program LISREL dalam Estimasi

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Keterangan: ξ1 η1, η2, η3

: Variable laten Persepsi (eksogen) :Variable laten komponen (subkomponen) (Endogen) yi(i=1, 2, 3, …) : Indikator-indikator persepsi

persepsi

Hasil Aplikasi pada Instrumen Persepsi Kelompok mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler (204 orang) memiliki mode gradasi persepsi adalah cenderung pada kategori/gradasi 6, kecuali butir persepsi V5 dan V8 yang memiliki mode 5. Frekuensi terbanyak untuk masing-masing butir pernyataan persepsi adalah cenderung ke kategori/gradasi 6, yaitu V2 (116), V3 (128), V4 (81), V6 (137), V7 (111), V10 (127), V11 (82), V12 (85), V13 (84), V14 (131), V15 (109), V16 (91), V17 (97), V18 (98), V19 (57), V20 (80), V21 (133), V22 (140), V24 (119), V25 (125), v26 (124), V27 (88), dan V29 (140). Namun demikian, terdapat butir persepsi yang frekuensi terbanyaknya bukan 6, yaitu butir V5 (75), dan butir V8 (70). Dengan demikian, dapat diperoleh gambaran bahwa kelompok mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler memiliki persepsi yang positif (cenderung ke arah setuju) terhadap staf pengajar matematika. Kelompok mahasiswa Pendidikan Non-Reguler (55 orang) memiliki mode gradasi persepsi adalah cenderung pada kategori/gradasi 6, kecuali butir persepsi V8 yang memiliki mode 5 dan V18 dengan mode 7. Frekuensi terbanyak untuk masing-masing butir pernyataan persepsi adalah cenderung ke kategori/gradasi 6, yaitu V2 (31), V3 (33), V4 (25), V5 (18), V6 (28), V7 (29), V10 (30), V11 (18), V12 (22), V13 (21), V14 (30), V15 (32), V16 (22), V17 (22), V19 (22), V20 (21), V21 (31), V22 (33), V24 (31), V25 (32), v26 (32), V27 (25), dan V29 (31). Namun demikian, terdapat butir persepsi yang frekuensi terbanyaknya bukan 6, yaitu butir V8 (22) untuk mode 5, dan butir V18 (19 ) untuk mode 7. Dengan demikian, dapat diperoleh gambaran bahwa kelompok mahasiswa Pendidikan Non-Reguler memiliki persepsi yang positif (cenderung ke arah setuju) terhadap staf pengajar matematika. Pemilikan persepsi mahasiswa program Murni terhadap staf pengajar matematika pada kategori/gradasi 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, dan 7. Dari kelompok mahasiswa program Murni (144 orang) memiliki mode gradasi persepsi adalah cenderung pada kategori/gradasi 6, kecuali butir persepsi V8, V16, V17, dan V19 yang masing-masing memiliki mode 5; serta V20 dengan mode 4. Frekuensi terbanyak untuk masing-masing butir pernyataan persepsi adalah cenderung ke kategori/gradasi 6, yaitu V2 (75), V3 (71), V4 (54), V5 (50), V6 (85), V7 (81), V10 (78), V11 (49), V12 (50), V13 (47), V14 (87), V15 (84), V18 (52), V21 (95), V22 (79), V24 (68), V25 (86), v26 (79), V27 (51), dan V29 (110). Namun demikian, terdapat butir persepsi yang frekuensi 73


terbanyaknya bukan 6, yaitu butir V8, V16, V17, dan V19; masing-masing memiliki mode 5, serta V20 dengan mode 4. Dengan demikian, dapat diperoleh gambaran bahwa kelompok mahasiswa Murni memiliki persepsi yang positif (cenderung ke arah setuju) terhadap staf pengajar matematika. Hipotesis penelitian 1, yaitu ada perbedaan persepsimahasiswa lakilaki dan mahasiswa perempuan terhadap dosen matematika, diuji dengan data empiris persepsi mahasiswa laki-laki (NL=130) dan data persepsi mahasiswa perempuan (NP=273). Analisis dilakukan dengan bantuan program SPSS. Pada tabel 3, diperoleh hasil analisis yang menunjukkan bahwa untuk statistik F=9,444 memiliki Sig.=0,002. Berarti hipotesis penelitian diterima (H0 ditolak atau H1 diterima). Dengan demikian, hasil uji hipotesis menunjukkan bahwa mahasiswa laki-laki dan mahasiswa perempuan memiliki persepsi yang berbeda. Tabel 3. Tabel Analisis Varians Persepsi Mahasiswa Laki-Laki dan Perempuan

PrLaki *Kode Between Group (Combined) Within Groups Total

Sum of Square

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

1869,68

1

1869,68

9,444

0,002

79392,06 81261,75

401 402

197,98

Hipotesis penelitian 2, yaitu ada perbedaan persepsi mahasiswa terhadap staf pengajar matematika menurut jenis program pendidikan, diuji dengan data empiris persepsi mahasiswa untuk kategori Pendidikan Reguler (NPR=204); Pendidikan Non-Reguler (NPNR=55); dan Murni (NM=144), menggunakan analsis varians satu jalur. Analisis dilakukan dengan bantuan program SPSS. Pada tabel 4 diperoleh untuk statistik F=11,325 memiliki Sig.=0,000. Berarti hipotesis penelitian diterima (H0 ditolak atau H1 diterima). Dengan demikian, hasil uji hipotesis menunjukkan bahwa ada perbedaan persepsi mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler, Pendidikan Non-reguler; dan Murni terhadap staf pengajar matematika.

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Tabel 4. Hasil Analisis Varians Persepsi Mahasiswa Menurut Jenis Program Pendidikan

Between Groups Within Groups Total

Sum of Square 4505,072 79557.692 402

Df 2 400

Mean F Square 2252,536 11,325 198.894

Sig. .000

Hasil analisis Hoc Tests Persepsi Mahasiswa menurut Jenis Program Pendidikan menunjukkan bahwa (a) antara mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler dan Murni memiliki Mean Difference 6,057 dengan Sig.=0,000; dan (b) antara mahasiswa Pendidikan Non-reguler dan Murni memiliki Mean Difference 8,996; Sig.=0,000. Namun, antara mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler dan Pendidikan Non-reguler memiliki Mean Difference 2,143 dengan Sig.=0,171. PEMBAHASAN Butir-butir pernyataan persepsi mahasiswa terhadap dosen matematika ini menggunakan skala Likert. Alternatif pilihan jawaban setiap butir pernyataan berupa tingkat kesetujuan atau ketidaksetujuan, terdiri atas tujuh kategori pilihan yaitu sangat setuju, setuju, cukup setuju, ragu-ragu, kurang setuju, tidak setuju, dan sangat tidak setuju. Butir persepsi tersebut dituangkan dalam bentuk pernyataan dengan memuat salah satu kondisi, yaitu (a)kondisi yang positif, dan (b)kondisi yang negatif. Penentuan skala untuk setiap butir pernyataan persepsi dengan kondisi positif berkebalikan terhadap skala yang diterapkan pada pernyataan persepsi dengan kondisi negatif. Berdasarkan hasil analisis untuk person-fit diperoleh bahwa terdapat 5mahasiswa yang dinyatakan sebagai person tidak fit, sehingga mahasiswa yang dilibatkan dalam analisis lanjut berjumlah 403 orang dari 408 orang. Berarti, hanya sebagian kecil dari anggota sampel yang tidak memenuhi kecocokan terhadap model. Dari 30 butir pernyataan persepsi, terdapat 5 butir pernyataan persepsi yang dinyatakan tidak fit terhadap model. Dengan demikian, terdapat 25 butir (83,33%) pernyataan persepsiyang dianalisis lebih lanjut. Di samping itu, ke-25 butir pernyataan persepsi terdistribui menurut lima variabel, yaitu sebanyak empat butir untuk variabel keahlian bidang studi; enam butir untuk variabel keahlian mengajar; lima butir untuk variabel pribadi sebagai dosen; lima butir untuk variabel wawasan nasional; dan lima butir untuk variabel wawasan terhadap mahasiswa. Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa terdapat kecenderungan kelompok mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler (204 orang) memiliki persepsi yang 75


positif (cenderung ke arah Setuju) terhadap dosen matematika. Persepsi mahasiswa tersebut ditunjukkan pada 23 (atau 92%) butir dari 25 butir pernyataan yang cenderung memilih kategori pilihan 6 (Setuju) daripada pilihan lainnya. Namun demikian, terdapat dua butir pernyataan persepsi (V5 dan V8) yang memiliki mode 5 sebagai mayoritas pilihan kedua. Butir V5 berkenaan dengan “Dosen matematika saya memiliki wawasan kebangsaan yang luas”; sedangkan butir V8 tentang “Dosen matematika saya sering menggugah semangat kebangsaan”. Kedua butir persepsi tersebut ditanggapi mahasiswa hanya sebatas “Cukup setuju”. Kondisi ini menunjukkan bahwa dosen pengajar matematika hanya dianggap “cukup” oleh mahasiswa dalam kedua hal di atas. Oleh karenanya, wawasan kebangsaan dan semangat kebangsaan perlu ada upaya untuk lebih memperlihatkannya (ditingkatkan) sehingga oleh mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler tidak lagi dianggap “cukup”. Pada kelompok mahasiswa Pendidikan Non-Reguler (55 orang) terdapat kecenderunganmemiliki persepsi yang positif (cenderung ke arah setuju) terhadap dosen matematika.Persepsi mahasiswa tersebut ditunjukkan pada 23 (atau 92%) butir dari 25 butir pernyataan yang cenderung memilih kategori pilihan 6 (Setuju) daripada pilihan lainnya. Namun demikian, terdapat dua butir pernyataan persepsi, yaitu V8 (memiliki mode 5), dan V18 (memiliki mode 7) sebagai mayoritas pilihan kedua. Butir V8 berkenaan dengan “Dosen matematika saya sering menggugah semangat kebangsaan”; sedangkan butir V18 berkenaan dengan “Dosen matematika saya, senang jika mahasiswanya sedikit yang lulus dalam ujian mata kuliah”. Butir persepsi V8 tersebut ditanggapi mahasiswa hanya sebatas “Cukup setuju”, sebagaimana tanggapan mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler. Oleh karenanya, semangat kebangsaan perlu lebih diperlihatkan (ditingkatkan) sehingga oleh maha-siswa Pendidikan Non-Reguler tidak lagi dianggap “cukup”. Terhadap butir V18, ternyata 19 (atau 34,54%) dari 55 mahasiswa memiliki persepsi bahwa terdapat dosen yang senang jika mahasiswanya sedikit yang lulus dalam ujian mata kuliah. Kondisi ini menunjukkan adanya kesenjangan antara harapan mahasiswa Pendidikan Non-reguler dan harapan dosen matematika berkenaan dengan ujian mata kuliah. Kelompok mahasiswa Murni (144 orang) memiliki kecenderungan persepsi yang positif (cenderung ke arah setuju) terhadap dosen matematika.Persepsi mahasiswa tersebut ditunjukkan pada 20 (atau 80%) butir dari 25 butir pernyataan yang cenderung memilih kategori pilihan 6 (Setuju) daripada pilihan lainnya. Namun demikian, terdapat lima butir pernyataan persepsi, yaitu V8, V16, V17, dan V19 yang masing-masing memiliki mode 5; serta V20 dengan mode 4. Butir persepsi V8 berkenaan dengan “Dosen matematika saya sering menggugah semangat kebangsaan”; butir V16 berkenaan dengan “Dosen 76


matematika saya, memiliki pengetahuan matematika sebatas buku tertentu”; butir V17 tentang “Dosen matematika saya, rencana mengajarnya hanya mengacu pada satu buku sumber”; butir V19 berkenaan dengan “Dosen matematika saya, keterampilan mengajarnya monoton”; sedangkan butir persepsi V20 tentang “Dosen matematika saya, menilai hasil ujian tidak memperdulikan sejumlah tugas yang diberikan”. Butir persepsi V8, V16, V17, dan V19tersebut, masing-masing ditanggapi mahasiswa hanya sebatas “Cukup setuju”. Terutama butir V8, mahasiswa Murni (39 dari 144 orang, atau 27,08%) memiliki persepsi sebagaimana persepsi mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler dan mahasiswa Pendidikan Non-Reguler. Mahasiswa Murni 36 (atau 25%) dari 144 orang meragukan akan kepedulian dosen matematika berkenaan dengan tugas-tugas yang diberikan terhadap penilaian hasil ujian. Adapun persepsi mahasiswa berkenaan dengan (a) pemilikan pengetahuan matematika yang hanya sebatas buku tertentu (oleh 67 dari 144 orang, atau 46,52%), (b) rencana mengajarnya hanya mengacu pada satu buku sumber (52 dari 144 orang, atau 36,11%), dan (c) keterampilan mengajarnya monoton (32 dari 144 orang, atau 22,22%),berada pada kategori “Cukup setuju”. Namun demikian, secara keseluruhan, dapat disimpulkan bahwa kelompok mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler, Pendidikan Non-Reguler, dan Murni memiliki persepsi yang positif terhadap dosen matematika. Validitas konstruk instrumen persepsi dibuktikan dengan analisis SEM. Secara keseluruhan dikatakan pengujian hipotetik validitas konstruk terbukti. Kondisi ini ditunjukkan hasil uji Goodness of fit untuk uji model overall diperoleh harga indicator Root Mean Square Residual, RMR = 0,40; Goodness of Fit Index, GFI = 0,93; Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index, AGFI = 0,91; dan Parsimony Goodness of Fit Index PGFI = 0.77.Selain itu, uji Goodness of fit model berdasarkan uji parameter hasil estimasi dalam Uji-t menunjukkan hasil yang signifikan untuk keseluruhannya. Koefisien estimasi parameter pada variabel KBS (γ=0,78; t=68,61); Km (γ=1,03; t=81,98); PD (γ=0,62; t=42,03); WN (γ=0,70; t=49,56); dan Wm (γ=0,74; t=59,65); masing-masing menunjukkan harga yang sangat signifikan. Dengan terpenuhinya persyaratan pengukuran bagi butir-butir instrumen persepsi, termasuk validitas konstruk untuk instrument persepsiterhadap dosen matematika maka instrument tersebut dapat digunakan lebih lanjut dalam praktik pengukuran. Penerapan instrument persepsi terhadap dosen matematika dalam praktik pengukuran melibatkan 403 mahasiswa terpilih, terdiri atas 130 mahasiswa laki-laki dan 273 mahasiswa perempuan lingkungan Universitas Negeri Jakarta. Instrument persepsi terhadap dosen matematika diaplikasikan untuk memperoleh jawaban terhadap masing-masing pernyataan butir persepsi guna memecahkan permasalahan penelitian, terutama melalui pengujian hipotesis penelitian. 77


Hasil pengujian hipotesis perta-ma menunjukkan bahwa terdapat perbedaan persepsi mahasiswa laki-laki dan mahasiswa perempuan terhadap dosen matematika secara signifikan. Kondisi ini menunjukkan bahwa mahasiswa laki-laki dan mahasiswa perempuan lingkungan UNJ Jakarta memiliki persepsi yang tidak sama (berbeda) terhadap dosen matematika, meskipun mereka sama-sama memiliki persepsi positif terhadap dosen. Dengan adanya persepsi yang berbeda, namun sama-sama positif, bagi kelompok mahasiswa laki-laki akan lebih terpacu untuk selalu aktif dalam perkuliahan daripada mahasiswa perempuan, atau sebaliknya. Kondisi mendukung dalam keberhasilan perkuliahan mahasiawa, terutama mata kuliah bidang matematika. Selain itu, kondisi demilkian secara tidak langsung akan membantu kelancaran proses perkuliahan matematika di lingkungan perguruan tinggi yang bersangkutan sehingga pencapaian tujuan (seperti usaha peningkatan indeks prestasi bidang matematika, atau peningkatan kualitas perkuliahan matematika) lebih dapat tercapai, jika dibandingkan mahasiswa yang memiliki persepsi negatif terhadap staf pengajar matematika. Dampak lainnya adalah setiap kegiatan yang berkenaan dengan perkuliahan matematika akan didukung oleh maha-siswa, namun juga dapat sebaliknya. Hasil pengujian hipotesis kedua menunjukkan bahwa ada perbedaan persepsi mahasiswa terhadap dosen matematika menurut jenjang program studi. Kondisi ini menunjukkan bahwa mahasiswa dari masing-masing jenjang programstudi (Reguler, Non-reguler, Murni) memiliki persepsi berbeda terhadap dosen matematika. Mahasiswa pada program Murni, mempelajari materi matematika yang cenderung berbeda dengan materi yang dipelajari program pendidikan Reguler ataupun program pendidikan Non-reguler, terutama pada kedalaman dan ragam materi. Hal demikian, mengakibatkan adanya perbedaan dalam penyajian materi matematika oleh dosen sehingga memunculkan kesan berbeda. Demikian juga antara mahasiswa program pendidikan Reguler terhadap program pendidikan Non-Reguler, materi yang dipelajari sama, alokasi waktu kuliah materi Matematika adalah sama, namun waktu pelaksanaan ataupun perlakuan pembe-lajaran yang mereka terima tentu ada perbedaannya, meskipun sedikit. Kondisi demikian dapat menimbulkan kesan yang tidak seragam, meskipun relatif sedikit, terhadap dosen pembina kuliah bidang matematika. Kondisi tersebut terlihat pada hasil analisis yang menunjukkan bahwa (a)antara mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler dan Murni memiliki Mean Difference 6,057 dengan Sig.=0,000; dan (b)antara mahasiswa Pendidikan Non-reguler dan Murni memiliki Mean Difference 8,996; Sig.=0,000. Namun, antara mahasiswa Pendidikan Reguler dan Pendidikan Non-reguler memiliki Mean Difference 2,143 dengan Sig.=0,171. 78


SIMPULAN Mahasiswa (Jurusan Matematika, Kimia, Biologi di lingkungan UNJ) yang memenuhi syarat person-fit sebanyak 98,77%, dan dilibatkan dalam analisis pengukuran lebih lanjut. Butir-butir persepsimahasiswa terhadap dosen matematika memuat komponen ilusi, pemilikan karakter dan kapasitas ingatan yang masing-masing tersusun atas keahlian bidang studi, keahlian mengajar, pribadi sebagi dosen, wawasan nasional, dan wawasan terhadap mahasiswa. Terdapat 25 butir persepsi yang fit dari 30 butir persepsi, dan digunakan untuk analisis pengukuran lebih lanjut. Hasil pengujian SEM menunjukkan bahwa instrumen persepsi terhadap dosen matematika telah memenuhi kriteria uji Goodnees of fit. Dengan demikian, instrument persepsi terhadap dosen matematika telah memenuhi persyaratan alat ukur sehingga dapat digunakan lebih lanjut. Pengukuran persepsi terhadap dosen matematika melibatkan mahasiswa laki-laki dan mahasiswa perempuan yang berasal dari tiga kategori program pendidikan berbeda, yaitu kategori Pendidikan Reguler; Pendidikan Non-Reguler, dan Murni. Mahasiswa laki-laki dan mahasiswa perempuan memiliki persepsi yang berbeda terhadap dosen matematika secara signifikan. Selain itu, terdapat perbedaan yang signifikan persepsi terhadap matematika siswa menurut jenjang program studi. Persepsi mahasiswa terhadap dosen matematika program Pendidikan Reguler dan Pendidikan Non-reguler, masing-masing berbeda secara signifikan terhadap persepsimahasiswa program Murni. Akan tetapi, persepsi terhadap dosen matematika mahasiswa program pendidikan Reguler dan pendidikan Non-Reguler tidak berbeda. DAFTAR PUSTAKA Baker, J. G., Rounds, J. B., & Zevon, M. A. (2000). A comparison of graded response and Rasch partial credit model with subjective well-being. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 25(3). Fitzpatrick, A. R., Link, V. B., Yen, W. M., et al. (1996). Scaling performance assessment: A comparison of one-parameter and two-parameter partial credit models. Journal of Educational Measurement, 33(3).

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Hambleton, R. K., Swaminathan, H., & Rogers, H. J. (1991). Fundamentals of item response theory. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Hulin, C. L., Drasgow, F., & Parsons, C. K. (1983). Item response theory: Application to psychological theory. Homewood, IL: Dow JonesIrwin. Kartini Kartono. (1986). Psikologi wanita . Jilid II: Gadis remaja dan wanita dewasa (cetakan ke-3). Bandung: Alumni. Kismanto. (1993). Kekuasaan mutlak dosen: Phenomena proses belajarmengajar. Manuntung, edisi 10 Maret 1993. Leder, G. C. (1993). Mathematics and gender. Changing perspective. Dalam Douglas A. Grouws (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning. A Project of the National Council 17 Teachers of Mathematics. New York: McMillan Publishing Company.. Manuntung. Sanksi DO 39 mahasiswa Untad untuk menegakkan kredibilitas. Edisi 10 Maret 1993 Masters, G. N. A (1982). Rasch model for partial credit scoring. Psychometrica, 47(2). Masters, G. N. (1999). Partial credit model. Dalam G. N. Masters & J. P. Keeves (Eds.), Advances in Measurement in Educational Research and Assessment (pp. 98–109). Amsterdam: Pergamon. Mischel, W. (1976). Introduction to personality (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Mueller, D. J. (1986).Measuring social attitudes. A handbook for researchers and practitioners. New York: Teachers College Press.

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Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 30 Tahun 1990. Dalam Grasindo, Seri Pemikiran Pendidikan: Pedoman Pendidikan Tinggi. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Widiasarana Indonesia, 1991. Republika. Diancam hukuman seumur hidup: Dosen membunuh mahasiswi gara-gara hubungan gelap. Edisi 27 April 1995 Sumadi Suryabrata. (2000).Pengembangan alat ukur psikologis. Yogyakarta: Andi. Sykes, R. C., & Yen, W. M. (2000). The scaling of mixed-item-format test with the one-parameter and two-parameter partial credit models. Journal of Educational Measurement, 37(3), 221–244. Tana’ Renggina Saronggalo. (1983). Sikap guru terhadap teknik pelaksanaan Kurikulum SMA 1975 di Propinsi Sulawesi Selatan. Analisis Pendidikan, nomor 1, tahun IV, 59-68, 1983 Thoha, Miftah.(2007). Perlaku Organisasi, Konsep Dasar dan Aplikasinya. Jakarta: P.T. Raja Grafindo Persada. Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 20 Tahun 2003 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional. Jakarta: Depdiknas. Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 14 Tahun 2005 tentang Guru dan Dosen. BP. Karya Mandiri. Walgito, Bimo. (2009). Psikologi Sosial Suatu Pengantar. Yogjakarta: Andi. Weintraub, D. J. & Walker, E. L. (1996). Perception: Basic concepts in psychology series. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Wertheimer, M. (1958). Principles of perceptual organization. Dalam D. C. Beardslee & M. Wertheimer (Eds.), Readings in perception, hh. 115135. Princeton: Van Nostrand.

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Woolfolk, A. E. & McCune-Nicolich, L. (1984). Educational psychology for teachers (2nd edition). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Warketin, R., Bolt, L., &Wilson, M. (1997). Using the partial credit model to verify a theoretical model of academic studying. Dalam M. Wilson, G. Engelhard, Jr., & K. Draney. (Eds.), Objective Measurement: Theory into Practice (pp. 71–95). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.

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EVALUASI PROGRAM SUPERVISI PEMBELAJARAN IPA SMP DI KOTA GORONTALO Astin Lukum State University of Gorontalo, Gorontalo, Indonesia [email protected] ABSTRACT This research aims were to obtain information about (1) the support of the policy, (2)the resources, and (3)the implementation of science teaching supervision program, and (4) the performance of science teachers of secondary school in Gorontalo city. This research concludes were (1)the implementation of science teaching supervision program is based on laws of national regulations, as well as the regulations of the Head of Education and Culture Office in Gorontalo City. The decision makers not focused on the implementation of that yet. (2)Science teachers perception on concept of science teaching supervision based on their experiences in that implementation, whereas the understanding of supervisors and school principals towards of that focused on the schools and classrooms visit, their characteristics is in accordance with the SNP, and they are potentially to be develop. The relevant resources has met the MMS. (3)The implementation of science teaching supervision has been executed but has not met the MMS. and (4)Best performance science teachers 16%, Good 43%, and Fair 5%, while the remaining 36% are reluctant to be supervisid in teaching. Keywords: science teaching supervision, CIPP models PENDAHULUAN Keberhasilan pembelajaran IPA di kelas merupakan ujung tombak pencapaian tujuan pendidikan nasional. Untuk itu diperlukan komitmen guru IPA dan kepala sekolah untuk selalu meningkatkan kualitas pembelajaran di kelas dan untuk menjamin proses pembelajaran IPA yang berkualitas maka diperlukan supervisi pembelajaran IPA, karena supervisi merupakan kegiatan yang berhubungan dengan usaha-usaha perbaikan dan peningkatan kualitas pembelajaran yang mencakup kualitas proses dan kualitas hasil pembelajaran. Kualitas pelaksanaan supervisi sangat bergantung pada kompetensi dan profesionalisme supervisor. Supervisi pembelajaran IPA dalam sistem 83


persekolahan di Indonesia masih terbatas pada aspek-aspek fisik dan aspekaspek administrasi. Kurangnya perhatian terhadap aspek penyelenggaraan supervisi pembelajaran ditunjukkan oleh kurangnya bahkan pada daerah tertentu tidak ada supervisi mata pelajaran yang dilaksanakan oleh supervisor yang berlatar belakang mata pelajaran yang disupervisinya. Supervisor untuk pembelajaran IPA di propinsi Gorontalo masih kurang yang memiliki keahlian di bidang kompetensi yang disupervisinya, Kabupaten Gorontalo memiliki tiga orang supervisor IPA untuk 131 SMP, Kota Gorontalo hanya ada tiga orang supervisor IPA untuk 21 SMP, Boalemo satu orang supervisor IPA untuk 40 SMP, dan Pohuwato 1 orang supervisor IPA untuk 38 SMP. Data tersebut tidak seluruhnya berlatarbelakang pendidikan IPA tetapi rumpun IPA. Padahal mutu pembelajaran IPA sangat bergantung pada keprofesionalan guru IPA. Guru IPA perlu mendapat bantuan untuk menumbuhkan profesionalitasnya. Salah satu bantuan profesional ini adalah supervisi pembelajaran. Supervisi pembelajaran IPA perlu dilakukan sebagai upaya terus‐menerus untuk menumbuhkan keprofesionalan guru IPA. Kecenderungan pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA sekarang ini hanya terfokus pada salah satu teknik supervisi saja, yaitu supervisi kunjungan kelas hanya untuk mengamati pembelajaran di kelas apa sudah sesuai dengan RPP atau tidak, tanpa membimbing penguasaan materi sekaligus pendalaman materimateri yang sulit yang diajarkan kepada siswa, serta hubungan materi yang diajarkan dengan hakekat pendidikan IPA itu sendiri. Ada juga supervisor yang hanya terfokus pada supervisi administrasi pembelajaran saja, memeriksa daftar hadir guru, biasanya mereka datang ke sekolah satu semester dua kali yaitu pada awal dan pada saat ujian semester dilaksanakan. Padahal supervisor adalah mitranya guru, dalam mengembangkan kualitas pembelajaran IPA di kelas. Rendahnya aktivitas, minat, dan hasil belajar IPA disebabkan oleh beberapa faktor antara lain penyampaian materi pembelajaran IPA yang membuat siswa jenuh, siswa jarang diberi pengalaman langsung dalam pembelajaran IPA, metode mengajar yang digunakan guru kurang bervariasi dan tidak inovatif. Hal ini menunjukkan keprofesionalan guru IPA yang masih perlu ditingkatkan, dan ini menjadi tantangan bagi supervisor pembelajaran IPA. Supervisi pembelajaran IPA harus diarahkan pada penciptaan guru IPA yang profesional dalam mengelola proses pembelajaran karena supervisi pembelajaran IPA sebagai serangkaian usaha pemberian bantuan profesional kepada guru IPA dalam bentuk layanan profesional yang diberikan oleh supervisor. Itulah sebabnya supervisor pembelajaran IPA perlu belajar terus menerus, membaca informasi terbaru dan mengembangkan ideide kreatif dalam pembelajaran agar dapat didesiminasikan kepada guru IPA, dan 84


supervisi dalam proses pembelajaran IPA sebaiknya dilakukan oleh supervisor yang memahami konsep IPA. Program supervisi pembelajaran IPA berkaitan erat dengan dukungan kebijakan, sumber daya yang menunjang pelaksanaannya, pelaksanaan supervisi itu sendiri dan produk yang dihasilkan adalah kinerja guru IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo yang diharapkan akan berdampak terhadap hasil belajar siswa. Oleh karena itu jenis penelitian yang tepat untuk meneliti program supervisi pembelajaran IPA adalah penelitian evaluasi program. Penelitian evaluasi program adalah penelitian yang menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif dan pendekatan kuantitatif. Salah satu model penelitian evaluasi program sebagaimana yang dikemukakan oleh Stufflebeam adalah evaluasi Context, Input, Process, Product (CIPP). Keunggulan model CIPP memberikan suatu format evaluasi yang komprehensif pada setiap tahapan evaluasi yaitu tahap konteks, masukkan, proses, dan produk (Van Fuddin Batavia, 2008). Evaluasi konteks menyediakan dasar awal berupa arah, tujuan dan pedoman operasional pelaksanaan suatu program yang merupakan daya dukung utama dalam pencapaian tujuan program tersebut. Program supervisi pembelajaran IPA merupakan salah satu bagian dari fungsi pengelolaan pendidikan memiliki dasar pelaksanaan berupa kebijakan yang hirarkis dari pusat sampai ke daerah. Dasar kebijakan yang dimaksud berupa Undang–Undang nomor 20 tahun 2003 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional, yang dijabarkan dalam berbagai peraturan dan keputusan pemerintah atau menteri sampai pada peraturan daerah, dan keputusan ataupun edaran kepala dinas Kabupaten/Kota. Konteks dalam penelitian ini berupa dukungan kebijakan supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo. Untuk dapat mewujudkan tujuan suatu program, maka diperlukan sumber daya yang merupakan modal dasar dalam mengimplementasikan kebijakan sebagaimana dikemukakan pada evaluasi konteks. Oleh karena itu, sumber daya merupakan bagian dari evaluasi input. Evaluasi input berhubungan dengan pemanfaatan sumber daya yang tersedia yang digunakan untuk pencapaian tujuan suatu program yang telah dirumuskan dalam kebijakan-kebijakan yang mendasarinya. Implementasi suatu program yang telah diatur dalam berbagai kebijakan sebagaimana di atas yang didukung oleh sumber daya yang tersedia merupakan suatu proses dalam pencapaian tujuan.Oleh karena itu implementasi suatu program disebut juga tahapan proses. Untuk melihat keberhasilan tahapan ini maka perlu dilakukan evaluasi proses. Evaluasi proses menyediakan informasi tentang pelaksanaan program dan menyediakan data untuk keputusan dalam implementasi program yang telah ditrumuskan dalam kebijakan di atas, serta menentukan bagaimana penggunaan sumber daya untuk mencapai tujuan program tersebut. 85


Keberhasilan suatu program dapat dilihat dari produk yang dihasilkan pada akhir suatu kegiatan. Jika produk program sesuai dengan apa yang diharapkan sebagaimana telah dijabarkan dalam kebijakan-kebijakan di atas dan didukung oleh sumber daya yang tersedia yang terlibat dalam proses implementasi maka program tersebut dikatakan berhasil. Evaluasi produk menjadi bagian penting dalam suatu evaluasi program dan bahkan menjadi grand conclusion. Berdasarkan uraian di atas evaluasi produk digunakan untuk mengukur pencapaian program pada setiap akhir program. Dalam penelitian ini yang menjadi fokus evaluasi produk adalah kinerja guru IPA dalam melaksanakan pembelajaran di kelas. Pelaksanaan pembelajaran IPA di kelas erat kaitannya dengan keberhasilan pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA oleh supervisor atau kepala sekolah yang didukung oleh komitmen guru dan sarana serta prasarana yang cukup tersedia. METODOLOGI PENELITIAN Penelitian ini dilaksanakan di Dinas Pendidikan Nasional dan SMP di Kota Gorontalo Provinsi Gorontalo yang dilaksanakan selama 9 bulan yaitu mulai dari Januari sampai dengan September 2011. Teknik yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah wawancara, observasi dan dokumentasi. Wawancara digunakan untuk memperoleh informasi tentang kebijakan, pemahaman pengambil kebijakan, pemahaman guru IPA, supervisor, kepala sekolah terhadap konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA, pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA, upaya supervisor dan kepala sekolah dalam meningkatkan kompetensinya. Sedangkan dokumentasi dilakukan untuk memperoleh data tentang karakteristik guru IPA, karakteristik supervisor IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo, sarana dan prasarana, kinerja guru IPA dalam proses pembelajaran IPA. Observasi dilakukan untuk memperoleh data tentang pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo termasuk pada pembelajarannya. Analisis data dalam penelitian ini dilaksanakan secara deskriptif kualitatif. Disamping itu data kualitatif dianalisis menggunakan analisis tematik. HASIL PENELITIAN Pengambil kebijakan Dinas Pendidikan Kota Gorontalo mengemukakan bahwa aturan pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA diatur berdasarkan peraturan menteri, surat keputusan, edaran, rapat koordinasi dengan pengawas dan kepala sekolah, ada juga program pemantauan bersama yang dilakukan oleh dinas bersama supervisor. Pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di kota Gorontalo telah didasarkan pada peraturan perundangundangan yang berlaku dan juga telah dihasilkan beberapa kebijakan kepala dinas, seperti forum Musyawarah Kerja Pengawas Sekolah (MKPS), forum Musyawarah Guru Mata Pelajaran (MGMP), Ikatan Guru Sejenis (IGS), dan 86


Kontrak kinerja untuk memperkuat dan menunjang implementasi pelaksanaan peraturan perundang-undangan tentang supervisi pembelajaran IPA. Pengambil kebijakan dalam melaksanakan supervisi mengacu kepada Permendiknas No 12 Tahun 2007 yang melandasi pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran. Pelaksanaan supervisi di SMP Kota Gorontalo dilakukan secara terprogram yang melekat pada tugas pokok pengawas dan ada juga program supervisi bersama antara pengawas dengan pihak dinas pendidikan untuk memantau kegiatan pelaksanaan pembelajaran di sekolah. Penilaian Kinerja pelaksanaan supervisi dilakukan secara terprogram sekali setahun melalui rapat koordinasi antara pengawas sekolah, kepala sekolah dan pihak pengambil kebijakan. Kondisi pelaksanaan supervisi ini bertujuan meningkatkan mutu pendidikan, dalam hal ini hasil belajar siswa. Berdasarkan uraian di atas pengambil kebijakan memahami pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA masih terbatas pada aturan atau program, implementasi pelaksanaan supervisi belum sampai pada upaya peningkatan kualitas pengawas, kepala sekolah, maupun guru IPA. Aspek yang menjadi indikator dalam evaluasi input kaitannya dengan sumber daya program supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP Kota Gorontalo difokuskan pada 6 aspek yaitu; (1)pemahaman guru IPA terhadap konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo. (2)pemahaman supervisor terhadap konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo. (3)pemahaman kepala sekolah terhadap konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo. (4)karakteristik supervisor pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo (5)karakteristik guru IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo, (6) sarana dan prasarana pembelajaran IPA. Pemahaman guru IPA terhadap konsep pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo bahwa pembimbingan guru IPA dilaksanakan melalui workshop yang diawali supervisi sekolah melalui wadah Ikatan Guru Sejenis (IGS). Setelah itu dilanjutkan dengan pembimbingan guru IPA mulai dari persiapan pembelajaran, analisis konsep pembelajaran sampai pada evaluasi. Secara rutin pengawas berkunjung untuk membimbing guru dan melakukan pemantauan langsung dalam proses pembelajaran IPA di kelas. Mengenai pemahaman guru IPA terhadap konsep pembelajaran IPA secara menyeluruh menyebutkan hal yang sama bahwa konsep pembelajaran IPA dilaksanakan secara kontekstual, bahkan para guru IPA menjelaskan hakekat pembelajaran IPA di SMP untuk memahami gejala alam dan sadar akan kekuasaan Sang Pencipta serta menumbuhkan kecintaan terhadap Sang Pencipta. Pembimbingan guru dalam merencanakan pembelajaran IPA oleh supervisor semua guru menyebutkan memperoleh bimbingan, mulai dari 87


pembuatan perangkat pembelajaran, materi, model pembelajaran, evaluasi, pemanfaatan sumber belajar, dan media. Demikian juga untuk penguatan delapan keterampilan dasar mengajar. Informasi lain yang diperoleh dari guru IPA adalah pembimbingan guru dalam hal mengembangkan pembelajaran IPA yang inofatif dan menyenangkan. Frekuensi pembimbingan guru yang dilakukan oleh supervisor dalam satu semester bervariasi. Keikutsertaan guru IPA dalam MGMP atau KKG semua guru menyebutkan aktif. Berdasarkan uraian di atas, guru pada dasarnya memahami konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA berdasarkan apa yang mereka alami dari pelaksanaan supervisi yang dilaksanakan oleh pengawas dan kepala sekolah. Pemahaman supervisor terhadap konsep pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo dilaksanakan menggunakan teknik supervisi administrasi, proses dan klinis. Supervisi pembelajaran menggunakan teknik supervisi akademik, berupa kunjungan kelas dan selanjutnya dilakukan umpan balik. Pembinaan terhadap guru dilakukan secara individualdan kelompok tergantung permasalahan. Metode yang tepat pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA yakni menggunakan pendekatan humanistik, pendekatan kompetensi dan pendekatan klinis serta dilakukan teknik kunjungan kelas. Pembelajaran IPA di SMP dilaksanakan secara kontekstual dengan pembelajaran aktif dan menyenangkan, yang ditujukan pada ranah kognitif, afektif dan psikomotor. Pembelajaran IPA adalah mempelajari gejala alam, sampai pada akhirnya akan meningkatkan keterampilan konsep pembelajaran IPA, mengembangkan rasa ingin tahu, meningkatkan keyakinan terhadap Tuhan Yang maha Esa. Penilaian proses pembelajaran IPA dilakukan berkelanjutan dan terus menerus, berdasarkan pada ketercapaian indikator, dan berfokus pada kegiatan pembelajaran meliputi pendahuluan, kegiatan inti dan penutup.Penelitian tindakan kelas merupakan solusi untuk memperbaiki pembelajaran IPA di kelas yang disesuaikan dengan permasalahan yang ada di kelas. Berdasarkan data penelitian di atas, para supervisor telah memahami konsep pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA pada tataran teknis, sedangkan pada tataran konsep dan teori belum sepenuhnya mereka pahami sehinga hakekat supervisi pembelajaran IPA sebagai upaya professional untuk membantu guru menjadi seorang guru yang professional belum nampak, yang ada masih terbatas pada masalah teknis supervisi. Supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo mengacu pada Permendiknas no 41 Tahun 2007 tentang Standar Proses, serta edaran Dinas, sedangkan konsep pembelajaran IPA SMP dilaksanakan menggunakan konsep IPA terpadu secara kontekstual, hakikat pembelajaran IPA SMP bertujuan

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memahami hakikat alam dan penciptaNya, lebih bersifat aplikatif dan membentuk karakter siswa. Sistem koordinasi pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA di kelas dilaksanakan dengan cara membentuk tim supervisi tingkat sekolah yang selalu berkoordinasi dengan kepala sekolah dan pengawas. Pemantauan pelaksanaan pembelajaran IPA di kelas dilakukan dengan cara pemantauan langsung oleh kepala sekolah, wakil kepala sekolah dan ketua IGS. Pemanfaatan teknologi informasi untuk menunjang proses pembelajaran IPA di kelas semua guru IPA sudah menggunakan IT tapi belum maksimal. Kepala sekolah mengemukakan cara untuk memotivasi guru dalam merefleksikan hasil yang dicapai dilakukan melalui pembimbingan dan penilaian kinerja. Berdasarkan datadi atas, para kepala sekolah telah memahami konsep pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA hanya sebatas tataran teknis, sedangkan pada tataran konsep dan teori belum sepenuhnya mereka pahami sehinga hakekat supervisi pembelajaran IPA sebagai upaya professional untuk membantu guru menjadi seorang guru yang professional belum nampak. Jumlah supervisor pembelajaran IPA 3 orang, dengan jenjang S1 Pendidikan Fisika 2 orang, dengan latar belakang pendidikan S2 PKLH dan Manajemen Pendidikan dan yang 1 orang lagi berasal dari S1 Pendidikan Kimia dengan latar belakang pendidikan S2 PKLH. Semuanya berpangkat golongan IVa. Para supervisor dibagi dalam wilayah kepengawasan yang mencakup SMP/MTs, SMA/MA. Berdasarkan data tersebut supervisor IPA di Kota Gorontalo semua berusia produktif dan berpotensi masih dapat dikembangkan. Jumlah guru IPA di Kota Gorontalo 94 orang, yang terdiri dari 32 orang S1 Pendidikan Biologi, 35 orang S1 Pendidikan Fisika, 21 orang S1 Pendidikan IPA, 2 orang S2 Manajemen Pendidikan, 3 orang S2 Pendidikan Biologi, 1 orang D3 Biologi. Masa kerja guru IPA dibawah 10 tahun berjumlah 30 orang, 44 orang di atas 10 tahun serta 10 orang di atas 20 tahun. Golongan III berjumlah 47 orang dan golongan IV berjumlah 45 orang. Guru IPA yang telah disertifikasi 81 orang dan yang belum disertifikasi 13 orang. Mereka yang belum disertifikasi adalah mereka yang belum memenuhi pengalaman kerjanya. Dengan demikian karakteristik guru tersebut secara keseluruhan memungkinkan untuk dikembangkan kinerjanya dalam pelaksanaan pembelajaran IPA melalui supervisi pembelajaran IPA. Sarana dan prasarana pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo ditinjau dari beberapa aspek yakni jumlah siswa per kelas, meja dan kursi siswa per kelas, ruang guru dan kepala sekolah, laboratorium serta perangkat praktikum sesuai standard minimal. Jumlah buku IPA yang layak, buku pengayaan serta jumlah buku referensi. Secara umum jumlah siswa perkelas di atas 36 orang perkelas, meja kursi siswa sesuai dengan jumlah siswa, tersedia 89


ruang guru dan kepala sekolah yang memiliki meja dan kursi sesuai jumlah guru, semua sekolah ada laboratorium, perangkat praktikum sesuai standard minimal. Jumlah buku IPA, buku pengayaan, dan buku referensi sesuai dengan standard minimal. Berdasarkan data sarana dan prasarana di atas pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo memungkinkan untuk meningkatan kinerja guru dalam melaksanakan pembelajaran IPA di kelas. Pelaksanaan kunjungan kelas oleh supervisor dilaksanakan 2 kali dalam satu semester untuk setiap orang guru, jawaban dari supervisor lainnya 3 kali terdiri dari pembinaan, pemantauan dan penilaian. Proses pembimbingan dilaksanakan bimbingan awal dalam kelompok, bimbingan individualsecara klinis. Pertemuan pribadi dilakukan sampai 3 kali, kondisi ini terjadi apabila perangkat yang dibuat guru belum memenuhi syarat sehingga butuh bimbingan berkelanjutan. Supervisor membimbing guru dalam memilih dan menggunakan metode/strategi pembelajaran IPA sesuai karakteristik materi, kesiapan guru dan sarana penunjang. Supervisor membimbing dan mendampingi guru menyusun RPP mulai pendahuluan sampai penutup, dengan cara mempelajari dan mengecek kekurangan sekaligus mereviuw, sehingga guru mengetahui kelemahan RPP. Pelaksanaan pembelajaran IPA di kelas pengawas membimbing guru bertolak dari hasil supervisi sebelumnya. Pembimbingan media pembelajaran difokuskan pada guru-guru yang belum memiliki kemampuan dalam menggunakan media, ditindak lanjuti dengan diklat penggunaan alatIPA. Pembimbingan pemanfaatan teknologi Informasi difokuskan pada guru IPA yang belum memiliki kemampuan IT. Pengawas melakukan pembimbingan penilaian kegiatan pembelajaran. Keikut sertaan supervisor dalam rapat guru dilakukan pada rapat yang membicarakan kompetensi guru atau evaluasi hasil supervisi maupun program pembelajaran. Supervisor telah melaksanakan supevisi pembelajaran IPA sebatas memenuhi frekwensi kunjungan yang ditetapkan oleh Dikbud 2 sampai 3 kali dalam satu semester, sehingga belum nampak pembimbingan guru IPA secara terus menerus dan berkelanjutan ataupun memenuhi SPM yaitu 2 kali dalam sebulan dan setiap kunjungan dilakukan selama 3 jam.Kunjungan kelas dilakukan oleh kepala sekolah 2 kali persemester yakni secara internal sekolah dan secara supervisi terpadu bersama pengawas, kunjungan kelas dilakukan setiap hari. Pertemuan pribadi kaitannya dengan kegiatan supervisi dijadwalkan 2 kali persemester yaitu awal pembelajaran dan menjelang supervisi terpadu. Pelaksanaan rapat guru dilakukan setiap semester 3 kali yaitu awal, pertengahan dan akhir semester. Pelaksanaan kunjungan ke sekolah lain sudah terjadwal dalam MGMP, kepala sekolah hanya menerima laporan kunjungan guru ke sekolah tertentu. Kepala sekolah lainnya menyebutkan belum ada kunjungan rutin ke sekolah lain. Kunjungan antarkelas menurut kepala sekolah sudah dilaksanakan, dilakukan untuk membina guru 90


memperbaiki mutu pembelajaran di kelas, sedangkan yang lainnya menyebutkan belum pernah dilaksanakan bersama guru. Menurut kepala sekolah KKG IPA terprogram dalam kegiatan MGMP. Publikasi karya inovatif dalam bulletin ilmiah belum dilaksanakan kalaupun ada belum optimal, hanya sebagian kecil guru yang melaksanakan dan yang lainnya menyebutkan belum ada publikasi karya ilmiah untuk sekolah. Penilaian kinerja guru berpedoman pada instrument tetapi instrumennya hanya ada pada pengawas sekolah. Kepala sekolah telah melaksanakan supevisi pembelajaran IPA sebatas melihat proses pembelajaran di kelas, nampaknya belum melakukan pembimbingan guru IPA secara terus menerus dan berkelanjutan ataupun memenuhi kriteria dalam standar pelayanan minimal yaitu 2 kali dalam sebulan dan setiap kunjungan dilakukan selama 3 jam. Pembimbingan guru IPA dilaksanakan melalui workshop yang diawali dengan supervisi sekolah melalui wadah Ikatan Guru Sejenis (IGS). Pembimbingan oleh supervisor kepada guru IPA mulai dari analisis konsep pembelajaran, menyusun Rencana Pelaksanaan Pembelajaran (RPP) yang mengacu pada silabus, menentukan indikator berdasarkan standard kompetensi dan kompetensi dasar, memilih metode pembelajaran, mengembangkan media pembelajaran, pemanfaatanIT dalam pembelajaran sampai pada evaluasi. Pembimbingan supervisor dalam pemanfaatan IT seperti pembuatan power point, penggunaan LCD, ataupun mendownload sumber belajar, meskipun beberapa sekolah belum memiliki fasilitas IT. Semua guru mengemukakan bahwa pembimbingan penyusunan bahan ajar telah dilakukan, sedangkan pembimbingan PTK belum banyak disentuh oleh supervisor, dari 9 responden hanya 3 responden yang mengemukakan mengalaminya, demikian halnya pembimbingan dalam penulisan karya ilmiah termasuk belum ada upaya untuk mempublikasikan karya inovatif pembelajaran IPA dalam bulletin ilmiah. Pengawas berkunjung untuk membimbing guru IPA dan melakukan pemantauan dalam proses pembelajaran IPA di kelas. Kunjungan kelas dilaksanakan oleh supervisor ada yang menyebutkan 1 kali, 2 kali dan 3 kali dalam satu semester, sedangkan kepala sekolah melaksanakan supervisi setiap hari. Pertemuan pribadi dilakukan supervisor dengan guru IPA 1 sampai 2 kali dalam satu semester, guru lainnya mengemukakan bimbingan pribadi tidak pernah dilakukan tapi bimbingan secara kelompok. Guru IPA mengemukakan bahwa konsep pembelajaran IPA dilaksanakan secara kontekstual. Hakekat pembelajaran IPA di SMP adalah untuk memahami gejala alam dan sadar akan kekuasaan Sang Pencipta serta menumbuhkan kecintaan terhadap Sang Pencipta. Supervisor memperkenalkan pembelajaran Aktif, Kreatif, Efisien, dan Menyenangkan (PAKEM), dan mengamati proses pembelajaran di kelas mulai dari awal pembelajaran sampai dengan akhir pembelajaran, yang dilanjutkan 91


dengan refleksi berdasarkan temuan selama proses pembelajaran. Pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA belum secara maksimal dilaksanakan oleh para supervisor, sehingga menyebabkan masih banyak guru yang perlu dikembangkan kemampuan profesionalnya yang tercermin pada kinerja guru yang belum maksimal pula. Pengawas terlibat langsung sebagai peserta diklat, seminar maupun workshop, melakukan koordinasi sesama anggota dalam wadah MKPS, memanfaatkan IT seperti internet untuk mencari informasi yang berhubungan dengan kegiatan supervisi. Para pengawas mengemukakan belum terbentuk asosiasi supervisor di tingkat Kota, koordinasi dengan LPMP hanya sebatas individual, terutama yang berhubungan dengan mutu kepengawasan, supervisor lainnya mengemukakan bahwa koordinasinya hanya sebatas memberikan informasi kepada pihak LPMP. Informasi ini dalam bentuk hubungan kerja kegiatan bermutu. Berdasarkan data tersebut nampaknya para supervisor telah melakukan sebagian upaya untuk meningkatkan kompetensinya. Kepala sekolah berusaha untuk mencapai delapan standar kompetensi kepala sekolah, dan mereka banyak mengikuti pelatihan, seminar, dan workshop untuk mengembangkan diri. Upaya kepala sekolah dalam meningkatkan kompetensinya antara lain memahami penyusunan perencanaan sekolah, pendayagunaan sumber daya sekolah, pengembangan sekolah menuju organisasi pembelajar yang efektif, penciptaan budaya dan iklim sekolah yang kondusif dan inovatif bagi pembelajaran, pengelolaan guru dan staf, pengelolaan sarana dan prasarana sekolah, pengelolaan hubungan sekolah/madrasah dan masyarakat dalam rangka pencarian dukungan sumber belajar, pengembangan kapasitas peserta didik, pengembangan kurikulum dan kegiatan pembelajaran sesuai dengan arah dan tujuan pendidikan nasional. Guru IPA yang memiliki kinerja amat baik atau yang memiliki skor lebih besar 90 berjumlah 10 orang atau sekitar 16%, guru IPA yang memiliki kinerja baik atau yang memiliki skor antara 75 dan 90 berjumlah 26 orang atau sekitar 43%, dan guru IPA yang memiliki kinerja cukup atau yang memiliki skor antara 56 – 74 berjumlah 3 orang atau sekitar 5%, sedangkan masih adanya guru IPA yang belum bersedia disupervisi, ini berarti prinsip kemitraan belum maksimal pada pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA di SMP Kota Gorontalo. Di samping itu peneliti juga telah melakukan observasi terhadap proses pembelajaran IPA yang dilaksanakan oleh beberapa guru IPA, guru IPA telah melaksanakan kegiatan pendahuluan berupa menyiapkan peserta didik, melakukan apersepsi, menjelaskan KD dan tujuan yang ingin di capai, kegiatan inti yang terdiri dari eksplorasi, elaborasi, konfirmasi dan penutup. Nampak pada observasi bahwa beberapa guru IPA ini telah menggunakan media pembelajaran baik berupa macromedia, maupun alam sebagai sumber belajar, juga mereka

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sudah menggunakan model pembelajaran kooperatif, namun pembelajaran masih didominasi oleh guru, dan siswa masih pasif. PEMBAHASAN Pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA di Kota Gorontalo telah dilaksanakan berdasarkan UU Sistem Pendidikan Nasional No 20 Tahun 2003, PP No 19 Tahun 2005 tentang SNP, Pemen No 12 Tahun 2007 tentang Standar Pengawas Sekolah/Madrasah, Peraturan Menteri No 15 Tahun 2010 tentang SPM Pendidikan Dasar, keputusan dan edaran kepala dinas, hanya saja beberapa aspek belum bersesuaian dengan kebijakan di atas. Beberapa kebijakan Dinas Pendidikan Nasional Kota Gorontalo banyak yang menunjang pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA di Kota Gorontalo antara lain pembagian wilayah binaan, mengaktifkan MKPS, MKKS, MGMP, dan IGS, membuat kontrak kinerja antara kepala dinas dan pengawas, pengawas dan kepala sekolah, kepala sekolah dan guru dengan indikatornya adalah Kriteria Ketuntasan Minimal (KKM), mutasi guru, supervisi terpadu, workshop, seminar dan pelatihan. Kebijakan tersebut di atas dibuat dalam rangka peningkatan kompetensi pengawas, kepala sekolah dan guru yang bermuara pada peningkatan prestasi belajar siswa khususnya dan kualitas pendidikan pada umumnya. Kebijakan pemerintah yang berkaitan dengan pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo masih perlu dioptimalkan, terutama dalam tataran implementasi. Pengambil kebijakan memahami pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA masih terbatas pada aturan. Program implementasi pelaksanaan supervisi, yang dilaksanakan oleh supervisor di sekolah seharusnya diketahui oleh pengambil kebijakan dalam hal ini unsur Dinas Pendidikan Kota Gorontalo. Oleh karena itu pengambil kebijakan belum sampai pada upaya peningkatan kualitas pengawas, kepala sekolah, maupun guru IPA. Berdasarkan uraian di atas pengambil kebijakan hendaknya memahami pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA merupakan layanan profesional bagi guru IPA yang dilakukan secara terus menerus dan berkelanjutan oleh supervisor yang bertujuan untuk memperbaiki dan meningkatkan mutu proses dan hasil pembelajaran IPA yang dilakukan melalui supervisi akademik dan supervisi manajerial. Pemahaman guru IPA terhadap konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA akan membantu para pengawas dan kepala sekolah untuk mencapai tujuan supervisi pembelajaran IPA. Oleh karena itu para supervisor hendaknya memberikan pemahaman kepada guru IPA tentang hakekat supervisi pembelajaran IPA. Hal ini akan terwujud apabila ada kerjasama yang harmonis antara guru IPA dan supervisor. Harmonis dalam pengertian terjadi pemahaman yang sama dalam mewujudkan tujuan supervisi pembelajaran IPA. Guru IPA pada dasarnya 93


memahami konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA berdasarkan apa yang mereka alami dari pelaksanaan supervisi yang dilaksanakan oleh pengawas dan kepala sekolah. Seandainya mereka memahami hakekat konsep supervisi maka mereka selalu mengharapkan bantuan profesional dari supervisor. Oleh karena itu, pemahaman guru IPA terhadap konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA merupakan cerminan dari pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA selama ini. Pemahaman guru IPA terhadap konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA tidak sekedar supervisor membimbing guru IPA melalui workshop, membimbing mulai dari persiapan pembelajaran, analisis konsep pembelajaran sampai pada evaluasi, dan melakukan pemantauan dalam proses pembelajaran IPA di kelas, melainkan supervisor memberikan bantuan professional kepada guru IPA, di mana pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA dilaksanakan secara terus menerus dan berkelanjutan atas dasar kepentingan keduabelah pihak berdasarkan kemitraan. Pemahaman supervisor terhadap konsep supervisi masih terbatas pada kunjungan ke sekolah melihat persiapan guru, melihat guru mengajar, tanya jawab atau umpan balik tentang hasil pengamatan. Sedangkan teknik yang digunakan teknik supervisi administrasi, supervisi proses dan supervisi klinis yaitu pembinaan terhadap guru dilakukan secara individual dan secara kelompok tergantung permasalahan. Supervisor seharusnya memahami bahwa supervisi pembelajaran merupakan pemberian bantuan profesional kepada guru sehingga dapat meningkatkan kualitas pembelajaran mereka yang muaranya pada peningkatan hasil belajar siswa khususnya dan peningkatan kualitas pendidikan pada umumnya dan dapat meningkatkan kualitas diri bagi guru. Pemahaman kepala sekolah terhadap konsep pembelajaran IPA SMP sudah seperti yang diharapkan yaitu dilaksanakan secara kontekstual bertujuan untuk memahami hakikat alam dan penciptanya, lebih bersifat aplikatif dan membentuk karakter siswa. Namun hendaknya kepala sekolah perlu memahami bahwa pembelajaran IPA diawali dengan observasi terhadap fenomena alam dan menghasilkan produk seperti pengetahuan ilmiah, fakta atau teori. Pengawas supervisi pembelajaran IPA di Kota Gorontalo memiliki kualifikasi pendidikan minimum magister kependidikan dan berbasis sarjana S1 dalam rumpun mata pelajaran yang relevan, memiliki pangkat pembina dan golongan ruang IVa, serta berusia produktif di bawah 50 tahun, ini sudah sesuai dengan aturan kebijakan yang dikemukakan pada bagian konteks yang membahas tentang dukungan kebijakan. Berdasarkan potensi pengawas di atas, memungkinkan untuk dikembangkan menjadi pengawas yang professional. Jumlah siswa per kelas SMP di kota Gorontalo rata-rata berjumlah 28 sampai 35 orang, sudah memenuhi Permendiknas nomor 15 tahun 2010 tentang SPM Pendidikan Dasar tetapi Permendiknas nomor 19 tahun 2005 94


tentang SNP belum terpenuhi. Dalam SPM disebutkan bahwa jumlah siswa per kelas maksium 36 orang sedangkan menurut SNP disebutkan jumlah siswa per kelas maksimum 32 orang. Hal ini memberikan pengaruh yang berarti pada pelaksanaan proses pembalajaran IPA, sehingga pembelajaran dapat dirancang menjadi pembelajaran yang siswanya aktif, kreatif, dan senang dalam belajar sehingga efektif dalam pencapaian tujuan pembelajaran. Rata-rata SMP di kota Gorontalo telah memiliki ruang laboratorium yang menjadi syarat utama pelaksanaan proses pembelajaran IPA yang bermutu, karena melalui laboratorium IPA yang didukung dengan kelengkapannya sangat membantu transfer informasi dan pengetahuan dari guru ke siswa dan membawa mereka ke hal yang kontekstual baik melalui demonstrasi maupun eksperimen di laboratorium. Konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA hendaknya dipahami guru IPA, supervisor dan kepala sekolah sebagai suatu bantuan professional yang terus menerus dan berkelanjutan untuk mewujudkan hakekat IPA menjadi bagian dari cara berpikir peserta didik yang merupakan tujuan pembelajaran IPA. Di samping itu guru IPA, supervisor dan kepala sekolah perlu mengembangkan diri dalam kapasitasnya sebagai pendidik dan pemimpin yang bertanggung jawab terhadap perwujudan sumber daya manusia yang berkualitas tinggi bagi peserrta didiknya sesuai tujuan pendidikan. Pelaksanaan supervsi pembelajaran IPA oleh supervisor dan kepala sekolah akan membentuk pandangan dan perilaku guru IPA terhadap pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA. Oleh karena itu guru IPA memandang supervsi pembelajaran IPA itu adalah kegiatan yang dilaksanakan oleh supervisor dan kepala sekolah untuk memeriksa RPP, mengobservasi proses pembelajaran dan memberikan umpan balik setelah proses pembelajaran berlangsung. Inilah yang mereka persepsikan sebagai supervisi pembelajaran IPA selama ini. Guru IPA belum memperoleh gambaran RPP yang baik kalaupun ada masih terbatas pada copypaste, bagaimana proses pembelajaran yang baik, itupun mereka hanya memperoleh saran dan rekomendasi pada saat umpan balik, dan mereka belum ada gambaran bagaimana pelaksanaan pembelajarannya terutama yang berkaitan dengan pemilihan media, penggunaan metode, pemilihan model pembelajaran sampai pada penilaian. Guru IPA merasakan kegiatan pengembangan kompetensi mereka yang berkaitan dengan PTK dan penulisan dalam jurnal merupakan hal yang sulit dilaksanakan oleh guru IPA. Hal ini disebabkan pengalaman mereka tentang kedua hal tersebut sangat minim, yaitu hanya pada saat menulis skripsi ataupun tesis. Kalaupun ada guru yang melakukan penelitian, itu karena “upaya mandirinya” dalam rangka pengurusan kenaikan pangkat. Upaya supervisor dan kepala sekolah meningkatkan kompetensinya dalam melaksanakan supervisi pembelajaran IPA dilakukan melalui pendidikan dan 95


pelatihan, seminar maupun workshop, melakukan koordinasi sesama pengawas dan kepala sekolah dalam wadah MKPS dan MKKS. Disamping itu adanya program bermutu pengawas diwajibkan melaksanakan PTK, hal ini seharusnya akan menjadi modal mereka dalam meningkatkan kompetensinya untuk digunakan dalam membimbing guru IPA. Supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo belum dilaksanakan secara optimal oleh para supervisor dan kepala sekolah karena masih terbatasnya jumlah supervisor pembelajaran IPA di Kota Gorontalo dan belum adanya pengawasan terhadap para supervisor yang memang selama ini yang secara langsung belum ada yang membina para supervisor, yang ada hanya garis koordinasi dengan kepala dinas. Oleh karena itu perlunya penambahan supervisor pembelajaran IPA dan perlu mengevaluasi struktur organisasi yang ada pada Dinas Pendidikan Kota Gorontalo. Di samping itu supervisor dan kepala sekolah hendaknya mengembangkan diri dan meningkatkan kompetensi secara berkelanjutan melalui telaah literatur secara mandiri, melaksanakan kegiatan pendidikan dan pelatihan, mendatangkan nara sumber dari LPTK atau LPMP, mengikuti asosiasi kepengawasan dan kepala sekolah baik tingkat pusat,dan daerah. Kinerja guru IPA adalah kemampuan dan usaha guru untuk melaksanakan tugas pembelajaran sebaik-baiknya dalam perencanaan program pengajaran IPA, pelaksanaan kegiatan pembelajaran IPA dan evaluasi hasil pembelajaran IPA. Kinerja guru IPA yang dicapai harus berdasarkan standar kemampuan profesional selama melaksanakan kewajiban sebagai guru di sekolah. Oleh karena itu, perhatian terhadap kinerja guru oleh supervisor dan kepala sekolah hendaknya terus ditingkatkan dan menjadi hal yang amat mendesak, apalagi memperhatikan tuntutan masyarakat yang terus meningkat berkaitan dengan kualitas pendidikan, dan hal ini tentu saja akan berimplikasi pada makin perlunya peningkatan kualitas kinerja guru. Kinerja guru IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo sangat menentukan daya serap siswa untuk mata pelajaran IPA. Hal ini tergambar pada hasil Ujian Nasional di Kota Gorontalo, masih ada Kompetensi Dasar (KD) yang daya serapnya dibawah 60% bahkan ada yang 15,08%. Hal ini perlu mendapat perhatian yang serius dari supervisor pembelajaran IPA, perlu diberi pendampingan bagi guru IPA dalam merancang pembelajaran yang menggunakan berbagai potensi yang tersedia dan berorientasi pembelajaran aktif, kreatif, efektif, dan menyenangkan. Disamping itu supervisor dan kepala sekolah, disarankan agar melaksanakan tugas dan fungsinya sesuai dengan pedoman yang ada sehingga dapat meningkatkan kinerja guru IPA. Kebijakan-kebijakan pemerintah yang berhubungan dengan program supervisi pada dasarnya telah memberikan gambaran yang jelas tentang 96


hakekat pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA. Namun yang perlu memperoleh perhatian adalah pemahaman pengambil kebijakan di tingkat bawah, seperti Dinas Pendidikan Kabupaten/Kota, dan pengawas itu sendiri tentang hakekat tersebut yang masih harus perlu dioptimalkan. Demikian halnya di Kota Gorontalo dalam pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA, Kepala Dinas Pendidikan Kota seharusnya memahami permasalahan yang berhubungan dengan supervisi pembelajaran IPA pada tingkat imlementasinya di sekolah. Pemahaman pengambil kebijakan terhadap hakekat supervisi pembelajaran IPA sampai pada implementasinya di sekolah, akan menjadi dasar pertimbangan bagi mereka untuk menetukan sumber daya yang di perlukan dalam pelaksanaan program supervisi pembelajaran IPA yang kondusif, terutama dalam rekrutmen sumber daya manusia dan pengadaan sarana prasarana. Sumber daya manusia seperti supervisor, kepala sekolah dan guru yang profesional dan di tunjang oleh sarana prasarana yang memadai akan memberikan kontribusi pada pelakasanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo. Pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo hanya akan berhasil apabila sumber daya manusianya memahami hakekat supervisi itu sendiri, juga memahami hakekat pembelajaran IPA. Pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA yang berhasil ditunjukan oleh peningkatan kinerja guru IPA dalam proses pembelajaran IPA di sekolah. KESIMPULAN Dukungan kebijakan program supervisi pembelajaran IPA di Kota Gorontalo didasarkan pada UndangUndang No 20 Tahun 2003 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional, Peraturan Pemerintah No 19 Tahun 2005 tentang Standar Nasional Pendidikan, Peraturan Menteri No, 12 Tahun 2007 tentang Standar Pengawas Sekolah/Madrasah, Peraturan Menteri No 13 Tahun 2007 tentang Standar Kepala Sekolah/ Madrasah, Peraturan Menteri No 15 Tahun 2010 tentang Sistem Pelayanan Minimal Pendidikan Dasar. Sebagai implementasi dukungan kebijakan Dinas Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Kota Gorontalo pada program supervisi pembelajaran IPA yang dilakukan adalah pembagian wilayah binaan, mengaktifkan Musyawarah Kerja Kepala Sekolah (MKKS), Musyawarah Kerja Pengawas Sekolah (MKPS), Kelompok Kerja Pengawas Sekolah (KKPS), Kelompok Kerja Kepala Sekolah (KKKS), Musyawarah Guru Mata Pelajaran (MGMP), dan Ikatan Guru Sejenis (IGS), membuat kontrak kinerja antara Kepala Dinas dan pengawas, pengawas dan kepala sekolah, kepala sekolah dan guru, supervisi terpadu, workshop, seminar dan pelatihan. Di samping itu, pemahaman pengambil kebijakan terhadap pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA masih

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terbatas pada pemahaman aturan dan belum sampai pada implementasinya di lapangan. Sumber daya program supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo meliputi guru IPA, kepala sekolah, supervisor, serta sarana prasarana. Guru IPA memahami konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA berdasarkan apa yang mereka alami dari pelaksanaan supervisi yang dilaksanakan oleh pengawas dan kepala sekolah. Selanjutnya, pemahaman kepala sekolah dan supervisor terhadap konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA masih terbatas pada kunjungan ke sekolah dan kunjungan kelas untuk melihat RPP dan guru mengajar serta memberikan umpan balik, sedangkan pada tataran konsep dan teori belum sepenuhnya mereka pahami sehinga hakekat supervisi pembelajaran IPA sebagai upaya professional untuk membantu guru IPA menjadi seorang guru yang professional belum nampak. Karakteristik supervisor dan guru IPA di Kota Gorontalo sudah sesuai dengan Standard Nasional Pendidikan dan masih potensial untuk dikembangkan kemampuan profesionalnya. Sarana dan prasarana yang menunjang supervisi pembelajaran IPA telah memenuhi Standar Pelayanan Minimal Pendidikan Dasar. Pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo oleh supervisor dan kepala sekolah telah dilaksanakan tetapi belum memenuhi frekuensi sebagaimana dipersyaratkan pada Standar Pelayanan Minimal Pendidikan Dasar karena belum sampai pada kriteria dua kali dalam sebulan dan setiap kunjungan kelas dilakukan dalam tiga jam. Guruguru IPA di Kota Gorontalo belum seluruhnya mengikuti kegiatankegiatan ilmiah seperti mengikuti pertemuan MGMP, mengikuti seminar, pelatihan dan workshop, melaksanakan penelitian tindakan kelas, maupun menulis dalam jurnal ilmiah. Persepsi guru IPA terhadap pelaksaanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA bahwa supervisi dilaksanakan dalam rangka perbaikan dan peningkatan kualitas pembelajaran IPA, memperbaiki proses, mencari solusi untuk masalah pembelajaran demi pencapaian tujuan pembelajaran secara maksimal, tetapi masih ada guru IPA yang takut untuk di supervisi. Upaya supervisor dan kepala sekolah dalam meningkatkan kompetensinya telah dilakukan melalui pendidikan dan pelatihan fungsional, seminar maupun workshop, melakukan koordinasi sesama pengawas dan kepala sekolah dalam wadah MKPS dan MKKS, memanfaatkan IT untuk mencari informasi tetapi belum memanfaatkan guru IPA yang memiliki kompetensi yang lebih dalam pelaksanaan supervisi. Kinerja guru IPA kategori amat baik 16%, baik 43%, dan cukup 5%, sedangkan sisanya 36% belum bersedia disupervisi pada proses pembelajaran. Hal ini berarti prinsip kemitraan dan komitmen yang kuat antara supervisor, kepala sekolah dan guru IPA belum maksimal pada pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo.

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REKOMENDASI Kebijakan pemerintah yang berkaitan dengan pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo masih perlu dioptimalkan, terutama dalam tataran implementasi. Hasil supervisi perlu ditindaklanjuti, dianalisis dan dievaluasi. Pengambil kebijakan juga perlu memahami konsep pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA yaitu berupa bantuan professional kepada guru IPA dan dilakukan secara terus menerus dan berkelanjutan. Konsep supervisi pembelajaran IPA hendaknya dipahami guru IPA, supervisor, dan kepala sekolah sebagai bantuan professional secara terus menerus kepada guru IPA sehingga dapat meningkatkan kualitas pembelajaran di kelas yang bermuara pada peningkatan hasil belajar siswa untuk mewujudkan hakekat IPA menjadi bagian dari cara berpikir peserta didik. Jumlah supervisor pembelajaran IPA SMP di Kota Gorontalo masih sangat kurang dan belum ada supervisor yang berlatar belakang S1 pendidikan IPA, sehingga perlu mempertimbangkan penambahan jumlah supervisor dan bidang ilmu yang direkrut serta disesuaikan dengan peraturan yang berlaku. Rekruitmen guru IPA hendaknya memperhatikan latar belakang pendidikan terutama S1 Pendidikan IPA. SMP di Kota Gorontalo masih memerlukan penambahan ruang kelas baru dan penambahan peralatan laboratotium IPA. Hendaknya dalam pelaksanaan supervisi pembelajaran IPA di Kota Gorontalo kepala sekolah bekerjasama dengan supervisor pembelajaran IPA untuk merencanakan serta memfasilitasi kegiatan supervisi pembelajaran IPA melalui kegiatan ilmiah seperti MGMP, seminar, pelatihan dan workshop, penelitian tindakan kelas, maupun menulis dalam jurnal ilmiah secara berkelanjutan dan mengupayakan keikutsertaan para guru IPA dalam kegiatankegiatan tersebut, oleh karena itu kepala sekolah dan supervisor perlu meningkatkan kompetensinya melalui pengembangan diri dengan mengikuti pendidikan dan pelatihan, mengintesifkan kegiatan MKPS dan MKKS serta aktif dalam asosiasi kepengawasan secara terus menerus dan juga meningkatkan kompetensinya dalam penelitian tindakan kelas, penelitian tindakan sekolah, jurnal ilmiah, internet dan elearning. Untuk meningkatkan kinerja guru IPA maka supervisi pembelajaran IPA hendaknya dilaksanakan secara terus menerus dan berkelanjutan atas dasar kemitraan dan pendampingan oleh seorang supervisor dan kepala sekolah terhadap guru IPA, dan juga pengambil kebijakan hendaknya memberikan reward bagi supervisor, kepala sekolah dan guru IPA yang berprestasi, dan bagi guru yang belum berprestasi diberi pembimbingan yang mendidik.

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DAFTAR PUSTAKA Aderusliana, (2009). “Mencari Supervisor IPA di Indonesia.” http://www.psbpsma.org/content/ blog/mencari-supervisor-ipa-di-indonesia A.M, Muliati. (2005). “Evaluation On Dual System Of Education Program An Evaluation Research Based on Stake’s Countenance Model on Dual System Of Education Program at a SMK in South Sulawesi.”Disertasi, Universitas Negeri Jakarta. Anwar,

Kholil.(2009). Pendidikan yang relevan.http://anwarholil. blogspot.com/ 2009/01/hakikatpembelajaranipa.html

Arikunto, Suharsimi., Abdul JabarC. Safruddin. (2009). Evaluasi program pendidikan. Jakarta: Bumi Aksara. Arip, Mas. (2007). Model evaluasi CIPP.http://masarip.blog.friendster .com /2007/09/ evaluasicipp/ Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan dan Pusat Penilaian Pendidikan Balitbang Depdiknas. (2009). Batavia, Van Fuddin. (2008). Program evaluasi metode CIPP.http://fuddin. wordpress. com/ 2008/07/02/ teorievaluasidengancipp/ Darussalam, Ghazali. (2010). “Program Evaluation in Higher Education.”The International Jornal of Research and Review Volume 5 Issue 2. Djaali., Puji Mulyono.(2000). Pengukuran dalam Bidang Pendidikan. Jakarta: PPs UNJ. Dea.

(2010). “supervisi pendidikan”.http://blognyadea.wordpress.com /2010/05/14/ supervisi-pendidikan/

James R, Sanders., et. al. (1994).The program evaluation standards. 2nd edition. California: Sage Publication. Kiely, Richard. and Dickins R. Pauline. (n.d.). Programe Evaluation in Language Educational. University of Bristol: Palgrave Macmillan.

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Labulan, PM.(2009). “Evaluasi program manajemen berbasis sekolah.” Disertasi, Universitas Negeri Jakarta. Masaong, Abdul K. (2010). Supervisi pendidikanuntuk pendidikan yang lebih baik. Bandung: MQS Publishing. Permendiknas Nomor 22 Tahun 2006 tentang standar isi untuk satuan pendidikan dasar dan menengah, Jakarta. Permendiknas Nomor 12 Tahun 2007 tentang standar pengawas sekolah/ madrasah, Jakarta. Permendiknas Nomor 13 Tahun 2007 tentang standar kepala sekolah/ madrasah. Peraturan Menteri Negara Pendayagunaan Aparatur Negara dan Reformasi Birokrasi Nomor 21 tahun 2010 tentang Jabatan Fungsional Pengawas Sekolah dan Angka Kreditnya, Jakarta. Roswati.(2008). Evaluasi Program/ proyek (Pengertian, fungsi, jenis dan format usulan). Jurnal Pendidikan Penabur, No.11 Tahun ke7. Santoso.(2010). Supervisi Pembelajaraan untuk Pembinaan Profesionalisme.http://santosmine. blogspot.com/2010/01/ %20supervisipembelajaran-untuk-pembinaan.html Stufflebeam, D.L. (1971) Educational Education and Decision Making. Itaca Illiois: FE. Peacock. Stufflebeam. D.L., C.F. Madaus, and T. Kellaghan (Eds). (2000). Evaluation Models. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Suhardan, Dadang. (2010). Supervisi Profesional. Bandung:Alfa Beta. Sergiovanni, Thomas J, Robert J. Starratt. Supervision: A Redefinition .http://www.amazon.com/Supervision-A-Redefinition-ThomasSergiovanni/dp/0073131261 Widodo,Wahono.(2009). Model Supervisi Pendidikan IPA.http://vahonov. files. wordpress.com / 2009/08/ modelsupervisipendidikan IPA. pdf.

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Winarno J.A Riza. (2009). Evaluasi Program Pendidikan Agama Islam. Disertasi: Universitas Negeri Jakarta.

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RESEARCH AND TRENDS IN THE STUDIES OF NATIVE AND NON-NATIVE SPEAKER TEACHERS OF LANGUAGES: A REVIEW ON SELECTED RESEARCHES AND THESIS Fathen Suriati Jusoh1, Saedah Siraj2, Norlidah Alias3, Ghazali Darusalam4 University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia1,2,3,4 [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] ABSTRACT Recruiting and employing native speaker teachers of English Language (NST) in non-native speakers’ context are widely practised in countries which learn and use the target language taught by the native speaker teachers (NST) as either as a second or a foreign language. This paper reviews selected journals and thesis on the issues of Native and Non-native Speaker Teachers (NST & NNST). It covers on students’, as well as the Native and Non-Native Speaker Teachers’ (NNST) self-perceptions and attitudes. This review finds out almost the same pattern of students’ attitudes and perceptions towards native speaker teachers. Most studies reviewed indicate that most of the non-native learners of the target language have positive attitude towards their native speaker teachers. They view the native speaker teachers as the model of the target language learnt and believe that the native speaker teachers could provide a great example in learning pronunciation and speaking skill. In addition, this review also identifies that learners believe that their non-native teachers are compatible in teaching the language as they have experienced in being the second language learners before. As such, they are more empathic and are able to apply the suitable teaching methodologies for the learners in learning the language. In contrast, the learners view their non-native speaker teachers are weak in teaching oral communication skills as they believe that in order to learn communication skills, native speaker models are required. However, the learners still prefer the collaborative teaching of native and non-native speaker teachers of the language when learning the target language. This is because they take the native speaker teachers as their model to learn the

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language and the non-native speaker teachers as their interpreter. Nonetheless, this review also finds that the learners value both native and non-native teachers of the language. Keywords:native speaker teacher, non-native teachers, students’ perceptions, language learning INTRODUCTION Employing and hiring Native Speaker Teachers (NST) of any particular language to teach the target language as either as a second or foreign language is so common in many countries which value the target language as much as their first language (L1). English is one of the languages which is taught as a second language (ESL) or a foreign language (EFL) across the globe. With the growing demand of the importance of English language in various fields has influenced the employment of the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) by some countries. In contrast, a fact has shown that the majority of English teachers in the world are not native speakers of English and almost eighty percent of the world’s English language teachers are Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) (Matsuda and Matsuda, 2001: 109-121). As such, there are numerous studies have been conducted regarding the issues on Natives Speaker Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST). The researchers have high interests to determine the issues on Natives Speaker Teachers’ (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers’ (NNST) teaching effectiveness, roles, students’ preferences as well as teachers’ selfperception. This part will review sixteen articles on the issues of Natives Speaker Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) across the world. This review will be covered on the topics of students’ perceptions and attitudes and Natives Speaker Teachers’ (NSTs) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers’ (NNST) attitudes and self-perception. Research Purpose The purpose of this study was to learn and review the research trends in Native and Non Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST&NNST) issues. Sixteen related journal articles and unpublished theses which were published from the year 2002 until 2011 were selected in this study. The articles and theses were then analysed according to their publication year, participants, research design, research methods, research analysis, research setting and their issues discussed. The results of the analysis might outline the research trends and patterns of the journal articles and theses which were related to Native and Non-Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST&NNST) issues. It is hoped that 104


the results of this study can provide Native Speaker Teacher (NST) programme organisers, administrators, teachers and researchers with some insightful ideas about the publishing trends, patterns and issues studied on Native and Non- Native Speaker Teachers (NST&NNST). In addition, learning and knowing the trends of the current studies will assist the policy makers to promote further studies to fill in the gaps of the research field in the future. The research questions addressed by this study were therefore: 1. Which research setting had high rate of studies on Native Speaker Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) between the year 2002 to the year 2011 in these sixteen selected journal articles and theses? 2. What was the data collection method that was commonly used in Native Speaker Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers’ (NNST) studies in these sixteen selected journal articles and theses? 3. What was the most common issue of Native Speaker Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) studied in these sixteen selected journal articles and theses? 4. What were the similar and different findings found in these sixteen selected journal articles and theses? METHOD Research Papers for Analysis This study used sixteen selected articles which were taken from various educational journals and unpublished theses. Educational journals that were used were Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, TESOL Journal, Arizona Working Papers in SLA and Teaching, JALT Conference 2002 Proceedings Academic Journal, English Language Teaching Journal, Language Awareness Journal, ABAC Journal, Asian EFL Journal, ARECLS Journal, PORTA LINGUARUM Journal, WoPaLP Journal and TESL-EJ (Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language) Journal. These selected journal articles and theses were published from the year 2002 to the year 2011. These journal articles and theses were then analysed according to their publication year, participants, research designs, research methods, research analysis and research settings. The gathered data on research methods and research settings were then analysed statistically in order to answer research questions 1 and 2. As for the research settings, the countries where the studies were conducted were categorised according to their salient continents such as America, Western Asia, Eastern Asia and Europe (refer to Tab. 1).

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Additionally, a content analysis was carried out by analysing their abstracts, research questions and findings. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse and report the data. Table 1: Research Settings and Their Salient Continents Research settings Japan China Korea Taiwan Thailand Hungary Spain Iran Turkey Midwest, USA Southwest, USA Indiana, USA West Texas, USA

Salient continents

Eastern Asia

Europe Western Asia

America

Research Issue Analysis Based on the methodology of content analysis, the research questions and their findings were categorised into some issues of Native Speaker Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers’ (NNST) studies. The final analysis results consisted of the following issues: 1) Students’ perceptions and attitudes towards Native Speaker Teachers (NST). 2) Students’ perceptions and attitude towards Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST). 3) Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST) perception towards students. 4) Other teachers’ perceptions and attitudes towards Native Speaker Teachers (NST). 5) Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST) perceptions and attitudes towards themselves. 6) Non-Native Speaker Teachers’ (NNST) perceptions and attitudes towards themselves 7) Administrators’ perceptions and attitudes towards Native Speaker Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST).

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It should be noted that many articles addressed more than one issue in their studies (refer Table 2 for further information). The findings of the studies which were categorised according to their issues were studied to find their similarity and differences and ultimately answer research question 4. The percentages of the related issues were statistically analysed in order to answer research question 3 Table 2: An Analysis of 16 Studies According to Their Issues Study (author, year) Miyazato (2002)

Participants 13 Japanese freshmen in the Department of Business and Communication (BC) and junior students in the Department of Business (DB)

Research design/ type Descriptive

Data analysis

Research setting

Issues discussed

Interview

Interpretative

Japan

Students towards NST

Data collection

Lasagabaste r & Sierra (2002)

76 undergraduates

Descriptive

Questionnaire

Descriptive (mean)

Spain

Students towards NST&NNST

Mahboob (2004)

37 students who enrolled in an Intensive English Program at a large Midwestern ESL program

Descriptive

Students’ essay

Discourse analysis, Interpretative

Midwest, USA


Madrid &Cañado (2004)

459 students from various level of education and 35 NNST

Descriptive, Developme ntal

Questionnaire

Interpretative,Descrip tive (mean, SD),Statistic al analysis (ANOVA)

Spain

Students & teachers towards NST&NNST

Sahin (2005)

1076 school students


Questionnaire

Descriptive (mean,SD), Statistical analysis(ttest)

Turkey


high

107

The 1st International Seminar on Quality and Affordable Education (ISQAE – 2012) Study (author, year) Koksal (2006)


Questionnaire

Descriptive (percentage), Statistical analysis (r)

Turkey


1040 ESL students, 18 NNST, 78NST,21 Administrators

Descriptive

Questionnaire

Descriptive (mean, mode, median, SD)

Indiana,

i)Students towards NST&NNST. ii)NST towards themselvesi ii)NNST towards themselvesi v)Administr ators towards NST&NNST.

Wong (2006)

8 undergraduates who have no experience teaching language and teaching training but require to teach English as a second language (a part of their studies requirements)

Descriptive

NSTs’ reflective and teaching journal, Interview & Observation

Interpretative, Discourse analysis

West Texas, USA

NST towards themselves

Liu & Zhang (2007)

65 third year college students

Descriptive

Questionnaire & Interview

Descriptive (mean), Interpretative

China


Meadows & Muramatsu (2007)

187 American University students

Descriptive


Statistical analysis (ANOVA), Interpretative

Southwe st, USA


Sureepong & Kasma (2008)

36 Thai English lecturers

Descriptive, Developmental

Questionnaire& Semi-structured interview

Interpretative, Descriptive

Thailand

NNST towards themselves &NST

Moussu (2006)

108

Participants 216 high school and college students

Data collection

Data analysis

Research setting

USA

Issues discussed

The 1st International Seminar on Quality and Affordable Education (ISQAE – 2012) Study (author, year) Eslami & Azizullah (2008) Wu & Chung Ke (2009)

Participants 40 Iranian EFL teachers

107 students, 3 NST


Descriptive

Data collection

Data analysis

Research setting

Issues discussed


Descriptive (mean, SD)

Iran

NNST towards themselves


Interpretati ve

Taiwan

i)Students towards NST. ii)NST towards Students.

Devrin & Bayyurt (2010)

385 senior high school students

Descriptive

Questionnaire

Descriptive, Interpretative

Turkey


Ha Nam (2010)

6 students in two separate schools and 4 NST


Interview & Classroom Observation

Interpretative

Korea


Juhasz (2011)

18 NST who work in different institutions in Budapest.

Descriptive

Questionnaire & Semistructured interview

Descriptive, Interpretative

Hungary

NST towards themselves

RESULT AND DISCUSSION Percentage of Studies Conducted According to Their Research Settings The result of this study revealed that Eastern Asia was the highest countries which conducted the studies on Native Speaker Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) among the sixteen selected journal articles and theses. The percentage of studies according to the research settings is presented in Fig.1 From the result shown in Fig. 1, it indicated that Eastern Asia had the highest number of studies on Native Speaker Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) with the percentage of 31.25%. On the other hand, America and Western Asia had the same number of studies which were 25% respectively. Whereas, Europe had the least number of the related studies with the percentage of 18.75%.

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Figure 1. Percentage of Studies Conducted According to Their Research Settings Data Collection Method that Commonly Used in The Selected Journal Articles and Theses The most common collection method used in the selected sixteen journals was the combination of questionnaire and interview which were the mixed methods. There were 7 studies which applied the mixed methods in collecting the data with the percentage of 43.75%. The second common data collection method used was the questionnaire with the percentage of 31.25% followed by the interview with the percentage of 12.5%. The least used data collection method was through students’ essay and observation, journal and interview with the percentage of 6.25% respectively. The result is presented in Table 3 below. Reference (Meadows and Muramatsu, 2007: 95-109) claimed that questionnaire was used to investigate the general attitudes quantitatively and whereas interview was used to allow participants to provide reasons behind their expressed attitudes in the questionnaire based on their personal experiences in the related studies. In addition, as in (Creswell, 2012) stated that mixed methods were used to provide better understanding of a research finding and these methods were able to explain results of the first phase in more details.

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Table 3. Frequency and Percentage of Data Collection Methods Research type Quantitative

Data collection methods

Frequency

Percentage (%) 31.25

Questionnaire 5 Questionnaire and *Mixed methods 7 43.75 Interview Qualitative Interview 2 12.5 Qualitative Students’ Essay 1 6.25 Observation, Journal and Qualitative 1 6.25 Interview TOTAL (n) 16 100 *The most common data collection methods used in these sixteen articles. In addition, when all the data collection methods were categorised according to their research type, mixed methods which were the use of questionnaire and interview was still the most common method applied among the sixteen reviewed articles. The result is presented in Table 4 below. Table 4. Frequency and Percentage of Research Type Research type Frequency Percentage (%) Quantitative 5 31.25 *Mixed methods 7 43.75 Qualitative 4 25.0 TOTAL (n) 16 100 *The most common data collection methods used in these sixteen articles. The Most Common Issue Studied on Native Speaker Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) The most common issue studied in this field was the Students’ Perceptions and Attitudes towards Native Speaker Teachers (NST) with the percentage of 40.0%. It was followed by the issue on Students’ Perceptions and Attitudes towards Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) with the percentage of 26.67%. In addition, there were three issues which were the least studied in these sixteen selected articles. They were the issues on Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST) Perceptions and Attitudes towards Students, Other Teachers’ Perceptions and Attitudes towards Native Speaker Teachers (NST) and the issue on Administrators’ Perceptions and Attitudes towards Native Speaker Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST). These issues were raised once each with the percentage of 3.33% respectively. The result of this finding is shown in the Table 5 below.

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Table 5. Frequency and Percentage of Issues Studied in Sixteen Reviewed Articles Issues *Students’ perception and attitudes towards Native Speaker Teachers (NST). Students’ perceptions and attitudes towards Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST). Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST) perceptions and attitudes towards students. Other teachers’ perceptions and attitudes towards Native Speaker Teachers (NST).

Frequency

Percentage (%)

12

40.0

8

26.67

1

3.33

1

3.33

Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST) perceptions and attitudes towards 4 themselves. Non-Native Speaker Teachers’ (NNST) perceptions and attitudes 3 towards themselves Administrators’ perceptions and attitudes towards Native Speaker 1 Teachers (NST) and Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST). *The most common issue studied in these sixteen articles.

13.33

10.0

3.33

The Similar and Different Findings Found in These Sixteen Selected Journal Articles and Theses Students’ perceptions and attitudes Exposure to Native Speaker Teachers (NST) A study in (Sahih, 2005) found that the learners who were exposed to native speaker teachers of English had more positive attitudes towards the target language and they were more successful in English lesson compared to those who were not exposed to native speaker teachers. Reference (Sahih, 2005) further added, even the expos ure to a Native Speaker Teachers (NST) did not cause any difference on achievement; there were statistically differences on attitudes on language and language community.

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A near similar case study on 13 Japanese university students as in (Miyazato, 2002) found that the students were “fear” of Native Speaker Teachers (NST) who did not share the their linguistic and cultural background. Nonetheless, (Miyazato, 2002) added that this “fear” was converted into joy when they succeeded in communicating with the Native Speaker Teachers (NST). Furthermore, a study as in (Ha Nam, 2010) also showed that the students confirmed that they learnt, understood and improved a lot on the western culture through the regular exposure to the Native Speaker Teachers (NST). Hence, these three studies showed that students who had exposure to Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST) classroom would gradually develop their self-confidence in using English Language. It was due to their prior experience with the native teachers and indirectly made them to have positive attitude towards the English language and its culture. Interestingly, a study as in (Moussu, 2006) on 1040 ESL students in the States reported that the students had more positive attitudes towards the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) although they were taught by Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST). It showed that the exposure towards the Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST) was not the only reason to attract students to have positive attitude towards the teaching of a language by the Native Speaker Teachers (NST). Native speaker teachers (NST) as the model of the language. Additionally, a study on 187 American university students as in (Meadows & Muramatsu, 2007: 95-109) indicated that students preferred to have Native Speaker Teachers (NST) as the model of the language. Reference (Meadows & Muramatsu, 2007: 95-109) also found that students needed the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) to be the model to provide immersion culture, accent and grammar of the language. The similar finding was found in (Mahbob, 2004) on 37 second language learners in the States who enrolled in an Intensive English Program at a large Midwestern ESL program. Reference (Mahboob, 2004) stated that the students believed that the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) were considered as the forte in teaching oral skills and they were the good models to learn pronunciation. These findings in both studies as in (Meadows & Muramatsu, 2007: 95-109) and (Mahboob, 2004) ad the correlation with a study in (Lasagabaster & Sierra, 2002: 132-142) and a study in (Wu & Chung Ke, 2009: 44-54) Reference (Lasagabaster & Sierra, 2002: 132-142) mentioned that students preferred to have Native Speaker Teachers (NST) in the areas of pronunciation, speaking, vocabulary, culture and civilisation. Whereas a study in (Wu & Chung Ke, 2009: 44-54) found that the students viewed the Native Speaker Teachers

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(NST) mainly as the model of the language and corrected their pronunciation instead of being a traditional teacher. Hence, it portrayed that, students valued the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) as they needed them as the model of imitation on the target language they learnt. Generally, Native Speaker Teachers (NST) were their models in learning pronunciation, accent, culture and speaking. Non-native speaker teachers (NNST) are good in teaching grammar As stated in (Mahboob, 2004), it indicated that the students believed the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) were good in teaching reading, grammar and listening. It was similar to a study in (Ha Nam, 2010) which found that the students to be best improved in reading and grammar skills in Non-native Speaker Teachers’ (NNST) classroom. It was also supported in (Lasagabaster& Sierra, 2002) which indicated that the students were slightly negative towards Native Speaker Teachers (NST) on grammar teaching. It was contrast to the finding in (Meadows & Muramatsu, 2007: 95109) which showed students learnt grammar better in Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST) classroom. Nonetheless, more supported findings found in (Mahboob, 2004) which showed that Native Speaker Teachers (NST) were perceived to be best in teaching oral skills, stronger in their ability to teach vocabulary and culture and weak in their ability to teach grammar. It was because the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) did not have experience learning English as a second language like the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) (Mahboob, 2004). In contrast to Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) who had an experience of learning the language as a second or a foreign language, were more empathic towards the ESL or EFL learners’ needs (Koksal, 2006). Reference (Koksal, 2006) further added, the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) could provide a good learning model for imitation and learning strategies to the learners. It was also supported in (Ha Nam, 2010) which found out that the Non- native Speaker Teachers (NNST) effectively used code-switching from learners’ first language (L1) to learners’ second language (L2) and as a result it allowed students to understand and participate in communicative activities better. Similarly, (Madrid & Cañado, 2004) also stated in their study that the students preferred Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) as they understood the students’ first language (L1). Briefly, students believed that Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) were more competent in teaching grammar rather than the Native Speaker Teachers (NST). This could be due to the experience of the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) of being second language learners themselves and

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their strength of sharing the same cultures and language background as the learners and made them able to understand the needs of the learners more. Team-teaching by both native and non-native teachers Interestingly, a study as in (Miyazato, 2002) also identified that the students also preferred team-teaching of native and non-native teachers of the language. This finding was similar to (Lasagabaster& Sierra, 2002) which indicated that the students preferred both native and non-native teachers to teach them the target language. It was because they believed that the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) provided them a model of the language whereas the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) were the interpreter of the language. This statement supported the finding as in (Moussu, 2006) which reported that the Non-native Speaker Teachers’ (NNST) language experience was an asset for ESL learners. Thus, it portrayed that the collaborative model of language teaching or team-teaching of both native and non-native teachers would create a perfect and positive language learning atmosphere for the second or foreign language learners as both teachers would complete each other and fill in the gaps of each other’s weaknesses. In addition, these findings supported the finding of a study as in (Devrin Bayyurt, 2010) which indicated that the students valued both native and non-native speakers as their language teachers. Teaching methodologies and approaches Additionally, a study as in (Liu & Zhang, 2007) on 65 third Year College students in a university in South China reported that Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST) approaches in teaching were more varied compared to Nonnative Speaker Teachers (NNST) who used considerably more flexible media, power point presentation and internet in class instruction. Reference (Liu & Zhang, 2007) added that Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST) used more conventional media to assist their teaching. A similar finding as in (Wong, 2006) on eight untrained Native Speaker Teachers at a university in West Texas stated that the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) employed authentic materials over traditional grammar textbook. Reference (Juhász, 2011) mentioned in a study on 18 Native Speaker Teachers (NST) in Budapest, Hungary also reported that the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) used the materials which they believed to be relevant and interesting for the learners and tried to get the students out of the textbook. On the contrary, a study as in (Koksal, 2006) on 216 on Turkish students in Turkey stated that the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) were dependent too much on course books. Reference (Koksal, 2006) also added that the 115


students believed that the Native Speaker Teachers’ (NST) attracted students to speak and communicate the language effectively, whereas the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) encouraged students to practise the language. Shortly, the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) were seen to be more independent and flexible in their teaching approaches and materials used and they did not stick to the use of textbook in teaching the language compared to the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST). In addition, the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) were also reported to be able to promote and attract the students to use and communicate the language effectively compared to the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) who were more likely to train the students to practise the language through selected topics in textbook. This could be due to the advantages of being born with the language and make them to be privileged in acquiring the language compared to Non-native Speakers Teachers (NNST) who had to learn the language as a second or foreign language. Other unique findings Nevertheless, a study as in (Ha Nam, 2010) found that class interaction in a Native Speaker Teacher (NST) in her study was limited due to lack of students’ motivation during the communicative activities, pressure for good test scores, very large classroom size and varied level of English language skills. Similarly, a finding as in (Ha Nam, 2010) also identified the same pattern in Non-native Speaker Teachers’ (NNST) classroom where the students were also not actively engaged in the classroom communication. The finding also indicated that the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) were mostly teacher-fronted and lacked in the development of extended responses (Ha Nam, 2010). In a study as in (Wu & Chung Ke, 2009: 44-54) stated that the students complained the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) were not flexible and used much of lecturing styles and too few activities. Reference (Wu & Chung Ke, 2009: 44-54) reported that the students expected the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) to have more activities than lectures, correct their pronunciation, assign little homework or no homework at all and rarely test them. On the other hand, students preferred to have fun activities in the class while improving their English language. Briefly, these findings as in (Ha Nam, 2010) and (Wu & Chung Ke, 2009: 44-54) suggested that students were not motivated to learn the target language due to some factors such as lack of self-motivation, teacher-centred activities, un-meet learning language expectations, exam-oriented school system as well as due to the large classroom size.

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Native speaker teachers’ (NST) and non-native speaker teachers’ (NNST) attitude and self-perception. Native speaker teachers’ (NST) attitudes and self-perceptions In a study as in (Juhász, 2011) on 18 Native Speaker Teachers (NST) reported that 17 of the native teachers admitted their reason to come to the other countries was not solely to teach but they wished to travel and only one of them stated he was interested to become a teacher. In addition, the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) agreed their weak points were to explain and teach grammar. They also noted that this could be because they did not understand the students’ first language (L1) and the way they had been taught grammar in English lesson during their primary and secondary school years was completely different from what would be expected from them in the foreign language classroom (Juhász, 2011). A similar finding was reported in a study as in (Wong, 2006) which indicated that the untrained Native Speaker Teachers (NST) were concerned about the length of the class and being incapable in explaining grammar and vocabulary. Nonetheless, the study had shown that the native teachers’ confidence level gained immensely in a short period of time. Briefly, these findings supported the finding of a study as in (Lasagabaster& Sierra, 2002) which had shown that the students were slightly negative towards Native Speaker Teachers (NST) on grammar teaching. On the other hands, Native Speaker Teachers (NST) had problem in teaching grammar as they did not share the same mother tongue as the students which made them hard to explain the grammatical rules and due to their different experience of learning grammar themselves. In addition, a study as in (Juhász, 2011) also reported that the Native Speaker Teachers’ aim when teaching the language was to make the students to communicate the language effectively, feel confident to speak to foreigners, gain wider impression of world though the use of the English language, equip students with a level of proficiency that they need to function successfully in their chosen academic fields. In contrast, a study as in (Wu & Chung Ke, 2009: 44-54) revealed the satisfaction of the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) towards the students’ passiveness and lack of responsiveness in their language classroom. Shortly, the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) had their aims and expectation in teaching the target language to the students. Nonetheless, due to some negative responses by the students on the language lesson dissatisfied the Native Speakers Teachers (NST). Non-native speaker teachers’ (NNST) attitudes and self-perceptions Furthermore, a study as in (Moussu, 2006) showed that the Nonnative Speaker Teachers (NNST) revealed that they lacked of confidence in

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their linguistic and teaching skills but they believed that their experience as the former second language learners themselves would benefit their ESL learners. Hence, it showed that even the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) might have slightly a negative perception towards their ability in teaching the target language; nonetheless, they believed they could be a model to help the ESL learners to learn the target language through their previous experience. Additionally, a study as in (Sureepong & Kasma, 2008) on 36 Thai English Teachers (TET) had shown that the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) perceived themselves could teach better than the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) if they had good preparations. Furthermore, the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) also viewed themselves as bilingual as they were able to understand two languages and as such made them privileged to use the first language (L1) to facilitate the learning of the second language (L2) among the students. The Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) also note that their ability to understand students’ first language (L1) also attributed them to be more understanding and sensitive to the students’ needs. Briefly, these findings indicated that the Non-native Speaker Teachers (NNST) had positive perception towards themselves and their language teaching. On the other hand, a study as in (Eslami & Azizullah, 2008) on 40 Iranian English Foreign Language (EFL) teachers found that the more proficient the Iranian EFL teachers perceived themselves in speaking English, the higher their sense of efficacy in managing their lesson. Secondly, the study also noted that the more proficient the teachers perceived themselves in acquiring the language skills; the more efficacious they felt in designing effective instructional strategies in the foreign language classroom. Interestingly, finding as in (Eslami & Azizullah, 2008) also revealed the higher the teachers' sense of self- efficacy, the more tendency they used communicative-based strategies in their classes rather than focusing on language accuracy. Therefore, these findings concluded that the better language proficiency and fluency of the Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) would contribute them to be more positive and creative in teaching the target language. CONCLUSION Based on the review on these sixteen researches and theses above, it illustrated that the Eastern Asia countries had the highest rate of conducting studies in this field. On the other hand, the European countries were the least research settings which conducted the studies on native and non-native speaker teachers.

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In addition, this review also identified that the most common method used in collecting data in these sixteen selected articles was the combination of both questionnaire and interview. Thus, it showed that most researchers in the selected articles applied the mixed methods in collecting their data. Furthermore, the most common issue studied in these selected articles was the issue on students’ perceptions and attitudes towards Native Speaker Teachers (NST). This issue is the most common issue studied out of all seven issues on native and non-native speaker teachers found in these sixteen articles. In terms of similarity and differences of the findings, this review identified some common or similar findings among the selected articles. The first general common finding found was regarding students’ perceptions towards the Native Speaker Teachers (NST). Overall, students viewed Native Speaker Teachers (NST) as the model of the target language. Students also viewed Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) as the interpreter of the target language. Nonetheless, students valued both Native and Non-Native Speaker Teachers as their language teachers. Interestingly, students believed that the collaborative teaching of Native and Non-Native Speaker Teachers would make their language learning to be more effective. This review also revealed that students believed the Native Speaker Teachers (NST) were good in teaching communication and they had varied teaching approaches. On the other hand, students believed that the NonNative Speaker Teachers (NNST) were good in teaching grammar compared to Native Speaker Teachers (NST). This finding was supported by the findings on which stated that the Non-Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) had experience learning the target language as a second (ESL) or as a foreign language (EFL) and thus made them to be more empathic towards the students’ needs. Additionally, this review also found that Native Speaker Teachers (NST) in the selected articles agreed that they had problem in explaining and teaching grammar as they learnt it differently and it was also because they did not share the same mother tongue as the students. Whereas the NonNative Speaker Teachers (NNST) stated that they sometimes lacked of confidence in their linguistics and teaching skill. Nonetheless, their experience of being the second language learners themselves benefited their ESL or EFL learners to learn the language. In addition, due to the same language the Non- Native Speaker Teachers (NNST) shared with the students would make them privileged to understand the students’ needs. In conclusion, there were various studies had been conducted on the issues of both native and non-native speaker teachers. The findings of each study could be correlated or totally different from each other. The findings 119


could be affected by the setting of the studies, both native and non-native speaker teachers, or students themselves. Nonetheless, there will never be a fit finding on the same issue researched and further studies always need to be done to fill in the gaps of the previous and the current studies. Since, this study only reviewed sixteen selected journal articles and theses, thus, the findings could not be generalizable to all the studies in the related field. It could only provide some insightful ideas on the issues of Native and NonNative Speaker Teachers (NST & NNST). This study also did not provide the reasons on every finding, and as such, further studies are recommended to understand and learn why such certain patterns or result are found. REFERENCES Creswell, J. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4thed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Devrin, Y. D. & Bayyurt, Y. (2010). Students’ understandings and preferences of the role and place of “culture” in English language teaching: A focus on EFL context. TESOL Journal, 2, 4-23. Eslami, Z. R. & Azizullah, F. (2008). Teachers' sense of self-efficacy, English proficiency, and instructional strategies: a study of nonnative EFL teachers in Iran. TESL-EJ (Teachin English as a Second or Foreign Language), (11), 4, 1-19. Ha Nam, H. (2010). The pedagogy and its effectiveness among native and non-native speaking teachers in the korean EFL context. Dissertation for Doctor of Philosophy .University of Buffalo, State University of New York. Juhász, A. (2011). Native EFL teachers’ self perception on their teaching behaviour: A qualitative study. WoPaLP,5 , 86 – 99. Koksal, K. (2006). An investigation into students’ perception of native english speaking teachers’ (NEST) and non-native english speaking teachers’ (Non-NEST) performance and competence in teaching english as a foreign language. (Unpublished master’s thesis), Canakkale ONsekiz Mart University, Turkey.

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Lasagabaster, D., & Sierra, J.M. (2002). University students’ Perceptions of native and non-native speaker teachers of English. Language Awareness 11, 132-142. Liu, M. & Zhang, L. (2007). Student perceptions of native & non-native English teachers’ attitudes, teaching skills assessment and performance. Asian EFL Journal – Conference Proceedings, (9), 4, 157-166. Madrid, D. & Cañado, M. L. P. (2004). Teacher and students preferences of native and non-native foreign language teachers. Porta linguarum (2), 6, 125 137. Mahboob, A. (2004). Native or non-native: What do the students think?. In L. D. Kamhi-Stein (Ed.), Learning and Teaching from Experience. Michigan: University of Michigan Press. Matsuda, A., & Matsuda, P. K. (2001). Autonomy and collaboration in teacher education: Journal sharing among native and nonnative English speaking teachers. CATESOL Journal, 13(1), 109-121. Meadows, B. & Muramatsu, Y. (2007). Native speaker or non-native speaker teacher?: A report of student preferences in four different foreign language classrooms. Arizona Working Papers in SLA & Teaching, 14, 95 109. Miyazato, K. (2002). Anxiety or admiration?: Japanese EFL learner's perceptions of native speaker teachers' classes. JALT Conference 2002 Proceedings Academic Journal: 1-8. Moussu, L. M. (2006). Native and non-native english-speaking snglish as a second language teachers: student attitudes, teacher selfperceptions, and intensive english administrator belief and practices. Philosophical doctorate’s thesis. Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA. Sahin, I. (2005). The effect of native speaker teachers of english on the attitudes and achievement of the learners. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies 1, 1-14.

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Sureepong, P. & Kasma, S. (2008). Native and non-native dichotomy: Distinctive stances of Thai teachers of English. ABAC Journal,(28), 2, 10-30. Wong, C. Y. (2006). Are native speakers “good” language instructors? A case study of untrained ESL tutors. ARECLS, 6, 122-140. Wu, Kun-huei & Chung Ke. (2009). Haunting native speakerism? Students’ perceptions oward native speaking English teachers in Taiwan. English Language Teaching Journal, (2),3. 44-54.

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VALIDATING PERSONALITY AS DETERMINANT FACTORS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS PERFORMANCE I Made Putrawan1, Francis Tantri2, Sr. Jeanne Marie3 Professor at State University of Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia1 Senior Lecturer at Trisakti School of Transportation, Jakarta, Indonesia2 Principal of Marie Joseph High School, Jakarta, Indonesia3 [email protected] ABSTRACT All school teachers and of course school principals should have four competencies, i.e. pedagogy, social, professional and personality competencies (UU No. 14/2005). One of the important competencies is personality competence. Therefore, this study is aim at verifying whether “big five personality” could be implemented to measure teachers personality. Beside, which personality factors could be the best as a determinant factor for principals performance, in this case performance indicated by “citizenship behavior (CB)” has been verified. A survey has been conducted on January 2010, in province of Lampung, Indonesia and involved 34 elementary school male teachers and around 340 female teachers, and also 60 primary male teachers followed by 276 female teachers, and finally 56 secondary male teachers and 183 female teachers. The data has been collected by administering an instrument of personality based on big-five personality profile (Colquit, et.al.,2011; Ivancevich, 2011; Robbin & Judge, 2012, and Gibson, 2012, George & Jones, 2012, Certo & Certo, 2012) which is commonly used in organizational behavior research. Then this instrument was modifiedto be implemented in finding out the best determinant factor in influencing elementary school principals CB. For this purpose, around 54 principals has been selected randomly. Afactoranalysis with varimax rotation and regression and correlational study have been applied. Personality instrument consist of five dimensions (factors) i.e. Conscientiousness (A), Agreeableness (B), Neuroticism (N/emotional stability is C), Openness (D) and Extraversion (E), it is called big-five personality profile. Each of those factors has four variables, so there are 20 variables (items) included in this instrument to be rotated. In correlational study, it has been developed an instrument for 123


measuring elementary school principals personality around 68 items (3 was not valid) with reliability 0.826 and it was around 30 items (2 was not valid) for measuring CB with reliability 0.94. Reliability agreement among rater (2 rater) in measuring CB was 0.63. The analysis result shows that most of the factors “loading” on those variables across sexual and level of school teachers differences, except for one of the factor from Extraversion is not loading (negative) when using the criteria >0.399. It is found also that there is a correlation among variables which indicated by communalities values and only variables code A13 & D05 (elementary school male teachers) and C14 (primary school male teacher) has >80% could be explained by all factors variances. Fortunately, most of the variables have high factor loading which means that these findings confirm theoretical dimensions in measuring teachers personality. Another finding reveals that there is a positive and significant correlation (0.59) found between personality with principals CB (represent for performance). Moreover, it is found also that emotional stability has the highest and highly significant correlation to principals CB (0.455, contribution around 20.7%) after all 4 the rest of personality factors has been controlled (conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness, and extravert). It is followed by openness, agreeableness, extravert and then conscientiousness. Based on these findings, it could be recommended that in selecting elementary school principals which expected would be have a good and high CB as part of performance, emotional stability of the candidates should be taken into account, and other personality factors, specifically. In general, however, personality factors could not be neglected in selecting school principal as a good leader and manager in improving the quality of school management. Keywords : personality, behavior, school performance INTRODUCTION Education is one of the important sectors for every country in the world. The process of education is inevitable process due to its role in changing human mindset to be more rational person. Some countries, however, in implementing its development policy mostly focusing on other sectors such as economic, political, or communications, etc., which they think is more important rather than focusing on educational sector. The balancing

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of development focus should be mostly taken into consideration, especially between education and other sectors. In this context, the government attention should be put more emphasizing on developing and improving teachers programs, since logically presumed that the quality of education is mostly rely on teachers performances. Fortunately, Indonesian Government was becoming suddenly conscious about teachers development which indicated by the establishing of Government Laws, no. 14/2005 about Teacher and Lecturer. It was too late for prioritizing the development which focusing on teachers themselves since we all acknowledge that after more than 60 year as an independent Nation, the development of teacher had been more neglected comparing with other sectors. Nevertheless, according to this Government Laws, Indonesian teachers should be more glad and happier because they begun to improve their own competence otherwise they will not get compensation due to they do not pass at the certificate examination which conducted through teachers’ portfolio evaluation. Those competencies are pedagogic, social, professional, and personality competence. And this personality competence will contribute around 14 items used in measuring it in order to pass educator certificate examination, especially in measuring teachers performance. This is the problem when those items or indicators for measuring personality are analyzed theoretically, most of the items do not have strong foundations that being used to measure what actually to be measured. In this case, those items are not related to what the definition of personality is. This is the reason why this research is implemented due to unclearness theoretically what the government need to measure in term of personality competence which to my opinion, this competence is the most important competence which should be taken into consideration. That is why it is still required a study (scientific study) in developing a personality instrument, particularly for teachers at all schools level in order to find out some factors that are fix with the variables by confirming through factor analysis between theoretical base with empirical verification. Therefore, on this occasion, research problems might be well formulated as follows (1) which variables (each factor has 4 variables) has communality and significant factor loading on its factor empirically based on teachers sexual and school level differences;? (2) Is there relationship between personality with principals citizenship behavior (CB);? (3) which factor of big-five personality has the highest contribution to principals CB?

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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Concepts of Personality According to Moorhead & Griffin (2010, p. 61), personality is a set psychological traits which relatively stable thatis able to distinguish someone from another. Even still debatable, those traits inherent from his/her parents which is called “the nature argument”, or has been influenced by their environment which is called “the nurture argument”. In reality, it indicates that both either biological factors or environmental factors pays important role in determining personality. A psychologist has identified a thousand of human personality traits which distinguish someone with the others. There are five traits which is related to the organizational behavior called “big five personality traits” which define as a set of basic characteristics relevant to the organization (Moorhead & Griffin, 2010, pp. 61-62). Those “Big five” is as follows 1. Agreeableness: ability to understand others. 2. Conscientiousness: related to several goals which every one focus on. 3. Negative emotionality: low in this trait characterized by “relatively poised, calm, resilient, dan secure,” but when it is high it is more “excitable,” unsecure, reactive, not mood. So, for those who has “less negative emotionality” would be enable for managing stress, pressure and work tension. 4. Extraversion reflected by one’ trait which is sociable), talkative, asertive, and easier to communicate. The opposite is Introvert. 5. Openness reflected by the strength in believing and posses the range of interest. These traits consist of intention to accept new ideas, change his/her own ideas, trust, and attitude in responding new information.

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Figure 1. The “Big Five” Personality Framework (Moorhead& Griffin, 2010) In addition to this, McShane & Glinow (2010, pp. 38-39) stated that personality is “the relatively enduring pattern of thought, emotions, and behaviors that characterize a person, along with psychological processes behind those characteristics.” This definition is more depth because it talked about thought, besides emotion and behavior as well. Almost all of definitions tend to describe personality which distinguishes ones with the others. Another definition which is almost the same was given by Andre (2008, pp. 32-34), but Andre involves one of the personality concepts called locus of control (LOC). LOC, according to Andre is measuring about to what extend each of individual believe that they are able to control some events that influence them. There are two type of LOC, first is internal LOC which tend to believe that all events facing human being as a result of his/her own behavior and actions, whereas external LOC depicts the tendency to believe 127


the faith, chance and other powerful things will be determined by those events. Personality, as defined by Greenberg (2010, pp.68-69), is pattern of behavior, thought and emotion which relatively unique and stable that reflected by individual that differentiate with other and this characteristic is very important for job (p.68). Greenberg illustrated some factors influence personality as seen on the following figure.

Figure 2. Is Personality the Result of Nature or Nurture? (Greenberg,2010) Personality is also presumably as one of determinant factors which affect behavior, according to Greenberg this process called “interactionist perspective,” and it can be illustrated as follows,

Figure 3. The Interactionist Perspective (Greenberg, 2010)

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Related to the concept of “big five” described by Moorhead & Griffin (2010), Greenberg (2010) applied the same name as well, but with a different term i.e. “big five dimensions of personality”. On the other hand, Andre (2008 p. 37) called by using another term “big five personality profile” and the name of all dimensions are still the same. However, Greenberg (2010) called “emotional stability” instead of “negative emotionality” just like what has been proposed by Moorhead & Griffin above. Other term given by Mc. Shane & Glinow (2010, p. 39) which called “five factor model of personality” or “FFM,” yang which completely described those indicators for each dimension as illustrated as follows;

Figure 4. Five-Factor Model’s Big Five Personality Dimensions (McShane & Glinow, 2010& George & Jone, 2012). On the other occasion, Ivancevich, Konopaske & Matteson (2011) stated that personality is related to a set of person’ feeling and behavior that is relatively stable which significantly formed by genetic factorsand environment. They, then, stated that personality as a result of natural factors (nature) and environmental factors (nurture). They illustrated some factors that affect individual personality as can be seen on figure as follow.

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Figure 5. Some Major Forces Influencing Personality (Ivancevich, et.al., 2011; Gibson, et.al., 2012) Moreover, Colquitt, LePine & Wesson (2011) described more detail and complete about personality which according to them that personality is closely related to the structure and traits (propensities) belong to each person that depicts the pattern of human characteristic such as thought, emotion and behavior. Personality creates person’ social reputation for example, the way a person behave which could be perceived by his/her family, friends, employees and even by supervisor. Therefore, Colquitt et.al.admitted; by that way personality “captures what people are like”, so on the other hand, ability “which captures what people can do.” Besides, Colquitt, et.al.define“traits” as a regular tendency of each person in responding the environment such as “traits”. In this case, Colquitt, et.al.vstated that environmental factor could be called as “cultural values” which defined as sharing trust that will determine a person’ behavior at a certain culture.In related to the concept of “big five”, they have described those indicators on each dimensions as illustrated at this figure below. C Conscientiousness  Dependable  Organized  Reliable  Ambitious  Hardworking  Persevering

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A Agreeableness

N Neuroticism

O Openness

E Extraversion

     

     

     

     

Kind Cooperative Sympathetic Helpful Courteous Warm

Nervous Moody Emotional Insecure Jealous Unstable

Curious Imaginative Creative Complex Refined Sophisticated

Talkative Sociable Passionate Assertive Bold Dominant

The 1st International Seminar on Quality and Affordable Education (ISQAE – 2012) NOT  Careless  Sloppy  Inefficient  Negligent  Lazy  Irresonsible

NOT  Critical  Antagonistic  Callous  Selfish  Rude  Cold

NOT  Calm  Steady  Relaxed  At ease  Secure  Contented

NOT  Uniquisitive  Conventional  Conforming  Simple  Unartistic  Traditional

NOT  Quite  Shy  Inhibited  Bashful  Reserved  Submissive

Figure 6. Traits Adjectives Associated with Big Five (Colquit,et.al., 2011; Robbin & Judge, 2012) Some Definitions about Citizenship Behavior Citizenship Behavior (CB) is a term used to identify employees behavior and as part of job performance (Colquit, et.at., 2011). As a social being, in this case, employees behavior tend to be seen not as an individualistic human being but employees should also be able to help and give support to the others. That is why Colquit, et.al. (2011) defines “CB as voluntary employee activities some specific examples that may or may not be rewarded but that contribute to the organization by improving it.” Theoretically, CB consists of two dimensions, interpersonal and organizational citizenship behavior as figure it out as follows. For employee with interpersonal CB could be characterized by three dimensions, helping (like to help others which face the job problems), courtesy (to keep informing friends about organizational new policies), and sportmanship (try to maintain good work-attitude). On the other hand, organizational CB is also determined by three characteristic, voice (always talk about goodness of organization), civic virtue (high involve in organizational activities and operation and boosterism (helping the organization to protect from bad issues attack).

Figure 7. Types of Citizenship Behaviors

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According to Organ (Luthans, 2011; George & Jones, 2012), defines “Organizational citizanship behavior (ICB or CB) as individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggragate promotes the effective functioning of the organization.” Kinicki & Kreitner (2010) stated that “organizational citizenship behavior consist of employee behaviors that are beyond the call of duty.” This means that employees behavior who are not in duty will not be influenced by their position, job or their role at the organization but by their peronal choice. Some indicators are such as their behavior in helping others, not egoistic, more active, and most of them try to hinder from conflict, more patient and always try to do the best in achieving the target. McShane & Glinow (2010) and also Certo & Certo (2012) more specifically said that “employees help others without selfish intent are actively involved in organizational activities, avoid unnecessary conflict, perform task beyond normal role requirements, and gracefully tolerate impositions. On other occasion, Robbins & Judge (2012) commented that “Organizational Citizenship Behavior is discretionary behavior is not part of an employee’s formal job requirements but nevertheless promotor the effective functioning of the organization. Moreover they stated that “it seems logical to assume job satisfaction should be a major determinant of an employee’s CB.” Luthans (2011), admitted that “the personality foundation for these organizational CB reflects the employee’s predispositional traits to be cooperative, helpful, caring and conscientious.” He continued by saying that “more important to organizational CB, however, is that employees must perceive that they are being treated fairly, that the procedures and outcomes are fair.” Luthans (2011) also mentioned concern with some dimensions of organizational CB sich as Altruism (helping others wihtout pressure dealing with their job or even non job, for instance, helping friends when they are getting sick. Conscientious is another dimension which followed respectively by civic virtue, sportmanship, and courtesy. According to Ivancevich, et.al. (2011) “the company’s success and reputation were built by its leaders and employees who constantly pushed the limits to achieve higher level of performance. Almost all of definitions above are regarding a good behavior or character that reflect employees performance at the organization. Therefore when it is returned again to the original view of what actually CB means and its effects, it should be wise when Colquit, et.al. (2011) model show up as follows. 132


Figure 8. Integrative Model of Behavior From what it has been seen the model above, it could be said that job performance, in this study represented by CB, influenced indirectly by individual characteristics, i.e. personality. This personality which later called big-five personality assumed to be as determinant factor to job performance. To make sure that the originality of CB is theoretically from job performance, it can be examined below figure. Job performance defined by Colquit, et.al. (2011) as value of a set of employees behavior which positively or negatively contribute to the acheivement of organizational goals. And then one part of job performance is CB which could be seen as follows.

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Figure 9. Job Performance So when we are talking about job performance, we are talking about employees CB, in this study we are discussing about Citizenship Behavior. Theorethically, therefore, based on two models above it could be stated that job performance has been determined by task performance, Citizenship Behavior (CB) and counter productive behavior (CPB). Therefore when we are studying CB mean that we are studying about job performance (Colquit, et.at., 2011). RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Since the objective of this research is aiming at obtaining information concerning with personality factors that loading on to each factors and which one of those factors has the highest contribution to principals CB, research method that was suitable to this research was survey and correlational study. A factor analysis using varimax approach has been applied. This approach used because all factors dimensionally build a concept of personality basically supported by theories. For the second research, a simple regression and partial correlation has been choosen in analysing data. The population, in this first research, are all of teachers in Lampung Province, South Sumatra. It is around 2500 teachers from all level of 134


education are to be sampling frame. Sample has been selected randomly, by simple random sampling after instrument have been administered to all teachers. It was found that final size of sample involved 34 elementary school male teachers and around 340 female teachers, and also 60 primary school male teachers followed by 276 female teachers, and finally 56 secondary school male teachers and 183 female teachers. Besides, for second study, population is all elementary school principals in Jakarta Timur and around 54 sample has been randomly selected with standar error 1.03 which is interpreted to be homogen. The data has been collected by administering an instrument of personality based on big-five personality profile (Colquit, et.al., 2011; Ivancevich, 2011; Robbin & Judge, 2012; Gibson, et.at.,2012; George & Jones, 2012; Certo & Certo, 2012) which is used to use in organizational behavior research. The contents of this instrument consist of five dimensions (factors) i.e. Conscientiousness (C), Agreeableness (A), Neuroticism (N/emotional stability), Openness (O) and Extraversion (E), that is why called big-five personality profile. Each of those factors has four variables, so there are 20 variables (items) included in this instrument (for the first study) Each of item has 5 options categories from most accurate until least accurate in term of how respondents describe his/herself related to statement given to him/her, so scoring should be respectively as follows for positive item; very accurate = 5; moderately accurate 4; neither inaccuarte or accurate 3, moderately inaccurate 2, and veryinaccurate 1; conversely for negative statements.Instrument reliability was found 0.596 after calculated by Alpha Cronbach formula through SPSS PC ver.18. In correlational study, it has been developed an instrument measuring elementary school principals personality around 68 items (3 was not valid) with reliability 0.826 and it was around 30 items (2 was not valid) for measuring CB with reliability 0.94. Reliability agreement among rater (2 rater) in measuring CB was 0.63 Finally the data has been analyzed by applying SPSS PC, factor analysis separately conducted for teachers from elementary, primary and secondary school and for male and female teachers from each school level. In this case, varimax rotation has been adopted due to all factors being analyzed are basically based on theoretical framework which most expert called it as a “big five personality.” For second study, simple regression and partial correlation have been applied for test the hypothesis.

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RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Big-five Personality Instrument Validating Results

From the above tables, it could be interpreted that the variables/items code A13 and D05 has highest percentage of communalities, far above the criteria used for factor analysis, > 0.500, but on table 1.2. it is found that item code E16 has a negative factor loading which means that this variable/item could not be explained by its factor and suggested to be omitted from the scale. Comparing with the table 2.2. below, it is found the same result where two variables have a negative factor loading i.e.; A13 and C14, however fortunately item code A13 could still be retained since it has high percentage of communality, 0.800, which means around 80 % this item can share a correlation to other variables. Another finding is found on table 2.1 where only one item has lowest communality, 0.346 which far below the criteria, therefore needed to be taken into account, whether it might be omitted or revised.

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The same result also found on table 3 .2 where there is only an item is not loading positively i.e. D10, but communality for C14 is highest on table 3.1, in this case for primary school male teachers.

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However, on table 4.1, it is again found which communality below the criteria, especially for item code C14 and on table 4.2 only item code E 16 has negative factor loading, so those items might no be in accordance to the scale what really scale want to measure, in term of construct validity.

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It is surprisingly, among the table 5.1; 6.1 and 6.2, found that all variables fix with the criteria of factor analysis, from communalities or factor loading point of view, where all the items have high value of communalities and positive and above the criteria for factor loading, but again 2 items found on table 5.2 which have a negative factor loading, i.e. D15 and E06.

Based on those findings, it could be summarized all those findings by including statement or phrase especially for items or variables which extremely show either positive or negative contribution to the scale through out of five factors unidimensionally. Those findings are as follow; 1. Communalities found > 0.800 or > 80% 1.1. A13 = I LIKE ORDER (CONSCIENTIOUSNESS) 1.2. C19 = I SELDOM FEEL BLUE (NEUROTICISM) 1.3. D05 = I HAVE A VIVID IMAGINATION (OPENNESS) Those three items are all found from elementary school male teachers which means that in answering or responding the instruments, male teachers were probably more consistent than female teachers at different school level. It is logic when phrases of these items are considered to be a result of teachers personal description that they do like an order, never feel get nervous because they are male teachers and eager to be more curious as an indicator of openness variable.

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That is why those items have high communalities due to those respondents felt that they have been accurately described by those items/variables. 1.4. C14 = I GET UPSET EASILY (NEUROTICISM) This is also happen for item C14 which for primary school male teachers honestly were easily described accurately by this item statement since male teachers were more easier to get upset rather than female teachers in a given situation. Communalities < 0.400 2.1 D 15 ; I HAVE DIFFICULTY UNDERSTANDING ABSTRACT IDEAS (OPENNESS) For elementary school female teachers who got lower value in communality, especially for this item, is surprisingly because this item has not been accurately described teachers personally since most of female teachers, in general, do not have difficulty to imagine an abstract ideas. That is why this item has low communality values. 2.2. C 14, I GET UPSET EASILY (NEUROTICISM) This item actually is not fix to measure neuroticism since most of respondents, to be honest, do not like to be described accurately that their emotion are unstable. That is why this item has low communality as well. 2. Bad Factor Loading ( < 0.400) 3.2. D20; I DON’T HAVE A GOOD IMAGINATION (OPENNESS) This is a controversial findings since elementary school female this item should produce high factor loading on a given factor namely Agreeableness, however it has lower factor loading than statistical criteria for being good factor loading. For item code D20 is consistent with personality of female teachers because they have psychologically good imagination, therefore, this item is not able to be perceived by female teachers for being described accurately, then factor loading positive but still below the criteria. 3.3.D15; I HAVE DIFFICULTY UNDERSTANDING ABSTRACT IDEAS (OPENNESS) This finding is not different with item code D20, because it was a negative statement from this item, therefore, the reason is the same eventhough it is positive.

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3. Negative factor loadings 4.1.E16; I KEEP IN BACKGROUND (EXTRAVERSION) (from elementary school male teachers and primary female teachers) 4.2. A13 ; I LIKE ORDER (CONSCIENTIOUSNESS) 4.3. C14 ; I GET UPSET EASILY (NEUROTICISM) 4.4. D10 ; I AM NOT INTERESTED IN ABSTRACT IDEAS (OPENNESS) (all are from elementary school female teachers) 4.5. D15; I HAVE DIFFICULTY UNDERSTANDING ABSTRACT IDEAS (OPENNESS) 4.6. E06; I DON’T TALK A LOT (EXTRAVERSION) (both from primary school male teachers). In this case, negative factor loading means that items or variables do not have a consistency in what is actually factor want to measure, therefore the amount of variances belong to those variables could not be explained by a given factor/s, even it will be rotated by varimax or oblique, it would not change this findings. It is probably brought about by the phrases which are not actually able to describe respondents accurately, while on the other hand most of respondents choose reversely. Let’s take an example item E16, since most of male teachers at elementary school never get silent due to their personality are closely to sociable, one of the indicators being extravert, so they gave an answer accurate for negative statement given by the item. Finally, factor loading might be negative, even though the value is high. Personality Factors Contribute to School Pincipals CB Second research emphasized on relationship between personality with CB. It is found that regression model Y = 44.08 + 0.28 X is very highly significant (F-cal = 25.99 > F-tab = 12.22) at 0.001, where Y is predicted CB and X is personality. Between two variable is found to be linear, therefore all analysis requirement have been fulled fill in. In detail it can be seen at ANOVA table below. By this result, coefficient correlation can be calculated by "pearson product moment" and it is found that the correlation between elementary school principals personality with CB 0.59 (highly significant at .001).

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Table 7. ANOVA for Significance of Regression Model Ŷ = 44.08 + 0.28X and Liniearity Source of Variances Total Regression (a) Regression (b/a) Residual Within Group Error

Ftable

df

SS

MSS

Fcal

54 1 1 52 35 17

688078 685013.41 1021.18 2043.41 1547.74 495.67

1021.18 39.30 44.22 29.16

25.99***

4.03

7.17

ns

2.14

2.96

1.52

α = 0.05

α= 0.01

α= 0 .001

12.22

*** p< .001 ; ns: non significance (linier)

Figure 10. Diagram of Linearity for Regression Ŷ = 44.08 +0.28X This result means that the more accurate they describe their own personality, the better principals citizenship behavior (CB). It is around 34.81% principals CB might be explained by variation occured at their personality. However, the question is since personality consists of 5 factors which of these factors would give a highest contribution to CB. Therefore, it has been analyzed a matrix correlation among Conscientiousness (X1), Agreeableness (X2), Extraversion (X3), Emotional stability (X4), Openness to experience (X5) with CB. The detail result can be seen at table below.

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Table 8. Zero-Order Correlation of Each Personality Factors with Citizenship Behavior ttable

Personality Factors

Citizenship Behavior

tcal

Emotional Stability (X4) Oppeness to Experience (X5) Agreebleness (X2) Extraversion (X3) Conscientiouness (X1)

0.05 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.40

4.17** 3.77** 3.54** 3.41** 3.11**

α= 0.05 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67

Contribution (%)

α= 0.01 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40

25.00 21.16 19.36 18.49 16.00

** p <0.01 Table 9. First-Order Correlation Matrix between X and Y Control

X1

Partial Correlation ry1 ry2 ry3 ry4 ry5



X2

X3

X4

X5

ttable

R

tcal

r

tcal

r

tcal

R

tcal

r

tcal

α= 0.05

α= 0.01

0.277 0.258 0.406 0.344

2.06* 1.91* 3.17** 2.62**

0.184 0.259 0.423 0.373

1.34ns 1.91* 3.33** 2.87**

0.193 0.255 0.350 0.275

1.40ns 1.88* 2.67** 2.04*

.250 .307 .290 .414

1.85* 2.30* 2.16 3.25*

.232 .288 .271 .455 -

1.70* 2.15* 2.01* 3.65* -

1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68

2.42 2.42 2.42 2.42 2.42

P < 0.05; ** p <0.01 Table 10. First-Order Correlation between X1 and Y, ifEach of X2, X3, X4 and X5is controlled

Partial Correlation n r Coeffecient ry1.2 54 0.184 ry1.3 54 0.193 ry1.4 54 0.250 ry1.5 54 0.232 * p< 0.05 ; ns = non significant

ttable tcal 1.34ns 1.40ns 1.85* 1.70*

α=0.05

α=0.01

1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68

2.42 2.42 2.42 2.42

Table 11. First-Order Correlation between X2 and Y, if Each of X1, X3, X4 and X5is controlled Partial Correlation Coeffecient ry2.1 ry2.3 ry2.4 ry2.5

ttable n

r

tcal

54 54 54 54

0.277 0.255 0.307 0.288

2.06* 1.88* 2.30* 2.15*

α=0.05

α=0.01

1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68

2.42 2.42 2.42 2.42

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* p<0.05 Table 12. First-Order Correlation between X3 and Y, When Each of X1, X2, X4 and X5is controlled Partial Correlation Coeffecient ry3.1 ry3.2 ry3.4 ry3.5 * p< 0.05

ttable n

r

tcal

54 54 54 54

0.258 0.259 0.290 0.271

1.91* 1.91* 2.16* 2.01*

α=0.05

α=0.01

1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68

2.42 2.42 2.42 2.42

Table13. First-Order Correlation between X4 and Y, If Each of X1, X2, X3 and X5is controlled Partial Correlation Coeffecient ry4.1 ry4.2 ry4.3 ry4.5 ** p< 0.01

ttable n

r

tcal

54 54 54 54

0.406 0.423 0.350 0.455

3.17** 3.33** 2.67** 3.65**

α=0.05

α=0.01

1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68

2.42 2.42 2.42 2.42

Table 14. First-Order Correlation between X5 and Y, When Each of X1, X2, X3 and X4 is controlled Partial Correlation Coeffecient ry5.1 ry5.2 ry5.3 ry5.4 * p<0.05 ; ** p < .01

ttable n

r

tcal

54 54 54 54

0.344 0.373 0.275 0.414

2.62** 2.87** 2.04* 3.25**

α=0.05

α=0.01

1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68

2.42 2.42 2.42 2.42

Based on those tables, it could be stated that emotional stability has the highest and highly significant correlation to principals CB (.455, contribution around 20.7%) after all 4 the rest of personality factors has been controlled (conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness, and extravert). It is followed by openness, agreeableness, extravert and then conscientiousness. 144


CONCLUSION On this occasion there are some conclusions could be drawn from these findings as follow; 1. There are three items (variables) may not be consistent to across Teachers sexual different and school level. Those items are C 14; D 15; AND E 16. 2. Consistency is only found at the data revealed by secondary school female teachers due to they produce good communalities and fix factor loading as well. Based on these conclusions, it could be recommended that “big five personality” which actually derived from instrument for measuring employees personality at work-place, in organizational behavior and management, could might be implemented also for measuring teachers personality competence as required by Government Regulation No. 74/2008 about Teachers. Needless to say, this primarily research could be utilized as a supporting tool for objectively measuring one of the most unique competences comparing with pedagogy, social, professional competences, PERSONALITY. However, it is still required next continuing research by selecting more sample and workplace backgrounds. Based on those findings, for second study, some conclusions could be formulated as follow 1. In determining elementary principals citizenship behavior as part of principals 2. performance, emotional stability or neuroticism could be seriously taken into consideration. Respectively, other factors such as conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness, extraversion are alsoneeded to be taken into account. 3. in general as a holistic conclusion, it could be stated that personality of elementary 4. principals as one of other determinant factors to their performance which is in this case it is really measure their citizenship behavior instead. Therefore, it might be concluded also thatprincipals performance would determine high quality of school management. Needless to say, these conclusions will invite the interest group to continue this study by involving others relevant variables which would lead to study about citizenship behavior, especial for school principals.

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REFERENCES Certo, Samuel C. & S. Trevis Certo. (2012). Modern Management, PEARSON. Colquitt, et.al (2011), Organizational Behavior: Improving Performance and Commitment at the Work Place, PEARSON. George, J.M. & Gareth R. Jones (2012), Understanding and Managing Organizational behavior,Pearson. Gibson, James L. (2012). Organization: Behavior, Structure, Process. Boston: McGraw-Hill Greenberg, Jerald (2010), Managing Behavior in Organization, Boston: PEARSON Ivancevich, John M., Robert Konopaske, M.T.Matteson, (2011), Organizational Behavior and Management, Irwin: McGraw Hill Kreitner, Robert & Angelo Kinicki (2011), Organizational Behavior, Irwin: McGraw Hill. Luthans, Fred (2011), Organizational Behavior, New York: McGraw-Hill. McShane, Stevan L. & Mary Ann Von Glinow.(2010). zOrganizational Behavior. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Moorhead, Gregory & Ricky W. Griffin. (2010). Organizational Behavior: Managing People and Organization. Australia: Cengage Learning. Mullins, Laurie J. (2010). Management and Organizational Behavior. London: Prentice Hall. Newstrom, John W. (2011). Organizational Behavior: Human Behavior at Work. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Putrawan, I Made. (2010). A FactorAnalysis of Teachers Personality Based on Sexual Differences and School Level. “East Asian International Conference of Education Research”. Hongkong Institute of Education, December. 146


------------------. (2011). The Effect of Sexual Difference and School Level on Teachers Personality: An Expost Facto Study in Lampung Provinze. “The 1St International Conference on World-Class Education”. University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, December. Robbins, Stephen P & Timothy A. Judge. (2012.) USA: Prentice Hall.

Organizational behavior.

Schermerhorn, John R., et.al. (2011). Organizational Behavior. John Wiley & Sons. APPENDIX: Instrument Measuring Personality (for First Study) based on Colquitt, et.al. (2011, P 295). Listed below are phrase describing peoples behaviors. Please write a number next to each statement that indicates the extend to which it ACCURATELY describes you. Very moderately neither inaccurate nor moderately very inaccurate (1) inaccurate (2) accurate (3) accurate (4) accurate (5) A03. I GOT CHORES DONE RIGHT AWAY A08. I OFTEN FORGET TO PUT THINGS BACK IN THEIR PROPER PLACE A13. I LIKE ORDER A18. I MAKE A MES OF THINGS B02. I SYMPHATIZE WITH OTHERS’ FEELINGS B07 I AM NOT INTERESTED IN OTHER PEOPLE’S PROBLEMS B12. I FEEL OTHERS’ EMOTIONS B17. I AM NOT REALLY INTERESTED IN OTHERS C04. I HAVE FREQUENT MOOD SWINGS C09. I AM RELAXED MOST OF THE TIME C14. I GET UPSET EASILY C19. I SELDOM FEEL BLUE D05. I HAVE A VIVID IMAGINATION D10. I AM NOT INTERESTED IN ABSTRACT IDEA D15. I HAVE DIFFICULTY UNDERSTANDING ABSTRACT IDEA D20. I DO NOT HAVE A GOOD IMAGINATION E01. I AM THE LIFE OF THE PARTY E06. I DO NOT TALK A LOT E11. I TALK TO A LOT OF DIFFERENT PEOPLE AT PARTIERS 147


E16. I KEEP IN THE BACKGROUND NOTES: A = CONSCIENTIOUSNESS B = AGREEABLENESS C = NEUROTICISM D = OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE E = EXTRAVERSION

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USING AN AUTHENTIC ASESSMENT AND EFFECT TO STUDENT METACOGNITIVE IN BIOLOGY Marheny Lukitasari1, Akhmad Sukri2, Nasrul Rofiah3, Anik Dwi Handayani4 IKIP PGRI Madiun, Madiun, Indonesia1,3 IKIP Mataram, Indonesia2, Teacher of SMA 1 Madiun, Indonesia4 [email protected] ABSTRACT Authentic assessment is one alternative that is used to evaluate students’ learning outcomes believed to explore students’ ability. The Implementation of it has been appliedat the senior high school level (SMA) since the KTSP began. However, the teachers still find difficulties to use it in the teaching-learning process. Some factors like times, the appropriate of authentic assessment in supporting the learning activities, and determining the essential components needed to accommodate and to explore the students’ capabilities particularly in the biology class on biodiversity topic. This current research aims at knowing the effect of using authentic assessment to the students’ metacognitive skills in biology class at SMA. The design of this research was a quasi-experimental with nonequivalent pre test-post test control group design in factorial 2X1. The Experimental group was treated using authentic assessment however the control group was not treated using authentic assessment. The results showed that there was not significance effect of using authentic assessment for metacognitive skills in biology class at SMA. This result might caused by the uncommunicative questionnaire, the time is too short for implementing authentic assessment, the teachers and the students were not acustomized to design and to use authentic assessment in the learning process. Keywords: authentic assessment, metacognitive skills INTRODUCTION The development of education is shifted from teacher center paradigm to the student center, that aims to make the students active in the learning activities. In the whole learning activities through student center, the

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teachers act as the facilitator. The important thing that may not be forgotten is how to evaluate the learning process and result that was done and accomplished by the students. One alternative to do the evaluation of the student learning result andare believed to be able to explore students’ awareness is to use the authentic assessment. It was expressed by Hart (1994) in Corebima (2011) that an assessment is considered as authentic if it can involve the learning participants to the useful, important, and meaningful tasks. With the right form of authentic assessment, students will be able to do the authentic tasks, i.e. the tasks that demand the students to integrate the knowledge and awareness that has become one with their condition and may also be found in the daily life of the students. The authentic assessment measuring target is the competence measurement that directly done and given into the real situation. The authentic assessment is the assessment form by giving opportunities to the students to show the tasks related to the daily life (real-world task) through some various meaningful application from their knowledge and skills (authentic assessment tool homepage). In the authentic assessment, the assessment is often based on the students’ performance, where the students are asked to demonstrate their knowledge and skills, or awareness in any kind of appropriate situations they faced (Widhiarso, 2004). The other effects by applying authentic assessment according to Hammond and Snyder (2000) are that students will have their self-confidence of their work because they found some new facts to support it, and also have some resiprocal effects in learning so the teacher become more familiar to the learning condition that has been conducted. The implementation of the learning evaluation by assessing the learning process with authentic assessment istruments has begun to be applied in the senior high school since the enactment of kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan (KTSP). However, in fact the teachers are often have difficulties in applying the authentic assessment in the learning. The limiting factor proved to cause trouble are the time factor, the authentic assessment form, and the important component of authentic assessment that can accomodate and explore the students’ awareness. It is important to the teacher to pay attention, that despite the cognitive factor is the most noted, but it is more principal to make the students have the high thinking awareness and also to teach how to make that high thinking awareness. This awareness is metacognitive awareness, i.e. the awareness to recognize and realize the possessed learning process and progress. Thus, students will aware their thinking process and it will indirectly make them become independent learner. 150


The learning process will essentially generate 3 teaching thinking; teaching of thinking, teaching for thinking, and teaching about thinking. In teaching of thinking, the learning process is directed to the specific mental skills formation, such as critical skills, creative thinking, and metacognitive skills. In teaching for thinking, the learning process is directed to the efforts to create a learning environment empowering cognitive development, such as creating an atmosphere of democratic openness, creating a climate of fun learning so the students can optimally developed. For teaching about thinking, the learning process is directed to the efforts to help students to become more aware about their thinking process. The stage to help the students develop their metacognitive awareness is not something that easily done by teachers. Until now, in applying the learning of biology, teachers still insist on increasing the cognitive awareness by using Bloom taxonomy orientations from the C1-C6 awareness and still not teach about the thinking itself yet. This condition makes many students rely on the subject given by the teacher and they become less understand the advantages and disadvantages in their learning. Along with the cognitive psychologic development, then also developed the way teacher evaluate the learning result achievement, especially for the cognitive domain. Currently, in evaluating, the teachers tend to emphasize only the cognitive purposes without observing the cognitive process dimension, especially the metacognitive awareness. As a result, the efforts to introduce the metacognition in solving biological problems to the students have not been much explored. The metacognitive awareness is the interaction between metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive skills. The metacognitive knowledge can be seen when the students aware with their own cognitive awareness and do the monitoring of the cognitives they have in the learning process (Anderson et al., 2001). The metacognitive skills will help the students to become self-regulated learners who are responsible for their learning progress and adapt their learning strategy to achieve the purpose (Corebima, 2006). For example the students know that they have memory for the subject matter of biology. To assess their achievement, students make some notes about their achievements, and based on that achievement notes or monitoring they can do a self-reflection on their flaws and merits. With the controlling and monitoring that cognitive process, it will be easy to evaluate their cognitive achievements. Thus, the use of authentic assessment in learning biology will make the students aware the learning process so they can improve their learning result. Therefore, it is important to know how authentic assessment can affect the metacognitive awareness of the students.The purpose of the research is to determine the

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influence of the use of Authentic Assessment to the Metacognitive Awareness in the Subject Matter of Biology of Senior High School Students. METHODS The research is conducted with quasi experiment to know the influence of the use of authentic assessment to the metacognitive awareness of senior high school students in the subject matter of biology. The authentic awareness treatment is given as the independent variable to determine the dependent variable, i.e. the metacognitive awareness. The research design used is the nonequivalent Pratest-Post Test Control Group Design with factorial 2x1. The research is conducted at SMAN 1 Madiun, with the population of 8 classes and samples of two classes, i.e. XF and XH taken randomly. The metacognitive awareness data is captured by Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) instrument with three options of answers; the answer yes got 3 points, the answer undecided got 2 points, and the answer no got 1 point. The data analysis used is Anacova with 5% significance level. If the analysis result shows the value of F count significant then it will continued to a different test of Least Significance Difference (LSD). The whole analysis is helped with SPSS 16 for windows program, that begin with the covariant test, the homogenity test, and the data normality. DISCUSSION Anakova test results show that there is no influence of the authentic assessment implication to the students’ metacognitive awareness (score p>0,05 i.e. 0,315). It indicates that the class using authentic assessment and the class that are not using authentic assessment give the same influence towards the students’ metacognitive awareness. The research results was reinforced with the average score of the students’ metacognitive awareness that are not a far cry between the class treated with authentic assessment and the class that are not treated. The average score without assessment is 85,59, whereas the authentic assessment is 88,08). Some factors that estimated to affect the research result are the research instrument, the model of authentic assessment using, the teachers, the students’ internal factors, and the authentic assessment implication that is too short. The instruments to measure the metacognitive awareness is using the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) scoring guidelines, which each choice that answered yes got 3 points, undecided got 2 points, and no got 1 point. Next, the obtained points from each category are being added based on the number of questions items i.e. 52 items. From the insignificant results it seems that MAI instrument is less appropriate with the culture of the senior high school students in Madiun. It is seen from the way the students 152


answer and fill the instrument which tend to not mean it. Without reading the meaning of the sentences asked in the questionnaire carefully, the students straightly make some marks in the ‘yes’ column that impressed so hurried. Beside seen from the way the students answer, it can also seen from the suitability the students do with the given answer. In addition, some of the things that causes MAI less appropriate for students particularly in Madiun are the instrument characters that are not much enough, the instrument language that are not communicative enough, and the instrument answers that give students no opportunities to give some explanations. These results are confirmed by the research of Murni (2008) that explained that MAI questionnaire is not suitable for the condition of students in Indonesia generally. The model of using authentic assessment type in experiment class is estimated to cause the authentic assessment has no effect on the metacognitive consciousness. This is because the authentic assessment used as practical activity report about biodiversity does not emphasize the students to review andreevaluate the results of their works. The application of such authentic assessment makes the students do not realize what is needed to complete the lack of material that has not been mastered yet. Whereas, the reviewing and reevaluating process is urgently needed in increasing the metacognitive awareness according to Hanten et al. (2004), that the consciousness to observe, evaluate, and use the control awareness are the mental processes belong to a person as a unique character of human as the metacognitive consciousness. Although the use of authentic assessment emphasize on the students’ active learning activities, in the preparating, the writing, and the reporting it still need the teacher guidance. The under optimum of the students’ activity monitoring process makes the use of authentic assessment still only on the obligation stage for the students. This is appropriate with Sideridis et al. (2006) has expressed that the metacognition can be done with the strategy that applied to students by knowing the way of certain moments such as: a) training, by repeating the readings or looking back on the specific parts of the reading texts, b) planning, c) monitoring, and d) controlling themselves. The supports from teachers and the planned monitoring will optimize the use of authentic assessment and also as feedback for the learning process which is already done. The other factors that cause the authentic assessment has no effects to the students’ metacognitive consciousness are the psychological factors in the students themselves. Researcherexpect that students are tend to less consentrate while filling the MAI, that most students fill the answers with no based on their metacognitive consciousness yet. The students assume that 153


filling MAI is only as an obligation that should be done and not as a form of evaluation ofthe metacognitive awareness that will be able to help the development of their learning. This results that the answer given is not appropriate to the conditions and circumstances of the students themselves truly are. In fact, if the students get an understanding about their metacognitive consciousness and understanding it will really help them to develop their cognitive potentials. These conditions are also appropriate with the opinion of Murni (2008), that letting the students learn with metacognitive strategies can encourage them to be independent, it can foster the honest attitudes, and they can be bold to admit mistakes that ultimately will lead the students into the obvious increasing of the learning results. The next factor that cause the authentic assessment has no effects to the metacognitive consciousness are the time of authentic assessment implications that is too short, i.e. a KD of biodiversity with the face to face allocation of 3 times. The teachers’ initial planning has already delivered the kind of authentic assessment as the temporary practical reports, and the learning summary as the plain learning journals for students. In doing so, the compiling of journals is delivered by less than 50% of students, and even the others are not even compile it. It is impressed that the students do not consider the learning journals as some significant parts to support the learning process. In addition, a learning journal does not the instrument that they usually use in their learning activities. Observing these conditions, the adjustments and habits for teachers and students to use the authentic assessment does seems requiring times and conditioning continuously. The teacher will accustomed to get feedback of learning process and the students will have the metacognitive awareness that help to raise their learning results. CONCLUSIONS The results showed that there is no effects between the use of Authentic Assessment to the Metacognitive Awareness in the Subject Matter of Biology of Senior High School Students. Some of the things causing it are the less communicative questionnaire, the students’ psychological conditions, the time of authentic assessment implication that is too short, and the teachers and students who are not used to organize and use the authentic assessment in learning. Therefore, the use of the authentic assessment as a tool of developing the students’ metacognitive awareness requires planning, monitoring, and conditioning continuously. Basically, the use of the authentic assessment needs to be always used as an instrument to

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help students evaluate themselves, to support assessment, and to feedback the learning process for teachers. SUGGESTIONS Any further researches about the form of the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) appropriate with the learning, character, and psychologic conditions of the students in Indonesia are still needed. Researches concerning the use, the shape, and the selection of the right type of authentic assessment to support the learning also still needs to be done. REFERENCES Anderson, L.W. (Ed).at.al. (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assesing: a Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman. Corebima, A.D. (2006). Metakognisi: Suatu Ringkasan Kajian. Makalah disampaikan pada Pelatihan Strategi Metakognisi pada Pembelajaran Biologi untuk Guru-guru Biologi SMA di Palangkaraya. Corebima, A.D. (2011). Asessmen Autentik: Gambaran Penerapannya.Makalah disampaikan pada Workhop Penulisan Karya Ilmiah.Universitas Negeri Malang. Hammond, L.D., and Snyder, J. (2000). Authentic Asessment of Teaching in Context.Teaching and Teacher Education, 16: 523-545 (Online), retrieved from http://www.jcu.edu/education/Authentic_ assessment.pdf. Hanten, G., at. al. (2004). Childhood Head Injury and Metacognitive Processes in Language and Memory. Developmental Neuropsychology, 25(1&2):85-105. Murni, S. (2008). Pengaruh Penggunaan Jurnal Belajar dalam Pembelajaran Multistrategi Terhadap Kesadaran Kognitif dan Metakognitif Siswa SMA Negeri 9 Malang. Tesis. Malang: Universitas Negeri Malang. Sideridis, G.D., at.al. (2006).Predicting LD on the Basis of Motivation, Metacognition, and Psychopathology: An ROC Analysis.Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39(3):215-229.

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Widhiarso,W. (2004). Penerapan Asessmen dalam Pengukuran Kompetensi Mahasiswa dalam Melakukan Asessmen Psikologi. Fakultas Psikologi UGM. Yogyakarta (Online), retrieved fromhttp:// widhiarso.staff.ugm.ac.id.pdf

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RESEARCH AND TRENDS IN THE STUDIES OF SCHOOL-BASED ORAL ENGLISH ASSESSMENT FROM 2003 TO 2011: A REVIEW ON SELECTED JOURNALS Nur Diana Mohd Kamal1, Saedah Siraj2, Norlidah Alias3, Mohammad Attaran4 Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia1,2,3,4 [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], attaran @um.edu.my4 ABSTRACT Assessing oral proficiency is a real challenge for English language practitioners. Throughout the process of assessing, many features of oral competence are worth given attention by teachers as the assessors. As such, Malaysian Ministry of Education has urged on another alternative for oral assessment in 2002 with the intention of revamping and improvising the existing system. This new assessment is none other than School-Based Oral English Assessment (SBOEA). Therefore, this paper intends to review the studies done on the implementation of School-Based Oral English Assessment (SBOEA). Among the 15 articles selected from 2003 to 2011, 7 of them focused closely on Malaysian school context. The rest of articles revolve on School-Based Assessment in other context and speaking test as a whole. Based on this review, it is now possible to postulate that most studies were conducted to investigate respondents’ attitude and perception towards this type of assessment. At this juncture, it is also obvious that mixed methods which involve the use of both quantitative and qualitative study are the most preferred method in the studies of School-Based Oral Assessment. Although the use of questionnaire is fairly dominant in these journals articles, it is noted that other instruments such as semi-structured interview, observation and document analysis were also employed for data analysis. In addition, the insight and the data gained from these studies could be beneficial for future reference in reviewing and modifying the implementation of School-Based English Oral Assessment in

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Malaysia. As such, the findings drawn from the studies can shed some light for better implementation in Malaysia. Keywords: school-based assessment, studies, review, research purpose, trend INTRODUCTION Throughout the years, it is universally acknowledged that assessment has played an integral part in teaching and learning at any learning institution around the world. The word ‘assessment’ itself may have been interpreted distinctively by concerning parties. To exemplify, (Sidhu, Chan, Sidhu, 2011: 300-327) states that five different parties which include policy maker, administrator, teacher, parent and student may hold different perceptions and conceptions on assessment. According to Sidhu, Chan, and Sidhu (2011: 300-327), policy makers define assessment as standards to monitor the quality of education. Administrators view assessment as a means to monitor the strengths and weaknesses of a programme whereas teachers use assessment as a tool to monitor a student’s progress and performance. By contrast, students perceive assessment as an indicator of their ongoing progress and performance. Instead, parents regard assessment as a kind of feedback on their child’s progress as well as the gaugeto indicate school’s accountability in offering effective teaching and learning. In this sense, assessment system does not only affect the teaching and learning but it does affect the society at large. Hence, a study by (Akiyama, 2003: 2-11) concur that new approaches to assessment are certainly necessaryfor educational reform. Traditionally, assessment in Malaysian school was centralised on national examination. Students were required to sit for three main public examinations as a prerequisite to the next level of education. In a study conducted by (Omar and Sinnasamy, 2009: 13-29), these principal examinations have been generally known to Malaysian as the Primary School Assessment (UPSR), the Lower Secondary Assessment Examination (PMR) and the Malaysian Certificate of Examination (SPM). Nevertheless, SchoolBased Assessment was introduced in 2002 as a move away from traditional teaching to keeping abreast with changing trends of assessment. In other words,this initiative which was also a directive from our Ministry of Education aimed to suit the global trend of decentralisation of assessment.One of the reasons for this implementation is to help to improve students’ communicative competence which is parallel to the learning outcomes outlined in the English Language Syllabus for Malaysian Secondary Schools (Lembaga Peperiksaan Malaysia, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysian, 2002). 158


To meet this need, School-Based Oral English Assessment (SBOEA) was integrated for the teachers to promote the improvement of English communication skills. According to Sidhu, Chan, and Mohamad (2011: 93-115), the rationale of integrating School-Based Oral English Assessment (SBOEA) into School-Based Assessment component is due to the power of this alternative assessment as an authentic form in assessing students’ actual speaking activity. In comparison, the conventional Oral English Test which was administered before the year 2002 failed to offer true reflection of students’ actual communication skill (Sidhu, Chan, and Mohamad, 2011: 93-115).In addition, (Sidhu, Chan, and Mohamad, 2011: 93-115) believes that SBOEA mandatesboth teaching and testing to be integrated in the English classroom. In this respect, these ongoing oral assessments can also promote teaching and learning in the English classroom as they are conducted three times throughout two years of upper Secondary level. In gaining more insightful information of the implementation of School-Based Oral English Assessment (SBOEA), a review has been done on selected journals from different educational publications. This review of published articles in academic journals has seenvarious areas of studies conducted. This variance comprises the perception, perspectivesand attitude, similarities and differences, influencing factors, knowledge and understanding and the concerns on the implementation of School-Based Assessment. Therefore, the following sections will engulf the review divided by research purpose, method, results and discussion, implications and conclusions as well as limitations of the research. Research Purpose This paper intended to investigate the research and trends in the studies of School-Based Oral English Assessment (SBOEA). The articles published by 13 different educational journalssuch as Journal of Malaysian English Language Teaching Association (MELTA), Journal of English Language Teaching, Asian EFL Journal, Journal of the English Teacher, The International Journal of Educational and Psychological Assessment, Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences, Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction, Journal of US-China Education Review, International Education Studies, Language Testing, Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, JALT Testing and Evaluation and Educational Studies between the years 2003 and 2011 were reviewed by research topic, journal, publication year, research purpose and trend. The review of selected journals might outline the research trends and patterns of the articles related to School-Based Oral English Assessment 159


(SBOEA) in recent years. The trend may encompass the methodology used (whether it is qualitative or quantitative)and the instruments used in gathering data. As such, it is hoped that this review can help the school administrators, English Head of Panel as well as English teachersin Malaysia to gain some better insight of the publishing trends of School-Based Oral Assessment studies. At a larger extent, this review could be somehow beneficial for Teacher Education Division (BahagianPendidikan Guru) and Malaysian Examination Syndicate (Lembaga Peperiksaan Malaysia) to improvise the existing assessment and to promote further study on the subject matter. In addition, the insight offered by this review could be useful for future reference in reviewing and modifying the implementation of School-Based English Oral Assessment especially in Malaysia. Hence, three research questions were developed to guide this review. They were as follows: 1. Which context shows the highest percentage of conducting studies on School-Based Oral English Assessment? 2. How much categories can be generated based on research topics? 3. What was the trend of the studies conducted on School-Based Oral English Assessment in these eight years? METHOD Research Papers for Review This paper used articles published by 13different educational journals which include Journal of Malaysian English Language Teaching Association (MELTA), Journal of English Language Teaching, Asian EFL Journal, Journal of the English Teacher, The International Journal of Educational and Psychological Assessment, Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences, Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction, Journal of US-China Education Review, International Education Studies, Language Testing, Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, JALT Testing and Evaluation and Educational Studies. It is worth to be informed that this paper only provides a review on selected journal articles. Any other research documents such as book review and unpublished theses are not included for this review. Based on the selected journal articles which consisted 15 of them, the review was done by analysing abstracts and other significant sections such as method and data collection in order to determine the publishing trends of School-Based Oral Assessment studies.

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Research Topic Analysis The purpose of analysing the research topic is to determine the number of studies which were closely related on School-Based Oral English Assessment. In reviewing 15 selected articles from 13 different educational journals, the research topics were first categorised intoseven different categories based on the research topics themselves. In relation to the studies of School-Based Oral English Assessment, these respective categories include: perception, similarities and differences, analysing factors, knowledge and understanding, concerns, washback effects and miscellaneous. The following table will further explain the content of the articles based on different categories: Table 1:Research Topic Analysis No.

Categories

Description

No. of articles 5

1.

Perception

Articles in this research category generally discuss about perceptions, reactions, perspectives and views on School-Based Oral English Assessment from different parties. The data was obtained from different groups of respondents which have covered teachers, students and parents.

2.

Similarities and Differences

This topic of research touches on similarities and differences in teachers’ and students’ perception on School-Based Oral English Assessment. However, this article is hardly categorised under ‘Perception’ category because of the absence of such word in the research topic.

1

3.

Analysing factors

This category explores the influencing factors which associated with oral performance.

1

4.

Knowledge and understanding

This topic category generally focuses on teachers’ knowledge and understanding of School-Based Oral English Assessment in Malaysia as a whole.

1

5.

Concerns

This topic of research includes the concerns expressed by teachers on the implementation of School-Based Oral English Assessment in Malaysia.

1

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Categories

Description

6.

Washback effects

This category includes a study which aimed to determine the washback effects of an oral assessment among EFL learners.

7.

Miscellaneous

Articles that fall under this category are quite general in nature (somehow related to School-Based Assessment and Oral Assessment) and hardly categorised under aforementioned categories. The following includes the research topic for these articles:

No. of articles 1

5

 School-Based Assessment: Will it really change the Education Scenario in Bangladesh (Mariam Begum dan Sabrin Farooqui, 2008: 45-53)  Oral Examination Assessment Practices: Effectiveness and Change with a First Year Undergraduate Cohort (B. Oakley and C. Hencken, 2005: 3-14)  Assessing speaking in Japanese junior high schools: Issues for the senior high school entrance examinations (T. Akiyama, 2003: 2-11)  Interaction in group oral assessment: A case study of higher and lower scoring students (G. Zhendong, 2010: 586-602)  Rating criteria for the three speaking test format: Monologue, Dialogue and Multilogue (Y. Nakamura, 2009: 133141)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Percentage forcontexts related to the studies of School-Based Oral English Assessment By reviewing these 15 journals articles from 2003 to 2011, it is noted that seven of these articles were closely related to the studies of SchoolBased Oral English Assessment in Malaysia. The analysis can be further explained as presented in the following table.

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Table 2. Number of articles related to the studies of School-Based Oral English Assessment for different contexts Contexts Related articles

Msia 7

HK 2

Japan 2

Bdesh 1

UK 1

S’pore 1

Cbia 1

First, the review has identified that 7 of selected articles were closely related to Msia (Malaysia). As for HK (Hong Kong) and Japan, 2 articles were closely related to each country respectively. By contrast, the review has revealed that only 1 article was related to the following countries:Bdesh (Bangladesh), UK, S’pore (Singapore) and Cbia (Columbia).Based on the information presented in Tab. 2 above, pie chart was generated to provide a clear picture of percentagefor contexts related to the studies of School-Based Oral English Assessment.

Graph 1.Percentage for Contexts Related to the Studies of School-Based Oral English Assessment From the above analysis, it can be seen that almost half (46%) of 15 articles published in 13 educational journals between the year 2003 to 2011 were related to School-Based Oral English Assessment in Malaysia. As for Hong Kong and Japan context, the articles analysed represent 13% of the overall percentage. Also, Fig. 1 above has proved that other countries such as Bangladesh, UK, Singapore and Columbia only constitute 1% of the percentage of the related articles. Therefore, based on this analysis, it is feasible to conjecture that most studies on School-Based Oral English Assessment have been conducted in Malaysia.

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Research Purpose Analysis After reviewing 15 selected articles from 13 different educational journals, it is now possible to categorise the articles into six different categories based on various research purposes. These respective categories include: perception, analysing factors, knowledge and understanding, concerns, washback effects and miscellaneous. The rationale of this is to find the most common purpose related to the studies on School-Based Oral English Assessment. The following table will provide further elaboration of the area of studies based on different categories: Table 3. Research Purpose Analysis Purpose

1.

Perception

Articles in this research category generally aim to find out perceptions, reactions, perspectives and views on the following matters: the implementation of SBOEA, challenges and problems arise, its effectiveness as an accurate gauge, impact and consequences of SBOEA. Instead, two articles among these eight focus on the similarities and differences as well as the relationship in perceptions between different parties. Those parties included teachers, students and parents.

2.

Analysing factors

This topic of research generally hopes to identify factors associated to students’ oral performance. Besides that, study was also done on the relationship between these factors and students’ oral scores.

1

3.

Knowledge and understanding

This category investigates teachers’ knowledge and understanding of SBOEA in Malaysia. The subject matters comprise of objectives, the implementation (pre, while and post administration) and challenges faced.

1

4.

Concerns

This topic category investigates the concerns of the teachers on School-Based Assessment at 5 stages using model from Hall, George and Rutherford (1977).

1

5.

Washback effects

This topic of research was conducted to determine the washback effects of an oral assessment between experimental and comparison group.

1

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Description

No. of articles 8

No

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Purpose

Description

6.

Miscellaneous

Articles that fall under this category touch on Oral Assessment in general and still considered to havelittle connection with School-Based Assessment. These three articles do not share the same purpose.  (G. Zhendong, 2010: 586-602) – identify the interactional features that characterise a group of higher-scoring and lower-scoring students’ participation in group oral assessment  (Y. Nakamura, 2009: 133-141) – Rating criteria for the three speaking test format: Monologue, Dialogue and Multilogue  (T. Akiyama, 2003: 2-11) – discuss how high school teachers in Tokyo assess speaking skill

No. of articles 3

As can be seen from Tab. 3, it is noted that 8 articles fall under ‘Perception’ category. Articles that fall under this category were written by Sidhu, Chan, and Sidhu, 2011: 300-327; Liying, Andrews, and Ying, 2011: 221249; Sidhu, Chan, and Mohamad, 2011: 93-115; Noor, Muniandy, Krishnan, and Mathai, 2010: 142-151; Malakolunthu and Sim, 2010: 1170-1176; Omar and Sinnasamy, 2009: 13-29; Begum and Farooqui, 2008: 45-53; Oakley and Hencken, 2005: 3-14. In comparison, only 1 article can be categorised into respective groups: Analysing factors (Chan, Sidhu, Rani, Azi, 2011: 27-47), Knowledge and Understanding (Sidhu, Chan, and Mohamad, 2011: 93-115), Concerns (Majid, 2011: 1-15), and Washback Effects (Sidhu, Chan, and Mohamad, 2011: 93-115). Under ‘Miscellaneous’ category, 3 articles (Zhendong, 2010: 586-602; Nakamura, 2009: 133-141; Akiyama, 2003: 2-11) were considered to fit into this category.

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Graph 2. Percentage of research purpose analysis The published percentage of related purpose in each category for 15 selected journal articles between the years 2003 to 2011 are presented in Fig. 2.Fig. 2 above has revealed that ‘Perception’ has made up more than half (53%) of overall percentage.That is to say, “Perception” is the most common category among all. In addition, it is also worth noting that many researchers were interested to study respondents’ perception and view on School-Based Oral English Assessment based on this analysis.This highest percentage is then followed by ‘Miscellaneous’ (20%), Washback effects, Concerns and Knowledge and Understanding which respectively has 7%. It is also interesting to note that ‘Analysing factors’ had 1% less than the second lowest even theyshare the same number of article. Trends of the Studies Conducted on School-Based Oral English Assessment in Malaysia In determining the trend of the studies conducted on School-Based Oral English Assessment for the past eight years (2003 - 2011),it is worth giving attention to the methodology employed and the instruments used in gathering data.In terms of methodology employed, the articles from selected educational journals can be categorised into threecategories: quantitative, qualitativeand both quantitative and qualitative. Reference Muñoz and Álvarez (2010: 33-49) defines quantitative study as a studyinvolves the prospect of analysing numerical data. By contrast, (Muñoz and Álvarez, 2010: 33-49) defines qualitative study as data analysis which involves organising, accounting for and explaining the data and often largely lieson interpretation. The following Tab. 4 summarises the methodology employed and instrument used in the studies of selected journal articles.

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Table 4. Trends of the studies conducted on School-Based Oral English Assessment in Malaysia No. 1.

Title Between the Ideal and Reality: Teacher’s perception of the implementation of SchoolBased Oral English Assessment (SBOEA)

Author Hamzah Md Omar, Paramasivan Sinnasamy (2009)

Methodology Quantitative study

Instrument Self-constructed questionnaire

2.

School-Based Assessment in Malaysian Schools: The Concerns of the English teachers

Faizah A Majid (2011)

Quantitative study

Questionnaire

3.

Impact and consequences of School-Based assessment (SBA): Students’ and parents’ views of SBA in Hong Kong

Liying Cheng, Stephen Andrews, Ying Yu (2011)

Quantitative study

(Questionnaire) -1 for Students (SQ) and 1 for Parents (PQ)

4.

Assessing speaking in Japanese junior high schools: Issues for the senior high school entrance examinations

Tomoyasu Akiyama (2003)

Quantitative study

Questionnaire and test result analysis

5.

Rating criteria for the three speaking test format: Monologue, Dialogue and Multilogue

Nakamura Yuji (2009)

Quantitative study

Questionnaire

6.

Upper Primary Teacher’s perception of PSLE English Oral Assessment

Norashikin Mohamed Noor, Mohan K. Muniandy, Shashi Kumar Shanmugan, Emily Jothee Mathai (2010)

Qualitative study

Semi structured interview

7.

The School-Based Oral English Test: Similarities and Differences

Zaitun Abdul Majid, Arshad Abd Samad, Mazanah Muhammad, Malachi Edwin Vethamani (2011)

Qualitative study

Interview and observation

–

167

The 1st International Seminar on Quality and Affordable Education (ISQAE – 2012) No. 8.

Title Teacher perspectives of school-based assessment in a secondary school in Kuala Lumpur

Author SuseelaMalakolun thu and Sim Kwan Hoon (2010)

Methodology Qualitative study

Instrument Semi-structured interviews, Observation of Oral Assessment session

9.

Interaction in group oral assessment: A case study of higher and lower scoring students

Zhendong Gan (2010)

Qualitative study

Observation (based on group oral assessment)

10.

Students’ Reactions to School – Based Oral Assessment: Bridging the Gap in Malaysia

Gurnam Kaur Sidhu, Chan Yuen Fook, Sarjit Kaur Sidhu (2011)

Quantitative and qualitative study

Questionnaire and Focus Group Interview

11.

Analyzing factors associated with students’ oral test performance

Chan Yuen Fook, Gurnam Kaur Sidhu, Norhamimah Rani, Norazah Abdul Aziz (2011)


Questionnaire, A set of Oral Test Paper, Semi – structured interview

12.

Teachers’ Knowledge and Understanding of the Malaysian School-Based Oral English Assessment

Gurnam Kaur Sidhu, Chan Yuen Fook, Azleena Mohamad (2011)


13.

School-Based Assessment: Will it Really Change the Education Scenario in Bangladesh

Mariam Begum and SabrinFarooqui (2008)


Questionnaire, Semi-structured interviews and document analysis Questionnaire, interview and document analysis

14.

Washback of an oral assessment system in the EFL classroom

Ana P. Muñoz and Marta E. Álvarez (2010)


Surveys for students and teachers, class observations and external evaluations)

15.

Oral examination Assessment Practices: Effectiveness and Change with a First Year Undergraduate Cohort

Ben Oakley and Clare Hencken (2005)


Questionnaire, observation

168


First, the results of this analysis revealed that mixed methods which involve both quantitative and qualitative study are the most favoured methodology used for the studies on School-Based Oral Assessment. This may due to the notion that mixed method can enable rich data to be collected which later affords triangulation of the findings (Muñoz and Álvarez, 2010: 33-49).It can be seen that 6 articles out of 15 starting from Article No. 10 to 15 have employed this mixed method. The result is then followed by the use of quantitative study which includes 5 articles starting from No.1 to 5 and 4 articles on qualitative study starting from No.6 to 9. As presented in Tab. 4, it can also be concluded that more than half of the studies (11 articles) have employed questionnaire as a main tool in gathering data. Reference (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison, 2011) believes that employing a questionnaire in an educational research is very beneficial as it offers unbiased representation of population of interests. This claim may somehow explain the highest number of the use of questionnaire as a primary data collection method. Nonetheless, some other methods were also used in these articles and they involved the use of interview (7 articles), observation (5 articles) and document analysis (3 articles). Although a variety of methods used does exist, the questionnaire remains the most prevalent among all. IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS As mentioned in the previous section, there were three research questions posed as a guide for this review. Hence, this section will elucidatethe findingsas well as implications that can be derived from each research question. The first research question referred to the percentage for contextswhich were related to the studies of School-Based Oral English Assessment.This review has indicated that almost half of 15 journals articles from 2003 to 2011 were closely related to the studies of School-Based Oral English Assessment in Malaysia. For instance, the review has identified that 7 of selected articles were closely related to Malaysian context. When the data was analysed into a percentage form, it can be seen that 46% of these 15 articles were related to School-Based Oral English Assessment in Malaysia. As such, it is possible to claim that substantial amount of studies has been conducted on the subject matter in Malaysia. As well, this may somehow imply that many different parties in Malaysia were interested to study the implementation of this School-Based Oral English Assessment as a whole. Nonetheless, it would be interesting if more studies on such subject are also conducted in other countries. The second research question concerned the research purposes related to School-Based Oral English Assessment which were published in the 169


selected journals for the past 8 years. After reviewing 15 selected articles from 13 different educational journals, it is now possible to categorise the articles into six different categories based on various research purposes. These respective categories include: perception, analysing factors, knowledge and understanding, concerns, washback effects and miscellaneous.The review has shown that 8 out of 15 articles fall under ‘Perception’ category. In addition, Fig. 2 has reported that ‘Perception’ has made up more than half (53%) of overall percentage.In this respect, there were indications that most of researchers were interested to investigate the respondents’ perceptions, perspectives, views as well as attitudes towards School-Based Oral English Assessment.Therefore, the insight offered by this review which comes in form of feedback could be beneficial for future reference in reviewing and modifying the implementation of School-Based English Oral Assessment especially in Malaysia. Nevertheless, more in-depth investigation on other areas which may include teachers’ and students’ readiness,impact and consequences and the futureof School-Based Oral English Assessment are also deemed worth giving attention to. Additionally, the third research question investigated the trend of the studies conducted on School-Based Oral English Assessment in these eight years. At this juncture, it is obvious that mixed methods which involve both quantitative and qualitative study are the most preferred method used for the studies on School-Based Oral Assessment. As presented in Tab. 4, itis noted that 6 articles out of 15have employed mixed method. Besides that, this review has also indicated that the use of questionnaire appears to be a primary data resource as more than half of the studies (11 articles) have employed questionnaire as a main tool in gathering data.Inadvertently, this paper has disclosed that these two predominant trends are most preferable among recent researches. As such, it can also shed some light on the best selection of method and instrument in extending similar studies at a larger extent. LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH Taking all the results from journals, we have now gained a better insight of the research and trends in the studies of School-Based Oral Assessment. Nevertheless, it is worth addressing a few limitations of the studies in order to ensure precise interpretation of the findings. First, it is not too much to postulate that a limitation of this content analysis lies in the generalisation of the findings.Althoughalmost half of the articles centred on Malaysian context (7 articles), it is still hard to determine that most studies on School-Based Oral English Assessment have been conducted in Malaysia.Under such circumstances, the results only offer us a snapshot of 170


the studies in particular context. As well, the findings offered by each study could not simply be generalised to other countries in the world. To exemplify, purpose of conducting studies on School-Based Oral English Assessment may vary from one place to another even in the same country, considering many other external factors. Second, it is obvious that the use of mixed method and questionnaire is the most prevalent among recent researchers throughout this review. Nevertheless, it is also worth noting that the small number of selected articles (15 articles) can hardly represent the research trend around the globe. As well, it is also recommendedthat the studies to be repeated in the next few years in other different contexts in order to get a precise picture of pattern and trend in the studies of the subject matter. REFERENCES Akiyama, T. (2003).“Assessing speaking in Japanese junior high schools: Issues for the senior high school entrance examinations”.JALT Testing and Evaluation, 7(2), 2-11. Chan, Y. F., Gurnam Kaur Sidhu, Norhamimah Rani and Norazah Abdul Aziz. (2011). “Analysing Factors Associated with Students’ Oral Test Performance”. The International Journal of Educational and Psychological Assessment, 9 (11), 27-47. Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2011). Research methods in Education (7thed.). New York: Routledge. Faizah A Majid (2011). “School-Based Assessment in Malaysian Schools: The Concerns of the English teachers”. Journal of US-China Education Review, 8(10), 1-15. Gurnam Kaur Sidhu, Chan, Y. F., and Azleena Mohamad.(2011). “Teachers’ Knowledge and Understanding of the Malaysian School-Based Oral English Assessment”. Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction, 8, 93-115. Gurnam Kaur Sidhu, Chan, Y.F. and Sarjit Kaur Sidhu. (2011). “Students’ reactions to school – based oral assessment: bridging the gap in Malaysia”. Asian EFL Journal, 13 (4).300-327. Hamzah Md. Omar and ParamasivanSinnasamy. (2009). “Between the ideal and reality: teacher’s perception of the implementation of schoolbased oral english assessment”. A Journal of the Malaysian English Language Teaching Association,38(2), 13-29. 171


Lembaga Peperiksaan Malaysia, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysian. (2002). “Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia”. Pengendalian Ujian Lisan Berasaskan Sekolah (ULBS). Liying, C., Andrews, S. and Ying, Y. (2011). “Impact and consequences of School-Based Assessment (SBA): Students’ and parents’ views of SBA in Hong Kong”. Language Testing, 28 (2), 221-249. Mariam Begum and SabrinFarooqui (2008). “School-Based Assessment: Will it Really Change the Education Scenario in Bangladesh”. International Education Studies, 1(2), 45-53. Muñoz, A.P. and Álvarez, M.E. (2010). “Washback of an oral assessment system in the EFL classroom”. Language Testing, 27(1), 33-49. Nakamura, Y. (2009). “Rating criteria for the three speaking test format: Monologue, Dialogue and Multilogue”. Educational Studies, 51, 133-141. Norashikin Mohamed Noor, Mohan K. Muniandy, Shashi Kumar Krishnan and Emily JotheeMathai (2010). “Upper Primary Teachers’ Perception of PSLE English Oral Assessment”. English Language Teaching, 3 (4), 142-151. Oakley, B. and Hencken, C. (2005). “Oral examination assessment practices: effectiveness and change with a first year undergraduate cohort”. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education. 4(1), 314. Owens, L.K. (2002). “Introduction to survey research design”. Seminar Series.SRL Fall, (1-18). Suseela Malakolunthu and Sim, K. H. (2010). “Teacher perspectives of schoolbased assessment in a secondary school in Kuala Lumpur”.Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences, 9, 1170-1176. Zaitun Abdul Majid, Arshad Abd. Samad, Mazanah Muhamad and Malachi Edwin Vethamani (2011). “The school-based oral english test: similarities and differences in opinion between teachers and students”. The English Teacher, 10, 113-128. Zhendong, G. (2010). “Interaction in group oral assessment: A case study of higher and lower scoring students”. Language Testing, 27 (4), 586602.

172


INAPPROPRIATENESS INDEX REVIEWED FROM SCORING TECHNIQUES Yuliatri Sastrawijaya1, Naro Prasetyo2 State University of Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia1,2 [email protected], [email protected] ABSTRACT A measurement in the field of education is usage to measure latent trait that cannot be seen from the learner. The measurement of learners’ latent traits can be done by providing stimulus in the form of tests or questionnaires. The response of the learner is expected can reflect the true latent trait, and then the result is given a score that can be interpreted correctly. The reality on the ground, sometimes, the score as a result does not provide correct information about the students. It may be caused by individual or one by one student, this inappropriateness is called the inappropriateness scores. Inappropriateness score can be caused by carelessness or reckless, anxious, guessing or any other. Inappropriateness index is expressed in a number of ways, classical and modern. The classical approach is simply and can be applied for the small sample. Sato modification Harnisch and Linn method or SHL stated the appropriate pattern into a caution index. It is a method to find the number of incorrect answers in easy items, and the number of correct answers in the difficult one, the answers from all students’ disparity results can be expressed by the caution index. If the caution index more than 0.3, it means that the pattern of the answers is not appropriate. One way to overcome the irregularities are using scoring techniques such as penalty technique; this technique will make students answer the test more carefully. The purpose of this study is to see the effect of scoring techniques in caution index. The research was conducted at the senior high school in South Tangerang with a total of sample are 106 students. The instrument used was the Test of English consists of 30 items. The results of this study describe the group using conventional scoring techniques get 13.5% students obtained aberrant patterns and the group using penalty technique have 3.7% students obtained aberrant patterns. The result of hypothesis test shows that penalty technique affects the caution index. Keywords:inappropriateness index, conventional, guessing

caution

index,

penalty,

173


INTRODUCTION A measurement in the field of education is to measure the latent trait that does not appear from the learner. To measure the latent traits of the learner is by providing stimulus in the form of tests or questionnaires. The response of the learner is expected can reflect the true latent trait, and then the response is given a score that can be interpreted correctly. The test is a set of questions answered or statements that must be selected / taken, or tasks that must be done by the examinee. Test according Cangelosi (1990:21) is "the planned measurement used by evaluators trying to create the opportunities for students to demonstrate their achievement in relation with its intended purpose. "Mc Donald (1999: 55) argues the measure is the provision of number based on the students’ responses with specific rules. Naga (1992:435) states that the reality on the ground, sometimes, the score as a result does not provide correct information about the students. It may be caused by information that does not reach down to the amount or dimension that will be measured. Or perhaps, the score is mixed with the amount or other dimensions that are not intended to be measured so that the score becomes ambiguous or there is inappropriate score. One source that causes inappropriateness is individuals or one by one students, this inequality is called the inappropriateness index. The real shape of inappropriateness index is the students’ scores do not suit with the students’ ability, it can be obtained by the scores are lower than the ability or the opposite. Inappropriateness students in answering test item can be caused by carelessness or reckless, for example, someone can answer the difficult item correctly, but otherwise cannot answer easy items. Inappropriateness score can also occur due to the students’ anxious and worried feeling during the test, so he or she cannot answer properly, which cause the scores obtained under capacity. In other condition, may also occur, the learners who have low ability can answer the test through a simply guess or conjecture, but due to luck, the guessing can answer items correctly, and this affects scores obtained at the top of his ability. It is necessary to detect inappropriateness score, by comparing the results of easy answers to difficult items. Inappropriateness index is expressed in a number of ways, classical and modern. The detection of modern approach using a large sample and requires complex requirements, while the classical approach is simpler and can be applied in the small sample. There are many methods to calculate the inappropriate score in classically, one of them is Sato- Harnisch - Linn method or SHL. Caution index was first proposed in 1975 by Takahiro Sato, therefore, is given the name of Sato Caution Index. Scales used in the calculation of Sato 174


caution index is Guttman scale. Guttman scale is a scale that assumes that if students can answer the difficult items, meaning items that would easily be answered with ease. Sato caution index focuses on two things: the index in the index beyond the ability of the student and the student's ability. index in the ability of students (within his / her ability index) was obtained from the pattern of incorrect answers on the easy items and the index beyond the capabilities (beyond his / her ability index) was obtained from the correct answers on difficult points. Determination of the easy and difficult items is strongly influenced by the ability of the group. Index of learners in one group will be different from other groups who have different capabilities, although the patterns of the same answer. Indices within and beyond ability is determined by the total score of the students. In other words, the numbers of students’ correct answers become the basic separation between hard and easy items. If students are among the items that the students really easy or difficult the item, the index precautionary Sato became a big heart even more than one. Sato caution index gives the index limit at 0.5 as a sign that the scores obtained by students are still in the acceptable limit, and be careful if prudence index above 0.5 indicates that there is no reasonable aberrant pattern in students' responses. The core of the Sato caution index is to measure the extent to which patterns of students' answers according to the student's ability to answer items on a test. Formula untuk Indeks kehati-hatian Sato adalah: ni .

c 

(1  u j 1

ni

ij

.

n j 1

.j

) n. j     j  i.   

J

 u n

j

ni.1

J

n j 1

J

.j

ij

.j

     

Note: = Sato caution index c i = 1,2,……I, indexes for students j = 1,2, …J, indexes for items = 1 if student i answer item j correctly, 0 if student i answer item j wrongly . = total correct score for student i, and = total correct answer for item j

175


Limits of normality for the Sato caution index is 0.5. Students who have Sato caution index greater than 0.5 indicate the pattern of students' answers is inappropriateness so that teachers need to be careful in interpreting the scores obtained by this student. Inappropriateness score raises some questions, like: do students cheat?, do students guess the answer?, are students concerned?, do students understand the language in question?, and whether the student has a broad knowledge but not interested in the lesson?. With the Sato’s caution index the detection of inappropriateness can be done and can help a teacher find an exact solution to make better learning process. Sato caution index has the disadvantage that the results can be more than 1. This will complicate the situation when measuring the irregularities that occur. To overcome the weakness of the Sato caution index, Harnisch and Linn (1981) and then modify the formula. Sato modification Harnisch and Linn caution index (SHL) has a range of values between 0-1. They claimed the appropriate scores into a caution index. SHL method search the number of incorrect answers on the easy items, and the number of correct answers in difficult items, and express their differences in the caution index in the proportion of correct answers from all examinee. Examinees who are carefully answer the question will answer easy items correctly and difficult items wrongly. Among the easy items and difficult items are given the line limit, behind the line the focus is the wrong answers and above the line the focus is correct answer. Wrong answer under the line and correct answer above the line is inappropriateness index. The further away of the position from the line will increase the SHL caution index. Here is a combination of answers pattern from 10 items (ordered from easy to difficult) and the students all get score 6. If the participant is carefully answered in the test, the line will be in sixth item, below the sixth number is right and above the sixth number is wrong. Table 1. Combination of Answer’s Pattern Student A B C D E

176

1 1 1 1 1 1

2 1 1 1 1 1

3 1 1 1 1 0

4 1 1 1 0 1

Item 5 6 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1

7 0 1 0 0 0

8 0 0 1 0 0

9 0 0 0 1 0

Information 10 0 Careful 0 0 0 Less careful 1 Very less careful


To calculate the SHL caution index, Harnich and Linn used the following formula (1981: 135) ni .

(1  u C

* 1



j 1

) n. j 

ij

ni .

n j 1

.j



J

 u n

j

ij

ni.1

.j

J



j  J 1

n

.j

ni .

Note:

C i j

* 1

= Harnisch and Linn Sato caution index

= 1,2,……I, indexes for students = 1,2, …J, indexes for item = 1 if student i answer the item j correctly, 0 if student i answer the item j . = total correct score for student i = total correct answer for item j Criteria if 0,3 means the pattern is not appropriate Below is table 2 is a Student Problem Table to calculate the index of prudence SHL. The horizontal line is the order of items from easy to difficult, while the vertical line is the highest student score to lowest score. Table 2. Student-Problem Table

177


Example: The index of student 1 ) ( ) ( A= ( B= =2 C= = 28 D= = 19 =

)

(

)

)

(

)

(

)

)

(

)

= 0.50

The index of student 3 ) ( ) ( A= ( B= =4 C= = 23 D= = 14 =

(

= 0.37

The index of student 2 ) ( ) ( A= ( B= =5 C= = 28 D= = 19 =

)

= 0.11

Harnisch (1983:198) makes four criteria, namely the ability of learners (1) A high score (50% of items answered correctly) and SHL caution index is low (less than or equal to 0.3), (2) B score high (50% of items answered correctly) and the index of prudential caution SHL high (greater than 0.3), (3) C score low (less than or equal to 50% of items answered correctly) and SHL caution index is low (less than or equal to 0.3), and (4) D score low (less than 50% of items answered correctly) and SHL caution index is high (greater than 0.3). To reduce the guessing habit, the penalty technique can be used, below is the formula of penalty technique:

178


=∑

-

∑

Note: ∑ ∑ n

= Students’ score = Correct score = Total score that an = Total of answer choice

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The purpose of this study is to see a scoring technique which produces a smaller proportion in detecting irregularities score. Research done by providing two different treatment, such treatment is the technique of scoring. A group was given conventional scoring techniques while group B was given a penalty scoring techniques. The second group is working on the same test B. England by 30 points. Scoring techniques are informed to the students in writing, on the instructions of workmanship tests. Accessible population of this study is science students from 2 high school student in public school South Tangerang. The research sample consisted of two classes taken at random by the number of students is 106. Experiment design used in this study is the difference of two proportions. Instruments used in this study are the English Test consists of 30 items with reliability of 0.72. Item about the use has been tested and validated by the experts that have a value sufficient validity and reliability. Data analysis is the analysis of test requirements and test for normality and homogeneity test of the hypothesis test is continued difference of two proportions. Here is the formula of Sudjana (1999:246) to test the difference of two proportions: Z=

( √

{(

) (

) ) (

)}

Note: = total student in group A who has caution index more than 0.3 = total student in group B who has caution index more than 0.3 = total sample in group A = total sample in group B p = total proportion in q =1–p

179


RESULT AND DISCUSSION The results of this study are as follows as descriptive the group using conventional scoring techniques as much as 13.5% obtained abnormal scores whereas those who use the technique gained 3.7% scoring penalty score is not fair. The result of hypothesis testing shows that penalty scoring technique affects the caution index, with a significance level of 5%. The analysis of the caution index can be used to examine the ability of individual teachers who lead a reasonable person does not answer the item. For highly capable learners and are considered not reasonable because there are items that are not easily managed to answer, the teacher should look at re-formulation of grain, there may be errors in the option or the other. As for the children of low ability and is considered reasonable as it can be difficult to correctly answer the item in general is caused by guessing. Learners will do anything to guess, if there is a chance to guess, such as scoring techniques used are conventional. For learners who are always worried about the exam or test needs to follow-up to guidance counseling teacher. Penalty scoring technique is one technique that can be used to prepare students to be careful to answer the test items. But this technique does not apply in formal schools, the technique is widely used for its rigorous selection admission tests such as public universities. This penalty is appropriate techniques were attempted in formal schools, so that learners obtained scores is reasonable according to his ability scores. From the table 3,1. below, can be seen that a high score still has a aberrant pattern. From the review of students' responses pattern of conventional group, we can find that there are 7 students who have an SHL caution index more than 0.3 SHL, There are student in no. 15, 18, 25, 30, 33, 51, 54. In penalty group there are two students who get caution index more than 0.3, there are student no 50 and 51. Scores with high SHL caution index show that there is a gap between student’s ability and his or her score. For score with SHL caution index below 0.3 indicates the pattern from the answer is still at the below of normal limit. The values in column A is obtained from the total of the students’ wrong answers in all easy items. The values in column B are obtained from the students’ correct answers from all difficult items. The values in column C are derived from the total of students who answered item easily. Values in column D are obtained from the total of students who answered difficult items.

180


Table 3.1. The result of SHL caution index for Conventional and Penalty technique Conventional

Penalty

St.

Scr

A

B

C

D

SHL

St

scr

A

B

C

D

SHL

1

22

77

20

637

380

0.22179

1

24

90

21

762

514

0.278226

2

21

111

34

623

349

0.281022

2

22

71

26

739

430

0.145631

3

19

89

32

586

287

0.190635

3

21

55

25

723

392

0.090634

4

18

110

59

567

256

0.163987

4

20

64

28

707

356

0.102564

5

18

49

19

567

256

0.096463

5

20

88

44

707

356

0.125356

6

18

79

50

567

256

0.093248

6

19

79

44

688

320

0.095109

7

18

107

50

567

256

0.18328

7

19

76

41

688

320

0.095109

8

18

59

32

567

256

0.086817

8

19

110

51

688

320

0.160326

9

18

67

32

567

256

0.11254

9

19

27

19

688

320

0.021739

10

17

89

40

546

228

0.154088

10

18

140

67

665

287

0.193122

11

17

58

33

546

228

0.078616

11

18

129

67

665

287

0.164021

12

16

78

48

524

201

0.092879

12

17

85

50

640

255

0.090909

13

16

77

55

524

201

0.068111

13

17

53

37

640

255

0.041558

14

16

93

55

524

201

0.117647

14

17

59

44

640

255

0.038961

15

16

204

91

524

201

0.307065

15

17

101

57

640

255

0.114286

16

16

93

55

524

201

0.117647

16

17

105

67

640

255

0.098701

17

16

125

68

524

201

0.176471

17

17

59

44

640

255

0.038961

18

16

221

111

503

178

0.332326

18

17

91

67

640

255

0.062338

19

15

117

48

502

178

0.212963

19

16

64

41

615

227

0.059278

20

15

150

81

502

178

0.212963

20

16

61

48

615

227

0.033505

21

15

155

93

502

178

0.191358

21

16

96

51

615

227

0.115979

22

14

98

53

479

156

0.139319

22

16

69

48

615

227

0.054124

23

14

125

68

479

156

0.176471

23

16

96

51

615

227

0.115979

24

14

121

71

479

156

0.154799

24

16

69

48

615

227

0.054124

25

13

261

154

452

134

0.336478

25

16

91

62

615

227

0.074742

26

13

127

76

452

134

0.160377

26

16

141

51

615

227

0.231959

27

13

167

80

452

134

0.273585

27

16

123

62

615

227

0.157216

28

12

175

105

424

113

0.22508

28

15

143

84

588

199

0.151671

29

12

162

108

424

113

0.173633

29

15

149

74

588

199

0.192802

30

11

196

81

393

94

0.384615

30

15

97

75

588

199

0.056555

31

11

133

101

393

94

0.107023

31

15

60

44

588

199

0.041131

181

The 1st International Seminar on Quality and Affordable Education (ISQAE – 2012) Conventional

Penalty

32

10

178

106

362

75

0.250871

32

15

124

67

588

199

0.14653

33

10

209

91

362

75

0.41115

33

14

136

75

560

172

0.157216

34

10

66

29

362

75

0.12892

34

14

112

78

560

172

0.087629

35

10

165

115

362

75

0.174216

35

14

69

30

560

172

0.100515

36

10

65

40

362

75

0.087108

36

14

64

34

560

172

0.07732

37

10

65

40

362

75

0.087108

37

13

205

95

532

147

0.285714

38

10

141

111

362

75

0.10453

38

13

89

28

532

147

0.158442

39

9

170

112

331

57

0.211679

39

13

286

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From the results of this research, we can conclude that the scoring with penalty manner is better than conventional manner and a test with four answer choices is better than the test with five answer choices. This research is done to find the usefulness of SHL caution index. Students’ ability is really abstract; therefore we propose this index to be used by teacher. This index can identify the weakness of the students. The information from the index can show the matching between the materials which students learn with the test. When teacher can know the discrepancy between the learning process and the result then teacher can find the exact key to make learning process better. Without using SHL caution index, need much time and much money to can solve the problem in teaching learning process. We really hope that this research can encourage or inspiring another

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researcher to investigate evaluation in education which can make the people around the world live sufficiency. REFERENCES Aiken, Lewis R. (1994). Testing and Assessment. Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon. Cangelosi, James S. Merancang Tes untuk Menilai Prestasi Siswa (translation). Bandung: Penerbit ITB, 1990. Cronbach, Lee J. (1984). Essential of Psychology Testing. New York: Harper and Row Publisher.

D'Costa, Aryes. (1993). Estending the Sato Caution Indes To Define the Within and Beyond Ability Caution Indexes. Atlanta: Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Council for Measurement in Education, April 1993. Harnisch, Delwyn L. (1983). Item Response Pattern: Application for Educational Practice. Journal of Educational Measurement, 20, 191206. Harnisch, Delwyn L. dan Robert L. Linn. (1981). Analysis of Item Response Patterns: Questionable Test Data and Dissimilar Curriculum Practices." Journal of Education Measurement, 18, 133-146. Harnisch, Delwyn L. dan Robert L. Linn. (1981). Identification of Abbarent Response Pattern: Application of Caution Index. Final Report. Ilinois University, Urbanba, December 1981. Hawari, Dadang. (2008). Managemen Stress, Cemas, dan Depresi. Depok: Fakultas Kedokteras Universitas Indonesia. Hulin, Charles L, Pritsz Drasgow, dan Charles K. Parsons. (1983). Item Response Theory Application to Psychologcal Measurement. Illinois: Dow Jones-Irwin. McDonald, Roderick P. (1999). Test Theory. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 183


Murphy, Kevin R. dan Charles O. Devidshofer. (1995). Psychological Testing, Principles and Aplication. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall International, Inc. Naga, Dali S. (1992). Pengantar Teori Sekor Pada Pengukuran Pendidikan. Jakarta: Universitas Gunadarma. Osterlind, Steven J. (2002). Constructing Test Items: Multiple-Choices, Costructed-Response, Performance, and Other Formats. New York: Kluwer Academic Publisher. Thorndike, Robert M. (1997). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education. New Jersey: Prentic-Hall. Wu, Hsin-Yi. (1999). Software Based on S-P Chart Analysis and Its Application." Procedings of the National Science Council, 8, 108-120.

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DESIGNING A USEFUL GRAMMAR TEST AT UNIVERSITY LEVEL Abid State University of Gorontalo, Gorontalo, Indonesia [email protected] ABSTRACT Testing and assessment are two significant parts of teaching practices in the sense that they can assist teachers, in particular, to decide on and design future teaching improvements where necessary, and help students view their study progress. Yet, designing an innovative and practical test is considered a laborious work. It requires a number of procedures prior to administering the actual test, such as careful test design, trial, evaluation and revision. To illustrate the procedures, this paper presents a proto test for grammar and discusses its process which includes the test design, the trial, the discussion of the results, and the revisions. Designing such grammar test is believed to contribute a significant role in language teaching, especially for the intended students in the department of primary school teacher education in Gorontalo. Tomlinson (2005) argues that a useful grammar test should provide an opportunity for students to reflect on the knowledge they have learnt and to recognise whether or not they are able to use the knowledge for communicative purposes. Therefore, this test is expected to enable the intended students to reflect on their learning progress and to predict how they can deal with teaching English in primary schools in the future. In sum, this progress test measures a range of grammatical features, such as S-V agreement, prepositions and interrogatives. It consists of four parts, ranging from selected response tasks to extended-production tasks. Part one and three test the students’ grammatical knowledge through discourse activity completion and errors identification, whereas part two and four require the students to demonstrate their grammatical ability through writing. The selection of these four parts or tasks is due to the fact that the students may teach English to primary school students in the future. Thus, having good understanding on grammatical knowledge and ability is essential in order to meet their prospective primary school students’ needs Keywords: grammatical knowledge, grammatical ability

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INTRODUCTION Testing and assessment are two significant parts of teaching practices in the sense that they can assist teachers, in particular, to decide on and design future teaching improvements where necessary, and help students view their study progress. Good tests can help to measure test takers’ language ability, show evidences of learners’ achievement toward the objectives of a course, point out their strengths and weaknesses as well as set a beneficial backwash for teaching and learning. It is after such testing that important decisions related to test takers are made. Due to the emphasis on language skills for communication over the formal linguistic system in language teaching and learning, language testing has paid much attention to students’ performance not only in the four skills, but also grammatical structures. However, designing an effective and a useful test is considered a laborious work. It requires a number of procedures prior to administering the actual test, such as careful test design, trial, evaluation and revision. To illustrate the procedures, this paper presents a proto test for grammar and discusses its process which includes the test design, the trial, the discussion of the results, and the revisions. In this article, I am going to present a test of grammar for students at a non-English Department at my workplace (a university in Gorontalo). Following it are the trialling on a group of 10 students with similar characteristics and a discussion of some criteria related to testing theories. Stage 1 A Proto Test for Grammar Learning context This test is designed for non-English major university students who are enrolled in General English (GE) 1, a prerequisite for General English 2 unit, in Indonesia. The majority of them are 17-18 years old and have studied English as a non-major subject for six years. The level of English proficiency that these students have achieved is pre-intermediate level. Yet, the content of syllabus of this level is slightly different from those in pre-intermediate level books which are mainly used in English institution overseas. The syllabus of this unit covers limited areas of grammar, such as simple present tense, preposition of places, singular/plural, and present progressive in the first half of the semester, whereas simple past tense is taught later in the second semester. This GE 1 unit is delivered using a structural syllabus and the handbook that that the teachers use is mostly created materials.

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The purpose of the test This is a progress test, namely the mid-term examination, which is formally intended to measure the students’ grammatical ability. The reason for testing the grammatical ability is based on the fact that the students may teach English as a foreign language in primary schools. Thus, designing a test that measures this ability (e.g. through writing) enables the students to reflect on their learning progress and to predict how they can deal with teaching English in primary schools in the future. This test has considerable weight (30%) in the assessment of the unit, which indicates that it possesses a high- stake criterion and, thereby, contributes significantly to whether the students can pass this GE 1 unit or not. It is also utilised as a tool to examine whether or not the objectives of this course have been successfully achieved. In addition, administering the test enables the teachers to identify areas of grammar that need to be retaught which can bring beneficial backwash in the future. Test features In sum, this progress test measures a range of grammatical features, such as S-V agreement, prepositions and interrogatives. It consists of four parts, ranging from selected response tasks to extended-production tasks. Part one and three test the students’ grammatical knowledge through discourse activity completion and errors identification, whereas part two and four require the students to demonstrate their grammatical ability through writing. The selection of these four parts or tasks is due to the fact that the students may teach English to primary school students in the future. Thus, having good understanding on grammatical knowledge and ability is essential in order to meet their prospective primary school students’ needs. Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999) suggest that sufficient understanding in grammar assists teachers to be prepared to meet their students’ learning expectations. Therefore, accuracy and communicative purposes which are highlighted in this test are considered significant. CelceMurcia (1991) claims that if a student’s purpose of learning grammar is to function as an academic, accuracy is essential. Accordingly, Purpura (2004) argues that grammar should not only be viewed as a single object in teaching, but as an integral part of communicative ability. Marking cheme Regarding the scoring, a partial-credit scoring is used. To pass this test, the students must achieve 50% of the overall score. The overall score for this test is 40 marks. There is one important thing to point out

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about the scoring. In part four (writing), task fulfilment is included as one of the features assessed. The reason for including task fulfilment is to measure the students’ ability to express ideas into a writing task. It is not intended to test the students’ writing skills, but to test how they can produce a text as a means of communication using the grammar that they have learnt. The ability to express ideas is part of the grammatical ability that the students need to possess. Purpura (2004) suggests that when learning grammar, it is necessary to ensure that the students can eventually express their ideas in the target language. Thus, the ability to convey messages through writing is highly appreciated. In sum, if all of the features can be found in the students’ writing and are all grammatically correct, 10 marks is awarded for part two and 15 marks for part four. For part one of this test, the students get 0.5 mark for each correct answer and 0 mark for an incorrect answer. Similarly, in part three, both a correct answer and a correct revision are awarded with 1 mark, whereas an incorrect answer and a wrong revision are given 0 mark. In these two parts, accuracy is highly appreciated in order to measure the students’ grammatical knowledge. In part two and four, the scoring is determined by a number of features. First, for part 2, the students are tested on the use of simple present tense which includes the following features: 1. Subject-verb agreement with be and auxiliary verbs (2 marks) 2. Possessive adjective (1 mark) 3. Preposition of place/time (1 mark) 4. Negation (1 mark) 5. Sentence connectors ( 1 mark) 6. Task fulfilment (4 marks) For part four, the students are scored for the use of present progressive form which includes the below features: 1. Subject verb agreement (2 marks) 2. Non-referential there (2 marks) 3. Preposition of place (1 mark) 4. Negation (1 mark) 5. Sentence connectors (1 mark) 6. Task fulfilment (8 marks) Test features This test reflects communicativeness, innovativeness and potential beneficial backwash. First, communicativeness lies in each part of the test. The reason is that the students are presented with input that they 188


have to process, for example describing routines (part two) and classroom activities (part four). This input encourages the students to manage their grammatical knowledge and to use it appropriately. In other words, the students are tested for their productive ability, not only their grammar recognition. Since the audience (the primary school students and the principal) of this test is identifiable, the students can address their responses meaningfully. A clear relationship between input and response, according to Purpura (2004), accounts for a communicative test design. Second, the common type of GE 1 test in this institution only measures the students’ grammatical knowledge, such as through multiple choice items and gap filling. Conversely, this test measures both the students’ grammatical knowledge (as evidenced in part one and three) and ability (as shown in part two and four). Thus, this test is considered innovative since it is the pioneer of the grammar test in this institution which enables the students to demonstrate both the grammatical knowledge and ability. Third, the potential backwash of this test is primarily associated with the communicative value that the students can grasp and the practice of examining a piece of a student’s written work (in part 3), as well as a clear correspondence between the grammatical features areas measured in the test and grammatical features covered in the syllabus. The theoretical rationale It has been acknowledged that testing grammatical ability plays a significant role in language teaching. Hughes (2003) claims that since grammar serves as ‘the core of language ability’, its testing determines to what extent skills performance can be achieved. In fact, Tomlinson (2005) argues that a useful grammar test should provide an opportunity for students to reflect on the knowledge they have learnt and to recognise whether or not they are able to use the knowledge for communicative purposes. Similarly, Purpura (2004) claims that ‘ the goal of every grammar test is to obtain and provide information on how well a student knows or can use grammar to convey meaning in some situation where the target language is used’. Therefore, the design of this test is believed to be significant and useful, particularly for the intended students in the department of primary school teacher education in Indonesia. Stage 2 The Test Trial, The Results, and The Discussion Test trial and the results This test was trialled to ten students from the intended institution (Department of Primary School Teacher Education) in Gorontalo. These students were selected randomly out of thirty students in one class. They

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took the test in a classroom setting within the allocated time (sixty minutes). Yet, not all students were able to complete all parts of the test. For example, as it is seen in figure 1 below, there are two students who dismally fail to complete part four (writing). Similarly, some other students cannot satisfactorily identify the ten errors in part three. Further discussion of the results are presented below.

Figure 1. Distribution of the test candidates’ scores Part One (Gap filling) The distribution of scores in this part ranges from 1 to 4.5 on the scale of 5 marks. There are 50% of the students who score 2.5 or above, while the remaining 50% score lower. The common errors associated with the students’ answers are the students’ inability to make interrogatives. For instance, some students do not use auxiliary verbs, such as does and do, to fill the blanks number four, six and eight. In addition, some of them write affirmative sentences to fill out the blank number 7 with, for example, He high and He is high. What they are expected to write is Is he taller. Part Two (Writing) All of the students score relatively above the average level in this part, ranging from 5 to 9 on the scale of 10 marks. In other words, the students are able to pass this particular part. Yet, a number of grammatical errors that they produce are identified, such as S-V agreement (e.g. ... because I has something trouble in my eyes), plural (e.g. I have two brother and two sister) and infinitive (e.g. I always to clean my home with family). These errors are not penalised, considering that testing the students’ grammatical ability is one of the major purposes of this part.

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Part Three (Errors identification) In this part, most of the students score lower than 50% which means that they are unsuccessful to pass this test. There are only one student who obtain 5 marks out of 10, one student scores 4, one student scores 3.5, two students score 2, two students score 1, and the remaining 3 students receive 0 mark. Many of these students are not able to identify the errors and to provide accurate corrections. Part Four (Writing) The scores that the students achieve in this part are low. All of the students score lower than the average level 7.5 marks on the scale of 15 marks. Most of them fail to demonstrate their ability in using the present progressive correctly. Instead, they prefer describing the picture using simple present tense which is definitely not the major part of the features assessed. In sum, as it is shown in figure 2, there are only four students (A, B, H, I) who succeed to pass this test. Student A and B score 50%, whereas H and I are able to achieve higher scores than the others (approximately 60%). On the other hand, six students (C, D, E, F, G, J) fail to pass this test. The scores of students C, F, G, J hover at around 40 %, while the scores of students D and E fall by approximately 20%.

Figure 2. The Students Score Result

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DISCUSSION THE TEST DESIGN Merits of The Test Design The overall percentage of scores as presented in figure 2 above indicates that this progress test can group the test candidates into the strong and the weak students. This grouping is significant for both the students and the teachers of the institution where this test was administered. Pan (2009) suggests that a useful test should be able to affect both the test takers and the professionals who administer the test. He maintains that if the test cannot provide important consequences, the test lacks of positive backwash. Backwash, according to Hughes (2003, p.1), is ‘the effect of testing on teaching and learning’. He argues that backwash can be harmful or beneficial. It is harmful, Hughes maintains, if the content of the test and its techniques are different with the objectives of the course. For example, students are attending an English course that is meant to train them in the language skills (including writing) for studying in a university in an English speaking country, but the test delivered at the end of the course only substantially contain multiple choice items which, of course, denies the practice of writing skill. However, Hughes also claims that backwash can be potentially positive. An example of this, Hughes states, would be a test in an English institution where Hughes was once involved. This test had a direct impact on the institution in which the syllabus was redesigned and the classes were conducted in different ways. Reflecting on the overall scores that the students obtain, it is believed that this test has a potential backwash, i.e. encouraging the unsuccessful test candidates to review their learning progress. Those students who obtain unsatisfactory results need to review their learning. Some of them do relatively well in part two in the sense that they can apply the grammatical knowledge they have studied in order to communicate (regardless of some minor errors they made). Yet, they still cannot perform better in part one and three. In fact, there are three students who receive no mark for part three. This test results also need to be taken into consideration by the teachers. The fact that many of the students fail to demonstrate their understanding on the use of present progressive, making interrogative and identifying grammatical errors call for future teaching improvements. Bailey (1996) (cited in Pan, 2009) posits that to overcome such failure, teachers may assist students to be prepared for high stake test by engaging the students into relevant activities during the class, such as job interview and analysing errors from students’ samples of writing.

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Another merit of this test is associated with its communicativeness. This test is designed to meet one of the objectives of the syllabus, i.e. to enable the students to apply the grammatical knowledge in the context of communication. Thus, topical tasks are selected as part of the test. Since the students are prospective teachers of English, it is helpful and important to provide them with a test that measures their grammatical knowledge and ability. Although not all part of the test can be considered communicative, the students still have the opportunity to communicate their ideas in part two, three and four towards the perceived audience (the principal and the students of a primary school). In part two and four, they struggle to apply the grammatical knowledge they have studied to express their ideas, while in part three they pretend as if they are correcting their future primary school students’ writing. Yet, it is inevitably true that most of the candidates do part three and four unsatisfactorily. Defects of The Test Design It is essential to point out the defects of this test for future test design improvements. First, in part one, there is one of the students who fill the blank number five with your brother’s. This student’s answer is correct although the answer key actually suggests that the students should fill the blank with his. The student writes his answer due to the fact the previous sentence in the dialog might affect his choice of answer, as it is seen in the excerpt below. S : Yes, I do. I have one brother. I don’t have any sisters. T : What is .... (5) name? Second, the response for blank number seven is also misleading. One of the students filled this blank with Is he shorter which is grammatically correct, but semantically incorrect (the correct answer is Is he taller). Third, as it is shown in figure 2, part four provides the students with a more strenuous work. All of them fail to complete this part. Yet, their ability to convey messages is still taken into consideration. What is considered crucial to point out here is that the test direction in this part causes some students to simply write what they see in the picture. They begin their writing with, for example, At the picture... . What they are actually expected to do is to describe the situation to the imagined principal. In other words, they are expected to communicate their ideas through written medium of communication.

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RECOMMENDATIONS For a better and a more effective test design in the future, this progress test calls for some improvements. For part one, it is helpful for the students to provide them with a response or a prompt that does not reflect ambiguity. For part four, the test direction needs to be adjusted. By doing it, the students know they are not simply expected to explain what they see in the picture, but they are required to communicate the situation in the classroom with their imagined principal. Also, it is necessary to put a mark in each part of the test to help the students predict to what extent their works are successful. Stage 3 Test Revision There are some areas in this test that need to be revised according to the recommendations. First, in part one, to avoid the ambiguity of answer for the blank number five, or sisters? and I don’t have any sisters are crossed out (see the except below). Thus, his is much more appropriate to complete this blank. You: ................(4) any brothers or sisters? S : Yes, I do. I have one brother. I don’t have any sisters. You: What is ...... (5) name? Second, the response for the blank number seven Yes, I am shorter than he is also has to be changed. To enable the students to fill the blank with the most correct answer, Yes, he is taller than I am is selected. Third, it is also significant to adjust the test direction in part four, so that the students can address their writing appropriately and meaningfully. The revised version of this direction is Your principal is coming to your class to see how things are going. The picture below represents your classroom setting. Look at it carefully and describe what you see in at least 50 words to your principal. In addition, to help the students recognise to what extent their answers are correct, each part of this test is given a mark Conclusion Admittedly, designing a test requires strenuous efforts. It involves some careful and thoughtful procedures to ensure that the test can be useful and appropriately measures what it is intended to measure. This proto test, regardless of its defects, is believed to provide the test candidates with a reflection of their learning progress. In addition, it also 194


allows the teacher to examine whether or not the teaching process is successful. Although the majority of the test candidates fail to pass this test, the perceived innovative and communicative test have already been introduced to the institution. It is expected that this test can provide positive backwash for all related parties in the institution for a better testing and assessment in the future. REFERENCES Bailey, K. M. (1996). Working for washback: A review of the washback concept in language testing. Language Testing, 13(3), 257-279. Celce-Murcia, M. & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The copula and subjectverb agreement (Ch. 4). In The grammar book: an ESL/EFL teacher’s course, pp. 53-77. Heinle & Heinle. Celce-Murcia, M. (1991). Grammar pedagogy in second and foreign language teaching. Tesol Quarterly, 25(3), pp. 459-480. Hughes,

A. (2003). Testing for Language Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Teachers.

2nd

Ed.

Pan, Y.C. (2009). Do test always work? International Journal of Educational & Psychological Assessment, 2, pp. 74-88. Purpura, J. E. (2004). Differing notions of ‘grammar’ for assessment (Ch. 1). In assessing grammar (pp. 1-23). Cambridge: University Press Tomlinson, B. (2005). Testing to learn: a personal view of language testing. ELT Journal, 59(1), pp. 39-46.

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Appendix 1 Test Paper Mid-term Examination General English 1 Date : November 2010 Time : 60 minutes Instructions 1. This test consists of four parts, i.e. Part 1, 2, 3 and 4. Read all the directions in each part before you begin. 2. Write all the answers in the answer sheet. 3. The use of dictionary and or any other books are not permitted. Part 1 You should spend about 10 minutes on this part Directions: This is the first day of your teaching practice in a primary school. You are in a classroom and are talking to one of your students. Fill in the blanks below to complete the dialog. Write no more than three words. You : Hi, ........ (1) name? Student (S): Hi, I am Lisa. You : It’s a nice name, Lisa. ........ (2) you? S : I am 10 years old. You : .............(3) live? S : I live in Limboto. You : ................(4) any brothers or sisters? S : Yes, I do. I have one brother. I don’t have any sisters. You : What is ...... (5) name? S : His name is Randi. You : .......... (6) look like? S : He has brown hair and a sharp nose. You : .......... (7) than you? S : Yes, I am shorter than he is. You : ........... (8) like to do? S : He likes to swim and play basketball. You : ......... (9) swimming and playing basketball, too? S : No, I don’t. You : So, what is ..... (10) hobby? S : My hobby is reading comics. You : Well, nice to meet you, Lisa. S : Nice to meet you, too. 196


Part 2 You should spend about 10 minutes on this part Directions: The topic that you are going to discuss on your first meeting is ‘Introducing yourself’. Before you begin, you show the students how to do it by describing yourself in at least 50 words. In your paragraph, include what you like and do not like to do on weekends and anything else about yourself. Part 3 You should spend about 20 minutes on this part Directions: You are now checking an assignment from one of the groups of students. Below is their writing, but there are ten errors. Your task is to identify the errors and to suggest the correct forms. Kuta Beach Kuta beach is at Bali. It is very popular. Many people visit this beach every holiday, for example on June and Desember. It have white sand and beautiful view. Kuta beach is more good than Bumbulan beach in Gorontalo because it does not far from the airport. Also Kuta beach has the more beautiful sunset. People come to this beach to see the sunset at the evening. In Kuta beach, there is many trees. Also, many people sells things and foods. You can to spend your holiday in this beach with your family. Part 4 You should spend about 20 minutes on this part Directions: Your principal is coming to your class to see how things are going and you are describing the situation of your classroom. This picture below represents your classroom setting. Look at it carefully and describe what you see in at least 50 words.

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Appendix 2 Answer key Part One 1. What is your 2. How old are 3. Where do you 4. Do you have 5. His

6. What does he 7. Is he taller 8. What does he 9. Do you like 10. Your

Part Two Sample of writing Hi, my name is Abid. I am 27 years old. I live in Pulubala. I have two brothers, but I do not have any sisters. I like playing volleyball. I usually play volleyball with my friends on Saturday. After playing volleyball, my friends and I sometimes go to a restaurant and have dinner together. On Sunday, I seldom go out. I wash my car, then I watch TV in my bedroom. Part Three Error 1. At Kuta beach 2. On June 3. It has 4. More good 5. It does not far 6. The more beautiful 7. At the evening 8. There is many trees 9. Many people sells 10. You can to spend

Correction In Kuta beach In June It have Better It is not far The most beautiful In the evening There are many trees Many people sell You can spend

Part Four Sample of writing This is my classroom. It is not big. There are only fifteen students in this classroom. They are all female. They are sitting in groups. Now, they are doing their assignments, but some of them are not doing the assignments seriously. They are talking and laughing. On the wall, there are many colourful images. Some of the images are units list and class schedule.

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Appendix 5 The revised test version Mid-term Examination General English 1 Date : November 2010 Time : 60 minutes Instructions 1. This test consists of four parts, i.e. Part 1, 2, 3 and 4. Read all the directions in each part before you begin. 2. Write all the answers in the answer sheet. 3. The use of dictionary and or any other books are not permitted. Part 1 You should spend about 10 minutes on this part Directions: This is the first day of your teaching practice in a primary school. You are in a classroom and are talking to one of your students. Fill in the blanks below to complete the dialog. Write no more than three words. (5 marks) You : Hi, ........ (1) name? Student (S): Hi, I am Lisa. You : It’s a nice name, Lisa. ........ (2) you? S : I am 10 years old. You : .............(3) live? S : I live in Limboto. You : ................(4) any brothers? S : Yes, I do. I have one brother. You : What is ...... (5) name? S : His name is Randi. You : .......... (6) look like? S : He has brown hair and a sharp nose. You : .......... (7) than you? S : Yes, he is taller than I am. You : ........... (8) like to do? S : He likes to swim and play basketball. You : ......... (9) swimming and playing basketball, too? S : No, I don’t. You : So, what is ..... (10) hobby? S : My hobby is reading comics. You : Well, nice to meet you, Lisa. S : Nice to meet you, too. 199


Part 2 You should spend about 10 minutes on this part Directions: The topic that you are going to discuss on your first meeting is ‘Introducing yourself’. Before you begin, you show the students how to do it by describing yourself in at least 50 words. In your paragraph, include what you like and do not like to do on weekends and anything else about yourself. (10 marks) Part 3 You should spend about 20 minutes on this part Directions: You are now checking an assignment from one of the groups of students. Below is their writing, but there are ten errors. Your task is to identify the errors and to suggest the correct forms. (10 marks) Kuta Beach Kuta beach is at Bali. It is very popular. Many people visit this beach every holiday, for example on June and Desember. It have white sand and beautiful view. Kuta beach is more good than Bumbulan beach in Gorontalo because it does not far from the airport. Also Kuta beach has the more beautiful sunset. People come to this beach to see the sunset at the evening. In Kuta beach, there is many trees. Also, many people sells things and foods. You can to spend your holiday in this beach with your family. Part 4 You should spend about 20 minutes on this part Directions: Your principal is coming to your class to see how things are going. The picture below represents your classroom setting. Look at it carefully and describe what you see in at least 50 words to your principal. (15 marks).

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KEMAHIRAN PEMBELAJARAN ABAD KE 21: TEKNIK PEMBELAJARAN BERPENYERTAAN Mohd. Nazri1, Abdul Rahman2, Norlidah Binti Alias3, Saedah Binti Siraj4 Faculty of Education, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia1,2,3,4 [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] ABSTRAK Modal insan adalah harta yang boleh disuntik nilai tambahnya, diinjak nilai inteleknya serta diperbanyak modal budayanya” [Standard Guru Malaysia, 2009. Maka, penggunaan kaedah dan teknik yang pelbagai akan menjadikan sesuatu pengajaran itu menarik dan seterusnya meningkatkan kemahiran pelajar dalam mengaplikasikan apa yang dipelajari dalam bilik darjah ke dalam kehidupan seharian. Kertas kerja ini memaparkan kupasan kepentingan guru meningkatkan Kemahiran Pembelajaran Abad ke21 dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran menggunakan pendekatan Pembelajaran Melalui Pengalaman. Seterusnya mengetengahkan projek inovasi yang telah memenangi Anugerah Emas Inovasi Pedagogi Kebangsaan serta implikasinya terhadap pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Ini merupakan contoh perlaksanaan Teknik Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan: Pembelajaran Melalui Pengalaman yang telah diaplikasikan dalam bilik darjah iaitu 3H Hand-On; Hearts-On and Head-On. Kertas kerja ini merupakan satu refleksi tindakan penambahbaikkan yang dilakukan dari semasa ke semasa untuk memantapkan kualiti pengajaran dan pembelajaran oleh guru melalui kreativiti dan inovasi guru khususnya kepada guru pelatih yang dalam latihan keguruan. Kata Kunci: pendidikan guru, inovasi pendidikan, model pengajaran PENGENALAN Tinjauan Literatur “Bacalah wahai Muhammad dengan nama Tuhanmu yang menciptakan”. Al-Quran, Al-Alaq 96:1. Wahyu pertama yang diturunkan kepada junjungan besar Nabi Muhammad SAW ini jelas menggesa setiap

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umat untuk menuntut ilmu. Justeru pendidikan berperanan penting sebagai pemangkin bagi melahirkan umat yang terpilih al-Khiar dan adil ibn Kathir 1991; Muhammad Said 1989; Al-Sabuni 1981; Tafsir Pimpinan Ar-Rahman 1992 mempunyai keseimbangan Abdullah Yusuf 1938; umat yang mempunyai ketrampilan yang disertai dengan akhlak mulia, keseimbangan antara jasmani dan rohani serta meliputi soal-soal dunia dan akhirat Hamidi Ishak 2011. Menurut Atan Long 1984, pendidikan adalah salah satu proses pemasyarakatan. Ini memberi konotasi bahawa pendidikan merupakan wadah melanjutkan kebijaksanaan yang diwarisi sejak zaman berzaman kepada generasi baru sambil membentuk generasi itu untuk menghadapi cabaran-cabaran masa hadapan. Dalam era globalisasi, sesebuah sistem pendidikan berkualiti mampu melahirkan tenaga kerja yang boleh menjadi pemain global dengan menampilkan ciri keperibadian yang unggul seperti berpengetahuan tinggi, kental jati diri, inovatif, keaslian idea Nazrin 2004, Mohd Nazri, 2010 berkemahiran, berdaya saing, kreatif dan berkemampuan untuk menangani cabaran gelombang dunia tanpa sempadan Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia 2001. Justeru dalam abad ke 21 ini, pembangunan tenaga manusia seharusnya dapat memenuhi keperluan semasa yang berada dalam situasi yang mencabar iaitu pembinaan insan yang seimbang dari segi Jasmani, emosi, rohani dan intelek selaras dengan Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan. Maka, bagi merealisasikan agenda pembangunan pendidikan ini, institusi pendidikan memerlukan tenaga guru yang berkualiti dan kompeten. Guru seharusnya menguasai pelbagai kemahiran dalam amalan pedagoginya dan keutamaan adalah ‘the what’ atau apakah kandungan atau isi pengajaran dan ‘the how’ atau bagaimanakah melaksanakan proses pengajarannya Razali Ismail 2004. Kecemerlangan pendidikan sesebuah negara sangat bergantung kepada kualiti guru yang menerima latihan dan mengamalkannya dalam bilik darjah. Faktor guru sangat dominan untuk menjayakan misi dan matlamat Falsafah Pendidikan Negara Di samping faktor insfrastruktur yang baik dan peralatan bertaraf antarabangsa Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia 2000. Proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran dalam abad ke 21 ini perlulah berubah dari bercorak tradisional, yang memberi penekanan kepada aktiviti latih tubi, hafalan, ‘chalk and talk’ Bennet & George, 2004; Becker & Watts, 2001; Benzing & Chirst, 1997; Siegfried J.J, Saunders P., Stinar E. & Zang H. 1996; Mc Nally 1973 kepada bentuk pengajaran yang bersifat latih amal dan pembelajaran melalui pengalaman Brunner 1966. Peranan guru yang efektif antara lain digambarkan sebagai individu yang berupaya menganalisis keperluan pelajar untuk mengoptimumkan tahap intelektual yang optima serta memperkembang dan menstabilkan kemahiran sosial dan emosi Mc 202


Nally 1973. Di samping itu juga penggunaan teknik ‘chalk and talk’ dan ‘test and drill’ secara berlebihan telah dibuktikan menjadi punca pelajar bosan dan ‘burn-out’ Lea, 2003; Sam, 2004. Pelan Induk Pembangunan Pendidikan 2006-2010 turut menekankan kepentingan guru untuk melaksanakan inovasi dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran selain kesediaan menghadapi perubahan-perubahan kemahiran pedagogi abad ke 21 dalam mewujudkan pendidikan bertaraf dunia Nik Azis 1999. Robiah Sidin 2007 menyarankan aplikasi kepelbagaian kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran bagi menghasilkan pelajar yang berminda kritikal, maka pengajaran dan pembelajaran perlu menjangkau di luar silibus supaya pelajar memberikan idea dan memperoleh pengetahuan selain daripada buku teks. Guru juga berperanan memadankan bahan bantu mengajar serta aktiviti-aktiviti dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang dapat membantu usaha mencapai hasil pembelajaran Mohd Nazri dan Salina 2011; Moreno, 2008; Cole dan Chan 1994. Selain membantu pelajar untuk belajar, guru perlu meningkatkan kemahiran mereka sendiri. Dalam erti kata lain, guru mesti berbekalkan ilmu, kemahiran, kecekapan serta nilai supaya berupaya mengaplikasikan pendekatan pengajaran yang terkini Mohd Nazri 2011; Juriah, Nik Rahimi, Raja Mohd Fauzi & Siti Fatimah 2001. Kesediaan dan kemampuan guru untuk melaksanakan perubahan kurikulum serta perubahan dalam strategi pengajaran memungkinkan fungsi guru sebagai penyampai maklumat daripada buku kepada pelajar Salemi & Siegfried, 1999 telah mula lenyap kerana guru kini diperlihatkan sebagai fasilitator dalam proses pengajaran iaitu berperanan sebagai ‘constructivist leader’ yang inovatif dan kreatif serta bertanggungjawab untuk memupuk nilai, norma, menguasai ilmu serta mempunyai cara penyampaian yang baik serta berupaya mengintergrasikan kemahiran teknologi maklumat dalam proses pengajaran Norlidah & Saedah 2010; Arniza 2001; Ibrahim Saad 1992; Mohd Nazri & Salina, 2011. Maka, dalam latihan perguruan yang diikuti oleh kebanyakan guru baik di Institut Pendidikan Tinggi Awam IPTA mahupun Institut Pendidikan Guru Malaysia IPGM mereka perlu didedahkan dengan pelbagai pengetahuan dan kemahiran berkaitan pengajaran dan pembelajaran supaya kualiti kualiti guru yang dihasilkan terjamin. Antara intipati utama dalam latihan keguruan adalah amalan nilai profesionalisme keguruan, pengetahuan dan kefahaman pedagogi serta kemahiran pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Pengetahuan pedagogi merupakan pengetahuan yang kompleks yang meliputi pengetahuan isi kandungan, kepercayaan dan kemahiran pedagogi iaitu pendekatan menyampaikan pengetahuan isi kandungan dengan berkesan Shulman, 1987.

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Walaupun begitu, kajian-kajian yang pernah dilakukan terhadap artribut guru Teacher Artribute terhadap amalan pengajaran dan pembelajaran guru dalam bilik darjah mendapati guru kurang memahami dan mengaplikasikannya Hamedi Ishak, 2011; Abdul Said Ambotang, 2011; Suria Baba, 2007; Eric Hanushek, 1971 sehingga mempengaruhi pencapaian akademik, penguasaan bahasa, kesalahan struktur ayat, kelemahan dalam penulisan dan sebagainya dalam kalangan pelajarnya Sharul Arba’iah, 2007; Abdullah Yusuf & Che Rabiah, 2004; Liana Gan, 1997; Mohd Hanafi, 2005. Maka, keperluan paling utama bagi memastikan pengajaran dan pembelajaran guru dapat berjalan dengan sempurna adalah proses transformasi ilmu kepada pelajar yang bersesuaian dengan tugas guru iaitu memudahkan pembelajaran pelajarnya Salina Liew Fui Byn & Mohd Nazri 2007. Sesungguhnya pembelajaran yang bermakna seharusnya mengarap tiga domain utama iaitu kognitif akal, psikomotor fizikal serta afektif jiwa Mohd Nazri 2010; Saedah Siraj 2008; Muniswari, Saedah Siraj, Zul Fikri & Sharifah Nor Atifah, 2011. Walau bagaimanapun, kini amalan pengajaran dan pembelajaran lebih mengutamakan domain kognitif Abdullah Hassan, 2009 sehingga membudayakan pembelajaran yang berorientasikan peperiksaan. Ketidakseimbangan teknik pengajaran yang digunapakai oleh guru pada hari ini pastinya akan memberi impak besar dalam pembentukan masyarakat pada masa hadapan. Untuk menganagi cabaran kini, kita harus membina sikap keterbukaan untuk membolehkan perubahan dan penyesuaian berlaku dalam sistem pendidikan Wan Mohd Zahid 1993. Pendekatan pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang cuba diketengahkan melalui kajian tindakan ini bukan sahaja melibatkan pelajar melalui domain kognitif Head-on malahan merangkumi domain psikomotor Hands-on dan juga domain afektif Hearts-on. Teknik ini dikenali sebagai Teknik Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H Hand-on, Hearts-On dan Head-On. Iamerupakan pendekatan pembelajaran dan pengajaran berasaskan Discovery Learning dan Pembelajaran melalui pengalaman. Ia diolah sedemikian bagi memastikan tahap penguasaan murid dalam komponen pedagogi, psikologi dan profesionalisme keguruan mencapai tahap semaksima yang mungkin. Projek ini dijalankan untuk meningkatkan kemahiran guru pelatih mengaplikasi teori-teori pembelajaran dan pengajaran yang dipelajari dalam situasi sebenar dan seterusnya memacu prestasi guru pelatih. Proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran teori–teori pendidikan menggunakan teknik Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan: “3H” adalah denganmengadaptasi program-program realiti televesyen. Sesungguhnya kini terdapat beberapa genre dalam program realiti TV antaranya Pertandingan Bakat Malaysia Idol, Akademik Fantasia, Imam Muda, Mentor, Master Chef, 204


The Apperentice; Rancangan Pembangunan Diri Impian Malaysia, Audition, Gadis Melayu, Malaysian Top Hos; Rancangan Sukan dan Rekreasi The Amazing Race, KL Rapid Race, Kids Race, Survivor, Explore Race dan Rancangan rencah kehidupan Charity Show; Bersamamu. Guru boleh menggunakan rancangan-rancangan TV ini sebagai pedagogi dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran di dalam kelas. Justeru, kertas kerja ini akan mengetengahkan kajian tindakan yang dijalankan menggunakan pendekatan 3H hand-on, head-on dan hearts-on sebagai inspirasi pengajaran dan seterusnya mengemukakan satu model strategi pedagogi pengajaran dan pembelajaran bagi bidang sains sosial berteraskan Kemahiran Pembelajaran Adad ke-21 : Teknik Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan. ISU KAJIAN Coretan Rasa Pelajar Setiap kali kami bertanyakan sesuatu kepada guru, kami akan disogok dengan jawapan yang tidak pasti. Ada saja alasan yang diberikan. Cikgu mengatakan: "Kami tidak menumpukan perhatian dalam kelas." "Kami memang malas belajar,tak mengulangkaji pelajaran, itu sebab tak faham." "Kami pelajar yang dah dewasa, sepatutnya boleh mencari sendiri maklumat-maklumat tersebut dan bukannya bergantung kepada guru sahaja!” Kami jadi buntu. Tiap kali peperiksaan menjelang tiba, kami akan disogok dengan pelbagai bentuk ulangkaji dan latih tubi. Adakah apa yang kami pelajari sekadar untuk lulus peperiksaan? Terlintas juga difikitran kami, segala yang kami pelajari didalam bilik kuliah sama sekali tiada kaitan dengan profesion kami. Kami boleh membaca sendiri tapi bagaimanakah kami boleh mempraktikkan teori yang dipelajari ini dengan baik? Apakah permintaan kami ini amat sukar dipenuhi? Demikianlah keluhan sebahagian pelajar yang telah dinafikan haknya untuk belajar di dalam kelas secara sedar atau tidak oleh seorang guru.Meneliti cetusan rasa ini, saya dapati sebahagian besar guru pelatih menganggap Kursus EDU3104 Pengurusan Bilik Darjah dan Tingkah Laku adalah mata pelajaran yang sukaruntuk dikuasai dan dipraktikkan dalam situasi sebenar. Ini menjadi satu cabaran besar kepada guru untuk memupuk serta menanam minat belajar dalam kalangan guru pelatih Program Ijazah 205


Sarjana Muda Pendidikan PISMP.Tambahan pula,kursus EDU3104 Pengurusan Bilik Darjah dan Tingkah Laku merentasi kemahiran pedagogi, psikologi dan profesionalisme keguruan serta melibatkan banyak teori, model dan konsep yang boleh diaplikasikan dalam bilik darjah. Namun sebahagian besar guru pelatih bertanggapan, ia hanya teori dalam buku dan tidak dapat dipraktikkan semasa berada disekolah kelak. Ini kerana apa yang diperlukan di sekolah dalam mengendalikan aktiviti bilik darjah adalah suatu yang jauh berbeza daripada apa yang dipelajari di bilik kuliah. Tinjauan awal yang dijalankan melalui temubual mendapati 95% guru pelatih mempercayai bahawa pengurusan bilik darjah serta aktiviti pembelajaran dan pengajaran boleh dikendalikan oleh guru mengikut kebolehan dan kreativiti masing-masing. Manakala 80% beranggapan apa yang dipelajari dalam kursus EDU3104 Pengurusan Bilik Darjah dan Tingkah laku tidak dapat dipraktikkan oleh mereka semasa menjalankan aktiviti bilik darjah sebaliknya ia sekadar teori pembelajaran. REFLEKSI ISU KAJIAN Sesungguhnya“.. modal insan adalah harta yang boleh disuntik nilai tambahnya, diinjak nilai inteleknya serta diperbanyak modal budayanya.” [Standard Guru Malaysia,2009], maka sebagai sebuah institut yang menjalankan Latihan Keguruan, adalah menjadi nadi utama untuk memastikan latihan serta kemahiran yang diberikan kepada bakal guru mencukupi serta mampu meningkatkan daya saingnya dalam dunia pendidikan. Adalah menjadi tanggungjawab utama seorang guru untuk mentrasformasikan pengajaran dan pembelajaran dari buku teks kepada teori dan aplikasi. Ini menjadi satu kekangan bagi seorang guru untuk menjelaskan konsep dan teori-teori pembelajaran pengurusan bilik darjah dan tingkah laku yang berbentuk abstrak kepada amalan dan praktikal dalam dunia sebenar akibat kekangan masa dan kurang pengalaman. Tambah menyulitkan lagi apabila teori-teori yang dipelajari dalam bilik darjah ini perludiintergrasikan dengan kemahiran pedagogi, psikologi dan profesionalisme keguruan dalam situasi sebenar. Semasa Guru Pelatih menjalani latihan praktikum disekolah-sekolah, tinjauan melalui semakan borang penilaian praktikum LAM PT14-03 oleh guru penyelia mendapati hampir 80% guru pelatih gagal menguasai konsep serta teori dengan baik seterusnya mereka tidak dapat mempraktikkan apa yang dipelajari dalam bilik darjah ke dalam situasi sebenar; 92% guru pelatih tidak mengaplikasi teori-teori pembelajaran yang dipelajari kerana bertanggapan apa yang dipelajari dalam kelas adalah berbeza dengan apa yang perlu dilaksanakan semasa dalam aktiviti bilik darjah. 206


Di samping itu juga, pemerhatian telah dijalankan ke atas guru-guru pelatih PISMP Jan 2010 yang menjalani latihan praktikum I, 92% tidak dapat mempraktikkan strategi-strategi pengajaran yang dipelajari semasa menjalankan aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran dalam bilik darjah. Sesi temubual tak berstruktur yang dijalankan kepada 12 orang guru pelatih semasa menyelia latihan praktikum mendapati bahawa: a) 15% guru pelatih beranggapan bahawa teori-teori yang dipelajari dalam bilik darjah membantu mereka menangani masalah disiplin semasa mengendalikan aktiviti pembelajaran dan pengajaran. b) 95% guru pelatih menyatakan pelaksanaan aktiviti pembelajaran dan pengajaran adalah mengikut logik akal dan kesesuaian pelajar dan ia sama sekali tidak mempunyai perkaitan dengan apa yang telah dipelajari dalam bilik darjah. c) 90% guru pelatih mengetahui strategi dan teknik pembelajaran dan pengajaran tetapi tidak dapat mengaplikasikannya semasa menjalankan aktiviti pembelajaran dan pengajaran Latihan Praktikum disebabkan kekurangan masa dan kemahiran untuk melaksanakannya. Maka, disebabkan masalah ini, satu tindakan penambahbaikan dalam sesi pengajaran dan pembelajaran guru perlu dilaksanakan. OBJEKTIF KAJIAN Tujuan kajian ini dijalankan adalah untuk menambahbaik sistem penyampaian pengajaran dan pembelajaran oleh guru. Secara khususnya, menghasilkan satu kaedah inovasi pengajaran dan pembelajaran bagi mengabungjalinkan isi pengajaran dan pembelajaran pengurusan bilik darjah serta pengurusan tingkah laku menggunakan pendekatan “Belajar Melalui Pengalaman”, “Discovery Learning” dan “Problem-Base Learning”dengan pendekatan 3H hand-on, head-on dan hearts-on. LANGKAH-LANGKAH TINDAKAN Maka, kajian ini menggunakan kerangka teoritikal yang direkabentuk oleh Kemmis dan Mc Taggart 1982 seperti kitaran di dalam rajah berikut:

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Rajah 1. Kitaran Kajian Tindakan Model Kemmis dan Mc Tanggart 1982 dirujuk daripada Lily Bellel 1992, An Action Research Model for In-Service Training TINJAUAN AWAL : LATAR BELAKANG RESPONDEN Secara umumnya, kumpulan sasaran kajian ini adalah guru pelatih PISMP Ambilan Januari 2010 yang mengambil kursus EDU3104 Pengurusan Bilik Darjah dan Tingkah Laku. Seramai 20 orang pelajar responden telah dipilih daripada populasi pelajar Program Ijazah Sarjana Muda Perguruan Semester 3 yang mengambil Kursus Teras EDU3104 Pengurusan Bilik Darjah dan Tingkah Laku. Mereka kemudiannya dibahagikan kepada 5 kumpulan. Setiap kumpulan terdiri daripada pelajar pelbagai tahap pencapaian serta berlainan jantina. Satu soal selidik telah dijalankan bagi menentukan tahap pencapaian pelajar dalam Kursus Teras EDU3101 Falsafah dan Pendidikan di Malaysia, EDU3102 Perkembangan Kanak-kanak dan EDU 3103 Murid dan Alam Belajar yang mereka ikuti semasa Semester 1 dan Semester 2. Ini bertujuan bagi memastikan tahap kecekapan pelajar setiap kumpulan adalah seimbang. 208


Jadual 1. Latar Belakang Responden Mengikut Gred Pencapaian bagi 3 Kursus Teras Gred Markah A 80-100 A- 75-79 B+ 70-74 B 65-69 B-60-64 C+50-59 C 40-49 C- 35-39 D+ 30-34 D 25-29 F 0-24 Jumlah

EDU3101 Bil 3 1 4 5 6 1 0 0 0 0 0 20

EDU3102 Bil 2 4 3 7 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 20

EDU3103 Bil 4 6 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20

PERANCANGAN TINDAKAN Pendekatan 3H merupakan satu projek pengajaran dan pembelajaran di dalam dan luar bilik darjah. Ia merupakan satu alternatif pengajaran dan pembelajaran bagi kursus EDU3104 Pengurusan Bilik darjah dan Tingkah laku dengan mengabungjalinkan komponen Pedagogi, Psikologi Pendidikan dan Profesionalisme keguruan. Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H Hands-On, Heart-on dan Heads On yang didasari oleh 6 teori pembelajaran utama. Hand-on mempraktikkan Teori Pelbagai Kecerdasan dan Teori Behaviouris. Manakala Teori Sosial Bandura dan Teori Humanis menjadi asas pendekatan Hearts-On dan Head-on pula berasaskan Teori Konstruktivisme dan Teori kognitif. PENGUMPULAN MAKLUMAT Instrumen yang digunakan dalam kajian ini terdiri daripada: a. Borang soal selidik telah digunakan untuk menilai latar belakang murid dari aspek kecekapan pelajar dalam ilmu pedagogi, motivasi belajar serta minat mereka terhadap Kursus Teras Pedagogi b. Ujian Pra dan Ujian Pasca: terdiri daripda 20 soalan aneka pilihan, 2 soalan struktur dan 2 soalan esei yang diubahsuai daripada soalan-soalan peperiksaan semester lepas bagi kertas EDU3104 Pengurusan bilik Darjah dan Tingkah Laku bagi memastikan tahap kesahihannya

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c. Semakan Dokumen Borang Penyeliaan Latihan Praktikum dan Borang Maklumbalas pelajar. Rekod dijalankan kepada kumpulan pelajar ini semasa menjalani latihan Praktikum I MELAKSANAKAN TINDAKAN Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H merupakan adaptasi program realiti TV iaitu ‘The Apprentice’ yang mendapat sambutan ramai. Proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran dijalankan melalui aktiviti pembelajaran ”Problem-Base Learning”, ”Discovery Learning” dan ”Learning by Doing’ Projek Rintis The Best Teacher dijalankan pada April 2010 dengan satu topik bersama pelajar PISMP Pemulihan Ambilan Januari 2009 bagi mendapat maklum balas serta penambahbaikan yang diperlukan: Kad tugasan perlu diperjelaskan maksud serta tugasan yang diperlukan; Tugasan memerlukan masa yang terlalu panjang untuk diselesaikan dan memerlukan pemantauan berterusan. Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H dijalankan sepenuhnya pada April 2011 dengan menambahbaik dapatan dalam projek rintis bagi kumpulan pelajar PISMP Pemulihan Januari 2010. Pelaksanaan sepenuhnya Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H merentasi keseluruhan topik dalam EDU3104 Pengurusan Bilik darjah dan Tingkah Laku. Pemantauan serta perbincangan telah dijalankan melalui Forum online/email/yahoo massager untuk murid berkongsi masalah dan topik perbincangan bersama pensyarah setiap masa serta Laman Sesawang IPG Mykent LMS. Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H ini merupakan aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran di luar dan di dalam bilik darjah yang disusuli aktiviti pengayaan dan pemulihan kepada guru pelatih setelah pensyarah selesai mengajar sesuatu topik. Guru pelatih dibahagikan mengikut kumpulan 5 orang satu kumpulan yang mempunyai pelbagai aras kebolehan. Guru pelatih diedarkan kad tugasan yang dikenali sebagai “Excellence Teacher” mengikut kumpulan mengikut topik mingguan. Kumpulan akan berbincang serta menyelesaikan projek mengikut tarikh yang ditetapkan dan membentangkan dapatannya untuk penilaian pada minggu berikutnya. Pembentangan bagi setiap kumpulan akan dinilai dan pemarkahan akan menentukan kumpulan yang berjaya mendapat markah tertinggi untuk menjadi pemenang. Majlis Anugerah “Excellence Teacher” sebagai satu pengiktirafan kepada kumpulan yang berjaya akan diadakan pada penghujung semester.

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REFLEKSI TINDAKAN Analisis Ujian Pra dan Ujian Pasca Dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran, pelajar akan diuji melalui Ujian Pasca yang antara lain bertujuan untuk menilai pencapaian projek yang dijalankan. Satu set soalan Ujian Pasca soalan yang telah diuji kebolehpercayaan dan keesahannya dan berdasarkan jadual spesifikasi ujian yang sama dengan Ujian Pra telah diberikan kepada pelajar yang menjalani projek pendekatan pembelajaran berpenyertaan 3H. Seramai 20 0rang Responden terlibat dalam ujian ini dan berikut adalah analisisnya. Jadual 1. Perbandingan Markah Pencapaian Ujian Pra dan ujian Pasca Gred Markah A 80-100 A- 75-79 B+ 70-74 B 65-69 B-60-64 C+50-59 C 40-49 C- 35-39 D+ 30-34 D 25-29 F 0-24 Jumlah

Ujian Pra Bil 0 0 0 0 3 2 6 5 1 3 0 20

% 0 0 0 0 15 10 30 25 5 15 0 100

Ujian Pasca Bil 5 5 2 5 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 20

% 25 25 10 25 5 10 0 0 0 0 0 100

Analisis ujian pra dan pasca menunjukkan tiada seorang pelajar yang gagal selepas menjalani projek Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H. Ini bererti bahawa pelajar berjaya menguasai kemahiran serta pengetahuan berkaitan pedagogi serta teori yang dipelajari dengan baik. Walaupun begitu masih terdapat 2 10% orang pelajar yang hanya memperoleh gred C+. Ini disebabkan pelajar ini tidak mengikuti program sepenuhnya atas masalah kesihatan ketidakhadiran ke kelas semasa projek dijalankan Penguasaan Kemahiran dan Aplikasi Teori Projek Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H ini adalah alternatif terbaik untuk meningkatkan penguasaan kemahiran mengaplikasi teori, memahami kaedah/teknik P&P berkesan dan interaksi dalam kumpulan. Ini kerana berdasarkan tinjauan yang dilakukan secara kualitatif dan pemerhatian mendapati Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H mengandungi beberapa ciri yang dapat menarik minat guru pelatih untuk belajar antaranya: 211


 projek ini memberi motivasi kepada guru pelatih untuk terus berusaha dan mencuba yang terbaik bagi memperoleh ganjaran dan pujian HeartsOn  projek ini memberi ruang kepada guru pelatih untuk mengalami sendiri pengalaman berpraktikal selepas mengikuti p&p pensyarah di dalam kelas Hand-On  projek ini membentuk tingkah laku positif dalam pembentukan kemahiran berfikir di luar kotak dalam menyelesaikan tugasan Hand-On  projek ini mampu menyeimbangkan kehendak fitrah manasia yang mengingini pembelajaran seimbang secara kognitif, psikomotor dan afektif 3H  projek ini juga berjaya meningkatkan kemahiran interpersonal dan intrapersonal di samping komunikasi berkesan Hearts-On  projek ini mampu menjana pemahaman guru pelatih menjadi ingatan kekal melalui perlakuan melaksanakan sendiri projek sehingga penghasilan hasil Head-On Di samping itu juga penggunaan email dan ’yahoo messenger” ini memberi peluang kepada guru pelatih untuk berinteraksi dan berkomunkasi bersama rakan di samping menjalankan aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H” ini lebih berpusatkan guru pelatih berbanding dengan kaedah tradisional yang lebih berpusatkan pensyarah. Penjimatan Masa Masa untuk pensyarah menjelaskan, menghurai dan menerangkan kepada guru pelatih dapat dijimatkan. Ini kerana guru pelatih bekerja dalam kumpulan. Guru pelatih dalam kumpulan yang memahami konsep tertentu akan membantu pensyarah menerangkan kepada rakan. Justeru, ia menjimatkan masa pensyarah untuk memberi perhatian kepada kumpulan yang memerlukan bimbingan khusus. Maka melalui kaedah ini juga, pembelajaran Peer Coachingdan Kolaboratif diaplikasikan oleh pensyarah. Ini secara tidak langsung memberi contoh aplikasi sebenar sesuatu pendekatan atau teknik pengajaran dalam bilik darjah sebenar. Masa untuk membuat latih-tubi dan ulang kaji dijimatkan kerana ia dilakukan serentak bagi keseluruhan sesuatu bab, diakhirnya guru pelatih didedahkan dengan soalan yang mencabar minda melalui Lembaran kerja atau kuiz. Proses pengajaran menjadi lebih cepat kerana satu topik merentasi beberapa topik lain malah boleh merentasi subjek lain. Ini membolehkan lebih banyak masa diberikan kepda sesi perbincangan dan percambahan minda berkaitan sesuatu topik setelah guru pelatih

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mengalaminya sendiri sesuatu situasi sebenar yang ditugaskan dalam kad tugasan. Pembelajaran secara pengalamian membuatkan sesuatu pembelajaran itu menjadi lebih bermakna. Peningkatan Keberkesanan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Tahap pencapaian guru pelatih secara keseluruhannya dalam ujian adalah seimbang. Bilangan guru pelatih lemah dalam sesuatu topikberjaya dikurangkan, Sebaliknya guru pelatih yang pintar boleh terus mengasah kebolehan Di samping membimbing rakan yang lain. Jadual 1: Analisis Ujian Pra dan Ujian Pasca Sesi pengajaran menjadi lebih menarik, mudah dan penguasaan guru pelatih lebih menyeluruh. Ini kerana diakhir sesuatu sesi pembentangan, guru pelatih berpeluang untuk berkongsi masalah serta cabaran dalam mengendalikan sesuatu tugasan. Ini pastinya akan menambahkan lagi keceriaan P&P guru dan seterusnya tumpuan guru pelatih terhadap P&P adalah sepenuhnya. Melalui kaedah ini juga, didapati penglibatan guru pelatih dalam aktiviti lebih aktif dan menyeluruh. Semua guru pelatih mengambil bahagian: guru pelatih pasif tidak disisihkan. Tambahan pula, kaedah penyingkiran yang dilaksanakan membolehkan guru pelatih menambah kemahirannya apabila dilantik menjadi penilai dalam projek berikutnya. Dari sini, pendekatan pemantauan bersama dipraktikan sebagai satu pendedahan awal kepada guru pelatih. Peningkatan Dalam Tahap Kepuasan Hati Guru/Murid Pensyarah berpuas hati dengan komen dan maklum balas yang diberikan oleh pelajar. Guru pelatih lebih mahir dalam penguasaan dan penghayatan teori-teori pembelajaran dan pengursan bilik darjah dan tingkah laku. Penilaian Pelajar terhadap perlaksanaan aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran oleh pensyarah [LAM-PT09-03] mencatatkan min tertinggi iaitu 3.99. Antara komen guru pelatih:

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Rajah 2. Komen Guru Pelatih Cadangan Untuk Tindakan Seterusnya Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H merentasi beberapa topik dan kursus dalam pedagogi. Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H juga berjaya menerapkan tiga komponen penting dalam membina pengajaran & pembelajaran yang berkesan iaitu kognitif, psikomotor dan afektif. Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H telah membantu guru pelatih yang tidak berminat dan kurang berkeyakinan untuk menjawab soalan dengan lebih yakin kerana ia berteraskan pembelajaran aktif.Pengajaran berdasarkan modul dan tugasan yang dibina menjadikan kursus EDU3104 Pengurusan Bilik Darjah dan Tingkah Laku lebih menarik, dan pembelajaran kendiri lebih terarah di kalangan guru pelatih. Walau bagaimanapun Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H ini memerlukan bimbingan pensyarah sepenuhnya bagi memastikan pembelajaran nilai serta sahsiah dapat digarapkan sewaktu guru pelatih menjalankan aktiviti. Di samping itu, pendyarah perlu menyediakan lebih banyak kad tugasan terarah bagi memastikan aplikasi nilai dapat praktikan semasa guru pelatih menjalani projek. Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H” ini juga lebih memberi peluang kepada guru pelatih membina kemahiran langsung dari segi psikomotor dan afektif. Malahan guru pelatih dapat marasai ganjaran dalam bentuk penghargaan sebagai balasan dari penat lelah mereka sendiri. Ini secara tidak langsung membina motivasi diri untuk terus menguasai ilmu dari segi pedagogi dan psikologi. Corak pembelajaran ini berpadanan dengan FPK yang mahukan pembentukan individu yang seimbang dari segi jasmani, emosi, rohani, 214


intelek dan tidak dilupakan kemahiran sosial bagi memenuhi wawasan 2020 akan datang. Sepanjang tempoh pelaksanaan Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H” ini dapat dilihat kesusahan sebahagian besar guru pelatih yang berusaha melaksanakan kad tugasan terutama pada tugasan pertama Membina Model Kelas Berkesan. Tanpa pengalaman terutamanya dalam ilmu pendidikan pedagogi mereka mula belajar dan mendapatkan maklumat untuk membina model kelas berkesan. Kesusahan dan keperitan mereka menghadapi beban kerja merupakan pahit manis dalam hidup seorang guru. Teknik serap dan masuk ahli yang mengalami kekalahan ke dalam kumpulan yang memperoleh kemenangan turut menimbulkan kontroversi terutama apabila kerusi ketua yang dipegang sebelum ini bertukar menjadi ahli biasa dalam kumpulan yang lain. Ketahanan mental dan emosi guru pelatih dapat dibentuk pada peringkat ini. Begitu juga ketua kumpulan yang menang menghadapi tekanan sekiranya ahli baru yang diserap masuk mempunyai masalah disiplin dalam kerja. Jika sebelum ini, meja saya kurang popular dikerumuni guru pelatih tetapi selepas Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H” dilaksanakan jumlah guru pelatih pasif yang bertanya dan berbincang dengan saya berkenaan kad tugasan semakin bertambah. Saya lihat ini merupakan satu perubahan positif apabila guru pelatih pasif dan lemah sudah mula buka mulut untuk bertanya dan belajar secara aktif. Kesungguhan mereka lebih memotivasikan diri saya sendiri untuk membantu mereka menguasai topik yang melibatkan banyak teori yang perlu diaplikasikan.Walaubagaimanapun, diawal projek terdapat beberapa kelemahan yang perlu diberi perhatian terutamanya bahagian kekangan masa. Terdapat pelajar yang tidak amanah atau jujur dimana nota dan bahan di ’cut & paste’ dari internet atau buku. Justeru pensyarah perlu mengadakan sistem pemantauan yang berkesan dan telus. Namun disini pensyarah dapat menerapkan pembelajaran nilai serta sahsiah di dalam diri murid.Kad tugasan yang diberikan perlukan jelas dan lengkap. Ini bagi membolehkan murid memahami arah serta tugasan. SIMPULAN Berdasarkan dapatan pemerhatian dan kajian secara kualitatif dan rumusan yang telah dibuat, maka sewajarnya projek seperti ini dapat diperluaskan lagi supaya guru pelatih dapat belajar sambil berpraktikal. Ini kerana secara keseluruhan Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H” ini mampu menarik minat serta mempunyai unsur-unsur pembelajaran yang sangat berguna kepada pengguna sasaran. Akhirnya, saya harap projek inovasi Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H” dapat diketengahkan untuk menjadi satu trend penyampaian ilmu secara berpraktikal selain ia

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mempraktikan pedagogi pembelajaran aktif yang diwawarkan oleh Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum. Secara keseluruhannya Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H” ini berjaya menghasilkan intervensi yang memberi kesan positif kepada P&P bagi topik yang dipelajari. Tidak dapat dinafikan Proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran Ilmu Pendidikan menggunakan Pendekatan Pembelajaran Berpenyertaan 3H” berkesan meningkatkan prestasi pencapaian guru pelatih dalam topik pedagogi dan psikologi berbanding dengan kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran secara tradisional. Projek ini juga berjaya menerapkan tiga domain utama iaitu kognitif, psikomotor dan afektif. Di samping membentuk sahsiah dan keperibadian unggul selaras dengan hasrat Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan. RUJUKAN Alias, Norlidah dan Saedah Siraj. (2010). “Pembangunan kurikulum modular fizik menggunakan teknik Delphi Persidangan Inovasi dalam Penyelidikan Pendidikan”. Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur Al-Sabuni , Muhammad Ali. (1981). Safwat al-Tafasir. Bayrut: Dar al-Quran alKarim Ambotang , Abdul Said. (2011). Sumbangan Pengetahuan Pedagogi, Kandungan, Daya Kreativiti dan inovatif Terhadap Efikasi Kendiri Guru Dalam Pengajaran Ekonomi, Tesis Doktor Falsafah, Sekolah Pendidikan dan Pembangunan Sosial, Universiti Malaysia Sabah Al-Quran, Al-Alaq 96:1 Arba’iah, Sharul. (2007). Faktor Yang Menyumbang Kepada Kecemerlangan Akademik Pelajar Pekak: Kajian Kes Retropektif. Tesis Doktor Falsafah, Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Baba, Suria. (2008). Strategi Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Bestari dalam aktiviti prapenulisan. Tesis Doktor Falsafah, Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Bahagian Pendidikan Guru, Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia. (2009). Standard Guru Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur

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QUALITY EDUCATION: EVALUATING BILINGUAL PROGRAM IN PILOTING SCHOOL OF INTERNATIONAL STANDARD Muchlas Suseno Faculty of Languages and Arts, State University of Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia [email protected] ABSTRACT This research was conducted to evaluate bilingual program in piloting school of International standard, henceforth will be referred to asRSBI, which stands for Rintisan Sekolah Bertaraf Internasional. This is limited to cover Senior High Schools or SMA’s although in some way there might relate to other RSBI schools, such as Elementary Schools (SD) and Junior High Schools (SMP).This case study was conducted in an SMA RSBI ‘Lazuardi’ in Depok using CIPP model consisting of Context, Input, Process, and Product, as developed by Stufflebeam. Respondents of research were school head master, teachers and students of that school. To obtain data various instruments were developed to comply with the research components and activities, such as observational sheet, interview protocol, and inventory checklist.The research reveals the followings (1) the needs to apply bilingual program in relation to quality improvement in education is debatable. However all respondents agree that such improvement is imperative to respond to global demands, (2) negative semantic notion of globalization is always present in the citation found in almost all legal documents related to quality improvement, (3) Human resources of RSBI schools have a good mastery of English for general communication, which is commonly referred to as Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS), (4) Most teachers do not have adequate knowledge and competence to deliver bilingual program, in which Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) is needed, (5)Books, worksheets and other things related to material of instruction in bilingual program are available in two languages but the utility is not effective, (6)Students who are admitted in SMA RSBI are selected from SMP schools which are mostly non RSBI schools. In other words, there is no generic link of policy which integrated RSBI schools from elementary to senior secondary level of education, (7) Teachers find it difficult to design process of bilingual teaching due to various reasons, (8) Graduates of RSBI schools do not automatically continue their study in the higher level of RSBI schools. (9) No guarantee is available for

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graduates of SMA RSBI to be admitted in a certain reputable university in Indonesia. It is to say that bilingual program in particular and RSBI in general might improve quality in education, but it applies to individual context which is subject to change from time to time. Keywords: evaluating, bilingual, program RSBI school

INTRODUCTION The urgency of designing bilingual program in RSBI schools in Indonesia closely relates to demand of improving quality education to respond to global challenges. Such is clearly stipulated in the guide book of implementation of RSBI (Depdiknas, Direktorat PSMA, 2009:25). However, the citation of globalization that underlies concept to improve quality education in many government legal documents is almost always associated with the notion of competition, not collaboration. Such is found, among other things, in the guide book of SMA RSBI (Depdiknas, Direktorat PSMA, 2009:1). And so it goes on, with the terms ‘globalisation ’ and ‘competitiveness’ repeated time and again, almost like a mantra or magic word (Coleman, 2009: 34). This might hinder the activities or programs ofquality improvement in general and bilingual program in particular. Responding to global challenges to improve quality of life through quality improvement in all sectors of education is done by all nations in the globe. This implies that improvement means change in line with challenges and demands to which life encounters. This certainly also applies to Indonesia. In other words, Government of Indonesia (GOI) realizes and is fully aware that quality education is a must rather than just a need as far as character and national development is concerned. Such issues are getting more demanding when educational achievement is compared with that of other countries regionally or worldwide. Data shows that Indonesia ranks 124 out of 187 in UN human development index (HDI), with score of 0.67. Among the ASEAN countries, Indonesia is only ahead of Vietnam's HDI of 0.593, Laos' 0.524, Cambodia's 0.523 and Myanmar's 0.483. (Jakarta Post, April 17, 2012). In order not to be left far behind, therefore, various steps and actions have been taken by GOI to empower and even to accelerate all potential of all educational resources, in particular the human resources. National Education Law 20/2003 is one of important actions that GOI has taken in which it clearly stipulates not only the very basic reason of promoting education to be world class but also a compulsion to develop schools of International standard. In line with the above Law, GOI has also issued related legitimate documents, such as Law 17/2007 about long term national development plan, and a Government Regulation 19/2005. Based on the above legal

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documents Ministry of Education and Culture (MOEC) stipulated and included the urgency of developing schools of International standard (called RSBI) in its strategic five year plan that says, “To enhance a global competitive power, it’s imperative that RSBI schools be developed in each regency/city”. Such is stipulated in the guide book of implementation of RSBI (Depdiknas, 2009; 1). Since then a total number of 1,305 schools throughout the country, ranging from elementary to secondary levels, have been developed to be RSBI schools (Kompas.com).It is understandable there is a long debate related to the program of RSBI but, not to mislead, this article is not to evaluate or discuss what so ever about the RSBI program s in general. Instead, it focuses on the evaluation of bilingual program, one among other programs in RSBI. Bilingual program, under a big umbrella of RSBI, is a part in one of eight components or standards to which RSBI is addressingto, as far as quality improvement is concerned. It is to say that bilingual program is not the main content of the eight components of the national standard of education. Instead, it is the enrichment program in the standard of process, one of the eight standards of education. This is clearly stipulated in the guide book of implementation of RSBI in which a generic formula to illustrate the definition of RSBI might be found. It reads RSBI = SNP + X. (In which SNP stands for Standar Nasional Pendidikan or National Standard of Education which covers 8 components, such as standards of (1) graduates, (2) evaluation, (3) teachers and school administrative staffs, (4) curriculum content, (5) learning process, (6) learning facilities, (7) school management, and (8) finance. The component ‘X’ refers to additional efforts or enrichment that RSBI schools must pursue. As clearly stipulated in the document of quality assurance of RSBI schools, issued by MOEC, one effort made by RSBI schools, among other things, is the delivery of lesson or material of instruction in English or, at least, bilingual. This applies to Mathematics, Science subjects and English (Depdiknas, 2007: 11). Unfortunately, the guide book of the implementation of bilingual program issued by Directorate of Secondary Education of MOEC does not give clear description. Below is the citation genuinely taken from the guide book of RSBI schools (Depdiknas, 2009: 66 - 68): Pada tahun pertama, sekolah telah mampu menyelenggarakan proses pembelajaran sesuai standar minimal pembelajaran di SMA bertaraf Internasional, antara lain, 20% pembelajaran mata pelajaran dilakukan secara bilingual. The guide book mainly discusses the stages and amount of percentage of delivering material of instruction of math and science subjects. It does not explain how to conduct the bilingual program in the classroom. Neither does it guide teachers what is to be delivered in bilingual ways. Is it 223


the question answer session or is it the teacher explanation. Is it limited to first 10 minutes during opening session or does it cover the whole time of class session? As a result, each RSBI schools creates and develops bilingual program on their own accord. In some schools teachers implement bilingual program simply by greeting and opening the class in English and promptly shifting to Indonesian language to deliver the learning materials. Some other teachers might code mix the class communication involving two languages English and Indonesian.(Ardiansyah, 2012).Many people argue that bilingual program, as far as RSBI school is concerned, might give more burdens on the hands of math and science teachers (Ambarsari, 2012). Many others even claim that such a program give a total failure (Coleman, 2009). In relation to the above description, a very basic question should be raised to know whether or not RSBI program has run effectively, especially from the fulfillment of standard process. In particular, questions relates to bilingual program might focus on the followings, (1) How do RSBI schools run bilingual programs? (2) Do they implement a particular standardized model of bilingual program? (3) If they do, which model is it? To answer such questions an evaluation of bilingual program is, therefore, important to carry out. Bilingual education has been discussed by many experts from different angles. Hamers& Blanc (1990: 189) states that bilingual education is any system of school education in which, at a given moment in time and for a varying amount of time, simultaneously orconsecutively, instruction is planned and given in at least two languages. Shorter than Hamers and Blanc (1998) defines bilingual education as using two languages forinstructional purposes. Another similar definition came from Christian & Genesee (2001) who assert that bilingual education is education involving two languages as media of instruction. Based on the opinion above, most bilingual education programs follow one of the following category (1)Instruction is given in both languages simultaneously, (2)Instruction is given first in first language, and students are taught until such time as they are able to use the second or foreign language as a means of learning, (3)The largest proportion of instruction is given through second language, and first language is introduced at a later stage, first as a subject and later as a medium of instruction (Hamers& Blanc, 2000). In United States, bilingual and English as a Second Language (ESL) programs in education take on many different forms. This is, particularly, true in the context of American education depending on various factors, such as state regulations and guidelines, school district policies, and community context as well as composition of each local school population. Due to that many program models have been developed under different terms, such as

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ESL or ESOL (English to speakers of other languages), ESL Pullout, ESL Content or Sheltered Instruction. ESL model is designed to promote students who are not proficient in English to acquire academic proficiency in spoken and written English. In its implementation ESL model might be carried out using different techniques and strategies. When it requires students to attend ESL content classes for part of the school days, separated from the school hours during those days, and go back to mainstream class it is called ESL content or ESL sheltered class. When it requires hiring extra resource teachers who are qualified in delivering both content subjects and ESL, it is called ESL Pullout. ESL content model is very effective to teach both language and content subjects when delivered by a trained specialist in second language acquisition who also master content objectives in each lesson (Ovando Combs, and Collier, 2006: 37). It implies meaning that ESL content class should be carried out by dual certified teachers or subject-matter specialists who have been trained in second language acquisition. ESL Pullout, on the other hand, is considered the least effective model although it is most implemented in US due to several factors, such as (1) high cost, (2) lost time in students’ access to the full curriculum, (3) lack of curriculum articulation with grade level classroom teachers, (4) parents and also students stigma perceiving that it is a remedial class rather than an enrichment process (Ovando Combs, and Collier, 2006: 36). In early 1980’s there come newcomer programs which consist of three models (1) transitional or early bilingual education, (2) maintenance or lateexit or developmental bilingual education, and (3) bilingual immersion, twoway bilingual or dual-language education. (Ovando, Combs, and Collier,, 2006: 39-41). Although all models, “old’ and newcomers, have different names, backgrounds and purposes, they share similar characteristics in common, such as (1) the continued development of the student’s primary language or L1, (2) acquisition of second language (L2) which in the US context for most minority students is English, (3) instruction in the content areas utilizing both L1 and L2 (California Department of Education as cited by Ovando Combs, and Collier, 2006: 9). Thus, the term Bilingual Education is said to be an approach that encompasses a variety of models, each of which promotes a variety of distinct goals. METHODOLOGY A lot of models in programevaluation have been developed by many experts, such as (1) Goal Oriented Evaluation Model by Tyler, (2) Goal Free Evaluation Model by Michael Scriven, (3) Formative-Summative Evaluation Model by Michael Scriven, (4) Countenance Evaluation Model by Stake,

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(5) CIPP model by Stufflebeam, and (6) CIPPO model by Sax. (Fitzpatrick, Sanders, and Worthen, 2004). This research is conducted using CIPP model. It was first developed by Stufflebeamin 1967 to help managers and administrators in decision making. In this regards, Stufflebeam created a guide work to facilitate managers to face four kinds of decision making, related to context evaluation, input evaluation, process evaluation, and product evaluation. Context evaluation relates to activities of planning the decision making, determining needs. (Stufflebeam, and Shinkfield, 2007). In the guide work each component of CIPP is described to see its purposes by which activities of evaluation could be designed together with related instruments. Table below illustrates the relationship among such things. Table 1. Component, Purpose, Activities, and Instrument CIPP Component CONTEXT

INPUT

PROCESS PRODUCT

Purpose Assess need and opportunities as well as define goals

Activities Interview and review of study existing documents

Instrument Protocol interview, and evaluation rubrics

Assess alternative approaches of work plan, including HR recruitment Assess implementation and interpret outcomes

Interview and review of study existing documents

Protocol interview, and evaluation rubrics

Observation

Observational Sheet

Assess outcomes and help promote success

Interviews

Protocol interview

Respondents of the research were all human resources in school, including, head master, teachers, and students. Data collected from them was analyzed using a-two-stage approach, i.e before and after data collection. First stage includes preliminary activities and is useful to determine focus of research activities during the second stage. Second stage comprises various steps, such as data reduction, data display, and verification. (Miles and Huberman, as cited by Sugiyono, 2003). The research reveals the following findings: 1. From the aspect of contextit could be summarized that the needs to apply bilingual program in relation to quality improvement in education is debatable. However all respondents agree that such improvement is imperative to respond to global demands. Negative semantic notion of globalization is always present in the citation found in almost all legal documents related to quality improvement. Words having such negative notion are, for examples; competition, hard, tough, and high technology. 226


Teachers’ understanding to bilingual program varies. Therefore, bilingual program is implemented in many different ways and models. Almost all of them do not refer to any of standard model of bilingual program in countries that have been practicing it for years. Legal and operational guide books and related documents of bilingual program are not available. 2. From the aspect of input, it could be summarized (a)Human resources of RSBI schools have a good mastery of English for general communication, which is commonly referred to as Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS), (b)most teachers do not have adequate knowledge and competence to deliver bilingual program, in which Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) is needed, (c)books, worksheets and other things related to material of instruction in bilingual program are available in two languages but the utility is not effective. This is possible because students, and teachers too, prefer to utilize the Indonesian version rather than English, (d)students who are admitted in SMA RSBI are selected from SMP schools which are mostly non RSBI schools. In other words, there is no generic link of policy which integrated RSBI schools from elementary to senior secondary level of education. 3. From the aspect of process; (a)Teachers find it difficult to design process of bilingual teaching due to various reasons, such as (1)there is no clear model of bilingual teaching, (2)when they have to creatively develop techniques and strategy, they are faced with time constraint. (b)Teachers feel that bilingual program gives more burden on their hands and heads, instead of facilitation to effective and efficient teaching. 4. From the aspect of Product, it might be summarized, (1)Graduates of RSBI schools do not automatically continue their study in the higher level of RSBI schools. This is true due to various factors, such as (a)there is no generic policy to guarantee such a thing, (b)students and/or parents have their personal reasons to/not to continue study in RSBI schools. (2)No guarantee is available for graduates of SMA RSBI to be admitted in a certain reputable university in Indonesia. It is to say that bilingual program in particular and RSBI in general might improve quality in education, but it applies to individual context which is subject to change from time to time. (2)Scores of achievement that students in RSBI schools attain are higher that that of students in non RSBI schools. This applies to almost all subjects being examined in the national level. However, it does not simply reveal the success of bilingual or RSBI programs, (3)The outcomes of bilingual program and/or RSBI program are accepted in many different perspectives, some pro’s but many other cont/s. (4)Among others who are contradictory with their counterpart, 227


will consider that bilingual program, or RSBI in general, is an expensive program. In addition, it is against the principles of national constitution, therefore it must be banned. REFERENCES Ambarsari, Septiana. (2012). Difficulties Encountered by Teachers in Conducting Bilingual Class: A survey at SMP 275, SMP 128 and SMP 49 Jakarta. Thesis.Jakarta: English and Literature Department, State University Jakarta. Ardiansyah, Andri. (2012). The Practice of Codeswitching in RSBI school: A Case Study in SMPN 19 Jakarta. Thesis . Jakarta: English and Literature Department, State University Jakarta. Christian, D. & Genesee, F. (2001). Bilingual Education. Alexandria: TESOL, Inc. Coleman, Hywel, (2009). Teaching Other Subjects through English in Three Asian Nations: A Review . Jakarta: British Council. Depdiknas, Direktorat Pembinaan SMA. (2009). Panduan Penyelenggaraan Rintisan Sekolah Bertaraf Internasional (RSBI). (Jakarta, Kegiatan Perluasan dan Peningkatan Mutu SMA) Depdiknas, Pedoman Penjaminan Mutu Sekolah/Madrasah Bertaraf Internasional pada Jenjang Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah. (2007). Jakarta: Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan. Fitzpatrick, Jody, L., James R. Sanders, Blaine R. Worthen. (2004). Program Evaluation: Analitycal Approach and Practical Guidelines. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. Hamers, J. & Blanc, M (1998). Bilinguality and bilingualis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hamers,

J. &Blanc, M (2000). Bilinguality and bilingualism.(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ovando, Carlos, Mary CarolComb, and Virginia P. Collier. (2006). Bilingual and ESL Classroom: Teaching in Multicultural Contexts. Boston: Mcgraw Hill. Owen, John, M. (2006). Program Evaluation: Forms and Approach.(3rd ed).Crows Nest, NSW Australia: Allen and Unwin. Stufflebeam, Daniel L, and Anthony J. Shinkfield. (2007). Evaluation Theory, Models, & Applications.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Sugiyono. (2008). Memahami Penelitian Kualitatif. Bandung: Alfabeta 228


TEST OF ITEM VALIDITY OF PERFORMANCE TEST IN PATTERN MAKING OF VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS (SMK) IN DENPASAR BALI Ni Ketut Widiartini Ganesha Education University, Singaraja, Indonesia [email protected] ABSTRACT This study aims to test the validity of test items of performance test in pattern makings of vocational high school students in Denpasar Bali. Performance tests developed by researchers and teachers on the base of test blue print developed in term of Standard of Competence and Basic Competence of teaching objectives. Constructing performance test of pattern making are in three phases: preparation, production, and finalization. Test items amount to about 23 items. Implementation of the tests conducted in 2010. The subject of this study were 40 students grade X of SMK N 3 and 44 students of grade X of SMK N 4 Denpasar Bali. Data analysis methods used were: 1)content validation, conducted by panels, and 2)empirical validation by trying-out of the performance tests on a number of samples. Validation of the performance test items in pattern making is calculated by using the formula product moment correlation, while for the reliability of the test is calculated by statistic formula of Alpha Cronbach. Based on the results of testing the validity of the performance test items in pattern making are 22 items and 1 item is invalid. Reliability coefficient of 0.86 is obtained. The degree of reliability of the test is very high according to Guilford and can be used to measure the research data. Keywords: test validity, performance test of pattern making INTRODUCTION Evaluation can be done by observation, questionnaires, interviews, and a written test or oral test in various forms. Evaluation should be done in a sustainable manner so that the objectives can attained effectively. Evaluation in schools in the learning process can be done in formative and summative. Formative evaluation is one of the phases of the activities carried

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on while learning program is taking place. This is done with the intention to monitor students' progress and to provide feedback, both to students and the teacher (Silverus, 1991: 9). This evaluation is conducted to determine the extent to which the students have grasped the subject matter and also to know the weaknesses that occur in the learning process, such as the precision of the method, media, and evaluation systems used in the learning process. This activity is carried out to obtain the proper feedback to the learning process and it can be refined and become more effective. While summative evaluation conducted after all subjects have been completed in one semester. One form of evaluation to be applied in this study is evaluating the use of performance tests on the subjects of fashion practice in Vocational School (SMK), in the lesson on Pattern Making. Performance test is one of the ideal form of authentic assessment and it fits the learning objectives of practice subjects. Performance test is suitable with the needs of teachers and students of Vocational School (SMK), which provides more practical lessons than other subjects. There are several reasons that make this research is feasible and important to do, among others: lack of interest and motivation of students to study subjects that lead to the low of the students’ achievement in the pattern making. Pattern-making skills should be the skill and expertise of the students after passing through the learning process. Assessment methods used by teachers were not process oriented but products oriented. As a result there were no significant changes in students' ability to understand the process well in producing a product that fits the criteria well. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK In relation to the assessment or assessments, tests, evaluations and measurements, it seems necessary to explain the terms again because they are often confused. All these terms belong to the same process. Understanding of assessment is similar to the evaluation, but assessment emphasis on performance assessment tasks in real and complex types (Linn and Gronlund, 1995: 5-6). Thus the assessment has a broader sense than the notion of evaluation, measurement and test. Assessment also has the objective of identifying weaknesses and strengths of students, monitor student progress, determine the effectiveness of learning and help teachers to improve the quality of the learning process. Measurements according to Kerlinger is giving numbers on the objects or events according to a rule (Kerlinger, 2000: 687). Similar opinion expressed by Nunnally, who stated that the measurement consists of the rules to put numbers to objects in such a manner to indicate the quantity of the object's attributes (Nunnally, 1978: 230


3). So, it can be concluded that the measurement is putting numbers to an object or a certain behavior by certain rules. In performance tests, students are asked to perform activities that demonstrate specific skills and or make a particular product. The result, this test can catch a lot of educational outcomes in complex and can not be catch in the written exam. Performance tests can be used to assess students as they work, or check out the product or the work the students make, and can assess the skills shown. In addition, through performance tests, each student can recognize their own deficiencies in the learning process so that with this knowledge the student can go to the effort to develop their skills in any learning process. On the teacher side, performance test can provide real information about the level of student achievement in each of the learning process, including information about students' attitudes toward the tasks given by the teacher. Based on this information the teacher can assess students' ability in the achievement aspects of the cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Performance tests can be considered as a process of gathering information through systematic observation in order to make a decision about an individual student. Performance tests rely on the use of various types of assessment, not only on a single test or other measuring devices, and performance test takes place in a long time. The main tool of performance test performance is direct observation of the students’ behavior and product. Test performance is an important element of the alternative assessment, and portfolio is a tool or a place where information of performance test is stored (Martens, 2005: 369). Performance tests are usually designed to collect information about the purpose of teaching or the progress of students which is in direct and continuous observation. Performance test is used to determine the progress of individual students, rather than to compare the ability of a student to another. Performance tests have been used for a long time. In recent years educators strongly support this form of assessment, because: (1) is an alternative to pencil and paper assessments, (2) is often more authentic, which is a representation of the tasks or things that students may encounter in real life (Popham, 1995: 87). In line with this opinion, the performance test is a procedure in which teachers use tasks to get the extent of student learning achievement (Nitko, 1996: 243). From the above description, it can be concluded that the performance test is a procedure by giving tasks to obtain information about how well students have learned. In the performance test, students are required to apply the knowledge and skills in a way the students demonstrate their work in accordance with the objectives or learning targets. Therefore, it 231


is necessary for teacher to determine the standardized competency targets to be achieved by learners. Not as well as traditional tests, performance tests require students to apply their knowledge and skills to demonstrate that they have achieved the learning targets. With test performance, students are asked to create something, create reports, and demonstrate. All targets or learning goals should be assessed with performance tests. Especially when the target of a learning requires students to be able to make something with the skills of the students, student learning outcomes must be assessed with performance tests. But if the goal of learning such as declarative knowledge, understanding of theory, or compare two concepts may be better measured or assessed by traditional tests or tests in addition to test performance. Written test can not measure the number of skills directly and even indirectly, such as speaking skills, writing, lab work, playing a musical instrument, gymnastics, and social skills. The only way to measure student proficiency in these skills is to observe student performance. Such observation is called performance tests (Oosterhof, 1990: 225). Although the performance tests are now widely used in schools, but the performance test has advantages and disadvantages. According to Reynolds, Livingston, and Willson the advantages of the performance test are: (1) to measure abilities that can not be measured with other assessment, (2) the use of performance tests are relevant with modern learning theory, (3) performance tests make learning more meaningful and motivate students, (4) allows teachers to assess the performance test as well as process and product, and (5) the use of performance tests expand teachers' approach to the assessment. Furthermore, it is said about the weakness of performance tests are: (1) The reliable performance test is difficult to implement, (2) Performance tests give a little sample of the subject matter so it is difficult to generalize about the skills and knowledge of students, (3) The performance test takes a long time in practice, and difficult to arrange, as well as the difficulty in giving the score, and (4) In addition there are other practical reasons that lead to performance assessment difficult to implement, such as the need for space or place, expensive equipment and materials to simulate real life (Reynolds, Livingston, and Willson, 2009: 261). Another opinion suggests the advantages of performance tests, namely: (1)to find out how students use the information to perform activities in the situation similar to the students’ real life, (2)performance tests can be used over and over and over, for different classes and different year, (3)is diagnostic, and (4)can be up to date with the progress of students from time to time (Airasian, 1990: 231). In line with the opinions above, Oosterhof said the advantage of performance tests, namely: (1)to measure or evaluate the skills that can not be measured or evaluated by the pencil-paper test, and 232


(2)can directly measure the skills which the written test can only indirectly measure these skills. As for the weakness it is said that: (1)takes a lot of time or longer, (2)should be immediately suspended, can not be delayed, and (3)inconsistency / unreliable (Oosterhof, 1990 : 270). To be able to make a good performance, experts or specialists provide evaluation and measurement solutions. This is done because of the performance test must be able to truly assess student competence. According to Airasian right way to develop performance tests are: (1)formulate clear objectives, (2)identification of aspects that can be observed, (3)provide an appropriate setting or plan to get the expected behavior of students, and (4)Prepare guidelines or rubric assessment (Airasian, 1990: 220). On the other hand Linn and Gronlund said that the requirement to develop performance tests are as follows: (1)focus on learning goals that require complex cognitive skills and student performance, (2)select or develop a task that represents the content and skills that an important goal of learning objectives, (3)minimize the tasks that depend on the skills that are not relevant to the purpose of the task, (4)provide key points for students to be able to perform such tasks as expected, (5)provide an explanation of how to carry out the task, and (6)give a clear idea of what should be done by the students and how their performance assessed (Linn and Grounlond, 1995, 244-245). From the description of the steps above, it can be concluded that in order to make a good test performance assessments for skills, there are things to consider: (1)identification of all critical steps that would affect the outcome, (2)write specific behavioral skills that are important and necessary to complete tasks and produce the best outcomes, (3)establish criteria for the ability to be measured and observed during the students carry out the task, (4)clearly defined criteria abilities to be measured based on the ability of students which must be taken or the characteristics of the product, (5)order the criteria that will be measured on the base of the sequences that can be observed, and (6)Check the criteria again and compare it with the criteria that have been made previously by others. To achieve the above targets, then the performance test must have three essential components, namely: (1)task performance, (2)performance rubrics, and (3)scoring guide. Task performance is a task that contains the topic, the standard task, task descriptions, and condition of task completion. Performance rubric is a column that contains the components of an ideal performance, and its descriptor. Associated with task performance according to experts above, then the teacher should pay attention to the performance of tasks assigned to students. The performance task should meet some of the following 233


conditions: (1)performance tasks provide a direct measure of assessment of learning objectives, (2)tasks can maximize the performance of teachers to generalize assessment results, (3)tasks reflect the important skills, (4)tasks have more than one learning objective, (5)tasks that focused on process or product that is very interesting, (6)tasks that provide a level of realization, (7)tasks that measured skills that can be mastered, (8)tasks that are 'fair' or equitable for all students, (9)tasks can be implemented in time and resources available, (10)tasks that can be scored in a way that reliable, and (11) tasks that reflect the learning objectives that can not be measured with a gauge or a traditional test. The performance of tasks often require the complex response from the students. Thus, it is necessay to make a clear command for the students. Due to originality and creativity is something that is expected of students, it needs to be given space to the students for how they perform tasks. It is advisable that teachers develop systematic procedures, objective and reliable for evaluating student performance, both for the evaluation procedure or product or both. The performance test is a test that the response must be made alone, and usually encountered many problems in the scoring. Scoring procedure which is applied to test performance is often called a rubric. Rubric is a written guide that helps teachers to do the scoring. Reynolds, Livingston, and Willson explained that there are three important things that must be completed in writing or creating rubrics, namely: (1) select the essential criteria that will be considered when evaluating student responses, (2) describe the specific standards that describe different levels of students’ performance, and (3) determine the type of scoring procedure to be used; holistic or analytic (Reynolds, Livingston, and Willson, 2009: 243). Broadly speaking, the forms of a performance test can be a product evaluation and or projects (Linn and Grounlond, 1995: 249). Product assessment is the assessment of students' work in the form of objects. These objects can be made of cloth, paper, metal, wood, ceramics and other works of art such as paintings, drawings and sculpture. Assessment of these products are used in craft subjects and the arts, drawing, and productive lesson at vocational school. The purpose of this product evaluation is to assess students' mastery of skills that are required before the next skill is to learn, assess the level of competence that have been mastered by the end of class students, and assess the skills of students who will enter higher vocational education institutions. Aspects considered in the assessment of this product is the skill to use tools and work procedures and technical and aesthetic quality of the work. Furthermore, there are three steps that must be done to make students' work (product), namely: (1)the planning stage: designing forms, materials to be used to plan, sketch drawing, drafting costs, 234


etc., (2)the production phase: how to use tools, work procedures in making work, the attitude of working time, etc., and (3)the final stage: students evaluate whether their work are working or not, doing finishing work to be beautiful to look at etc.. The evaluation project is a task that must be completed within a certain period. Task is an investigation since the gathering, organizing, evaluating, presenting data to accomplish within the period for two weeks, one month, a semester or more (Valid Setiadi, 2006: 19-20). Further Setiadi says that the performance tests can be done by three methods of assessment; holistic, analytic, and anecdotal (Setiadi's Day, 2006: 21). Of the three types of valuation methods mentioned above, the method of evaluation with the analytic rubric is much better than a holistic assessment rubric and anecdotal, because the analytical column in the preparation of the assessment criteria based on the components that contribute to a performance as well as the method used to assess at the stage of planning and the final stage. The rubric enables teachers to assess student performance based on point in each component which was determined. In addition, this assessment also allows teachers and students to determine strengths and weaknesses that exist in the learning process and finally can be used to improve the students’ performance in the following tasks. To conduct performance tests on the subject of pattern making, it is needed an analytic rubric to assess student performance as a benchmark, because learning pattern making skills use tools and working procedures, attention to technical quality and artistic works. While aspects of the assessed subjects adapted to create a pattern that is producing a product or work. Aspects of the development of indicators on which to base the assessment rubric are: (1)the planning stage: take aspects of measurement, aspects of the manufacture of small patterns, aspect of the design model analysis, aspects of the burst pattern and material aspects of design and price, (2)stages of production: aspects of the selecting materials, aspects of the use of work equipment, work procedures aspects of making the work, and (3)the final stage: aspects of finishing, and testing aspects of the work. In essence, the activity of learning to make patterns with more emphasis on the analysis of the model or information to be able to understand or design concepts with the appropriate conclusions to be followed in making the pattern to be the right product according to the design presented. Thus, it can be said that in order to develop the reasoning power of students, student capacity for critical thinking, divergent, holistic, creative, and able to develop the imagination through real work or product, the use of performance tests will be more effective. Based on the above description of 235


the performance test, the characteristics of the test are presented in the following table. Table 1. Test Performance Characteristics Characteristics Measured aspects Students’ preparation Students' responses

Test Performance Cognitive, affective, psychomotor. Usually accompanied by the students’ work or products Emphasis on the depth of materials and student’s skills Organizing students' responses or answers to produce work products

RESEARCH METHOD This study aims to test the validity of the test item performance on the Pattern Making vocational students in Denpasar Bali. Implementation of the tests conducted in 2010. Subjects in this study are the students of class X and SMKN 3 SMKN 4 Denpasar Bali as many as 84 students, consisting of 40 students SMK N 3 Denpasar and 44 students at SMK N 4 Denpasar. Conceptual Definition Learning outcomes of Pattern Making are the abilities in the field of Pattern Making owned by the students after the students participate in the learning process of pattern making based on the predetermined learning objectives and within a certain time. Operational Definition Learning outcomes of pattern makings is the score of the students in pattern makings owned by the students after attending the learning process pattern making for the first semester based on the predetermined learning objectives, which can be measured through subjects: basic pattern, pattern making, and change the pattern that match the model. Test Blueprint of Pattern Making for Measuring Learning Outcomes Test blueprint of Pattern Making for Measuring Learning Outcomes is as in the table below.

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Table 2. Test blueprint of Pattern Making for Measuring Learning Outcomes in the cognitive domain with performance test. Behavior measured Materials 1. Basic pattern 2. Pattern making 3. Changing patterns so that fit the model Total

Item number C2 C4 1 2 3 1 2

Total 1 1 1 3

Remarks: C2= understanding C4= analysis Table 3. Test blueprint of Pattern Making for Measuring Learning Outcomes in the psychomotor domain with performance test Behavior measured Materials 1. Basic pattern 2. Pattern making 3. Changing patterns so that fit the model Total

Item number C5 1 2 3 3

Total 1 1 1 3

Remarks: C5= psychomotor skill Validating Test Instrument of Pattern Making Instrument test items of pattern making should be tried out in order to have some level of reliability. The validation process is carried out in two stages: (1) validation of the concept in order to examine the provisions of the instrument items reviewed from three aspects including contents, constructs, and language, based on expert judgments, and (2) empirical validation is carried out in order to test the accuracy of items and the reliability of the items based on a sample of the study population. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Validating Test Item of Pattern Making The validation process of the contents of each item was done by expert judgments. The assessment process was conducted by five experts consisting of; 1 Professor of measurement, 2 lecturers in the subjects of fashion, and 2 teachers teaching vocational of fashion. Assessment conducted by the experts was to match between instrument items in the syllabus, materials, and the grille which has been made by the researcher. Then, the experts judged the items by writing R (for relevant items) and (TR) (for irrelevant items). Based on the results of expert assessment of the instrument, amounting to about 22 items there are several points to note regarding the 237


suitability of indicators, the suitability of the material grains. Furthermore the assessment results are analyzed and summarized as follows: (1) if 1-2 experts who claimed that the items are relevant, then the item instrument is not valid in terms of content, these items should be reviewed again in accordance with the material, indicator and test blueprint (items should be corrected according to the other three experts who claimed that items were not relevant), whereas if 3-5 experts claimed points in question were relevant, then the items were claimed to be valid in terms of contents, or the items have been in accordance with the material, indicators and test blueprint. Having analyzed the five expert assessments, it was found out that all the items of pattern making were Valid. Empirical Validation of the test items of Pattern Making The test tried out was carried out toward a number of subjects (sample of the study). There were 84 students. Because of the data were in form of politomy, Product Moment correlation formula was applied to calculate the empirical validity (validity of test items) (Sutrisno Hadi, 2000: 294). Formula:

rxy  Description: N = X = Y = ΣX = ΣY = rxy =

N  XY   X  Y 

N  X

2



  X  N  Y 2   Y  2

2



number of cases or samples score of the test items total score sum of X number of Y the product moment correlation coefficient

To determine whether a test item is valid or not, then the coefficient rxy observed was consulted with the r table. The criterion are: an item is said to be "valid" if the value of rxy = rxy r-observed is bigger than r-tables with standard error or significance level of 5% (rxy-observed ≥ rxy -table with the significant level 5%), and "invalid" if the value of rxy = rxy observed is bigger than rxy -table with standard error or significance level of 5% (rxyobserved

table with the significance level of 5% and n = 30 is 0.213. Apparently rxyobserved is greater than the rxy-table table, then the number of score item 1 had a significant correlation with the total score. It can therefore be interpreted that the test item number 1 is valid. The formula of product moment was also applied to find validity of item 3. It was found that rxy = 0.468 price, while rxy-table in the significance level of 5% and n = 30 is 0.213. Apparently rxy-observed is bigger than rxy-table, then the number of score points for-3 has a significant correlation with the total score. It can therefore be interpreted that the test item number 3 is valid. The calculation of test results of pattern making using Microsoft Excel 2007 program is obtained that the 22 items are valid and 1 item is invalid. So, in this study the instruments used to measure the learning outcomes of pattern making are the 22 items.. Test Reliability of Pattern Making Having obtained a valid instrument with 22 items, then the reliability coefficient of the test was calculated. Instrument reliability coefficient was analyzed using the formula of Alpha-Cronbach, as follows (Gregory, 2000: 128). Alpha-Cronbach: 2 2  k  SDt   SDi  r1.1    2  k  1 SDt   

Description: r1.1 = reliability coefficient of the test device k = a lot of test items 2 SDi = Variance of scores of each item (item) 2 SDtot

= Variance of total score

Based on the calculation of the reliability of test results on pattern makings using the program Microsoft Excel 2007, the reliability coefficient obtained r1.1 = 0.86. To determine the degree of reliability tests, it was used the criteria proposed by Guilford as follows (Guilford, 1956: 213). 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80

≤ 0.20 ≤ 0.40 ≤ 0.60 ≤ 0.80 ≤ 1.00

: very low : low : medium : high : very high

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Thus, the test results show the coefficient of reliability of the test on making patterns is very high and can be used to measure the research data. REFERENCES Airasian, Peter W. (1990). Classroom Assessment, New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Guilford, J. P., Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Company, Inc., 1956. Gregory. Robert J. (2000). Psychological Testing: History, Principles, and Applications, Third Edition, Boston: Allyn & Bacon, Inc. Hadi, Sutrisno. (2000).Statistics, London: Andi. Kerlinger, Fred N. (2000). Principles of Behavioral Research, translation Landung L. Simatupang, Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press. Linn, Robert L. and Norman E. Gronlund. (1990). Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. Martens, Donna M. (2005). Research and Evaluation in Education and Psychology: Diversity Integrating with Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mix Methods, London: Sage Publications. Nitko, Anthony J. (1996). Educational Assessment, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Nunnally on Friday, C. (1978). Psychometric Theory, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Oosterhof, Albert. (1990).Classroom Application of Educational Measurement, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. Popham, W. James. (1995). Classroom Assessment What Teachers Need to Know, USA: Allyn and Bacon. Reynolds, Cecil R., Ronald B. Livingston and Victor Willson. (2009). Measurement and Assessment in Education, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Setiadi,

Day. (2006). Classroom-Based Assessment: Assessment of Performance, New York: Center for Educational Assessment Research and Development Ministry of Education.

[

Silverius, Suke. (1991). Learning and Evaluation Feedback, Jakarta: PT Grasindo.

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PELAKSANAAN KURIKULUM TERSEMBUNYI DALAM KALANGAN PELAJAR SEKOLAH MENENGAH Abdul Rahim Hamdan PM1, Mohamad Najib Ghaffar2, Ahmad Johari Sihes3, Hj Zainuddin Hassan4, Nani Herlin binti Jamin Pn.5 Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Malaysia1 [email protected] ABSTRAK Kajian ini membincangkan pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi dalam kalangan pelajar Sekolah Menengah. Objektif kajian ialah hendak meninjau pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi yang dilihat melalui lima aspek iaitu kandungan subjek menurut interpretasi pelajar, iklim sekolah, perlakuan guru, proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran dan aktiviti kokurikulum. Seramai 588 orang pelajar Tingkatan 4 dari 6 buah sekolah menengah di sekitar daerah Pontian, Johor telah dipilih untuk terlibat dalam kajian ini. Kajian ini menggunakan borang soal selidik yang mengandungi 50 item soalan untuk mendapatkan maklumat tentang tahap pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi dalam memupuk integrasi kaum. Data yang diperolehi dianalisis secara kuantitatif menggunakan perisian Statistical Package for The Social Science (SPSS) 16.0. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan tahap pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi adalah tinggi melalui kandungan subjek menurut interpretasi pelajar dan perlakuan guru. Namun dari segi pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui iklim sekolah dilihat berada pada tahap yang rendah. Dalam kajian ini, pengkaji mencadangkan agar pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi ini perlu dipandang serius dan diberi penekanan oleh pihak sekolah. Kata

Kunci

:pelaksanaan, kurikulum tersembunyi, menengah, integrasi kaum

sekolah

PENGENALAN Kurikulum dan sekolah adalah dua elemen yang saling melengkapi satu sama lain. Setiap sekolah di Malaysia mengikuti satu corak kurikulum yang sama iaitu dirancang oleh Bahagian Pembangunan Kurikulum (BPK) dan seterusnya diimplementasikan oleh pihak sekolah khususnya guru dalam

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usaha membekalkan ilmu dan pengalaman kepada pelajar. Kurikulum telah menjadi aspek teras dalam bidang pendidikan. Tanpa kurikulum sistem pendidikan sukar dilaksanakan (Ishak Ramly, 2005). Kurikulum dilihat lebih kepada proses pencapaian pendidikan bukan sahaja berbentuk akademik semata bahkan melibatkan unsur-unsur tidak formal seperti proses sosialisasi dan interaksi. Objektif kurikulum pula dilihat menjurus kepada pembentukan potensi individu secara menyeluruh untuk diadaptasikan dalam proses sosialisasi dan interaksi pada masa hadapan. Tiga dimensi itu ialah kurikulum formal (semua aktiviti yang berlaku secara nyata di sekolah), kurikulum ideal (melibatkan keseluruhan prinsip-prinsip dalam kurikulum) dan kurikulum tersembunyi (pengalaman pembelajaran yang dipelajari secara tidak langsung) Pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi sering menimbulkan persoalan dalam kalangan masyarakat sekolah sama ada pihak pentadbir, guru, staf sekolah dan pelajar. Persoalan yang timbul ialah dari manakah datangnya kurikulum tersembunyi ini, adakah dari pelajar, guru atau orang-orang yang berkepentingan seperti PIBG misalnya. Masalah mula timbul apabila kurikulum tersembunyi tidak jelas dinyatakan secara bertulis dan persoalannya bagaimana kurikulum ini boleh dimulakan dan dinilai. Pelbagai cara dan situasi yang berlaku dalam sistem persekolahan yang menghasilkan kurikulum tersembunyi dan cuba dinilai permasalahannya seperti melihat pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui interpretasi pelajar terhadap kandungan subjek yang melihat kepada asas kandungan mata pelajaran yang telah ditetapkan dalam sesuatu kandungan subjek dan juga melalui iklim dan budaya sekolah yang melihat kepada aspek faktor luaran dan dalaman yang mempengaruhi iklim sekolah Selain itu, pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi turut ditinjau melalui perlakuan guru yang menjurus kepada konsep pemerolehan pelbagai pengetahuan oleh guru. Proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang berasaskan kepada kualiti pengajaran dan gaya pembelajaran juga dilihat berpotensi untuk menghasilkan kurikulum tersembunyi. Kurikulum tersembunyi juga boleh meliputi aktiviti kokurikulum yang dijalankan di sekolah menjurus kepada hubungan konsep, pelaksanaan dan nilai yang terkandung dalam aktiviti. OBJEKTIF KAJIAN Kajian yang dijalankan ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi di sekolah dalam memupuk integrasi kaum di kalangan pelajar yang berbilang kaum. Secara khususnya, objektif kajian ini adalah untuk :

242


1) Meninjau pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui kandungan subjek menurut interpretasi pelajar 2) Meninjau pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui iklim sekolah 3) Meninjau pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui perlakuan guru 4) Meninjau pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran dalam memupuk integrasi kaum 5) Meninjau pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui aktiviti kokurikulum dalam McNeil (1990) berpendapat kurikulum tersembunyi adalah faktor penentu integrasi. Integrasi ini berlaku secara sehala, dua hala ataupun timbal balik. Tanpa amalan integrasi yang sihat, sekolah menjadi rencat dan tidak stabil. Di Malaysia, konsep kurikulum tersembunyi dilihat memainkan peranan yang penting. Secara umumnya, kurikulum tersembunyi tidak dianggap sesuatu yang negatif. Kurikulum tersembunyi mempunyai fungsi untuk mencapai kestabilan masyarakat. Contoh seperti usaha-usaha melakukan keceriaan sekolah, mencantikkan bangunan, mengadakan hari terbuka, sistem pengawas sekolah dan sebagainya merupakan antara cara pelaksanaan yang dilihat dapat mempengaruhi terhadap kurikulum tersembunyi. Kepelbagaian kurikulum tersembunyi yang berlaku secara tidak disedari dalam sistem pendidikan telah membawa pelbagai implikasi serta perubahan dalam mewariskan tradisi bagi mengekalkan struktur sosial masyarakat. Sekolah, kurikulum dan masyarakat mempunyai hubungan perkaitan yang relatif antara satu sama lain. Menurut Zais (1976), salah satu perkara asas dalam kurikulum ialah masyarakat dan budaya. Di Malaysia, kepelbagaian sosio-budaya dalam sistem masyarakat majmuk yang terdiri daripada kaum Melayu, Cina, India dan pelbagai suku ektnik seperi Kadazan, Bajau dan Murut (masyarakat Sabah dan Sarawak) telah memberi kesan secara langsung kepada perkembangan sistem pendidikan secara umumnya dan suasana pembelajaran secara khususnya. Iklim sekolah ialah situasi atau keadaan yang wujud dan diamalkan di sekolah. Iklim sekolah merupakan suasana sekolah dalam proses peningkatan ilmu. Iklim sekolah juga merupakan persekitaran sekolah yang wujud di sesebuah sekolah. Menurut Abdul Rahim dan Johar Othman (2001), iklim sekolah yang baik ialah bersifat terbuka kepada pembaharuan dan perubahan, interaksi yang harmoni dan mesra antara guru besar, guru dan murid (tiada jurang yang keterlaluan) dan stail kepimpinan yang demokratik. Kruse dan Louis (2009) menyatakan kepercayaan merupakan pengikat kepada jaringan sosial dan hubungan bersama dalam organisasi. Di sekolah, kepercayaan dikira sebagai hasil kecenderungan kepada beberapa siri kerja. Ianya termasuklah nilai integriti (kejujuran dan keterbukaan), 243


berminat (keinginan berbuat baik dan memberi perhatian kepada orang lain), berkebolehan dan konsisten. Nilai kepercayaan di sekolah dikatakan kurang apabila sentiasa terganggu dengan anasir-anasir luar yang berbentuk negatif. Transformasi dan penguasaan kurikulum yang efektif berdasarkan pelaksanaan oleh guru yang mempunyai pengetahuan, kemahiran dan tingkahlaku yang diperlukan untuk membantu pelajar memahami bagaimana sesuatu pengetahuan itu dibina dan digunakan untuk menyokong hubungan kukuh dalam masyarakat. Guru merupakan insan yang membawa perspektif budaya, nilai, harapan dan impian dalam bilik darjah. Justeru, guru perlu mempunyai perlakuan positif terhadap budaya dalam menangani isu perbezaan kaum, etnik dan jantina. Abdul Razak (2001) menyatakan peranan guru sebagai agen sosialisasi. Sosialisasi ialah proses interaksi yang membolehkan manusia hidup dalam masyarakat secara harmoni. Sosialisasi juga bermaksud proses mendisiplinkan individu supaya sesuai dengan norma dan nilai masyarakat. Oleh itu guru berperanan untuk mentarbiahkan pelajar-pelajarnya, memberi ilmu, membentuk masyarakat modani, menjadi ‘role model’ kepada murid dan masyarakat, berkhidmat dan berinteraksi dengan masyarakat serta menjadi penghubung antara guru, kerajaan, ibu bapa dan masyarakat. Dalam KBSM, program kokurikulum diberi tumpuan bagi memperkukuhkan dan memperluaskan lagi pembelajaran di bilik darjah. Aktiviti-aktiviti lanjutan dirancang melalui gerak kerja kokurikulum yang merangkumi aspek-aspek khidmat masyarakat, rekreasi dan pengayaan. Aktiviti ini boleh dilakukan melalui persatuan, unit berpakain seragam, kelabkelab, projek-projek tertentu serta permainan olahraga. Tujuannya adalah untuk memperkukuhkan dan memperluaskan kurikulum formal terutama dari segi pemupukan nilai-nilai dan pengalaman amali (Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum, 1989). METODOLOGI KAJIAN Kajian ini dijalankan di sekolah menengah harian di daerah Pontian, Johor. Responden kajian terdiri daripada 588 orang pelajar. Responden dipilih secara rawak lapis/strata di mana ianya berdasarkan ciri populasi. Responden terdiri daripada 318 orang pelajar Melayu, 254 orang pelajar Cina dan 16 orang pelajar India. Sampel ini dipilih dari kalangan 2699 pelajar tingkatan 4 dari enam buah sekolah menengah dalam daerah Pontian. Kajian ini dijalankan menggunakan instrumen soal selidik yang telah dibina sendiri oleh pengkaji dan diedarkan kepada 650 orang responden dari sekolah-sekolah terbabit dan 588 borang telah dikembalikan dengan maklumat yang lengkap. Item-item yang terdapat dalam soal selidik ini terdiri daripada item yang berkaitan dengan faktor demografi iaitu jantina, kaum, 244


prestasi akademik terkini (PMR) dan aliran pelajar. Selain itu, item-item yang terdiri daripada pembolehubah iaitu meninjau kepada interpretasi kandungan subjek 10 item, iklim sekolah 10 item, perlakuan guru 10 item, proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran 10 item dan aktiviti kokurikulum 10 item dibina dan diukur dengan menggunakan skala Likert 5 mata. DAPATAN KAJIAN Berdasarkan Jadual 1 didapati pencapaian akademik responden berdasarkan gred keputusan PMR mendapati pencapaian responden adalah tinggi bagi subjek Sains dan pencapaian yang rendah dalam subjek Bahasa Inggeris. Pencapaian ini dilihat bertujuan mengenalpasti tahap pencapaian responden dan cuba mengaitkan dengan pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi yang berlaku. Jadual 1. Taburan kekerapan dan peratus responden mengikut gred keputusan PMR Bahasa Melayu, Bahasa Inggeris, Sains, Matematik dan Sejarah

Jadual 2, menunjukkan tahap pelaksanaan berdasarkan objektif kajian yang dijalankan. Pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui kandungan subjek menurut interpretasi pelajar berada pada tahap tinggi dengan nilai min 3.80. Bagi pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui iklim sekolah menunjukkan tahap sederhana dengan nilai min 3.60. Seterusnya, pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui perlakuan guru menunjukkan tahap tinggi dengan nilai min 3.80. Pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran telah berlaku pada tahap tinggidengan nilai min 3.74. Selain itu, pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui aktiviti kokurikulum menunjukkan tahap sederhana dengan nilai min 3.67.

245


Jadual 2. Tahap Pelakasanaan Berdasarkan Objektif Kajian Objektif Kajian

Min

Tahap

1. Pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui kandungan subjek

3.80

Tahap Tinggi

2. Pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui iklim sekolah

3.60

Tahap Sederhana

3. Pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui perlakuan guru

3.80

Tahap Tinggi

4. Pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran

3.74

Tahap Tinggi

5. Pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi melalui aktiviti kurikulum

3.67

Tahap Sederhana

RUMUSAN KAJIAN Pelbagai interpretasi pelajar mengenai kandungan subjek dapat dilihat dan dianalisis. Kebanyakan pelajar bersetuju menyatakan subjek Bahasa Melayu adalah penting untuk semua pelajar berbilang kaum. Walaupun kepentingan mempelajarinya telah tersurat dalam Huraian Sukatan Kebangsaan namun pengkaji melihat kebanyakan pelajar melihat kepentingannya secara tersirat berbanding tersurat. Bagi Wan Azmi Ramli (1993) beliau melihat mata pelajaran Bahasa Melayu sebagai satu alat untuk mencapai perpaduan rakyat. Pengkaji juga mendapati kebanyakan responden tidak bersetuju bahawa konsep perpaduan kaum hanya jelas dalam subjek Sejarah sahaja. Pelajar mula menyedari kehadiran konsep perpaduan juga jelas dipersembahkan dalam subjek lain juga. Menurut Nik Azis Nik Pa dan Noraini (2008), kategori nilai murni sesuai dikembangkan melalui mata pelajaran Matematik, Sains, Agama, Bahasa, Sejarah dan Pendidikan Jasmani. Justeru, pengkaji berpendapat kurikulum tersembunyi boleh wujud dalam mata pelajaran tersebut berdasarkan kewujudan nilai murni yang dikembangkan dalam mata pelajaran itu. Dapatan kajian mendapati pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi agak lemah dalam situasi iklim sekolah. Kebanyakan responden bersetuju dengan menyatakan perasaan bangga menjadi warga sekolah yang terdiri daripada 246


pelbagai kaum. Menurut Abdullah Sani Yahya (2007) iklim persekolahan yang terbuka dan positif adalah iklim persekolahan yang demokratik, dan iklim ini dapat membantu sekolah mencapai aspirasinya seperti membimbing pelajar supaya rajin berusaha, berdisiplin, berinisiatif, rela bekerjasama, ramah dan mesra, spontan, kreatif serta tinggi motivasinya. Justeru, responden melihat kewujudan pelbagai kaum di sekolah merupakan satu bentuk iklim yang positif dan demokratik. Dapatan kajian juga mendapati, guru bukan orang pertama yang ditemui sekiranya mempunyai masalah interaksi antara rakan-rakan berbilang kaum. Menurut Ang Jit Eng (2007) nilai kendiri seseorang sedikit sebanyak dipengaruhi oleh layanan yang diterimanya dari orang lain. Dalam hal ini, ia banyak dipengaruhi oleh bentuk layanan yang diberikan oleh guru kepada pelajar. Perlakuan guru juga turut dilihat memberi kesan kepada pelaksanaan kurikulum tersembunyi. Hasil kajian mendapati guru yang baik ialah guru yang mempunyai pengetahuan yang luas dalam semua aspek. Persepsi pelajar melihat guru yang berpengetahuan luas ini mampu membawa mereka kepada pemupukan ilmu pengetahuan dan sekaligus pengetahuan berbentuk psikologi dan sosiologi. Kepemimpinan guru yang mengamalkan budaya beretika adalah mereka yang menjaga perpaduan, penyayang, kerja berpasukan, bersopan santun, berdisiplin, hidup sihat, jujur dan ikhlas (Abdullah Sani et.al, 2007). Gaya pembelajaran yang dipilih pelajar menjurus kepada keseronokan pelajar dalam usaha memperoleh pengetahuan dan kemahiran. Dapatan kajian melihat pelajar gemar mempelajari sesuatu yang bermakna melalui aktiviti berkumpulan. Ini menunjukkan pembelajaran yang bermakna selalunya berpusatkan pelajar, tidak lagi berpusatkan guru. Sejajar dengan pendapat Raiff(1992) menyatakan, memahami pelajar akan mengurangkan kekecewaan yang dihadapi pelajar. Dalam konteks memahami sifat pelajar, gaya pembelajaran menjadi indikator bagaimana seseorang pelajar belajar dan cara belajar yang digemarinya. Menurut Tengku Sarina Aini dan Yusmini Yusof (2006), kepelbagaian kaedah pengajaran yang dipilih oleh guru menghasilkan beberapa tahap motivasi yang berbeza kepada pelajar. KESIMPULAN Pelaksanaan kurikulum di sekolah melihat kepada keberkesanan hasil daripada pembinaan kurikulum itu sendiri. Pembinaan kurikulum secara nyata ini sebenarnya telah memberi kewujudan kepada satu bentuk fahaman baru yang berlaku secara tersirat iaitu kurikulum tersembunyi. Ramai yang sedar bahawa impak kurikulum tersembunyi jika diamati selalunya lebih

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besar dan memberi kesan jangka panjang berbanding kurikulum nyata yang telah dimaktubkan. Kewujudan kurikulum tersembunyi ini perlu diberi perhatian dan diambil berat sama seperti kurikulum formal yang lain kerana matlamat dan hasilnya tetap sama iaitu sebagai fungsi dalam pendidikan. Kurikulum dan pendidikan merupakan komponen teras dalam usaha melahirkan bangsa yang maju, bersatu padu, demokratik, progresif dan berdaya saing. Kewujudan masyarakat pelbagai kaum ini harus disatukan dalam satu bumbung yang bernama pendidikan. Secara tidak langsung, apa yang berlaku di sekolah sama ada nyata atau tersembunyi mampu memberikan hasil dan impak ke arah pembentukan negara yang positif. RUJUKAN Aini, Tengku Sarina, Tengku Kasim dan Yusmini Mohd Yusoff (2006). Kaedah Mengajar dan Kemahiran Interpersonal Guru. Kuala Lumpur : PTS Professional Publishing Sdn.Bhd. Ali, Abdul Rahim M. dan Johar Othman (2001). Sekolah sebagai satu organisasi. Ilmu Pendidikan DPM, Pendidikan di Malaysia dan Psikologi Pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur ; Utusan Publications and Distributors Sdn. Bhd. Ang Jit Eng (2007). Pengurusan Disiplin Murid. Kuala Lumpur : PTS Professional Publishing. Kruse, S.D. dan Louis, K.S. (2009). Building Strong School Cultures. United States: Corwin Press. Nik Azis Nik Pa dan Noraini Idris (2008). Perjuangan Memperkasakan Pendidikan di Malaysia : Pengalaman 50 Tahun Merdeka. Utusan Publications and Distributors Sdn. Bhd. Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum (1989). Falsafah Pendidikan Negara. Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. Said, Abdul Razak (2011). Guru dan alam pendidikan. Ilmu Pendidikan DPM : Pendidikan di Malaysia dan Psikologi Pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur ; Utusan Publications & Distributors Sdn. Bhd. Yahaya, Abdullah Sani, Abdul Ghani Abdullah dan Abdul Rashid Mohamed (2007). Guru sebagai Pemimpin. Kuala Lumpur: PTS Professional Publishing Sdn. Bhd.

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PENGEMBANGAN BAHAN AJAR PERKULIAHAN PENILAIAN PEMBELAJARAN FISIKA FMIPA UNJ Yetti Supriyati State University of Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia [email protected] ABSTRACT This study aims to develop teaching materials of Physics Learning Assessment as a reference for students majoring in physical education to be used in lectures. The specific objective is the development of teaching materials in order to obtain materials which consider the characteristics of physics as a science and based on the standards of judgment according to Government Instruction No. 20 of 2007.Methodology of the study is a research and development through the stages of introduction, development and implementation. To obtain a valid teaching materials and reliable content the research validated by experts in physics learning, and educational evaluation. Further validation of the content carried by physics teachers through Focus Group Discussion (FGD). Finally implementation test is performed by teachers to students majoring in physical education at Physics Learning Assessment subject.The result of the study concluded that teaching materials Physics Learning Assessment which has been developed and validated by content includes assessment of objective tests and descriptions, non-test assessment, assessment of affective, psychomotor assessment and alternative assessment. Assessment of learning physics as a teaching material for students majoring in physical education who will teach at the level of SMP / MTs and SMA/ MA so it must consider the physical characteristics and in accordance with valuation standards. Keywords: teaching materials, assessment, physics, tests, non test, alternative test LATAR BELAKANG Hasil penilaian pembelajaran merupakan informasi hasil belajar seorang siswa yang sangat diperlukan bagi siswa, guru, sekolah, departemen 249


pendidikan dan orang tua untuk melihat perkembangan kemajuan belajar seorang siswa. Selain itu penilaian belajar dapat digunakan sebagai umpan balik yang selanjutnya dapat digunakan sebagai landasan untuk mengambil keputusan bagi perbaikan–perbaikan pendidikan dan pembelajaran. Dilihat dari manfaat hasil belajar, maka diperlukan sistem penilaian keberhasilan suatu program pembelajaran yang tepat sehingga mampu memberikan informasi yang akurat sebagai bahan pertimbangan dalam membuat keputusan. Ketepatan keputusan yang diambil sangat bergantung pada kualitas informasi yang diperoleh dan sangat bergantung pada bagaimana prosedur penilaian dilakukan serta alat ukur yang digunakan dalam memperoleh informasi tersebut. Pada pelaksanaan tes hasil belajar sering terjadi ketidakadilan pengukuran hasil belajar, baik dari alat ukur yang digunakan maupun penyelenggaraannya. Kesalahan pengukuran ini mengakibatkan kekeliruan dalam pengambilan keputusan. Dengan demikian dalam melaksanakan penilaian pembelajaran, diperlukan alat ukur yang dapat mengukur dengan tepat keberhasilan siswa dalam pembelajaran. Hasil tes yang diperoleh dengan cara yang tidak adil, tidak dapat memberikan informasi untuk mengetahui prestasi siswa yang sebenarnya, dan hasil tes seperti itu dapat memberikan informasi yang keliru mengenai keberhasilan belajar siswa. Oleh karena itu, harus dipersiapkan alat ukur berupa perangkat tes yang sahih dan terandal, serta berlaku adil dalam mengpenilaian keberhasilan belajar para siswa. Adil di sini mempunyai arti tidak terjadi kesalahan pengukuran kemampuan siswa yang diakibatkan oleh kesalahan alat ukur yang digunakan serta cara penyelenggaraannya. Untuk mendapatkan informasi yang adil bagi setiap siswa maka diperlukan alat ukur yang adil pula. Perangkat tes yang baik adalah perangkat tes yang dapat mengestimasi kemampuan seseorang dengan kesalahan pengukuran yang sekecil-kecilnya.Oleh karena itu diperlukan sistem tes yang adil yang memberikan perlakuan yang mempertimbangkan kompetensi untuk semua siswa, sehingga siswa yang mempunyai kompetensi yang sama akan memperoleh sekor tes yang sama, pada skala ukur yang sama. Siswa yang pandai akan mempunyai sekor yang lebih tinggi daripada siswa yang kurang pandai. Dengan demikian variasi sekor yang diperoleh menggambarkan variasi kemampuan siswa dalam menguasai materi pelajaran yang telah diajarkan, sehingga diperlukan suatu teknik penyelenggaraan tes dengan mempertimbangkan sistem tes yang adil. Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP) adalah kurikulum berbasis kompetensi yang merupakan seperangkat rencana dan pengaturan tentang kompetensi yang harus dicapai siswa setelah melakukan pembelajaran. Orientasi KTSP lebih menekankan pada hasil dan dampak yang 250


diharapkan muncul pada diri siswa melalui serangkaian pengalaman bermakna dan beragam yang dimanifestasikan sesuai dengan kebutuhan. Dasar pemikiran KTSP menggunakan konsep penguasaan kompetensi adalah kemampuan siswa dalam melakukan berbagai konteks, menjelaskan pengalaman belajar yang dilalui siswa untuk menjadi kompeten, hasil belajar (learning outcomes) yang menjelaskan hal-hal yang dilakukan siswa setelah melalui proses pembelajaran, kehandalan kemampuan siswa melakukan sesuatu harus didefinisikan secara jelas dan luas dalam suatu standar yang dapat dicapai melalui kinerja yang dapat diukur. Mutu lulusan tidak cukup bila diukur dengan standar lokal saja, sebab perubahan global telah sangat besar mempengaruhi ekonomi suatu bangsa. Industri baru dikembangkan dengan berbasis kompetensi, maka bangsa yang berhasil adalah bangsa yang berpendidikan dengan standar mutu yang tinggi. Untuk meningkatkan mutu penilaian pembelajaran fisika yang tinggi diperlukan guru-guru yang mampu mengpenilaian pembelajaran fisika dengan adil. Dengan demikian diperlukan pengetahuan tentang teori-teori penilaian pembelajaran fisika bagi panduan guru dalam melaksanakan penilaian pembelajaran. Mengacu pada isu-isu sebagaimana dikemukakan pada latar belakang dan sejalan dengan implementasi Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP) mata pelajaran fisika yang menekankan pada pembelajaran berbasis kompetensi, dan penilaian belajar berbasis kelas, maka dirasakan perlu penelitian bahan ajar penilaian pembelajaran fisika bagi calon guru dan/atau guru terkait dengan kegiatan penilaian pembelajaran fisika. Bahan ajar ini ini disusun dengan tujuan agar setelah mempelajari secara seksama, diharapkan para calon guru dan/atau guru fisika dapat: 1. Menyelenggarakan kegiatan penilaian pembelajaran fisika yang sejalan dengan hakikat fisika sebagai proses dan produk 2. Mengembangkan dan mengimplementasikan berbagai teknik penilaian pembelajaran fisika yang bervariasi. 3. Mengembangkan bahan penilaian pembelajaran fisika yang relevan dengan tuntutan kurikulum KTSP dan standar penilaian sesuai permen no 20 tahun 2007. Kehadiran bahan ajar ini diharapkan dapat menjadi acuan bagi calon guru dan/atau guru dalam mengembangkan penilaian pembelajaran fisika yang sejalan dengan hakikat fisika, dan berbasis pada penilaian kelas. Berdasarkan uraian di atas maka dapat dirumuskan masalah pada penelitian ini adalah: 1. Bagaimana mengembangkan bahan ajar Penilaian Pembelajaran fisika sesuai Karakteristik pelajaran fisika di SMP/MTs dan SMA/MA?

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2. Bagaimana penilaian pelajaran fisika pada tingkat SMP?MTs dan SMA/MA dengan cara penilaian berbasis kelas sesuai dengan standar penilaian? 3. Bagaimana mengembangkan penilaian kognitif, afektif dan psikomotorik dalam pembelajaran fisika? Manfaat Penelitian Pertama, penelitian ini diharapkan dapat bermanfaat bagi mahasiswa sebagai calon guru SMP/MTs dan SMA/MA yang mengikuti perkuliahan penilaian pembelajaran fisika untuk menambah referenceserta meningkatkan profesionalitas calon guru fisika. Kedua, hasil penelitian ini berguna pula bagi guru fisika pada tingkat SMP/MTs dan SMA/MAsebagai acuan dalam penilaian berbasis kelas dan telah memenuhi standar penilaian sesuai permen no 20 tahun 2007. Ketiga, hasil penelitian bahan ajar Penilaian Pembelajaran Fisika ini dapat menjadi menambah kumpulan buku-buku perpustakaan jurusan fisika sehingga dapat menjadi reference para dosen pengajar di jurusan fisika serta dosen FMIPA pada umumnya. Keempat, buku bahan ajar ini dapat lebih disempurnakan menjadi bahan penelitian selanjutnya untuk dikembangkan kembali sehingga dapat digunakan oleh masyarakat yang lebih luas. LANDASAN TEORI Pengertian Penilaian Penilaian adalah prosedur yang digunakan untuk mendapatkan informasi tentang prestasi atau kinerja peserta didik. Hasil penilaian digunakan untuk melakukan penilaianterhadap ketuntasan belajar peserta didik dan efektivitas proses pembelajaran. Informasi tersebut merupakan hasil pengolahan data yang diperoleh melalui kegiatan pengukuran dan nonpengukuran. Pengukuran dan nonpengukuran adalah proses untuk memperoleh data tentang karakteristik peserta didik dengan aturan tertentu. Hasil pengukuran berupa data numerik atau kuantitatif, sedangkan hasil nonpengukuran berupa data kualitatif. Informasi tersebut digunakan oleh pendidik untuk (a) menilai kompetensi peserta didik, (b) bahan penyusunan pelaporan hasil belajar, dan (c) memperbaiki proses pembelajaran. Oleh satuan pendidikan, informasi tersebut digunakan untuk menilai pencapaian kompetensi lulusan yang akan digunakan untuk menentukan kenaikan kelas dan kelulusan peserta didik dari satuan pendidikan. Dengan demikian penulisan bahan ajar tidak terlepas dari bagaimana seharusnya memberikan penilaian kepada peserta didik sesuai dengan pengertian penilaian. 252


Prinsip-prinsip Penilaian Pelaksanaan penilaian hasil belajar peserta didik didasarkan pada data sahih yang diperoleh melalui prosedur dan instrumen yang memenuhi persyaratan. Penilaian hasil belajar peserta didik didasarkan pada prinsip-prinsip sebagai berikut. 1. Mendidik, yakni mampu memberikan sumbangan positif terhadap peningkatan pencapaian belajar peserta didik. Hasil penilaian harus dapat memberikan umpan balik dan memotivasi peserta didik untuk lebih giat belajar. 2. Terbuka/transparan, yakni prosedur penilaian, kriteria penilaian, dan dasar pengambilan keputusan diketahui oleh pihak yang terkait. 3. Menyeluruh, yakni menyangkut berbagai aspek kompetensi yang akan dinilai. Penilaian yang menyeluruh adalah meliputi ranah pengetahuan (kognitif), keterampilan, (psikomotor), sikap dan nilai (afektif) yang direfleksikan dalam kebiasaan berfikir dan bertindak. 4. Terpadu dengan pembelajaran, yakni menilai semua yang dikerjakan peserta didik dalam proses pembelajaran itu dinilai, baik yang berkait dengan ranah kognitif, psikomotorik dan afektif. Dengan demikian, penilaian tidak hanya dilakukan setelah peserta didik menyelesaikan kompetensi tertentu melainkan saat mereka sedang melakukan proses pembelajaran. 5. Objektif, yakni tidak terpengaruh oleh pertimbangan subjektif penilai. 6. Sistematis, yakni penilaian dilakukan secara berencana dan bertahap untuk memperoleh gambaran tentang perkembangan belajar peserta didik sebagai hasil kegiatan belajarnya. 7. Berkesinambungan, yakni dilakukan secara terus menerus sepanjang berlangsungnya kegiatan pembelajaran. 8. Adil, yakni tidak ada peserta didik yang diuntungkan atau dirugikan berdasarkan latar belakang sosial-ekonomi, budaya, agama, bahasa, suku bangsa, warna kulit, dan jender. 9. Menggunakan acuan kriteria dalam menentukan kelulusan peserta didik. Teknik Penilaian Dalam memperoleh data, pendidik dapat menggunakan berbagai teknik penilaian secara komplementer (saling melengkapi) sesuai dengan kompetensi yang dinilai, sebagaimana diuraikan dalam panduan penilaian masing-masing kelompok mata pelajaran. Berdasarkan PP Nomor 19 Tahun 2005 Pasal 19 ayat (3) dinyatakan bahwa setiap satuan pendidikan melakukan perencanaan proses pembelajaran, pelaksanaan proses pembelajaran, penilaian hasil pembelajaran, dan pengawasan proses 253


pembelajaran untuk terlaksananya proses pembelajaran yang efektif dan efisien. Selanjutnya dalam Pasal 22 ayat (1) dinyatakan bahwa penilaian hasil pembelajaran sebagaimana dimaksud dalam Pasal 19 ayat (3) pada jenjang pendidikan dasar dan menengah menggunakan berbagai teknik penilaian sesuai dengan kompetensi dasar yang harus dikuasai. Pada Pasal 22 ayat (2) dinyatakan bahwa teknik penilaian sebagaimana dimaksud pada ayat (1) dapat berupa tes tertulis, observasi, tes praktik, dan penugasan perseorangan atau kelompok. Dengan demikian, pendidik dapat menggunakan teknik yang lain sepanjang masih relevan, seperti tes lisan, wawancara, pemberian angket, penilaian portofolio, jurnal, inventori, penilaian diri, dan penilaian antarteman Berdasarkan uraian di atas maka dalam penulisan buku ajar penilaian pembelajaran fisika harus memuat penilaian bagi peserta didik dengan tes tertulis, observasi, tes praktik, dan penugasan perseorangan atau kelompok, serta menggunakan teknik yang lain sepanjang masih relevan, seperti tes lisan, wawancara, pemberian angket, penilaian portofolio, jurnal, inventori, penilaian diri, dan penilaian antarteman. Karakteristik Bidang Studi Fisika Karakteristik fisika menjadi acuan dalam penulisan bahan ajar penilaian pembelajaran fisika. Mahasiswa dalam belajar penilaiantidak dapat dipisahkan dengan karakteristik fisika agar diperoleh hasil penilaian yang komprehensif. Sehingga karakteristik fisika ini menjadi amat penting karena dalam pelaksanaan penilaian pembelajaran. Fisika merupakan suatu pembelajaran yang terakumulasi dan sistimatik tentang fenomena alam. Kemajuan fisika ditandai bukan hanya oleh suatu akumulasi fakta, tetapi oleh berkembangnya metode ilmiah dan sikap ilmiah. Jadi, fisika merupakan proses belajar yang dilakukan manusia untuk mempelajari fenomena-fenomena alam sehingga menghasilkan sekumpulan fakta yang menuntun pada penemuan berbagai konsep, prinsip, generalisasi, teori, dan hukum tentang alam sebagai wujud dari produk fisika. Pengumpulan fakta dilakukan melalui proses yaitu metode ilmiah dan sikap ilmiah yang memungkinkan keduanya berkembang seiring dengan perkembangan pemahaman manusia tentang alam.Fisika merupakan serangkaian skema konsep-konsep dan konseptual yang telah dikembangkan sebagai suatu hasil eksperimen dan pengamatan yang mendorong dilakukannya eksperimen dan pengamatan lebih lanjut. Selain itu fisika menekankan bukan hanya pada produk tetapi juga pada proses yaitu eksperimen dan pengamatan sebagai suatu bentuk metode ilmiah yang juga di dalamnya terkandung sikap ilmiah. Produk fisika yang telah ditemukan mendorong untuk dilakukan eksperimen dan pengamatan lebih lanjut 254


sehingga memungkinkan berkembangnya metode ilmiah, sikap ilmiah, dan produk fisika itu sendiri. Karakteristik fisika ini harus tercermin dalam bahan ajar yang menyatu dalam pembahasan serta tertuang dalam contoh-contoh yang dapat dipraktekan oleh mahasiswa. Diharapkan dengan memperhatikan karakteristik fisika dapat membentuk mahasiswa yang memiliki kompetensi dalam memberikan penilaian kepada peserta didik. Keterampilan Proses Sains Observasi Keterampilan melakukan observasi adalah suatu kemampuan dalam mengamati suatu obyek dan fenomena dan melalui panca indera, yaitu: melihat, menyentuh, mengecap, mendengar, dan membau. Informasi yang diperoleh dapat merangsang keingintahuan, bertanya, berpikir, membuat interprestasi tentang lingkungan dan merangsang melakukan penyelidikan lanjutan. Keterampilan mengobservasi merupakan hal yang paling penting untuk mengembangkan keterampilan yang lain. Klasifikasi Keterampilan mengklasifikasi adalah kemampuan dalam menggolongkan atau mengelompokkan sejumlah objek, peristiwa, dan makhluk hidup yang berada di sekitar lingkungannya. Klasifikasi dapat diperoleh melalui observasi mencari kesamaan, perbedaan dan hubungan satu dengan lainnya. Keterampilan mengklasifikasikan merupakan kemampuan yang sangat penting untuk dikembangkan, karena dapat meningkatkan kemampuan berpikir. Komunikasi Keterampilan komunikasi adalah suatu kemampuan mengkomunikasikan sesuatu secara jelas, tepat dan tidak ambigu melalui tulisan maupun lisan. Misalnya mengkomunikasikan grafik, peta, simbol, diagram, persamaan matematis dan demontrasi visual. Pengukuran Metrik Keterampilan pengukuran metrik adalah suatu kemampuan mengkuantifikasi, membandingkan serta mengkomunikasikan sesuatu. Misalnya untuk menjawab pertanyaan: Berapa banyak? Berapa jauh? Berapa panjang? Berapa kecepatannya? Pertanyaan ini merupakan hal yang sering ditemui dan digunakan jika berhubungan dengan pengukuran metrik.

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Prediksi dan Peramalan Keterampilan memprediksi adalah kemampuan menduga atau meramalkan apa yang akan terjadi di masa yang akan datang berdasarkan pada pola dari hasil observasi dan inferensi. Kejadian atau fenomena di alam memiliki keteraturan dalam prosesnya. Fenomena yang teratur ini dikatakan pola. Kejadian ini dapat diobservasi berdasarkan pola tadi, sehingga kemungkinan yang terjadi di masa yang akan datang dapat diprediksi. Inferensi atau Penafsiran Keterampilan inferensi atau penafsiran adalah kemampuan apresiasi dalam menginterprestasikan sesuatu yang terjadi di lingkungannya. Sebagian besar dalam perilaku sehari-hari berdasarkan pada inferensi yang dibuat terhadap suatu peristiwa. Ahli sains membuat hipotesis berdasarkan inferensinya untuk selanjutnya diselidiki, belajar mengenai pola dan memperkirakan pola yang akan terjadi lagi pada kondisi yang sama. METODOLOGI PENELITIAN Tujuan Penelitian Penelitian ini dilakukan memiliki tujuan diantaranya: 1. Pengembangkan bahan ajar Penilaian Pembelajaran fisika sesuai Karakteristik pelajaran fisika di SMP/MTs dan SMA/MA 2. Tersusunnya bahan ajar penilaian pelajaran fisika pada tingkat SMP?MTs dan SMA/MA dengan cara penilaian berbasis kelas sesuai dengan standar penilaian. 3. Mengembangkan penilaian kognitif, afektif dan psikomotorik dalam pembelajaran fisika. Waktu dan Tempat Kegiatan Tempat penelitian di jurusan pendidikan fisika FMIPA UNJ dan waktu penelitian selama 6 bulan dari januari 2011 sampai dengan juni 2011. Metode Penelitian Penelitian ini dikembangkan melalui penelitian pengembangan (research and development). Desain penelitian yang digunakan dapat dilihat pada table dibawah ini.

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Tabel 1. Design Penelitian No. 1.

TAHAPAN Studi pendahuluan

  

2.

Studi Pengembangan

 

3.

Implementasi

    

KEGIATAN Analisis kebutuhan tentang materi bahan ajar PenilaianPembelajaran Fisika Studi deskripsi perkuliahan Penilaian pembelajaran fisika Studi bahan ajar pelajaran fisika di SMA/MA dan SMP/MTs Mendesain dan mengembangkan bahan ajar Penilaian Pembelajara Fisika Validasi expert yang terdiri dari dosen pendidikan fisika dan guru-guru SMA/MA serta SMP/MTs Draft bahan ajar Penilaian Pembelajara Fisika Uji implementasi terhadap mahasiswa jurusan pendidikan fisika Deskripsi hasil penelitian Pembahasan hasil penelitian Bahan ajar Penilaian Pembelajaran Fisika siap untuk digunakan

Studi Pendahuluan dilakukan dengan menganalisis kebutuhan tentang materi bahan ajar Penilaian Pembelajaran Fisika. kegiatan Studi ini mempelajari deskripsi perkuliahan penilaian pembelajaran fisika pada jurusan pendidikan fisika. Dilanjutkan dengan studi pengembangan bahan ajar dengan menulis bahan ajar dan dilanjutkan dengan validasi ahli. Selanjutnya studi implementasi yang dilakukan terhadap mahasiswa. PEMBAHASAN DAN HASIL PENELITIAN Pembahasan Studi pendahuluan Salah satu tahapan pengembangan bahan ajar adalah analisis kebutuhan tentang materi bahan ajar Penilaian Pembelajaran Fisika. Pertama menganalisis kurikulum pelajaran fisika tingkat SMP/MTs dan SMA/MA terutama tentang standar kompetensi dan kompetensi dasar. Selain itu mempelajari indikator pencapaian KD yang telah dikembangkan oleh guru. Selanjutnya mempelajari penyusunan indikator soal yang dikembangkan guru untuk menjadi masukan bahan ajar apa yang diperlukan mahasiswa untuk menyusun silabus dan penilaian. Hal ini dilakukan karena saat penyusunan silabus masalah penilaian harus sudah direncanakan sesuai 257


dengan proses pembelajaran berlangsung. Sebagai hasil analisis dalam penyusunan silabus diperlukan kompetensi untuk memahami enam komponen utama, yaitu (1) standar kompetensi, (2) kompetensi dasar, (3) materi pokok, dan (4) indikator pencapaian, (5) indikator penilaian, (6) alokasi waktu, dan (7 )sumber bahan. Penjabaran standar kompetensi menjadi sejumlah kompetensi dasar telah dibuat oleh BSNP sedang penjabaran kompetensi dasar menjadi indikator dan materi pokok, dan kemudian menjadi dilakukan oleh sekolah atau daerah/kota. Analisis tentang karakteristik fisika dilakukan untuk keperluan penulisan bahan ajar agar sesuai kebutuhan penilaian pelajaran fisika di sekolah. Karakteristik fisika disebutkan bahwa fisika mengandung makna pengajuan pertanyaan, pencarian jawaban, pemahaman jawaban, penyempurnaan jawaban baik tentang gejala maupun tentang karaktersitik alam sekitar melalui cara-cara yang sistematis. Belajar fisika seharusnya diawali dengan menunjukan fakta/fenomena sains dan memfokuskan pada pemberian pengalaman secara langsung (hands on activity) atau memanfaatkan dan menerapkan konsep dan prinsip. Untuk memahami prilaku/gejala alam perlu dilatih berpikir secara inkuiri serta mengembangkan sejumlah keterampilan ilmiah, yang disebut juga sebagai keterampilan proses sains. Selajutnya denga tuntutan pembelajaran fisika harus sesuai dengan karakteristik fisika maka penilainnya harus bagaimana. Keterampilan itu antara lain, keterampilan proses dasar dan keterampilan proses terpadu. Dengan demikian bahan ajar penilaian pembelajaran fisika harus mampu bagaimana menilai keterampilan proses sains diantaranya bagaimana menilai keterampilan proses dasar yaitu melakukan observasi, klasifikasi, komunikasi, pengukuran metrik, prediksi dan peramalan, inferensi atau penafsiran. Dan bagaimana menilai keterampilan terpadu yaitu identifikasi variabel, penyusunan tabel data, penyusunan Grafik, Penjelasan Hubungan antar variabel, Pencarian dan Pemrosesan Data, Analisis Penyelidikan, Penyusunan Hipotesis, Penentuan variabel Operasional, Disain Penyelidikan, Eksperimen. Selain itu dalam penulisan bahan ajar penilaian pembelajaran fisika memperhatikan deskripsi perkuliahan. Dibawah ini dijelaskan deskripsi perkuliahan penilaian pembelajaran. Studi pengembangan Pada tahap pengembangan bahan ajar evaluasi pembelajaran fisika dilakukan penulisan bahan ajar dengan memperhatikan deskripsi perkuliahan, karakteristik fisika dan kurikulum sekolah. Bahan ajar evaluasi pembelajaran disusun sebagai berikut: BAB 1. Penilaian Pembelajaran Bidang Studi Fisika 258


BAB II. Penilaian bentuk tes pada bidang studi fisika BAB III. Penilaian bentuk non tes pada Bidang Studi Fisika BAB IV. Penilaian afektif pada bidang studi fisika BAB V. Penilaian psikomotorik pada bidang studi fisika Setelah tersusun bahan ajar, maka dilakukan validasi konten oleh tiga orang dosen ahli pendidikan fisika dan penilaian pendidikan. Dilanjutkan dengan panel oleh 10 orang guru fisika SMA/MA dan SMP/MTs. Validasi ini ditinjau dari kesesuaian konsep yakni sesuai dengan deskripsi perkuliahan, karakteristik fisika dan kurikulum sekolah, standar penilaian serta keterbacaan bahan ajar ditinjau dari bahasa. Sebagai hasil validasi diperoleh: Tabel 2. Validasi Konten BAB I

II III IV

V VI

BAHAN AJAR Karakteristik fisika serta Penilaian Pembelajaran Fisika Penilaian bentuk tes objektif dan uraian Penilaian bentuk nontes Penilaian bentuk afektif

KONSEP Valid

BAHASA Ada perbaikan

valid

Ada perbaikan

Ada perbaikan Ada perbaikan Ada perbaikan

Penilaian psikomotorik Penilaian Bentuk Tes Alternatif

Ada perbaikan Ada perbaikan

Ada perbaikan Ada perbaikan

Valid

KET

Selesai validasi ahli dilakukan revisi bahan ajar dengan memperhatikan saran para ahli dan dikembalikan kepada para ahli untuk dikoreksi kembali. Setelah ada persetujuan para ahli maka dilakukan uji empiris pada mahasiswa yang mengikuti perkuliahan. Studi implementasi Studi implementasi dilakukan selama perkuliahan berlangsung. Mahasiswa dalam mengikuti perkuliahan diberi bahan ajar untuk dipelajari, dibaca dan didiskusikan. Hasil implementasi pada perkuliahan PPEP tidak ada masalah yang berarti, hanya terdapat beberapa istilah yang tidak difahami untuk diperjelas. Dari sisi bahasa masih ada perbaikan dan masukan dari mahasiswa cukup bagus. 259


Keunggulan materi ajar ini, saat didiskusikan dapat membuka wawasan mahasiswa terutama dalam teknik penilaian bagi peserta didik yang bervariasi dan berbasis kelas serta sesuai dengan karakteristik fisika. Selain itu disesuaikan pula dengan materi fisika di SMA dan SMP sehingga dapat menjadi pengalaman bagi mahasiswa dalam penilaian pembelajaran fisika di sekolah. Sebagai hasil uji implementasi sebagai berikut: Tabel 3. Hasil Uji Implementasi Pengembangan Bahan Ajar BAB BAHAN AJAR I Karakteristik fisika serta Penilaian Pembelajaran Fisika II Penilaian bentuk tes objektif dan uraian III

Penilaian bentuk nontes

IV

Penilaian bentuk afektif

V

Penilaian psikomotorik

VI

Penilaian Bentuk Tes Alternatif

KONSEP Dapat difahami secara konsep dan dipraktekan Dapat difahami secara konsep dan dipraktekan Dapat difahami secara konsep dan dipraktekan Dapat difahami secara konsep dan dipraktekan Dapat difahami secara konsep dan dipraktekan Dapat difahami secara konsep dan dipraktekan

BAHASA Ada perbaikan

KET

Ada perbaikan Ada perbaikan Ada perbaikan Ada perbaikan Ada perbaikan

Hasil implementasi dari mahasiswa dijadikan acuan untuk perbaikan bahan ajar ditinjau dari kemudahan pemahaman, kemudahan untuk mempraktekan dalam menevaluasi pembelajaran fisika, dan keterbacaan. Berdasarkan karakteristik pelajaran fisika, kurikulum fisika di sekolah, dan deskripsi perkuliahan ini maka dikembangkan bahan ajar evaluasi pembelajaran fisika. HASIL PENELITIAN Sebagai hasil penelitian diperoleh seperangkat bahan ajar penilaian Pembelajaran Fisika yang telah divalidasi ahli dan uji implementasi pada mahasiswa yang mengikuti perkuliahan. Bahan ajar disusun dalam 6 BAB sebagai berikut:

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BAB 1. Karakteristik fisika serta Penilaian Pembelajaran Fisika BAB II. Penilaian bentuk tes objektif dan uraian BAB III. Penilaian bentuk nontes BAB IV. Penilaian bentuk afektif BAB V . Penilaian psikomotorik BAB VI . Penilaian Bentuk Tes Alternatif Untuk lebih jelasnya dapat dilihat dalam lampiran seperangkat bahan ajar Penilaian Pembelajaran Fisika. KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN Kesimpulan Berdasarkan hasil pengembangan bahan ajar maka diperoleh kesimpulan sebagai berikut: a. Bahan ajar penilaian pembelajaran fisika yang dikembangkan melalui tahapan studi pendahuluan, studi pengembangan dan studi empirik menghasilkan enam bab meliputi penilaian tes objektif dan uraian, penilaian afektif, enilaian psikomotorik, dan penilaian alternatif. b. Bahan ajar penilaian pembelajaran fisika ini dapat digunakan bagi mahasiswa pendidikan fisika sebagai calon guru fisika pada tingkat SMP/MTs dan SMA/MA. c. Bahan ajar pembelajaran fisika yang dikembangkan dapat memenuhi standar penilaian. Saran Berdasarkan hasil penelitian dengan segala keterbatasan waktu, sarana dan prasarana di sarankan: a. Agar bahan ajar Evaluasi Pembelajaran Fisika terus dikembangkan kembali dengan menambah materi bahan ajar sesuai dengan perkembangan teknologi pendidikan. b. Agar Bahan ajar Evaluasi Pembelajaran Fisika dapat dikembangkan dengan perangkat pembelajaran lainnya misalnya VCD pembelajaran yang dilengkapi dengan evaluasi pembelajaran. DAFTAR PUSTAKA Azwar S. (2001). Reliabilitas dan Validitas. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar. Dirjen Dikdasmen. (2003). Pedoman Pengembangan Silabus dan Penilaian, Jakarta.

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Dirjen Dikmenum. (2004). Pengembangan Sistem Penilaian Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi 2004, Jakarta. Gronlund, Norman E. (1993). How to Make Achievement Test and Assessment, USA. Hopkins, C. D and Richard L. Antes. (1990). Classroom Measurment and Evaluation. Illinois: Peacock Publishers. Naga, Dali S. (1992). Pengantar Teori Skor Pada Pegukuran Pendidikan, Jakarta: Gunadarma. Purwanto N. (2001). Prinsip dan Teknik Evaluasi Pengajaran, Bandung: Rosda Karya. Puskur. (2007). Pengembangan Sistem Penilaian. Jakarta. Sudjana, N. (2010). Penilaian Hasil proses Belajar Mengajar. Bandung: Rosda Karya. Surapranata, Sumarna. (2004). Analisis, Validitas, Realibilitas, dan Intrepretasi Hasil Tes Implementasi Kurikulum 2004. Bandung: Rosda Karya.

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THE CORRELATION BETWEEN ANAMNESIS SKILLS LAB, CREATIVE THINKING AND ABILITY TO SOLVE PROBLEM ON STUDENTS OF MEDICINE FACULTY AT KRIDA WACANA CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY JAKARTA Rina Priastini1, Budiman Hartono2 Faculty of Medicine, Krida Wacana Christian University, Jakarta 1,2 [email protected] ABSTRACT Anamnesis was a step to explain his illness was based on the quality, the quantity, the background, the location of anatomy and his spreading, time including when his illness was felt, factors what made his illness improve, worsened, continue to, the constant complaint, intermitten. Information must in the chronological composition, including test diagnostics that were carried out before the patient's visit. The objective of this study is to find out relationship between anamnesis skills lab, the student’s creative thinking and ability to solve problems on medicinal science. A sample of 130 respondents was selected randomly from students in the Faculty of Medicine (50 male and 80 female), KridaWacana Christian University, Jakarta. Data on anamnesis skills lab, creative thinking and problem solving ability were taken through objective test and an essay test. The data was analyses by simple regression analysis, partial correlation and multiple regression techniques. The findings are as follows: (1) there is a positive correlation between students anamnesis skills lab and problem solving ability (r = 0,614), and there is a significant relation between creative thinking and problem solving ability (r = 0,630).This study also reveals that the mean score of student’s ability on problem solving, creative thinking and anamnesis skills lab were higher than their theoretical mean score. The conclusion of the study shows that doing anamnesis skills lab significantly contributed to student’s ability in problem solving. Keywords:anamnesis skills lab, creative thinking, problem solving ability

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INTRODUCTION In the educational field, the reality showed many people were talented that was not identified and trained to put forward the creative achievements as the expression talented that was optimal, so as the development of knowledge in Indonesia still more often was marked by the use of the knowledge than the significant discovery that was the contribution towards the development of ilmu (Semiawan, 1992). Beside that the research longitudinal while 20 years proved that the capacity thought creative could predict the success someone in achieving the success through the creative activity in the period of datang (Cropley, 2001). The truth is this indicated that to answer the development of fast knowledge the activity that must be carried out including being to prepare the student who could think creative in solving the problem in order to be able to develop the scientific discovery. However, to the student of medicine faculty Krida Wacana Christian University (FK UKRIDA) the wish brought about the above matter apparently still had various hindrances. The hindrance that was meant among them to be the number of eyes taught and big credit (160 SKS) to complete education. With this burden, the task that must be carried out apart from the hour terstruktur became big, so as the opportunity to develop it became limited. The competition that was increasingly sharp in the economic field and science that happened at this time resulted in the requirement for the quality of human resources being increasingly tall. This development showed this demand necessary followed up through various efforts in the educational field, including medical education the public. Because of that the policy of the curriculum also followed the development that happened. In the academic year of 2006/2007 Faculty of Medicine Krida Wacana Christian University of the Jakarta discourse applied the new curriculum that was acknowledged as the curriculum based on the competence (KBK) that more stressed the problem based learning method (PBL). Since 2006 the UKRIDA School of Medicine began the new curriculum that is the curriculum based on the competence (KBK). The achievement of competence with KBK FK UKRIDA more structured and was measured. With system KBK the doctor's education in FK UKRIDA that beforehand with the long curriculum 6 years, now FK UKRIDA could yield to the doctor in time 5 years. During 2008 the student of FK UKRIDA with the old curriculum system (KurLa) inseminated into several KBK modules to KurLa including the doctor's communication and the patient, empathy and medical skills. This explanation showed that there are several internal factors that were related to the capacity to solve the problem. This internal factor in part covered the ability todo anamnesis skills lab and student’s creative thinking 264


to carry out the good and effective illness diagnosis. To increase this ability, must be carried out by efforts that could show the existence of the connection between the ability to solve the problem and internal factors available. These efforts were carried out by paying attention to the appropriate instrument. The internal factor that was related to the ability to solve the problem including being: the ability to do anamnesis the human body through skills lab and the student’s creative thinking. With pay attention to the analysis above, several matters that were questioned were how the picture of the capacity of the second semester that student of the general in solving the problem of the diagnosis of an illness through anamnesis? The instrument that was exact to test the student's ability to do anamnesis skills lab of the human body? The ability to do anamnesis skills lab was related to the ability to solve the problem? If indeed was available, how far this connection? Did the ability to solve the problem in relation to student’s creative thinking? If related, howfar this connection? The concept himself was related to the ability to solve the problem, if related, howfar this connection? This research was carried out to receive the empiric data concerning the connection between factors internal that covered beginning knowledge would human body anatomy and student’s creative thinking who differed and the ability to solve the problem. From this data was expected to be able to be received the picture concerning the characteristics of the student in accordance with the condition or the potential for the available student. Realised the number of conditions that influenced the ability to solve the problem, then this research was restricted with the data concerning the connection between the ability to solve the problem and factor internal that it was estimated had the correlation, including being beginning knowledge to do the anamnesis skills lab, student’s creative thinkingas well as the theconcept of that academic manner. Participants educated in this case were the student who had taken part in the basic lecture of Cell Biology 1 and 2 in FK UKRIDA in the I semester and II semester. Was based on the identification and the restriction on the problem, then operationally the problem that will be researched could be formulated as follows: 1. Was gotten by relationship between the ability to do anamnesis skills lab and the ability to solve the problem? 2. Was gotten by relationship between student’s creative thinking and the ability to solve the problem?

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3. Was gotten by relationship between the ability to do anamnesis skills lab and creative thinking in a manner was with the ability to solve the problem? The aim of carrying out this research was to receive the empiricdata concerning the connection between the internal factors that covered the ability to do anamnesis skills lab and student’s creative thinkingwho differed and the ability to solve the problem. From this data was expected to be able to be received the picture concerning the characteristics of the student in accordance with the condition or the potential for the available student. The data that was received it was hoped could be used to increase the knowledge treasury concerning the matter that was related to the grating of medical education medical the public through the implementation of the skills lab. Specially, with they learned the connection between the characteristics of the student and the ability to solve the problem, then this information could be used to help increased the potential for the student, especially in pursuing the ability to do anamnesis the human body through the good skills lab and effective skills lab. SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND The success of each process of communication especially personal communication, really was influenced by was built him continued the feeling between the patient and the doctor. If the disturbance in the process happening continued this feeling, that ought to be the beginning stage as well as the process opener of further communication, then will be found by several hindrances for example: the patient's reluctance to join the interview, the patient's mistrust against the doctor and the frightened emergence of the patient to the doctor (Yasavati, 2010). This situation will definitely cause the disturbance in the process of communication, so as the data that was received about this patient also became inaccurate. Because of this the skills built continued the good feeling must be trained and cooked really. There is good him was repeated by us for a moment several important matters that must be paid attention to in built continued this feeling. The interviewer/the student/the prospective doctor must pay attention to:  Looks like very simple, neat and clean  At the first meeting, did not forget to give appropriate greetings the situation and the condition at that time, and used the appropriate language and could be understood by the patient

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

To showed the friendly face was accompanied by the polite and wellmannered attitude of  To create the atmosphere of relaxed and pleasant communication of  To make the note that needed from information that was obtained, to avoid the impression interrogated  At the end of conversation did not forget to say thank you and greetings the separation In order to be created continued the good feeling, then the interviewer/the student/the prospective doctor must show the certain view of the respondent or the patient so that:  The patient believed that the student/the prospective doctor will not open the secret of the patient to who of  The patient understood that results of communication will be used only in the interest of as well as the patient's goodness  The patient felt empathy from the student/the prospective doctor (not the feeling of compassion on his suffering)  The patient felt that the patient was given by the opportunity to raise the opinion or information generously  The patient felt this communication was carried out by the individual who was equal (not had an interrogation nature) After the student/the prospective doctor could build continued the feeling well, then the further step in the student was trained by his skills in did anamnesa Anamnesis skills lab will be continued by means of taking information concerning the main complaint and the story of the illness now (RPS). However was good his skills that were received in the semester beforehand concerning the data himself to the patient and the other data that were linked with the patient also were repeated again to ecpertise the anamnesis skills. Especially the constructive skill continued the feeling must be with the patient repeated, so that anamnesis that furthermore will walk with easy (Yasavati, 2010). The anamnesis skills lab took about the main complaint and the story of the illness now the patient needs precision, because lest information that was given by the patient concerning the main complaint precisely not the main complaint actual. The definition of the main complaint was the complaint that pushed the patient came to take medicine to the hospital or the community health centre/the clinic or to the practice of the doctor (Yasavati, 2010). Training in the clinical skills lab is integrated into the curriculum of the Suez Canal School of Medicine so as to serve the two main educational

267


strategies of the College, which are the community-based education and the problem-based learning. The link of the clinical skills with either strategy varies according to the educational phase. In phase I (pre-pathogenesis), the educational problems are organized into blocks which address sequential phases of human development from pre-natal life to senescence. In their community-based activities in the primary health care centers, students examine patients of the same phase of life as in the problems in their blocks. They have to perform certain clinical skills for each age group such as examination of visual acuity for school children, measuring pulse and blood pressure of the aged subjects, etc. In the skills lab, they are trained to perform these skills, using the standard checklists, before practicing on real patients. In phase II (pathogenesis), the educational problems are grouped around diseases of the body systems and those problems form the core around which most other activities are organized. During this phase, medical problems are utilized to motivate the students to learn mainly basic medical sciences in addition to clinical sciences. At this level, students are not requested to make diagnosis or to discuss management plans; instead, they are supposed to be able to explain underlying basic mechanisms of the symptoms and signs of various diseases. Thus, the skills on which students are trained, in the skills lab, are intimately related to the problems they take in their small-group classes. For example, they are trained on the clinical examination of the heart during the block of cardiovascular problems. In phase III (clerkship), students learn clinical interventional skills e.g. wound suturing, urinary catheterization, in order to be more confident and less liable to commit accidental mistakes as they practice such skills on the patients in the clerkship. By using methods that had been studied. The activity that was this experience contributed with the problem situation that was organised so as finally the aim that was wanted by accomplished (Ausubel at.al, 1978) but the situation thought that was needed was different from everyday behaviour skills. This capacity his characteristics were complex and were not easy reducted became the certain routine activity. By that, to solve the problem was needed by the situation critical thinking or in other words “to solved the problem, was not possible to be carried out in the situation of empty (Gage and Berliner, 1984). The meaning was needed by beginning knowledge that was enough to be able to solve the problem well. This beginning knowledge was one of the elements of the cognitive foundation that was needed to carry out the conclusion and chose when weighing the purpose of the achievement (Runco, 1994).

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Creativity was often mentioned as multi dimentional concept or the concept that was understood by someone with the point of view different (McKaechie, 1994).Since really Greece old, in broad outline was gotten by 45 concepts of the theory of creativity. Currently groupedto covered several concepts of the foundation: 1) creativity as empiric regression, 2) creativity as the characteristics of the identity, 3) creativity as the mental capacity product, 4) creativity as the mental process, and the function hemisphere. To solve the problem (the problem solving) was important rumours in the learning process, remembered the fast progress continued to happen in various fields. According to McCall and Kaplan (1985) solved the problem (the problem) came from two Greek words, for meaning that in the future or advanced and ballein was throw away or movedp (Rothwell and Kazanas, 1992). Literally solved the problem was the gap between the situation at this time and the ideal situation that needed the further action. This understanding afterwards developed by the situation that emerged when someone realised himself wanted to achieve a target, but not directly knew how to reach him? (Jung, 1959) To solve the problem could be seen as the aspect holistik (Gestalt), or as the simple analysis of the studying response to the stimulus that emerged (the group behaviorist). This understanding furthermore developed by the reflection of the processing of information that happened in himas a human (Briggs, 1979). As indirectly this showed in solving the problem had the control of the internal process that acted as the rules higher order rules (thought the high-level). So as for results of receiving maximal results were needed intellectual skills to sort, used the actual concept, or determined the rule. This activity could it was considered arrange the student in studying, thinking and determining the quality and efficiency of study (Tuna, 1980). By training this capacity, the student could it was considered take the important and sensitive decision for human knowledge that was related to hope treated the patient in a comprehensif manner (Catell, 1970). MATERIALS AND METHOD The research was carried out in the UKRIDA School of Medicine that was located in Street Arjuna Utara no. 6 KebunJeruk Jakarta Barat, including the implementation of the instrument test. Well the test and the implementation of the research were carried out for 4 months, since February 2012 till May 2012. The method that was used in this research was the survey technically the correlation. With this method, in the data collection was not carried out by the treatment or the conditional against the variable that was researched, and only expressed the fact was based on the available sign to the student. 269


The research variable consist of: 1) the predictor variable that covered the ability to do anamnesis skills lab (X1), and student’s creative thinking (X2), as well as 2) the response variable, that is the ability to solve the problem by the student (Y). This research had a purpose to know was not the correlation between the ability to anamnesis the human body through the skills and student’screative thinking with to solve the problem. The method that was used was survey correlational technique. The sample of the research totally 130 students (50 men, 80 women) was taken from 400 students randomly simple (simple random sampling). This student had followed the subject of the topic of Cell Biology 1 and 2 in the level of preclinic Faculty of Medicine KridaWacana Christian University in Jakarta at the beginning and the end of second semester. The age of the medical’s student between 18 - 20 years. Calibration of the implement measured was carried out by paying attention to the validity of the contents of the test, question compatibility with lecture material, the appropriateness of the implementation, compatibility indicator the test was carried out to 130 respondents, furthermore was carried out by the analysis and the interpretation that were used as the foundation of the finishing of the instrument. Before the testing was carried out, was preceded with the condition test for the analysis that covered the normality test by using KolmogorovSmirnov as well as the homogeneity test through the Bartlett Test. To test the hypothesis, the analysis statistic that was used was regression and correlational. The relations model between variable-variable the research, both separately (linear simple) and together (linear dual) was determined through the analysis of regression. In the meantime to know the strength of relations between variable-variable was carried out by the analysis korelasi (Sudjana, 1989; Tuckman, 1978). To give the picture concerning results of the grating against the threevariables that is the capacity solved the problem, the capability of anamnesis skills lab and creative thinking of academic students was presented through the descriptive analysis. It was larger that descriptive statistics in part in general (mean) the middle value (the median), the most frequency (mode), and the standard intersection (standard deviation). Nearby that the data of each research variable was put forward in the form of the normal distribution and the picture of the graph. The analysis of statistics was carried out with help of the SPSS program the version 16 for Windows. The analysis of statistics that were used was regression and correlational. The testing of the hypothesis was carried out with: a) looked for the linear model simple (the relations model between

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the variable), b) the calculation and the testing of the correlation coefficient to see the significance of regression and linearity (Putrawan, 1990). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Realised the number of conditions that influenced the capacity to solve the problem, then this research was restricted with the data concerning the connection between the capacity to solve the problem while joining lectures in the school of medicine and the internal factor that it was estimated had the correlation, among them the capacity did anamnesis skills lab and creative thinking. Participants educated in this case was the student who had taken part in the lecture in the semester 1 and 2 that is the bloc 3 Basic of Cell Biology 1 and the bloc 4 Basic of Cell Biology 2 of general medical in FK UKRIDA that studied the human body beginning with the level of the cell up to organ system. Based on the receipt of the data in an empirik manner, the score of the ability to do anamnesis the human body skills lab, the ability to solve the problem, and the student's creative thinking was as follows: Tabel 1: The Average Data of Teoritic Score and Empiric Score Variable

The ability to do the anamnesis skills lab (X1) Creative thinking (X2) To solve the problem (Y)

n

Minimum Score

Maximum Score

Average of teoritic score

130

27

47

19

130

19

54

33

130

54

75

40

Average of empiric score 30,62  4,853 38,82  6,876 64,09  5,224

From the instrument that consisted of 19 items with the scale (0-2), then score extension teoretik was (0-38) and in general the score teoretik was 19. In the meantime from the data produced by the research was received by the minimal score 27 and the score of the maximum 47. The value of the score in general was 37,62 and the standard of the deviation 4,853. From this data showed that the score in general the data empirik was 30,62 higher was compared by the score in general teoritic (19). This meant the ability to do the anamnesis the human body by skills lab was classified as high.

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From the collection of the score data concerning the capacity to creative thinking of the student by using the instrument that consisted of 33 items with the score of the item 1 to 3. Therefore score extension teoritic was 33 - 99. In general the score teoritic was 33. The receipt of the minimal score of the empiric data was 19 and the score of the maximum 54. The value of the score in general (mean score) the data empirik was 38,82 (the standard of the deviation was 6,876). From this data showed that the score in general creative thinking of the student (38.82) higher than the score in general teoritic (33). Meaning that, creative thinking of the student of FK UKRIDA of the first semester and second semester of academic years 2010/2011 be classed as relatively high (the score in general empiric on the score in general teoritic). From the collection of the score data to solved the problem that was received by the student after to do the anamnesis skills lab as follows, the instrument consisted of 20 items with the scale (0-4), then score extension teoretic was (0-80) and in general the score teoretic was 40. In the meantime from the data produced by the research was received by the minimal score 54 and the score of the maximum 75. The value of the score in general was 64,09 and the standard of the deviation 5,224. From this data showed that the score in general the data empiric was 64,09 higher was compared by the score in general teoritic (42). This meant the capacity to solve the problem after to do the anamnesis skills lab twice was classified as high. 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 X1a X1b X1c X1d X2a X2b X2c X2d X1

X2

Ya

Yb

Yc

Yd

Y

Graph 1. The graph of empiric data of the score of the ability Remark: data of score of the ability to do the anamnesis skills lab (X1), creative thinking (X2) and the capacity to solved the problem (Y), the minimal score (a), the score of the maximum (b), the average of teoritic score (c), the average of empiric score (d) 272


Based on the hypothetical test that was raised before hand then was gotten by the relationships that were positive between the student's ability to do the anamnesis skills lab (X1) and the ability to solve the problem (Y). Relationships between the ability to do the anamnesis skills lab and the ability to solve the problem through the equality of regression of Y = 61,832 + 0,060 X1. Further towards this equality was carried out by the significance test and linierity relationship. From results of the analysis of the significance test of linear Y regression upper X1 and the test linierity showed that the equality of regression of Y = 61,832 + 0,060 X1 was very significant (FcalculatedFtable). Meaning that each rise in one score of beginning knowledge will be followed with the increase in the ability to solve the problem of 0,060 in the constant 61,832. From the significance test produced by the analysis was received by the strength of relationship between the ability to solve the problem (Y) and the ability to do the anamnesis skills lab (X1) and the correlation coefficient 0,614. Further was known by the price tcalculated was 27,717 bigger than the price ttable that is 2,571. Therefore the correlation coefficient of ry1 = 0,614 were very significant (α = 0,01). Meaning that increasingly high the student's ability to do the anamnesis skills lab, will be increasingly positive the ability to solvethe problem. Results of the analysis also showed the determination coefficient (r2y1) of 0,3770 or 37,7% of the ability variation to solve the problem (Y) could be explained through the ability to do the anamnesis skills lab (X1). Based on the second hypothetical test was gotten by positive relationship between student’s creative thinking (X2) and the ability to solve the problem (Y). Relationship between student’s creative thinking and the ability to solve the problem it was demonstrated through the equality of regression of Y = 64,236 + 0,004 X2. Further towards this equality was carried out by the significance test and linierity relationship. From results of the analysis of the significance test of linear Y regression upper X2 and the linierity test showed that the equality of regression of Y = 64,236 + 0,004 X 2 was very significant (FcalculatedFtable). Meaning that each rise in one score student’s creative thinking will be followed with the increase in the ability to solve the problem of 0,004 in the constant 64,236. From the significance test produced by the analysis was received by the strength of relationship between the ability to solve the problem of the age (Y) and creative thinking (X2) and the correlation coefficient 0,430. Further was known by the price tcalculated was 27,717 bigger than the price ttable that is 2,571. Therefore the correlation coefficient of ry2 = 0,630 were very

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significant (α = 0,01). Meaning that increasingly high of student’s creative thinking, will be increasingly positive the ability to solve the problem. Results of the analysis also showed the determination coefficient (r2y2) of 0,1849 or 18,49%. The empiric data that was received from the test concerning the ability to do the anamnesis skills lab showed the value of the score in general was 30,62 (the standard of the deviation 4,853), whereas in general the teoritic score (19). Meaning that the score of the student's ability to do the anamnesis skills lab relatively high. The height of the score of the ability to do anamnesis skills lab was supported by the situation where the student in the semester beforehand had followed learning of concerning human body anatomy from the level of the cell to the organ system, so as some information that was accepted possibly was still being kept in the memory. From the receipt of the score produced by the test of creative thinking that consisted of 33 items showed the value of the score in general was 38,82 (the standard of the deviation 6,876). This score was relative was not different too high from the value in general of teoritic score (33). The score tended homogeneous, or had the small variation (generally was almost same). The possibility of this is caused by medical students of FK UKRIDA be used to think in aactual manner, procedural with certain principles. Nearby that the hindering factor of the student’s creative thinking was the burden size of the study that caused time to study limited so as they were used to it more focussed himself on the resolution of the tasks that was given. The conditional of this pattern of being one of their reasons became uneasy filled up the non test questionnaire, so as tended member the answer in the statement was concrete. Therefore the pattern of this answer was almost same or not more varying. The assumption about this was supported by what was raised by Gardner (1993), and Kwang (2001) that culture will give the influence on someone creative thinking (Gerdner, 1993); Leahey and Harris, 1997). On basically both of them proposed that culture was some factor important to show someonecreativity, meaning that in the not more conducive environment will be difficult to show someone who could think creative. Literally to solve the problem was the gap between the situation at this time and the ideal situation that needed the action of next moved.18The understanding of this afterwards developed by the situation that emerged when someone realised himself wanted to achieve as a target, but not directly knew how to reach him? (Leahey and Harris, 1997) To solve the problem could be seen as the aspect holistic (Gestalt), or as the simple analysis of the studying response to the stimulus that emerged (the group behaviorist). This understanding furthermore developed by the 274


reflection of the processing of information that happened in himas a human (Good and Brophy, 1990). As indirectly this showed in solving the problem had the control of the internal process that acted as the rules higher order rules (thinking the high-level). So as for a result of receiving maximal results was needed intellectual skills to sort, used the actual conceptt, or determined the rule. This activity could it was considered arrange the student in studying, thinking and determining the quality and the efficiency of study (Gagne and Briggs, 1992). By training this ability, the student could it was considered take the important and sensitive decision for human knowledge that was related to hope treated the patient in a comprehensive manner (Book, 1986). From the receipt of the data, the testing of the hypothesis as well as discussions that were carried out, was found that is gotten by positive relationship between the ability to the anamnesisskills lab and the ability to solve the problem. The strength of these relations was shown through the correlation coefficient (ry1) = 0.614, and the value of the determination coefficient (r2y1) = 0.3770, or the ability variance to solve the problem 37,7%, could be explained by variable the ability to solve the problem through anamnesis skills lab. From these findings, was concluded by the ability to do anamnesis skills lab was the variable that was decisive enough towards the ability to solve the problem. Meaning that, the ability to solve the problem could be increased by means of increasing the student's ability to do anamnesis skills lab. From the receipt of the data, the testing of the hypothesis as well as discussions that were carried out was found that is gotten by positive relationship between student’s creative thinking and the ability to solve the problem. The strength of these relationship was shown through the correlation coefficient (ry2) = 0.630, and the value of the determination coefficient (r2y2) = 0.1849, or the variance in the ability to solve the problem 18,49% could be explained by the variable of the student’s creative thinking. These findings concluded that creative thinking was the variable that had the contribution increased the ability to solve the problem. Meaning that, the ability to solve the problem could be increased by means of increasing the pattern of student’s creativity of thinking. From the receipt of the data, the testing of the hypothesis as well as discussions that were carried out, was found that is gotten by positive relationship between the ability to do anamnesis skills labandstudent’s creative thinking in a manner was with the ability to solve the problem. Results of the correlation coefficient of ry12 = 0.620 as well as the determination coefficient of r2y12 = 0.3844 Meaning that 38.84 % the ability variation of to solve the problem could be explained through the ability to do anamnesis skills lab and student’s creative thinking together. From these 275


findings could be said that if the two variables were increased together, then the ability to solve the problem could be increased. Increased the two variables showed results that were better compared with if only one of the variables that was increased CONCLUSION Based on results of this research then could be concluded that in the based medical curriculum competence, the implementation of anamnesis skills lab was very supportive the student in understanding and carrying out the method of the illness diagnosis that was better compared with the last curriculum that was used beforehand that did not enclose skills lab in that curriculum. Likewise the student's creative thinking that was high also could cause the height of the student's ability in solving the problem while joining lectures. REFERENCES Ausubel, D.P. et. al. (1978). Educational Psychology, A Cognitive View. 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Bok, D. (1986). Higher Learning. USA: President and Fellows of Harvard College. Briggs, L.J. (1979). Instructional Design, Principles and Applications. New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications. Catell, R.B. (1970). The Scientific Analysis of Personality. Britain: The Chaucer Press Ltd. Great. Cropley, A. J. (2001). Creativity in Education and Learning. London: Kogan Page Limited. Gage, N.L. and D.C. Berliner. (1984). Educational Psychology. 3th ed. Dallas: Houghton Miffin Company. Gagne, R.M. and L. Briggs. (1992). Principles of Instructional Design. 4th ed. Orlando : Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc.

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Gardner, H. (1993). Creating Minds, An Anatomy of Creativity. New York: Basic Books. Good, T.L. And Brophy, J.E. (1990). Educational Psychology, A Realistic Approach. New York and London: Longman. Jung, C.G. (1959). Psychological Types, The Psychology of Individuation. London : Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd. Kwang, N.A. (2001). Why Asians are Less Creative Then Westerners. Singapore: Prentice Hall. Leahey, T.H. and Harris, R.J. (1997). Learning and Cognition. 4th Ed. Upper Saddle River : Prentice Hall Inc. McKeachie, W.J. (1994). Teaching Tips, Strategies, Research and Theory for College and University Teachers. Lexington: D.C. Heath and Company. Putrawan, I.M. (1990). Pengujian Hipotesis dalam Penelitian-Penelitian Sosial. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta. Rothwell, W.J. and Kazanas. H.C. (1992). Mastering The Instructional Design Process. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. Rothwell, W.J. and Kazanas. H.C. (1992). Mastering The Instructional Design Process. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. Runco, A.A. (1994). Problem Finding, Problem Solving and Creativity. New Jersey : Ablex publishing Corporation. Semiawan, C.R. (1992). Pengembangan Kurikulum Berdiferensiasi. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Widiasarana. Sudjana. (1989). Teknik Analisis Regresi dan Korelasi bagi Para Peneliti. Bandung : Penerbit Tarsito. Tuckman, B.W. (1978). Conducting Educational Research. 2nd ed. New York: Harcout Brace Jaovanovich Inc.pp. 231 – 232.

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Tuma, D.T, and F. Reif. (1980). Problem Solving and Education: Issues in Teaching and Research. New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications. Yasavati, K.N. (2010). Buku Panduan Ajar Skills Lab Semester 1 dan 2. Bagian Skills Lab. Jakarta : FK UKRIDA.

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THE PROBLEM SOLVING FOR PARAGRAPH WRITING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES BASED ON COHESION AND COHERENCE Widjono Hs. State University of Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia [email protected] ABSTRACT The objective of this research is to solve the problem of the teaching and learning the paragraph writing for academic purposes based on cohasion and coherence on Indonesian language as general development subject mater. This research was carried out in Jacarta State University. In this researsch, method used is action research. In this research, the conclusion of this research is much better and suitable to the student activity. (WHS) Keywords: paragraph, academic writing, cohesion, coherence PENDAHUUAN Pembelajaran bahasa Indonesia di Universitas Negeri Jakarta bertujuan untuk mengembangkan kemampuan akademik. Kemampuan itu terkait dengan kognitif, afektif, dan psikomotorik. Kemampuan kognitif mencakup: pengetahuan, pemahaman, pengaplikasian, penganalisisan, penyintesisan, dan pengevaluasian pembelajaran. Oleh Anderson dan Krathwohl (2001:204) kemampuan sintesis dapat disetarakan atau diartkan sebagai kemampuan menciptakan kreativitas baru dan diposisikan pada tahap akhir, setelah evaluasi. Kemampuan dalam bahasan itu difokuskan pada kognitif level ketiga, pengaplikasian kohesi dan koherensi dalam penulisan paragraf. Dalam pembelajaran bahasa, kemampuan itu merupakan tuntutan kebutuhan yang harus dipenuhi oleh mahasiswa. Kemampuan itu mencakup berbicara, mendengar, membaca, dan menulis (Widdowson, 1979: 2). Kemampuan itu merupakan kebutuhan dasar bagi setiap mahasiswa. Untuk komunikasi akademik, kemampuan itu tidak dapat dilakukan dalam waktu singkat (instan). Mahasiswa memerlukan bimbingan, arahan, pembinaan, dan latihan dengan prinsip-prinsip maju berkelanjutan, dan penelitian yang memadai untuk menghasilkan kemampuan yang dibutuhkan oleh mahasiswa. Bimbingan dan arahan itu merupakan bagian dari proses belajar. Proses itu dikembangka melalui metode instruksional, bahan ajar, dan 279


pendekatan yang sesuai dengan kompetensi mahasiswa. Dalam bahasan ini metode instruksional difokuskan pada kegiatan mendiskusikan, mendemontrasikan, dansumbang saran. Hal itu didukung oleh kesesuaian bahan ajar yang dibutuhkan oleh mahasiswa. Untuk itu pembelajaran didukung oleh kerjasama: kolaboratif, interaktif, dan reflektif. Pewujudannya, mahasiswa didorong untuk mengembangkan diri secara aktif. Untuk itu, kajian itu menggunakan penelitian tindakan yang lazim disebut Action researsch. Melalui proses itu, pembelajaran menulis diharapkan dapat mewujudkan kultur akademik, menjalin kerja sama antarmahasiswa, kerja sama mahasiswa dan dosen. Selain itu proses pembelajaran memungkinkan terjadinya kondisi belajar yang interaktif, menyenangkan, menantang, memotivasi mahasiswa untuk berpartisipasi aktif serta memberikan ruang akademik yang lebih leluasa bagi pengembangan kreativitas dan kemandirian sesuai dengan minat dan perkembngan kognitif mereka. Di sisi lain, kemampuan mahasiswa dalam menulis akademik masih memprihatinkan. Mereka masih kesulitan mengekspresikan ide dengan kalimat dan paragraf yang kohesif (Haliday dan Hasan, 1979) dan koherensi (Renkema, 1984: 35) dan hubungan antarkonsep (Beaugrande, 1981: 95).Terkait dengan upaya itu, penelitian dilakukan melalui tindakan kelas dalam pembelajaran menulis bahasa Indonesia. Penelitian itu difokuskan pada pembelajaran menulis paragraf akademik. Selain itu, mereka juga kurang terlatih dalam mengorganisasi ide dalam sruktur paragraf akademik yang terdiri atas kalimat topik, kalimat pendukung, dan kalimat konklusi (Oshima dan Hogue, 2006: 57-57), dan komposisi paragraf yang ditandai oleh keselarasan hubungan kalimat. Hal itu merupaka indikator bahwa mahasiswa membutuhkan bahan ajar menulis paragraf akademik berbasis pada kohesi. Kebutuhan itu mencakup kemampuan menulis paragraf akademik berbasis pada kohesi dan koherensi, proses menulis paragraf akademik berbasis kohesi dan koherensi, mengatasi kesulitan menulis akademik berbasis kohesi dan koherensi. Pemecahkan masalah itu memerlukan penelitian. Untuk itu penelitian itu difokuskan pada pembelajaran menulis paragraf akademik ekspositori berbasis pada kohesi dan koherensi. Fokus itu berupa kemampuan menulis paragraf akademik melalui pemahaman, kaidahkaidah, kohesi dan koherensi kalimat dengan memasalahkan (1) bagaimana meningkatkan kemampuan menulis itu melalui pendekatan interaktif, kolaboratif, reflektif; (2) bagaimana kemampuan menulis paragraf akademik melalui pendekatan tersebut. Terkait dengan hal itu, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui: (1) kemampuan memahami konsep-konsep dalam penulisan paragraf akademik berbasis pada kohesi, koherensi, dan kombinasi kohesi dan 280


koherensi. (2) Meningkatkan kemampuan menulis paragraf akademik melalui pendekatan interaktif, kooperatif, dan kolaboratif. Untuk itu, diperlukan kajian paragraf akademik, kohesi, koherensi, kompetensi, dan fungsi komunikasi dalam membangun dan merefleksikan kekuatan hubungan (Wood, 2004: 169) Terkait dengan hal itu, Akmajian, Demers, Farmer, dan Harnish (1998: 344-346) mencermati kesuksesan komuniasi yang diperoleh melalui ketepatan kata, keterpahaman pesan, keterfokusan, kelayakan bahasa, pesan, kesesuaian pesan dengan fakta, dan penggunaan kata yang bermakna lugas. Selain itu, komunikasi akademik menuntut kecermatan menggunakan referensi, dan kecermatan menuliskan spesifikasi pesan.Mereka menegaskan bahwa kesuksesan komunikasi terjadi jika pembaca memahami dan menerima pesan sepenuhnya dari penulis. Chomsky menyatakan bahwa kompetensi mengharuskan pemakaian bahasa untuk komunikasi, penggunaan kalimat sesuai dengan aturan linguistik atau tata bahasa: ejaan yang disempurnakan, ketepatan dan kesesuaian kata, frasa, bentuk kata, kalimat, paragraf, dan esai akademik. Hal ini terkait dengan kemampuan mengaplikasi kaidah bahasa yang merupakan tuntutan kebutuhan kebahasaan yang terungkap melalui perfomansi,yaitu kinerja (performansi) untuk menghasilkan abstraksi pengetahuan yang dimanifestasikan dalam komunikasi.Dalam hubungan itu, Brown menyatakan bahwa kompetensi merujuk pada pengetahuan dasar seseorang tentang sistem, kejadian, atau fakta. juga menyatakan bahwa pengetahuan tersebut tidak teramati dalam melakukan sesuatu. Sedangkan perfomansi adalah perwujudan konkret yang dapat diamati dan merupakan realisasi atas kompetensi dalam berbicara, bertanya, dan menulis (Brown, 2007:3839). Dapat ditegaskan bahwa bahasa untuk komunkasi akademik bersifat unik. Keunikan itu antara lain hubungan berpikir dan ekspresi pemikiran, kompetensi bahasa untuk berkomunikasi dan perfomansi untuk menghasilkan abstraksi pengetahuan yang dimanifestasikan dalam komunikasi. Menulis akademik, bagi mahasiswa berupa pembahasan topik yang berhubungan dengan bahan ajar menulis. Mereka menyebutkan dari paragraf ke esai, dan kelengkapannya: narasi, deskripsi, ekspositori, argumentasi, atau persuasi. (McCrimmon,James, Writing With A Purpose Eith Edition by Joseph F. Trimmer Nancy, Sommers, 1984: 163). Hal serupa dilakukan oleh Oshima dan Hogue yang menyatakan bahwa produk tulisan akademik berupa paragraf, dari paragraf ke esai, dan esai (Oshima and Hogue, 2006: 57). Terkait dengan hal itu, Hyland menyatakan bahwa mahasiswa tidak hanya menulis wacana akademik, bahan presentasi seminar, ujian, dan tugas-tugas akademik, mereka juga menulis akademik dengan ketepatan dan kesesuaian kata serta keakuratan gramatika sehingga 281


menghasilkan keterkaitan tulisan akademik dengan keakuratan informasi yang ditulis. Hyland menambahkan bahwa produk tulisan akademik lebih terfokus pada kajian ilmu pengetahuan daripada produk praktis. Dapat disimpulkan bahwa menulis paragraf atau esai akademik kedalam wacana dapat dilakukan dengan mengaplikasi persyaratan formal, ragam bahasa akademik, konvensi penulisan ilmiah, bahasan konsisten dengan konteks, menyajikan informasi akademiki: ilmu pengetahuan teknologi dan seni, dan memperhatikan harapan pembacanya (pemberi tugas atau dosen pengujinya). Peulisan paragraf menuntut persyaratan kohesi dan koherensi. Terkait dengan hal itu, Haliday dan Hasan menyatakan bahwa kohesi intrakalimat dan antarkalimat dibangun melalui pemarkah kohesi. Hubungan kohesi antarkalimat dan antarparagraf menghasilkan strukur teks, struktur kalimat, dan relasi semantik membentuk keterpaduan elemen-elemen sebuah teks. Kohesi pada level kalimat, antara lain: kohesi gramatikal substitusi, elipsis, referensi, dan konjungsi. Kohesi leksikal terdiri atas: reiterasi, dan kolokasi (Haliday and Hasan, 1976:15). Sejalan dengan hal itu, menyatakan bahwa menulis menghubungkan kalimat atau beberapa kalimat. Sekuensi beberapa kalimat dibangun dalam suatu relasi antarkalimat berdasarkan aturan tertentu, misalnya: relasi kausal, mengontraskan, mempertentangkan, dan sebaganya. Bahasanparagraf mencakup pengertian, struktur, komposisi, kelengkapan, kesatuan, kohesi, koherensi, dan paragraf sebagai wacana, Paragraf adalah satuan bahasa tulis yang terdiri dari beberapa kalimat yang tersusun secara runtut, logis, dalam satu kesatuan ide yang tersusun secara lengkap, utuh, dan memenuhi syarat keterpaduan (Alwi, editor: 2001:1-2). Ramelan (1993:1-7) memperjelas pengertian paragraf dengan menyatakan bahwa paragraf adalah bagian dari suatu karangan yang terdiri dari sejumlah kalimat yang mengungkapkan satuan informasi dengan ide pokok sebagai pengendalinya dan kalimat penjelas sebagai pendukungnya. Oshima dan Hogue menyatakan bahwa sebuah paragraf terdiri atas tiga unsur, yaitu kalimat topik, kalimat pendukung, dan kalimat konklusi. Kalimat topik terdiri atas subjek yang berfungsi sebagai topik dan predikat berfungsi sebagai ide pengendali. Seluruh elemen paragraf itu menjelaskan topik yang dikendalikan oleh ide pengendali. Dengan demikian, paragraf merupakan kesatuan ide. Itu berarti seluruh kalimat dalam suatu ikatan kesatuan (Oshima dan Hogue, 2006:2). Dalam paragraf, kalimat topik dapat ditempatkan pada posisi awal, tengah, akhir, atau awal dan akhir. Penempatan kalimat topik dalam paragraf berpengaruh terhadap struktur penalaran. Paragraf ekspositori yang berisi analisis, klasifikasi, komparasi, atau kausal dengan menempatkan kalimat 282


topik pada awal membantuk penalaran deduktif. Penempatan kalimat topik pada akhir paragraf membentuk penalaran induktif. Kalimat topik pada tengah paragaf membentu penalaran induktif-deduktif, Paragraf yang diawali dan diakhiri kalimat topik membentuk penalaran deduktif-induktif (Widjono, 2007:177-180). Komposisi paragraf berfungsi untuk mengharmoniskan unsur-unsur paragraf. Keharmonisan itu dibangun dengan memperhatikan kesesuaian kalimat topik dengan kelengkapannya. Terkait dengan hal itu, McCrimmon menyatakan bahwa paragraf yang baik menuntut empat syarat kualifikasi, yaitu: kelengkapan (completeness), kesatuan (unity), keruntutan (order), dan koherensinya (coherence). Paragraf merupakan satuan bahasa yang lebih luas dari kalimat dan lebih kecil daripada esai. Penulisan paragraf memerlukan pengorganisasian sehingga menghasilkan sebuah komposisi. Komposisi paragraf dibangun dengan kalimat pertama sebagai kalimat topik. Kalimat kedua menjelaskan kalimat pertama, yang masih bersifat umum. Kalimat ketiga memaknai kedua kalimat pertama, dan kalimat pertama paralel dengan kalimat terakhir. Kalimat terakhir berupa kalimat konklusi berfungsi menegaskan pikiran pada kalimat pertama McCrimmon (1984: 193-214). Kesatuan paragraf dapat dibangun dengan sebuah topik yang dinyatakan dalam kalimat topik. Kalimat tersebut berupa kalmat tunggal, terdiri dari topik dan sebuah ide pengendali. Bahasan seluruh kalimat terfokus pada topik dan ide pengendali. Kesatuan paragraf terjadi jika kalimat pendukung (kalimat penjelas) tidak menyimpang dari topik maupun ide pengendali. Sebuah kalimat saja keluar dari ide pengendali, paragraf tersebut tidak memenuhi syarat kesatuan. Terkait dengan kesatuan tersebut, menyatakan bahwa dalam sebuah paragraf hanya terdapat sebuah pikiran utama atau sebuah gagasan utama (Oshima dan Hogue, 2006:18). PEMBAHASAN Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian tindakan (Action Researsch). Penelitian itu sebagai upaya mengatasi masalah dalam pembelajaran dan pengajaran. Hal itu sejalan dengan pandangan Hopkin yang menyatakan bahwa penelitian tindakan itu menghadirkan perkembangan bidang penelitian yang berkarakteristik memenuhi kebutuhan pragmatik bidang pendidikan untuk meningkatkan kualitas pengajaran dan pembelajaran di kelas. Penelitian itu merupakan suatu proses yang dirancang untuk memberdayakan partisipan aktif dalam kegiatan penelitian tindakan (Emzir, 2008:233). Penelitian itu dilakukan di Universitas Negeri Jakarta. Peserta aktif penelitian itu menggunakan representatif sampel mahasiswa seksi 0946 Semester 096 2011 dan beberapa mahasiswa lain yang bergabung dalam 283


kelas itu untuk mengikuti kuliah bahasa Indonesia.Penelitian bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kualitas, berefek penguatan, peningkatan pembelajaran menulis akademik berbasis pada kohesi dalam praktik pengajaran dan pembelajaran (Gall, Meredith D., Joyce P. Gall, and Walter R. Borg, 2007:597598). Penelitian kelas itu merupakan upaya memperbaiki pendidikan melalui perubahan dengan dorongan atas kesadaran peneliti sebagai dosen untuk memperbaiki pengajarannya. Hal itu dilakukan melalui pemahaman atas kelebihan dan kekurangannya dalam praktik mengajarnya. Pemikiran dan tindakan itu bersifat kritis terhadap praktik tersebut dan siap untuk mengubahnya. Oleh karena itu, penelitian itu bersifat partisipatif (melibatkan dosen) dan kolaboratif (melibatkan dosen dan mahasiswa). Perubahan ditekankan pada aktivitas pembelajaran dan pengajaran, melalui (1) seleksi masalah yang memerlukan perubahan lebih baik; (2) eksekusi prosedur yang mencakup seleksi bahan ajar dari pengaplikasian kohesi paragraf yang minim, sebatas kasus kohesi tertntu ke bahan ajar pararaf kohesif yang bersifat konseptual. Untuk itu, dosen mencermati masukan kebutuhan mahasiswa (kolaborator) atas bahan ajar yang dibutuhkannya. (3) Analisis data mencakup pengaplikasian statistik dan hipotesis untuk menjawab pertanyaan penelitian. (4) Konklusi berbasis pada hasil analisis data dengan dukungan uji hipotesis (Gay, L.R.,1981:7). Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah kualitatif yang bersifat partisipatif dan kolaboratif. Kualitatif menjelaskan peristiwa yang dilakukan dalam penelitian itu sehingga mendapat gambaran dan penjelasan yang lengkap dalam pelaksanaan penelitian tindakan. Kuantitatif digunakan untuk menganalisis data hasil proses belajar mengajar atau membandingkan nilai siswa sebelum dan sesudah penelitian tindakan dilakukan. Nilai itu akan diuji kebenarannya melalui metode tersebut untuk melihat seberapa besar signifikan nilai sebelum dan sesudah dilakukan tindakan. Pengumpulan data melalui siklus tindakan. Siklus itu dapat dilakukan dari pertama sampai dengan keenam untuk pembelajaran dan pengajaran bahan ajar yang ditargetkan selanjutnya sampai dengan penyajian bahan ajar terakhir yang telah ditargetkan. (Glanz dalam Gall, Gall,dan Borg, 2007:601). Teknik pengumpulan data dalakukan secara bertahap (L.R.Gay, 1981:7). Pretes berfungsi untuk mendata kemampuan awal mahasiswa sebelum melakukan proses pembelajaran menulis akademik berbasis kohesi dan koherensi. Data itu dapat dijadikan bahan evaluasi keberhasilan dalam peelitian tindakan kelas. Sejalan dengan hal itu, pada akhir penelitian tindakan, mahasiswa diberi postes. Keduanya berfungsi untuk mengetahui perubahan ke arah peningkatan kemampuan mahasiswa dalam mempelajari

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menulis paragraf akademik berbasis kohesi dan koherensi sesudah penelitian dilakukan sebagai hasil penelitian tindakan kelas. Catatan harian dosen berfungsi untuk mencatat peristiwa yang terjadi selama proses pembelajaran. Catatan itu berfungsi untuk menginterpretasikan kegiatan yang dilakukan oleh dosen maupun mahasiswa, sekaligus berfungsi untuk menginterpretasikan mengapa hal itu terjadi dan dilakukan sedangkan beberapa hal lain yang seharusnya terjadi tidak dilakukan. Catatan harian itu ditulis segera setelah berakhirnya proses belajar mengajar atau selama proses itu berlansung. Hal demikian dilakukan untuk mencegah ketidakakuratan dokumen yang berfungsi untuk menentukan ketepatan tindakan atau kesimpulan penelitian. Jurnal harian berisi catatan harian. Jurnal itu berisi catatan ang dapat memfasilitasi proses pekembangan berkelanjutan setiap hari. Catatan itu berisi kejadian yang disusun berkelompok menurut kejadian. Jurnal itu mendata hal-hal yang terjadi selama proses belajar-mengajar: hal-hal yang terjadi, proses belajar-mengajar yang sedang berlangsung, dan memberikan catatan mengenai hal-hal yang perlu dilakukan dalam proses belajarmengajar pada pertemuan berikutnya. Portofolio mahasiswa berisi evaluasi diri, refleksi diri, dan kesan terhadap proses belajar-mengajar yang telah berlangsung, dan saran-saran untuk memperbaiki proses belajar-mengajar pada pertemuan berikutnya. Instrumen itu digunakan untuk menilai keabsahan data melalui triangulasi data, yakni dari sudut pandang mahasiswa untuk melakukan evaluasi dan refleksi diri. Bagi mahasiswa, evaluasi diri berisi tentang perubahanperubahan yang telah mereka rasakan sebagai hasil proses belajar mengajar. Refleksi berisi gambaran: kesan, bayangan, dan persepsi mahasiswa terhadap kejadian yang berlangsung selama proses belajar. Refleksi itu berisi laporan kemajuan belajar hari demi hari. Refleksi dapat berisi kesan mahasiswa terhadap proses belajar-mengajar yang telah berlangsung mencakup kesan terhadap peneliti, bahan ajar, kegiatan yang terjadi, dan sebagainya. Berdasarkan pada kesan-kesan tersebut, mahasiswa diminta untuk menuliskan saran-sarannya untuk memperbaiki proses belajarmengajar berikutnya. Wawancara(tanya jawab) dilakukan pada akhir proses belajarmengajar. Hal itu dilakukan dengan beberapa mahasiswa yang dapat mewakili kelas. Mereka diminta mengomentari hal-hal yang terjadi selama proses belajar-mengajar dan harapan mereka mengenai yang seharusnya terjadi tetapi justru tidak terjadi. Hasil wawancara ini juga akan dijadikan bahan pertimbangan untuk memperbaiki bahan ajar, strategi dan kegiatan belajar mengajar pada pertemuan berikutnya. Agar dasar pertimbangan

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tersebut cukup kuat maka siswa juga diminta untuk memberikan argumen terhadap pendapatnya. Postes dilakukan pada bagian akhir penelitian. Postes itu berfungsi untuk mengetahui perubahan kemampuan menulis paragraf sesudah dilakukan penelitian tindakan. Besama jawaban pretes, postes berfungsi untuk mengetahui efektivitas pembelajaran dengan penelitian tindakan. Struktur paragraf dibangun oleh kalimat topik, kalimat pendukung 1, kalimat pendukung 2, kalimat pendukung 3, kalimat konklusi, kohesi antarkalimat, dan komposisi. Kohesi yang diteliti mencakup: kohesi gramatikal konjungsi, kohesi gramatikal elipsis, kohesi gramatikal substitusi, dan kohesi gramatikal referensi, sedangkan koherensi mencakup: relasi antarproposisi, dan relasi kausal, relasi kesamaan struktur kalimat. Keabsahan dilakukan dengan triangulasi, yaitu mengumpulkan data mengenai situasi pembelajaran dari tiga persepsi sumber data yaitu: peneliti, mahasiswa, dan pengamat (teman sejawat peneliti). Hal itu senada dengan pendapat Mc Niff, bahwa pemantauan data dilakukan dengan: (1) Catatan harian peneliti, untuk mencatat apa yang terjadi dalam selama proses belajarmengajar, (2) Pemantauan dari kolega, sebagai kolaborator untuk mengamati hal-hal yang menjadi dan dilakukan oleh peneliti dan siswa memberikan kritik yang membangun demi kemajuan peneliti, (3) Pengamatan dari mahasiswa karena mungkin mahasiswa mempunyai persepsi yang berbeda terhadap yang dilakukan oleh peneliti (David Hopkins, 1993:152 dalam Emzir, 2008:233-245). Penelitian tindakan kelas ini mencakup dapat disederhanakan ke dalam empat kegiatan, yaitu: perencanaan, tindakan, observasi, dan refleksi. Keempat langkah tersebut membentuk siklus yang dilakukan secara berulang-ulang sampai masalah yang menjadi fokus penelitian dapat diatasi. Untuk dapat menyusun rencana tindakan maka terlebih dahulu harus diketahui dan dipahami masalah-masalah yang dihadapi oleh siswa. Oleh karena itu, langkah awal yang harus dilakukan adalah mengidentifikasi masalah. Hasil identifikasi masalah digunakan untuk menentukan masalah yang terjadi fokus utama penelitian dan rencana tindakan. Sebelum melakukan tindakan untuk memperbaiki proses belajar mengajar, disusun rencana tindakan (action programe). Rencana tindakan ini berdasarkan kajian teori dan kesulitan-kesulitan yang masih dialami oleh siswa. Untuk memperjelas keterkaitan antara masalah penelitian, tujuan penelitian, dan rencana tindakan yang dilakukan untuk mengatasi masalah demi tercapainya tujuan penelitian, maka dibuat tabel atau bagan sebagai berikut:

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Peta Konsep Rencana Tindakan Siklus I Kemampuan No. Awal Masalah Mahasiswa 1 belum dapat Mahasiswa menulis paragraf kurang akademik motivasi

Rencana Tindakan Dosen menjelaskan cara menulis paragraf akademik

Tujuan Mendorong mahasiswa aktif

2

belum mengetahui struktur paragraf akademik

Belum diajarkan

mengajarkan struktur paragraf akademik

Mahasiswa memahami dan menulis paragraf akademik

3

belum mengetahui kaidah-kaidah kohesi

Dosen belum mendapatkan jalan keluar

Menjelaskan kaidah kohesi

Mahasiswa memahami kohesi paragraf

4

belum mengetahui kaidahkoherensi

Mahasiswa cenderung diam

Menjelaskan kaidah koherensii

Mahasiswa memahami koherensi paragraf

5

kurang aktif, dan enggan bertanya

Dosen berupaya mendorong belajar secara aktif

Membiasakan bertanya

Membiasakan mahasiswa bertanya

287


Siklus II No. 1

Kemampuan Awal Mahasiswa mulai bergairah

Masalah Mahasiswa termotivasi

Rencana Tindakan Dosen memotivasi

Tujuan Mahasiswa aktif

2

sudah mengetahui struktur paragraf

Sudah diperkenalkan

Memberikan latihan menulis paragraf berdasarkan struktur

Dapat menulis paragraf dengan struktur yang benar

3

Mulai mengenal kohesi

Mulai mengenal kohesi

Mengenalkan pemarkah kohesi

Menulis paragraf dengan kohesi

4

Mulai mengenal koherensi

Mlai mengenal koherensi

Mengenalkan pemarkah koherensi

Menulis paragraf dengan koherensi

5

Mulai penasaran untuk mengatahui

Mulai menanyakan bahasan yang belum diketahui



ANALISIS DATA DAN TEMUAN Data yang terkumpul dianalisis secara kualitatif. Analisis itu berdasarkan proses belajar mengajar, analisis ini mencakup: deskripsi, interpretasi, dan refleksi terhadap hal-hal yang terjadi dalam proses belajar mengajar. Keabsahan dilakukan dengan persepsi oleh teman sejawat dan persepsi oleh mahasiswa. Temuan a. Kemampuan tahap awal: mahasiswa cenderung bersikap pasif, diam, dan menanti penjelasan dosen. Keadaan serupa itu menimbulkan interpretasi bahwa mahasiswa kurang aktif merespon tugas dosen. Hal itu juga merupakan indikator bawa mahasiswa belum mengenal konsep menulis paagraf yang ditugaskan kepada mereka.

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b. Proses belajar dan mengajar: Selama proses belajar pada tahap awal, mahasiswa belum meunjukkan motivasi yang tinggi untuk belajar secara aktif. Kondisi serupa itu, tampaknya, sudah menjadi tradisi atau karakter yang memerlukan perubahan, baik proses belajar dan mengajarnya, maupun cara-cara memberikan motivasi agar mahasiswa melakukan perubahan dalam pembelajaran dan pengajaran. c. Analisis Masalah: Masalah yang dihadapi oleh mahasiswa yaitu kurang termotivasi untuk belajar menulis paragraf akademik berbasis kohesi dan koherensi. Selain itu, sikap tersebut dapat menimbulkan penafsiran bahwa mereka tidak mengetahui sama sekali bahasan yang dihadapkan kepada mereka. d. Tindakan terencana: memberikan kesadaran untuk memotivasi diri dalam proses belajar. Selain itu, tindakan penelti perlu segera menyampaikan target penguasaan bahan ajar pada tatap muka tersebut, yaitu dapat menulis paragraf akademik berbasis kohesi dan koherensi. Siklus 1: Peneliti melaksanakan Rencana Tindakan dengan mengajarkan penulisan paragraf berbasis kohesi dan koherensi, memaparkan paragaf berdasarkan struktur yang benar dan penggunaan kohesi koherensi yang tepat. pengenalan masalah, dan bahasan yang akan dipelaari, portofolio tentang pendapat mahsiswa, evaluasi diri, refleksi diri, dan saran kepada peneliti atau dosen yang mengajarnya. menuliskan kesan terhadap proses belajar dan mengajar. Peneliti mewwancarai mahasiswa atas observasi mahaswa, refleksi peneliti dan pengamat. saran kepada peneliti, pencapaian hasil belajar, serta saran-saan kepada peneliti. Selain itu, mereka juga diwajibkan menuliskan potofolio evaluasi diri, refleksi diri, dan kesan terhadap proses belajar mengajar menulis paragraf akademik berbasis kohesi dan koherensi. Temuan: (1) Mahasiswa dapat menulis paragraf berdasarkan struktur yang benar. Selain itu, mahasiswa juga dapat menggunakan kohesi antarkalimat dalam paragraf. Perubahan secara menyeluruh, mahasiswa menjadi lebih aktif menulis paragraf kohesif. Selain itu, mereka cenderung lebih terbuka terhadap paragraf yang ditulisnya. Hal itu terlihat dari kecenderungan mereka untuk memperlihatkan paragraf tang ditulisnya kepada temannya. (2) Ada kecenderungan bahwa mereka belum sepenuhnya menguasai pemarkah kohesi maupun koherensi. Dalam batas tertentu mereka sudah mulai berani menunjukkan kinerja penulisannya. Namun, sesungguhnya mereka masih memerlukan bimbingan lebih lanjut untuk memahami dan mengaplikasi kohesi dan koherensi dalam penulisan paragraf.

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Pengamat (Teman Sejawat): Penelitian Tindakan ini memberikan arah pada produktivitas mahasiswa terhadap penguasaan bahan ajar. Mereka tidak saja memahami dan mengaplikasi bahan ajar yang diberikan tetapi juga memberikan pengalaman untuk belajar secara mandiri atas dorongan kebutuhan akademiknya. Portofolio Partisipan: Mahasiswa terkesan dengan pembelajaran ini. Melalui penelitian tindakan ini. pembelajaran dapat mengubah perilaku akademik. Dari sikap pasif berhasil memotivasi untuk belajar secara aktif. Mahasiswa termotivasi untuk belajar secara mandiri. SIMPULAN Penelitian tindakan menulis paragraf akademik berbasis kohesi dan koherensi berhasil meningkatkan motivasi mahasiswa untuk belajar secara aktif. Selain itu, penelitian itu juga berhasil meningkatkan kemampuan belajar secara mandiri. Keberhasilan itu, merupakan indikator bahwa penelitian tindakan dapat menjawab kebekuan motivasi, aktivitas, dan kemauan diri untuk berubah dalam setiap proses pembelajaran sehingga mahasiswa dapat meningkatkan kualitas belajarnya. Peningkatan itu merupakan indikator pula bahwa mahasiswa itu pada dasarnya mengharapkan keberhasilan dalam studinya. DAFTAR PUSTAKA Akmajian, Adrian, Richard A.Demers, Ann K. Farmer, and Robert M. Harnesh. (1998). Linguistic An Introduction to Language and Communication Fourth Edition Massachusetts: Massachusetts Instittute of Tehnology. Anderson, J. Charles, & Lyle F. Bachman (Editors). (2002). Assessing Writing Sara Cushing Weigle,Cambridge: University Press. Brown, H. Douglas. (2000). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching Fourth Edition, New York: Pearson Education. Deane Millan. (1999). Developing Critical Reading Skill, Boston, McGraw-Hill Company.

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Emzir. (2008). Metode Penelitian Pendidikan, Jakarta: PT Raja Grafindo Persada. Evers, Frederick T., James C. Rush & Iris Berdrow. (1998). The Bases of Competence: Skills For Lefelong Learning And Employability, Ontario: The Jassey-Bass. Freiberg, Jerome and Amy Driscoll. (2005). Universal Teaching Strategies, Fourth Edition, Boston. Gall, Meredith D., Joice P. Gall, and Walter R. Borg. (2007). Educational Research: An Introduction, Eighth EditionBoston: Pearson Educational, Inc. Gay, L.R. and Peter Airasian. (2000). Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Application, Sisxth Edition, London: Prentice Hall. Halliday, M.A.K. and Ruqaiya Hasan. (1979). Cohession in English, London: Longman Group Limited. Hs. Widjono. (2007). Bahasa Indonesia Mata Kuliah Pengembangan Kepribadian, Jakarta Grasindo. Hyland, Ken. (2006). English for Academic Purposes: An edvanced resource book, New York: Routledge. Jordan, R.R. (2003). Academic Writing Course, Third Edition, Essex: Pearson Education Limited. McCrimmon, James M. (1984). Writing With A Purpose Eith Edition by Joseph F. Trimmer Nancy I. Sommers Boston: Houton Miflin Company. Oshima, Alice and Anna Hogue. (2006). Wrting Academic English, Fourth Edition, New York: Pearson, Education. Wood, Julia T. (2004). Communication, Theories in Action an Introduction, Third Edition, Belmont, USA: Wadsworth, 291


Zemach, E. Dorothy and Lisa A. Rumisek. (2005). Academic Writing From Paragraf to Esaay, McCmillan,

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LANGUAGE ACQUISITION IN PREWRITING, DRAFTING, REVISING, EDITING AND PUBLISHING SKILLS Zalzulifa The State Polythechnic of Creative Media, Jakarta, Indonesia [email protected] ABSTRACT This research is back-worded by the pragmatic experiential learning problems the researcher faces in daily routine activities of teaching learning from first to fourth semester (2008-2011) at PoliMedia. It has accumulated into the researcher’s pragmatic findings that teaching English for publishing students with its basic skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking) should be in line with the needed basic competencies of language assessment in the publishing needed skills (pre-writing, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing). However, in order to assure the pragmatic findings it is needed to do the academic analysis through the following academic research methodology, including: setting and time, research design, population and sample, data collection instrument, and data analysis. The research uses qualitative approach through seeing, observing, discussing and studying some related documents taken from questioannaire, interview, simulation and focus group discussion among lecturers. The data shows various level of students’ needed technical skills to be supported in learning process, such as: 1) team working skills, 2) oral communication skills, 3) problem solving skills, 4) customer handling skills, 5) management skills, 6) general IT user skills, 7) technical and practical skills, 8) office administration skills, 9) written communication skills, 10) literacy skills, 11) numeracy skills, 12) IT professional skills, 13) foreign language skills, 14) grappling with grammar skill, 15) speed reading skills, 16)notetaking skills and 17) negotiating skills. Meanwhile, the design of English learning materials is dedicated preferable to using the subject references of publishing activities, such as: 1) Commissioning and Acquisitions, 2) Rights, 3) Contract, 4) Design (visual), 5) Editorial management, 6) Design (structural), 7) Editing, 8) Production, 9) Marketing and Direct Selling. It is concluded that the design of English learning materials should 293


approach to four basic language competencies (reading, writing, listening and speaking) in line with the the learning activities ought to encourage students enjoy learn and practice the activities of editorial job cycle from prewriting-drafting-revising-editingpublishing. Keywords:reading, writing, listening, speaking-prewriting-drafting revising-editing-publishing INTRODUCTION The background of the research derived from the wish to solving gaps between existing condition and ideal prospective portrait of Publishing Study Program at the State Polytechnic of Creative Media (PoliMedia). It is widely exposed in printed and in electronic media that the Publishing Study Program specially designed to graduate the students which own competence, knowledge, and skills in preparing various kinds of manuscript in accordance with the creative industry needs. Referring to the existing condition of PoliMedia as the only school of creative with Publishing Study Program, English is strongly recommended to support the teaching learning process. So forth, this is the essence of the adoption and use of English as the language of international communication as today a fact of life. Therefore, the needs of English language competencies should support the vision of the study program approached to worldwide class ranging from graduate’s competence, graduate’s profile, career prospect, job vacancy, learning process and facilities. In term of graduates’ competencies based of production and entrepreneurship skills, there are at least two major skills to be achieved, such as; 1) skilful in editing and writing manuscripts in industries of publishing, advertising, broadcasting, interactive game, film, video, performing arts, music, and 2) skilful in planning and managing their business based on the production and entrepreneurship in the field of publishing industry. The needed skills of study program are suited for those who wish to deepen the publishing world starting from prewriting, drafting, revising, editing and publishing the manuscripts at various forms like: books, magazines, and newspapers. Concerning with the graduates’ profiles, the Publishing Study Program is supposed to graduates the Medium Level of Writer or Author, Editorial Supervisor, and becoming Self- Entrepreneur of creative publishing called “Publipreneur”. While the career prospects is dealing with the professional worker of Proof Reader, Copy Writer, and Writer or Author. The so called, here are the prospective job vacancies of the 294


publishing graduation, such as: 1) Book Publishing Industry, 2) Press Publishing Industry, 3) Electronic Publishing Industry, 4) Advertising Industry, 5) Television and Film Industry, 6) Broadcasting Industry, 7) Music and Performing Arts Industry, 8) Public Relations at Private or Government Office, 9) Literary Agents, and 10) Self-Publishing Entrepreneur1. In order to approve the goals, it is written to be commitment that the publishing students have to complete their study within three years (six semesters) with the comparative learning ratio 40% theory and 60% hands on learning. At the first year (semester one and two), the students get the basic theory of publishing, basic practice of writing and editing, and industrial orientation. At the second years (semester three and four), the students get a lot of practices in writing, editing, editorial management, and Industrial apprenticeship. At the third years (semester five and six), the students get specific writing and editing project, entrepreneurship and industrial hands on practice as well as presenting their compulsory reported comprehensive project. In order to support the learning process, the Publishing Study Program has comfortable and elegant classrooms equipped with digitalized communication, language laboratory, publishing laboratory, free Internet, and fully digitalized library as well as national and international collaboration scope. This consequently can enhance the students creativity and innovation of doing creative writing, creative editing, and producing various kinds of hiend publishing products. Referring to the expected learning output and English is strongly recommended to support the teaching learning process (four semesters), the researcher is interested in designing English material approached to the needs of publishing industry. The appropriate materials for this course is of course English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) as the branch of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). To do so, the researcher wishes to provide English learning materials with three research output, such as basic course outline, English materials as learning models, and a lecturer’s guide. Hopefully this research contributes to the right path of Designing English Material for supporting the achievement of institutional goal through English learning process for Publishing Students at PoliMedia. Last but not least, this research is also back-worded by the pragmatic experiential learning problems the researcher faces in daily routine activities of teaching learning from first to fourth semester (2008-2011). It has accumulated into the researcher’s pragmatic findings that teaching English for publishing students with its basic skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking) should be in line with the needed basic competencies of language assessment in the publishing needed skills (pre-writing, drafting, 295


revising, editing, and publishing). However, in order to assure the pragmatic findings it is needed to do the academic analysis through the following academic research methodology, including: setting and time, research design, population and sample, data collection instrument, and data analysis. The research result is expected to provide lecturer with the right model of designing English language learning material used for guiding the students and lecturer hand-in-hand in the learning process. The most significant of the research is based on what the PoliMedia’s function to steer-up the three years diploma program focused on the need for publishing students as supposed intellectual resources of national Publishing Industry in Indonesia. DISCUSSION Based on the data analysis, the research findings are classified into three major categories. First category is related to the first research question “How does the English materials meet the Publishing Students’ needs?”. Second category is related to the second research question “How does the English materials meet the Industry needs?”. And the last category is related to the the last research question “ “How does the English materials improve students’ proficiency in understanding EOP materials? The data to answer each research questions are taken from questionaire-, interview-, simulation and class observation-based data. To clarify the question research How Does the English Materials meet the Publishing Students’ Needs? here are the graphic of competence recorded from respondent’s scaling toward the language aquisition in the activities of “prewriting-drafting-revising-editingpublishing”. The data derived from 44 students who filled in the observation sheets as observed during the class session. The data shows how the language acquisition correlated with the technical skills needed in publishing industry approached to it’s production cycles prewriting-drafting-revising-editingpublishing. Prewriting Need Assessment and Its Language Acquisition Graph 1 indicates that prewriting competency requires the skill of reading (36%), writing (28%), speaking (21%) and listening (15%). From the data it can be stated that language acquisition in prewriting is more influenced by the skill of reading, and then sequently followed by writing, speaking and listening. That means the design of material should focus on the effort of triggering students’ skill in reading habit. In addition to the language competencies, data also shows the priority level of technical skills needed in prewriting competency. In

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general, the language acquisition in prewriting competencies and its influences to priorities of technical skills can be seen in th following graph.

Graph 1. The Language Acquisition in Prewriting and its priorities of technical skills Drafting Need Assessment and Its Language Acquisition Graph 2 indicates that drafting competency requires the skill of reading writing (36%), reading (30%), speaking (14%) and listening (20%). From the data it can be stated that language acquisition in drafting is more influenced by the skill of reading, and then sequently followed by writing, speaking and listening. From the data it can be stated that language acquisition in drafting is more influenced by the skill of writing, and then sequently followed by reading, speaking and listening. That means the design of material should focus on the effort of triggering students’ skill in writing habit. In addition to the language competencies, data also shows the priority level of technical skills needed in drafting competency. In general, the language acquisition in drafting competencies and its influences to priorities of technical skills can be seen in the following graph.

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Graph 2. The Language Acquisition in Drafting and its priorities of technical skills Revising Need Assessment and its Language Acquisition Graph 3 indicates that drafting competency requires the skill of reading (34%), writing (30%), speaking (20%) and listening (16%). From the data it can be stated that language acquisition in revising is more influenced by the skill of reading, and then sequently followed by writing, speaking and listening. It means that the design of material should focus on the effort of triggering students’ skill in reading habit. In addition to the language competencies, data also shows the priority level of technical skills needed in revising competency. In general, the language acquisition in revising competencies and its influences to priorities of technical skills can be seen in th following graph.

Graph 3. The Language Acquisition in Revising its priorities of technical skills.

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Editing Need Assessment and its Language Acquisition Graph 4 indicates that editing competency requires the skill of writing (32%), reading (25%), speaking (23%) and listening (20%). From the data it can be stated that language acquisition in editing is more influenced by the skill of writing and then sequently followed by reading, speaking and listening. It means the design of English material should focus on the effort of triggering students’ skill in writing habit. In addition to the language competencies, data also shows the priority level of technical skills needed in editing competency. In general, the language acquisition in editing competencies and its influences to priorities of technical skills can be seen in the following graph.

Graph 4. The Language Acquisition in Editing and its priorities of technical skills. Publishing Need Assessment and its Language Acquisition Graph 5 indicates that editing competency requires the skill of speaking (40%), listening (30%), reading (20%) and writing (10%). From the data it can be stated that language acquisition in publishing is more influenced by the skill of of speaking and then sequently followed by listening, reading and writing. It means the design of English material should focus on the effort of triggering students’ skill in speaking habit. In addition to the language competencies, data also shows the priority level of technical skills needed in publishing competency. In general, the language acquisition in publihsing competencies and its influences to priorities of technical skills can be seen in th following graph.

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Graph 5. The Language Acquisition in Publishing and its priorities of technical skills. CONCLUSION Based on the results of data anaysis and the discussion data analysis, the following conclusions are drawn that in order to meet the publishing students’ needs, the design of English learning materials for the publishing students should be formulated according to the level of competencies approaches to national qualification framework of Indonesia. Hence, the design of English learning materials should approach to four basic language competencies, that is: reading, writing, listening and speaking. In accordance with the basic language competencies, the design of English learning materials ought to encourage students enjoy learn and practice the activities of editorial job cycle from prewriting-drafting- revising-editingpublishing. For the purpose of teaching and learning process and inline with need of publishing Industry, the design of English learning materials for the publishing students must be able to promote students in performing various technical skills needed for industry, such as: 1) Teamworking skills; 2) oral communication skills; 3) problem solving skills, 4) customer handling skills, 5) management skills, 6) general IT user skills, 7) technical and practical skills, 8) office administration skills, 9) written communication skills, 10) literacy skills, 11) numeracy skills, 12) IT professional skills, 13) foreign language skills, 14) grappling with grammar skill, 15) speed reading skills, 16) notetaking skills and 17)negotiationg skills. Moreover, the design of English learning materials is dedicated preferable to using as the subject references of publishing activities, as follows : 1) Commissioning and Acquisitions, 2) Rights, 3) Contract, 4) Design (visual), 5) Editorial management, 6) Design (structural), 7) Editing, 8) Production, 9) Marketing and Direct Selling.

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REFERENCES Alderson, L.C. (1997). Material Evaluation in Harper, D.P.L. (ed.) English For Specific Purpose, papers from the 2nd Latin American Regional Conference Cocoyoc. Allwright, R.L. (1990). What do we want teaching materials for? In Rossner and R.Bolitho, (Eds.), Current In Language Teaching. Oxford University Press. Alderson Charles and Bachman F Lyle. (2009). Assessing Writing. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 6th edition. Allison Baverstick. (2008). How to Market Books, , 4th Edition Hogan Page. Basturkmen Helen. (2010). Developing Courses in English for Specific Purposes. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Benyamin S. Bloom, Bertram B., Mesia and David R. Krathwohl. (1964). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York : David Mckay. Brown, J.D. (1995). The Element of Language Curriculum: A systematic Approach To Program To program Development. Heinle & Heinl. Campbell Linda, Cambell Bruce, and Dickinson Dee. (1996). Teaching and Learning through Multiple Intelligences. United State of America: A Simon & Schster Company. Chen, Y. 2008. Material Production for Architecs and Civil Enginers. Crawford J. 2002. The Role of Materials In The Language Classroom: Finding the Balance. Eric H. Glendinning. 2007. Basic English for Computing. Giles Clark and Angus Philips. 2008. Inside Book Publishing. United Kingdom: 4th edition Rouletge. Hague, Paul. 1995. Merancang Kuesioner (Alih bahasa, Fery). Pustaka Binaman Pressindo,

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Hutchinson and Waters. 2008. English for Specific Purposes: A learnerscentered approach. Great Britain: Cambridge University Press. Hutchinson,T. & Torrers. 1994. E The Textbook as Agent of Change. ELT Journal 48 (4). Hymes, D. 1972. “On Communicative Competence”. In Pride, J.B. and J. Holmes (Eds), Sociolinguistics. ISP. Nation & John Macalister. 2010. Language Curriculum Design, Routledges Taylor & Francis Group New York and London. Jack. C. Richard and Willy A Renandya (eds). Methodology in Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press. John, A. 1991. English for Specific Purposes: Its history and contribution. Johnson, K and K Morrow. 1981. Communication in The Classroom. London: Longman. John Macalister and I.S.P Nation. 2009. Language Curriculum Design, ESL & Applid Linguistics Professional Series. Rotledge Taylor & Francis Group New Yorh and London. Leigh and Barron Consulting Ltd. 1999. National Occupational Standards for Technical Communicator, The Publishing Training Centre. ------------ 1999. “National Occupational Standards for Book and Journal Publishers” The Publishing Training Centre. Lynette Owen Routledge. 2008. Selling Right, fifth edition. Malan, Alley. 2003. Assessing Young Learners. Oxford New York. Oxford University Press. Michael J. Wallace. 1997. Action Research for Language Teachers. New York: Cambridge University Press. Munby, John. 1988. Communicative Syllabus Design. A sociolinguistic model for defining the content of purpose-specific language programmes. New York: Cambridge University Press. 302


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Yalden, Y. 1987. Principle of Course Design for Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.

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A POLICY IN ELEVATING THE EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION IN INDONESIA THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF GOOD UNIVERSITY GOVERNANCE PARADIGMS Theresia Kristianty State University of Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia [email protected] ABSTRACT The core meaning of good university governance is that the university as an open system, reluctantly or not has to follow the change which happens in the society. In this case, as the paradigm of how to manage an organization which concerns with mass society has been changed, so the university has to follow this change also. They say that university has to implement the fundamental aspects of good governance namely transparancy, responsibility, effectiveness, accountability, law enforcement, and the participation of the stakeholders in decision making process as well as in policy runs by the university. If it is done, so it is hoped that mutual beliefs and mutual understanding as well as mutual honorus will emerge in the whole educational stakeholders sense to make the quality of the university performances enhance optimally. Keywords:quality of the univesity, university government paradigm, good governance INTRODUCTION The end result of the aims of education is to produce an educational products or a quality students. These quality students can only be produced well by a quality Institution also. A certain Institution can be called qualify if the whole potency of this institution namely physics, men, finances, energy, and materials can be used and work optimally. In relations with educational affairs, quality means that schools or university in Indonesia should fullfill all the desires, the needs and the hopes of the parents as well as the students well enough to make them staying still in the schools or the university. Meanwhile, in the last ten years, many people are talking about a new concept which is called good governance. This concepts speaks about a

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complex mechanism which about a process or a relation of an institutional affairs which is connected to many peoples from much contexs in a whole process of governance. In other words, it can be said that an institution likes school and university whisch has an affairs relating much peoples (stakeholders) has to apply good governance concepts in their institutions so that the institutions can fulfill the needs of the stakeholders fully satisfy. These kind of Institutions consider the stakeholders are very important. They trait the stakeholders like kings. Concerning what have been talking above, the writer thinks that the good governance is a very importance concepts to manage in Indonesia right now, since there are many complains about how bad the performances of many institutions concerning the services of the stakeholders. Individual’ competence, and skills of the staffs, as well as the working environments do not satisfy the stakeholders. DISCUSSIONS From the statements stating above, it can be inferred that in relation with education, students output have a positif correlation with an excellent performances as well as with the concepts of good governance. The quality of the students are decided by the quality of the performances of the whole staffs of the institutions. In turn, we also can say that the performance of the staffs are decided also by the applying the concepts of the good governance. Definition: Profesor Bintoro Tjokroamijoyo (2000:34) defines governance as to govern, to manage, and to operate. These definitionsmeans that the word governance not only talks about a process but as an activation also. As an addition knowledge, the concepts of governance can be considered as a new value which has to be socialized and needs time to be applied since it concerns with the changes of the behaviours and the attitudes of the whole human resources. Else, the applications of the process also have to be supported by the whole staffs of the institutions, the society, the press and the goverment since the concepts are every body’s challanges. The Function of The Doer of The Good Governance: To take care of the law enforcement, to manage the micro economics standard, to develop the social and the phyisical infrastructure, to prepare social seccurity and building the safeguard of the society.

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Private Sectors : To open a labour working, production, income, earnings, trading, human resources development, services, standard measurements, and bencmarch. Community : To move society’s groups to participate in social and economic affairs, to facilitate the interaction of social politics, to support the solidarity and social care, to develop and to take care the climate of the clean governance running well. The Global Agreement of the Meaning of Good Governance Principals UNDP : Participation, transparance, accountable, effective, efficient, law enforcement, awareness, fair, strategic visioning, consensus orientation. UNCHS : Idem + subsidiarity (decentralization of authority) and security. UNHCHR : Transparance, responsibility, accountable, participation, non discriminatif, pay attention to the marginalize people. UNICEF : Transparance, responsibility, accountable, participation, pay attention to the rights’ of the women and children. UNDESA : Idem + The strength relationship of the central goverments and the province with the business affairs. UNDP, UNCHS, UNHCHR, UNICEF dan UNDESA, agree to unify the whole principes to be five principes only (Erna Witoelar, 2001) Fairness : Sustainable, gender’ equality, fairness between generation Effective : Efficient, decentralisation, power, strategic visioning. Accountable : Transparance, law enforcements, awareness. Partisipation : Citizenceship, concessus orientation. Security : Conflict resolution, environments’ security. The consesus of the Boards of PBB is supported by Kofi Anan the general secretary: “Good governance is perhaps the single most important factor in eradicating poverty and promoting development”. GOOD UNIVERSITY GOVERNANCE Globalization era which is very sophisticated in elevating the knowledge and technology as well as information around the world in a very fast way, added with the very fast changes of the community with a complex, 307


dynamic, and colourfull are the main things of the paradigms changes in managing the university from a traditional one into the good university governance. Since then, concepts about quasy marketing, finance system, finance controlling method, accountability, transparancy, fairnes, and reliability biecome a new paradigms in managing a university. Renate Maynats (1993) says that what the university should know is not only the concept of a good governance, but the institution format, policy process, decision making process, the indication of side effect of a decision, and suspended process upon the departements also. According to Renate, all the aspects of the good governance university mentioned above should be included in managing a university. Based on the above statements, it is concluded that the paradigm of the governing bodies of a university, public or private has to be change its own function. Both governing bodies of a university, public or private, should elevate their roles in managing, in leadership, and in the relation to the eksternal stakeholders. Furthermore, it is also believed that the managing of a university will be more effective if it is supported by three spirit which are called: first, autonomy university spirit, second: community empowering spirit, and the third, good university governance spirit. Autonomy university spirit means that the university can have is own power to divide its own structural rulal governance and local inisiatif to manage its university without the intervening of the goverment. Community empowering spirit is a process which the goverment give to the public and the private university in Indonesia all the aspect of the development of the university to the almamater of the university so that all people concerning the university will be involved emotionally, phisically as well as the real responsibility concord with the capability from the almamater. Meanwhile, to understand better about the meaning of good university governance, Barch, Scoth and Smith (1996:1,27,41) define the good university governance as the concerning of the internal and eksternal stakeholders in making decisions, in constructing the agenda of building the university and in managing the university. Concerning theStakeholders, there are four pillar which have to be build well so that they can make the interactions process well. The four pillar are: first is the exsecutif which consists of the rector/director with all the staffs, the second is the legislative which consists of the head of the foundation with its bodies board, and the third is the community which consists of the students, the parents, mediator group, civil society, pers, industries, businessmen etc.

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To add what have been said above, Bragh, Scott dan Smith (1996:1,27,41) say that to make the application of the good university works effectively, there are three aspects which have to be developed by the university namely: 1. Policy Aspects which concerns which the goverment polliticall will, code of conduct, and social basics of the interaction of public controlling, and the involvement of the society in the decision making. 2. Operational Aspects which means how to make the good governance principals be operational in every day life. These operational aspects are the rules, the universities interactions, and the unversity performance indicators, 3. Technical Aspects such asthe support system for the manajerial aspects, the information system to control whether the process of the good governance works correctly or not. Tricker (1984: 6-7) adding some words to fully complete the statements above: The governance role is not concerned with running the business of the company, but with giving overall direction to the enterprise, with overseeing and controlling the executive actions of management and with satisfying legitimate expectation for accountability and regulation by interest beyond corporate boundaries. If management is about running business, governance is about seeing that it is run properly. The statement made by Tricker above can be consider as a development of a classical model. Tricker names his model as ‘colaborative’. Colaborative model consists of four dimensions which can be seen downward (1984:174): Table 1. Colaborative model of good governance Emphasis on external issues Emphasis on internal issues

Direction

Accountability

Executive

Supervision

Focus on the needs of business

Focus on the needs of share holders and stakeholders

Tricker says that those four dimensions above is the main function of the board of director of the university or the principals of the foundations. 309


Concerning the two main function called direction and executive management are often collide each other with the managerial function of the university. Therefore those two functions should be defined accurately without doubt. At last, from all the statements describe above, the writer concludes that good university governance can be directed to achieve the goals of the university in some aspects: 1. To elevate the public services and to develop the creativity of the university stafs and the community. 2. Mutual relationships between the community and the university in financial power 3. To raise the identity and the standard of livings of all the university communites. 4. To create a new paradigm to the university to change from the centralistic paradigm to an autonomy paradigm not only in managing, in decision making, in finding out the resources as well as in policy making. 5. To optimalize the application of the good governance effectively, it needs some instruments such as law enforcements, advocative policy, monitoring policy, reward and appraisal policy and sanction policy. Besides what have been talked above, from many literacy resources, the writer can also conclude that the aplication of the good university governance to run the managerial aspects of the university can construct the image of that human being should live with other human being because they belong to one community (belongs to) This Sense of belonging which feel by the people make him/her feel that he/she is one the things that make the whole function of the community run properly, In relating to that feelings mentioned, a people which feels treated well by others in an organization will have the high sense of integrity. This sense of integrity will make him traits others well and always pays attention to others’ wellfare and consider them not as an opponent but as a college. Furthermore, the two senses above will make another sense comes out. This sense calls the sense of participation in every tasks. They will work cooperatively, and divide the load of the jobs with the same volumes. Else, in the sense of cooperative situation, they will feel that they depend each other and want to share their own problems. The feeling of dependence wiil make the feeling of respect, thrust, and the feeling of actualization comes out. This feeling of actualization, at the end will emerge another feelings such as biology, psycology, and educatif needs to explore the jobs challenges with high responsibility. With a high responsibility comes upon their own works, soon will make these peoples productive in their job’s performances. In the long run, all the four aspects of the senses will make the university performances elevate highly and qualified. 310


In turns, the qualification of the education standards as well as the students performance; standards will become highly qualified. CLOSING REMARKS It is hoped that the statements written at the above paragraphs about the good governance concepts can make the university directors and all the staffs to work efectively and efficiently as well as accountable, transparance, fairness, and reliabel so that the quality of the university can be elevated optimally. REFERENCES Ahmadjayadi, Cahyana. (2001). Perspektif Nasional dalam Penerapan PrinsipPrinsip Good Governance. Makalah Seminar Nasional Otonomi Indonesia 2001, Jakarta. Ali, Burhanudin. (2001). Pengalaman dalam Penerapan Prinsip-Prinsip Good Governance di Daerah. Makalah Seminar Nasional Otonomi Indonesia, Jakarta. Bargh Catherine, Peter Scott, David Smith. (1996).Governing Universities, Changing the Culture. Buckingham: The Society for Research into Higher Education (SRHE) & Open University Press,Pages : 1, 27, 41., Chourmein, Imam. (2001).Peningkatan Hubungan Pendidikan dengan Dunia Kerja, Makalah, Jakarta. ___________. (2001). Hasil Rumusan Tim Kerja, Workshop Review Kurikulum Program Studi Administrasi Pendidikan Strata S1 & S2 UNJ, Tema Workshop, Administrasi dan Manajemen Pendidikan sebagai SubSistem Administrasi Kebijakan Publik, Jakarta. __________. (1996) Manajemen Pendidikan Abad ke XXI, Makalah, Panel Diskusi Kepemimpinan Pendidikan Abad XXI, Jakarta. Hanifa, Ali. (2001). Strategi Fasilitasi Pemerintah dalam Implementasi Otonomi Daerah. Makalah Siminar Nasional Otonomi Indonesia, Jakarta.

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Johnson, Sandra L., Jillinda J. Kidwell,Coopers & Lybrand L.L.P. (Editors). Reinventing The University: Managing and Financing Institutions of Higher Education, pages : 92-93, New York:John Wiley & Sons Inc, Peterson, Marvin W. David D. Dill, Lisa A. Mets, and Associates, Planing and Management for a Changing Environment: A Handbook on Redesigning Postsecondary Institutions, San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass Publisher, pages : 456-457; 195-196; 89, 92, 457; 58-59; 93-94. Sudarsono H. (2001). Pelaksanaan Otonomi Daerah: Akselerator Good Governance. Makalah Seminar Nasional Otonomi Indonesia, Jakarta. Tjokroamidjojo, Bintoro.(2000). Good Governance, Paradigma Baru Manajemen Pembangunan, Jakarta: Universitas Indonesia Press. Tricker, R I. (1984).Corporate Governance: Practices, Procedures and Powers in British Companies and Their Boards of Directors,Vermont: Gower Publishing Company. Witoelar, Erna. (2001). Perspektif Global mengenai Penerapan Prinsip-Prinsip Good Governance di Daerah. Makalah Seminar Nasional Otonomi Indonesia, Jakarta.

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PENERAPAN ASESMEN PORTOFOLIO DENGAN MODEL PEMBELAJARAN BERBASIS PRODUKSI Jufrina Mandulangi Polytechnic of Manado, Manado, Indonesia [email protected] ABSTRACT Implementation of portfolio assessment with assignments that accompanied the presentation can improve learning outcomes. In the study of applied technology, the model was deemed appropriate to get closer to the work area directly, in learning in the direct employment or similar setting with jobs. Therefore in the context of learning technology, it is important to do research that aimed to obtain an alternative model of learning which is appropriate to the particular characteristics of the subjects in applied technology. The Research shows that learning of the alternative production-based learning approach to portfolio assessment, which is qualitatively deliver improved a quality and a meaningfulness of learning, especially experiences learning that relate to employment or apprentice student workpiece in accordance with the standards and specifications of the field. At the context of other results from the process and product of learning, there is a tendency that the average of the assessed competence of student-owned portfolio performance, as well as the final product of the workpiece into the category that both includes. Several factors determine the successful application of the model, namely: the competence of lecturers / instructors, student readiness, availability of equipment and availability of materials and construction specifications of the financial side. Keywords:assessment, portfolio, learning, production model PENDAHULUAN Kegiatan asesmen pada Proses Belajar Mengajar (PBM) merupakan mata rantai perbaikan mutu dan penilaian terhadap penguasaan materi/kompetensi lulusan. Menurut Pasal 1.(4) PP 19 tahun 2005 yang dimaksud kompetensi lulusan adalah kualifikasi kemampuan yang menyangkut sikap, pengetahuan, dan keterampilan. Untuk memenuhi target kompetensi tersebut mau tidak mau PBM harus diselenggarakan secara 313


interaktif, inspiratif, menyenangkan, menantang, memotivasi peserta didik untuk berpartisipasi aktif serta memberikan ruang yang cukup bagi prakarsa, kreatifitas, dan kemandirian sesuai dengan bakat, minat, dan perkembangan fisik serta psikologis. Selain itu menurut Pasal 19.(3) PP 19 tahun 2005 setiap satuan pendidikan (bisa pula diartikan program studi prodi) di perguruan tinggi harus melakukan perencanaan proses pembelajaran, pelaksanaan proses pembelajaran, penilaian hasil belajar, dan pengawasan proses pembelajaran untuk terlaksananya proses pembelajaran yang efektif dan efisien. Dalam konteks kurikulum pendidikan teknologi dan kejuruan, implementasi kurikulum berwujud pembelajaran dikembangkan untuk setiap mata kuliah diarahkan pada kemampuan yang satu aspeknya menekankan pada aspek keterampilan (technical skill). Dengan demikian, penting dilakukan reposisi dan upaya-upaya mengembangkan pembelajaran secara sistematis sesuai dengan tujuan akhir yang diharapkan dari para lulusan, yakni pencapaian kompetensi teknologi terapan. Salah satunya adalah dengan mengembangkan pembelajaran yang lebih mendekatkan pada wilayah pekerjaan secara langsung (direct purposes learning). Model pembelajaran seperti ini tentunya tidak bisa dilakukan mengingat akan mensyaratkan keterkaitan dengan dunia kerja langsung. Untuk itu perlu dicari model-model pembelajaran yang bisa mengkondisikan seolah-olah dunia kerja, baik di industri maupun lapangan konstruksi ada dalam wilayah lingkungan belajar. Intinya adalah perlu dilakukan setting pembelajaran yang mendekatkan kondisi pembelajaran seperti yang terdapat di lapangan pekerjaan. Salah satu model pembelajaran yang dikembangkan dalam konteks pendidikan teknologi adalah pembelajaran berbasis produksi dengan pendekatan asesmen portofolio yakni berupa rekam jejak kemampuan atau kompetensi yang dicapai oleh mahasiswa untuk setiap tahapan kinerja produksi. Penilaian hasil belajar adalah suatu potret ketercapain salah satu kompetensi dan dapat dijadikan refleksi perencanaan PBM. Penilaian asesmen bersifat konvensional tampaknya peserta didik dipandang sebagai objek, bukan subjek, hal ini sungguh tidak adil. Seharusnya peserta didik diberikan kesempatan untuk ikut terlibat dalam proses penilaiannya, sehingga mereka diberi kesempatan untuk menentukan apa yang bisa dinilai, mengapa dia memilihnya, dan yang terpenting mereka diberi kesempatan untuk menunjukkan hasil terbaiknya untuk dipertimbangkan sbg hasil kerja yg dapat dinilai/dihargai. Berdasarkan uraian di atas, dimana perlunya alternatif-alternatif model dan metode dalam kegiatan pembelajaran teknologi yang dianggap 314


tepat dan sesuai dengan tujuan dan karakteristik dari mata kuliah yang diajarkan, maka tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui model pembelajaran berbasis produksi dengan assesmen portofolio dalam proses pembelajaran teknologi, tepat dan cocok untuk diterapkan, seberapa besar kontribusi yang diberikan dengan penerapan model assesmen portofolio pada proses pembelajaran teknologi terhadap peningkatan kompetensi dan perolehan nilai kinerja mahasiswa dan kendala-kendala apa saja yang muncul dari penerapan model pembelajaran berbasis produksi dengan asesmen portofolio dalam perkuliahan sehingga bisa dijadikan bahan evaluasi perbaikan model pembelajaran selanjutnya. Proses belajar dan pembelajaran yang dilakukan secara garis besar dilakukan dalam empat tahapan kegiatan, yakni (1) tahap perencanaan tujuan pembelajaran; (2) pengenalan awal kemampuan dan kesiapan siswa; (3) proses pembelajaran; dan (4) evaluasi pembelajaran. Keempat tahapan ini dilakukan biasanya dengan menekankan pada evaluasi akhir sebagai tingkatan pencapaian tujuan pembelajaran sebagai akhir dari rangkaian kegiatan pembelajaran yang meliputi aspek kognitif, afektif dan psikomotorik. Dalam konteks pembelajaran yang dilaksanakan pada pendidikan teknologi khususnya pendidikan teknik sipil, penekanannya adalah pada kemampuan atau kompetensi dalam wilayah metodologi pelaksanaan konstruksi. Dengan demikian pendekatan lebih pada pembelajaran bersifat aplikatif atau teknologi terapan pada rekayasa sipil atau konstruksi bangunan sipil. Berdasarkan metodologi tersebut pembelajaran yang terbaik adalah pada strategi pembelajaran yang lebih mendekatkan pada pembelajaran yang dipraktikkan langsung pada lapangan pekerjaan sebenarnya, namun banyak kendala dengan pola seperti ini karena berkaitan dengan institusi lain. Untuk itu, pendekatan yang dilakukan adalah dengan membuat skenario pembelajaran dengan menyetinglingkup pembelajaran di kelas/workshop sebagaimana yang terdapat di lapangan yang menekankanpada produk akhir yang dihasilkan. Dengan demikian, maka model pembelajaran yang dipilih adalah model pembelajaranberbasis produksi, yakni pembelajaran dengan penekanan pada perencanaan kerja, prosedur kerjadan produk akhir pembelajaran yang bernilai jual atau produk sesuai spesifikasi standar konstruksiyang telah ditentukan. Berikut ini aspek-aspek yang dinilai dalam keterampilan motorik padapembelajaran teknologi terapan yang dilaksanakan, yakni: - Langkah atau prosedur kerja - Teknik penggunaan alat-alat kerja (masinal/manual) - Sikap kerja (individu/kelompok) - Penggunaan sumber informasi 315


- Kemampuan analisis pekerjaan - Ketelitian dan keakuratan - Kerapihan - Kebersihan - Waktu capai produk/kecepatan - Keselamatan kerja Portofolio diartikan sebagai sekumpulan upaya, kemajuan atau prestasi peserta didik yang terencanapada area tertentu, selain itu diartikan sebagai koleksi yang dikhususkan dari setiap pekerjaan pesertadidik yang mengalami perkembangan dan memungkinkan pendidik dan peserta didik menentukantingkat kemajuan yang sudah dicapai oleh peserta didik. Mereka dapat memperbaiki pekerjaannya berdasarkan hasil self assessment nya, sehingga peserta didik bisa menilai kemampuan dan kemajuan mereka sendiri. Pada umumnya portofolio berbentuk produk dokumen seperti tulisan karyailmiah, rancangan dan gambar desain, dan yang lainnya.Pendekatan asesmen portofolio berbeda dengan pembelajaran biasa. Menurut Shaklee(1997:143), portofolio merupakan sesuatu yang berharga dan merupakan inovasi pendidikan, lengkapnya Shaklee berpendapat: “This is the most wortwhile educational innovation I have done in along time. After twenty-seven years in the classroom, I have finally learned how to use my observations and notes to make better decision for my students. What else could be more important ?” Pendekatan asesmen portofolio yang dilaksanakan menekankan pada kerja sama antarapendidik dalam hal ini dosen dan mahasiswa, dimana mereka bekerja sebagai sebuah tim. Pendekatan ini memusatkan perhatian pada mahasiswa sebagai pusat atau sentral dalam proses pembelajaran, dosen hanya memberi bantuan arahan dan bimbingan. Mahasiswa diberi peluanguntuk aktif menggunakan waktu belajar dan berlatih serta bertukar fikiran dengan berpedoman pada konsep pembelajaran pengetahuan bidang studi yang dipelajari. Prinsip-prinsip dasar yang harus dipahami pada pembelajaran berbasis penilaian portofolio adalah sebagai berikut: - Menekankan pada proses - Penilaian melibatkan peserta didik (active learner) - Kemampuan peserta didik diukur berdasarkan peserta didik itu sendiri - Pendekatan yang dilakukan bersifat kolaboratif - Tujuan ditetapkan untuk kepentingan siswa - Sasaran ditekankan pada perkembangan usaha belajar (pencapaian belajar) 316


Merupakan bagian integral dari praktek pembelajaran Model pembelajaran berbasis produksi dengan assesmen portofolio ini penekanannya adalah pada tahap penilaian kinerja, dimana terdapat tiga rangkaian kegiatan yang dimulai dari kegiatandiskusi terhadap materi pada proses pembelajaran, dilanjutkan dengan kegiatan penugasanpenugasansebagai upaya pendalaman dan latihan baik yang bersifat tugastugas parsial maupuntugas akhir. Pada rangkaian kegiatan penilaian ini dosen dan mahasiswa secara terbuka bisa menilaisampai sejauh manakah tingkatan kemampuan yang telah dicapai, dan tindakan apa saja yang perludilakukan bilamana tingkat pemahaman dan penguasaan materi pada setiap tahapan tidak sesuaidengan tujuan pembelajaran yang telah ditentukan. -

KAJIAN PUSTAKA Evaluasi hasil belajar pada hakekatnya merupakan suatu kegiatan untuk mengukur perubahan perilaku yang telah terjadi. Pada umumnya hasil balajar akan memberikan pengaruh dalam dua bentuk : (1) peserta akan mempunyai persepektif terhadap kekuatan dan kelemahannya atas perilaku yang diinginkan; (2) peserta mendapatkan perilaku yang diinginkan telah meningkat, baik setahap atau dua tahap, sehingga muncul lagi kesenjangan perilaku yang sekarang dengan perilaku yang diinginkan. Kesinambungan tersebut merupakan dinamika proses belajar sepanjang hayat dan pendidikan yang berkesinambungan. Hal tersebut terjadi karena kesenjangan itu akan terus berkembang sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan perkembangan zaman, dan hal itu harus juga terus-menerus untuk mengetahui kebutuhan berikutnya. Dalam kaitannya dengan evaluasi pembelajaran, Moekijat (1992:69) mengemukakan bahwa teknik evaluasi belajar pengetahuan, ketrampilan, dan sikap sebagai berikut: Evaluasi belajar pengetahuan, dapat dilakukan dengan ujian tulis, lisan, dan daftar isian pertanyaan. Evaluasi belajar keterampilan, dapat dilakukan dengan ujian praktek, analisis keterampilan, analisis tugas, dan evaluasi oleh peserta didik sendiri. Evaluasi belajar sikap, dapat dilakukan dengan daftar isian sikap dari diri sendiri, daftar isian sikap yang disesuaikan dengan tujuan program dan skala deferensial sematik (SDS). Evaluasi pembelajaran biasanya dilaksanakan dengan cara menyelenggarakan ulangan harian atau ulangan umum. Guru bukan harus mengetahui kompetensi peserta didik setelah pembelajaran dan pembentukkan kompetensi, tetapi harus pula mengetahui bagaimana perubahan dan kemajuan perilaku peserta didik setelah proses pembelajaran. Itulah yang disebut evaluasi hasil belajar peserta didik yang selanjutnya diberi istilah evaluasi atau penilaian.Hamalik (1995: 159) mengemukakan bahwa evaluasi itu adalah keseluruhan kegiatan pengukuran 317


(pengumpulan data dan informasi), pengolahan, penafsiran, dan pertimbangan untuk membuat keputusan tentang tingkat hasil belajar yang dicapai peserta didik setelah melakukan kegiatan belajar dalam upaya mencapai tujuan pembelajaran yang telah ditetapkan.Hasil belajar merupakan prestasi belajar peserta didik secara keseluruhan, yang menjadi indikator kompetensi dan derajat perubahan perilaku yang bersangkutan. Ranah afektif dan ranah ketrampilan atau psikomotorik pun tentu saja harus diamati kemajuannya, karena kedua ranah tersebut tidak mungkin dapat diketahui hanya dengan tes tertulis pada ulangan, akan tetapi harus dengan tes perbuatan atau bahkan dalam bentuk nontes, umpamanya dengan mengadakan observasi, dan angket. Apapun bentuk tes yang akan diberikan kepada peserta, harus tetap sesuai dengan persyaratan baku, yaitu : (1) memiliki validitas; (2) memiliki reliabilitas; (3) menunjukkan objektifitas; (4) efisien dan praktis. Portopolio adalah kumpulan tugas-tugas yang dikerjakan peserta didik. Dengan demikian dapat dikemukakan bahwa penilaian portopolio adalah penilaian terhadap keseluruhan tugas yang dikerjakan peserta didik dalam mata pelajaran tertentu. Penilaian portopolio dapat dilakukan bersama-sama oleh guru dan peserta didik, melalui suatu diskusi untuk membahas hasil kenarja peserta didik, kemudian menentukan hasil penilaian atau skor. Beberapa hal yang harus diperhatikan dalam melakukan penilaian portopolio (Mardhapi dkk, 2001), sebagai berikut : 1. Karya yang dikumpulkan adalah benar-benar karya yang bersangkutan. 2. Menentukan contoh pekerjaan mana yang harus dikarjakan. 3. Mengumpulkan dan menyiapkan sampel karya. 4. Menentukan kriteria untuk menilai portofolio. 5. Meminta peserta didik untuk menilai secara terus menerus hasil portopolionya. 6. Merencanakan pertemuan dengan peserta didik yang dinilai. 7. Melibatkan orang tua dan masyarakat dalam menilai portofolio. Berdasarkan ketentuan Dirjen Dikti, dinyatakan bahwa karakteristik Asesmen antara lain perlu acuan karakteristik kurikulum berbasis kompetensi meliputi (Dirjen Dikti, 2005: 15). Hasil belajar mahasiswa dinyatakan dengan kompetensi atau kemampuan yang dapat ditampilkan atau dapat diobservasi indikatornya 1. Kecepatan belajar mahasiswa berbeda dlm mencapai ketuntusan belajar 2. Asesmen hasil belajar menggunakan acuan kriteria (Kepmendiknas No. 232/U/2000 tentang Pengembangan kurikulum dan Penilaian Hasil Belajar, PP No. 19 tahun 2005) 3. Adanya program pembelajaran remidial dan pengayaan.

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PEMBAHASAN Model pembelajaran berbasis produksi dalam perkuliahan dilakukan untuk memberi wawasanpraktek bagi mahasiswa pada benda kerja yang dibuat persis dengan spesifikasi standar padakonstruksi bangunan.Hal ini dimaksudkan untuk memberi pengalaman praktik mahasiswa. Pembelajaran berbasis produksi dengan pendekatan asesmen portofolio diimplementasikan salah satu mata kuliah.Mengingat bahwa ada keterbatasan pada waktu, biaya dan tenaga. Berdasarkan pengamatan dan kajian pelaksanaan implementasi pembelajaran berbasis produksi dengan asesmen portofolio pada perkuliahan teknologi terapan ini, dapat dijelaskan secararinci sebagai berikut: Pertama, perangkat perkuliahan berupa deskripsi mata kuliah, silabus, SAP dan job sheet yang diarahkan padapembelajaran berbasis produksi untuk tugas-tugas perkuliahan pada setiap pertemuan diarahkandalam pencapaian kompetensi dalam metode pelaksanaan konstruksi khususnya pada kompetensikerja kayu. Kelengkapan pembelajaran tersebut mengacu pada standar yang sudah baku dengan kriteria penilaian/asesmen mendasarkan pada standar kompetensi lulusan. Instruktur dan mahasiswa secara terbuka bisa menilai capaian akhir dari setiap kompetensi/sub kompetensi yang sudahdilaluinya dalam bentuk portofolio pada setiap tahapan pekerjaan konstruksi kayu. Kedua, kesiapan instruktur dan mahasiswa dalam menerapkan pembelajaran praktik berbasis produksidengan asesmen portofolio menjadi sorotan utama. Ketiga, daya dukung fasilitas praktik berupa ketersediaan peralatan praktik bersifat manual dan masinal serta bahan mentah berupa material kayu untuk pembelajaran berbasis produksi harus sesuai spesifikasi peruntukan bahan untuk konstruksi bangunan. Kondisi riil bahwa peralatan yang tersedia belum memadai untuk keseluruhan individu mahasiswa praktikan dan material kayu yang disediakan tidak mencukupi untuk pembelajaran dengan sistem individual learning, karena kalau penekanannya kompetensi maka pembelajarannya harus dengan pendekatan pembelajaran individu.Untuk itu dalam implementasi model pembelajaran berbasis produksi ini, asesmen portofolio dilakukan secara kelompok kerja. Keempat, penyikapan mahasiswa dalam implementasi pembelajaran berbasis produksi dengan asesmen portofolio setidaknya terbagi pada beberapa kelompok, namun kecenderungannya adalah adanya respon yang baik dilandasi oleh kesadaran sendiri akan penting dan bermanfaatnya melaksanakan pekerjaan yang konstruksi sebenarnya berdasarkan standar konstruksi bangunan di lapangan, sehingga wawasan keilmuan pun akan semakin meningkat. Khususnya dalam meningkatkan pemahaman dan penguasaan materi perkuliahan praktik yang mengkaitkan dengan wawasan 319


kerja lapangan. Kelima,berdasarkan penilaian terhadap portofolio kinerja, baik pada wawasan, proses dan produk yang dihasilkan berdasar standar dan spesifikasi produk konstruksi kayu dari setiap kelompok kerja praktik mahasiswa menunjukkan kecenderungan peningkatan kompetensi yang semakin baik. Dampak Implementasi Pembelajaran Berbasis Produksi 1. Perilaku pembelajaran dosen/instruktur  Membangun persepsi dan sikap positif mahasiswa terhadap pembelajaran bersifat praktik.  Menguasai disiplin ilmu dengan keluasan dan kedalaman substansi, metodologi dasar keilmuan serta kemampuan merencanakan pembelajaran dan mempresentasikan materi dengan bantuan teknologi terapan sesuai kebutuhan mahasiswa.  Memahami secara arif dan rasional akan keunikan mahasiswa sebagai individu pembelajar dengan segala karakteristik dan latar belakang serta kemajemukan masyarakat tempat mahasiswa berkembang.  Menguasai pengelolaan pembelajaran praktik yang mendidik dan berorientasi pada mahasiswa yang tercermin dalam kegiatan merencanakan, melaksanakan serta mengevaluasi dan memanfaatkan hasil evaluasi secara dinamis untuk membentuk kompetensi mahasiswa.  Mengembangkan kepribadian dan profesionalitas khususnya dalam penguasaan bidang teknologi terapan/aplikasi teknologi sebagai kemampuan untuk dapat mengetahui, mengukur dan mengembangmutakhirkan kemampuannya secara mandiri. 2. Perilaku pembelajaran mahasiswa  Memiliki persepsi dan sikap positif terhadap pembelajaran praktik, termasuk di dalamnya persepsi dan sikap terhadap mata kuliah, dosen/instruktur, media dan fasilitas praktik sertaiklim belajar.  Mau dan mampu mendapatkan dan mengintegrasikan pengetahuan dan keterampilan serta membangun sikap kerja.  Mau dan mampu memperluas serta memperdalam pengetahuan dan keterampilan serta memantapkan sikap kerja.  Mau dan mampu menerapkan pengetahuan, keterampilan dan sikap kerjanya secara lebih bermakna.  Mau dan mampu membangun kebiasaan berpikir, bersikap dan bekerja produktif berdasarstandar kompetensi kerja.  Mampu menguasai substansi dan metodologi dasar keilmuan bidang studinya

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 Mampu menguasai materi ajar mata pelajaran dalam kurikulum sesuai dengan bidang studinya khususnya dalam mengembangkan metode pembelajaran praktik kerja konstruksi.  Mau dan mampu menguasai penggunaan fasilitas belajar khususnya teknologi terapan baik peralatan manual maupun masinal sebagai dukungan dalam pembelajaran dan pemanfaatan sumber belajar. 3. Iklim pembelajaran  Suasana kelas praktik yang kondusif bagi tumbuh dan berkembangnya kegiatan pembelajaran yang menarik, menantang, menyenangkan dan bermakna bagi pembentukan sikap profesionalitas dalam pendidikan.  Perwujudan nilai dan semangat keteladanan, prakarsa dan kreativitas dosen/instruktur dalam pembelajaran dengan memberdayakan teknologi terapan sebagai media pembelajaran.  Meningkatnya kualitas pembelajaran yang disebabkan oleh inovasi teknologi dan pendekatan pembelajaran praktik yang mampu memberi nilai tambah dalam hal penguasaan materi ajardan kebermaknaan pembelajaran. 4. Materi pembelajaran  Kesesuaian dengan tujuan pembelajaran dan kompetensi yang harus dikuasai mahasiswa  Adanya keseimbangan antara keluasan dan kedalaman materi dengan waktu yang tersedia pada perkuliahan.  Materi pembelajaran disusun secara sistematis, kontekstual dan mengikuti perkembangan keilmuan konstruksi bangunan.  Mengakomodasi secara aktif dan kemandirian mahasiswa dalam pembelajaran praktiksecara maksimal.  Menarik manfaat yang optimal dalam perkembangan dan kemajuan teknologi terapan sebagai perkuatan terhadap perkayaan sumbersumber materi bahan ajar. 5. Media pembelajaran  Mampu menciptakan pengelaman belajar yang bermakna (purposeful and meaningful learning) bagi mahasiswa.  Mampu memfasilitasi proses interaksi antara dosen dan mahasiswa, mahasiswa dengan mahasiswa serta mahasiswa dengan semua sumber belajar yang tersedia pada workshopkerja kayu.  Memperkaya pengalaman belajar dan pengetahuan mahasiswa pada wawasan kerja.

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KESIMPULAN Berdasarkan dari hasil pembahasan tersebut dapat diambil beberapa kesimpulan tentang penerapan asesmen portopolio dengan penugasan yang disertai presentasi. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang ada, maka disarankan untuk meningkatkan prestasi dan meningkatkan penguasaan materi ajar untuk beberapa mata kuliah dapat diterapkan asesmen portopolio dengan penugasan berkelompok, apalagi disertai dengan presentasi hasil karya tugas yang diberikan tersebut, akan berdampak lebih baik. Untuk lebih memperluas asesmen portopolio dengan penugasan, sebaiknya dilakukan penelitian lebih lanjut tentang penerapan asesmen tersebut jika tidak berkelompok atau mandiri tiap mahasiswa, bagaimana dampaknya terhadap penguasaan materi ajar dan prestasi mahasiswa. Berdasarkan hasil pembahasan penelitian dapat disimpulkan beberapa hal yang berkaitan dengan implementasi pembelajaran berbasis produksi dengan pendekatan asesmen portofolio pada perkuliahan teknologi terapan pada konstruksi kayu, yakni sebagai berikut: 1. Implementasi pembelajaran berbasis produksi dengan pendekatan asesmen portofolio pada perkuliahan di workshop secara kualitatif memberikan peningkatan kualitas dan kebermaknaan pembelajaran, khususnya pengalaman pembelajaran yang mengkaitkan mahasiswa praktikan dengan pekerjaan atau benda kerja sebenarnya sesuai dengan standar dan spesifikasi lapangan. Pembelajaran dengan direct purposes learning ini memberikan dampak positif bagi berbagai pihak khususnya mahasiswa yang terlibat dalam kegiatan pembelajaran, sehingga wawasan kognisi, keterampilan motorik dan sikap dalam bekerja pada segmen metode pelaksanaan konstruksi terbangun secara integral, dengan demikian model ini dirasakan tepat digunakan dalam pembelajaran teknologi terapan. 2. Beberapa faktor yang menentukan dan menjadi kendala keberhasilan penerapan model pembelajaran berbasis produksi dengan pendekatan asesmen portofolio. DAFTAR PUSTAKA Budianto, D. (1955). Mesin tangan industri kayu. Semarang: PIKA Burden, P.R.& Byrd, D.M. (1999). Methods for effective teaching. USA: Allyn & Bacon.

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Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Tinggi [Dirjen Dikti]. (2005). Lokakarya Sosialisasi dan Persiapan Implementasi KBK Bidang Kependidikan, Materi Pendukung. DP2TK& KPT. Lestari, L. A. (2001). Portofolio: Suatu Alternatif untuk Mengukur Keberhasilan Belajar. Wahana Tridarma Perguruan Tinggi. Edisi: 40-1/Pebruari 2001/TH XIII, 51-58. Hamalik, Oemar. (1995). Kurikulum dan Pembelajaran. Jakarta: Bumi Aksara. Isaac, S., Michael, W.B. (1984).Handbook in research and evaluation. California: Edith Publishers. Jatmiko, S. (1992). Pengoperasian Mesin Pengerjaan Kayu Dasar. Semarang: PIKA Margono, Gaguk. (2006). Implementasi Asesmen Berbasis Portofolio untuk Meningkatkan Proses dan Hasil Belajar Matematika Mahasiswa Fakultas Teknik.Prosiding: Konvensi Nasional Aptekindo III dan Temu Karya XIV FT/FPTK/JPTK Universitas Se-Indonesia. Gorontalo, Pebruari 2006, 37-47. Presiden Republik Indonesia.(2005). Peraturan Pemerintah Indonesia Nomor 19 Tahun 2005 tentang Standar Nasional Pendidikan. Mardhapi, D. Dkk, 2001, Pola Induk Pengembangan Sistem Pengujian Hasil Belajar Berbasis Kemampuan Dasar Siswa Sekolah Menengah Umum, Yogyakarta : Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta. Sondang, S.M. & Basuki, Ismet. (2005). Pengembangan Metode Proyek Sebagai Asesmen Berbasis Kompetensi untuk Meningkatkan Hasil Belajar Elektronika Digital Mahasiswa Pendidikan Teknik Elektro UNESA. Jurnal PTK. Vol.1 No.2, Oktober 2006, 93-108. Tim Pelatih Proyek PGSM. (1999). Penelitian Tindakan Kelas (Classroom Action Research) Bahan Pelatihan Dosen LPTK dan Guru Sekolah Menengah. Surabaya: UNESA.

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Uno, Hamzah B. (2007). Model Pembelajaran. Jakarta: Bumi Aksara.

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