Workshop on Indo-European Syntax and Pragmatics May 13-15, 2009
Julia McAnallen University of California, Berkeley
[email protected]
Predicative Possession in Medieval Slavic Bible Translations Outline of Talk: 1. Inventory of three PPCs in Late Proto-Slavic 2. Excursus on (a few) early Slavic Bible texts 3. Examples of predicative possession in Slavic Bible translations 3.1. Where Slavic matches Greek (and Latin) 3.2. Divergences in OCS 3.3. Divergences in Czech 3.4. Tricky cases 4. Semantics and Pragmatics of PPCs in Slavic 4.1. The u + genitive PPC 4.2. The dative PPC 5. Conclusions 1.
Abbreviations: PPC – predicative possessive construction LPS – Late Proto-Slavic NT Greek – New Testament Greek OCS – Old Church Slavic Key to examples: Boldface – predicative possessive construction Underline – non-PPC corresponding to PPC in another language
Inventory of three PPCs in Late Proto-Slavic
1.1.
HAVE VERB: iměti ‘have’ In NT Greek, Latin, OCS, Old Czech, Early East Slavic …ašte biste iměli věrǫ ěko zr"no gorjušąno... (Codex Marianus, Luke 17:6) …if COND.2PL have-PTCP.PL faith-ACC.SG as grain-ACC.SG mustard-ACC.SG ‘If ye had faith as a grain of mustard seed
1.2.
DATIVE PPC, e.g. Latin mihi est; dative possessor + verb ‘be’ + nominative possessum In NT Greek, Latin, OCS, Old Czech, Early East Slavic …ašte bǫdet" eteru člověku …if be-FUT.3SG certain-DAT.SG person-DAT.SG if a man have an hundred sheep…’
1.3.
1
100 100
ovec'… sheep-GEN.PL
U + GENITIVE PPC, e.g. modern Russian U menja est’ kniga ‘I have a book’1 U ‘at/near’ + genitive of possessor + verb ‘be’ + nominative possessum In OCS, Old Czech, Early East Slavic …ašte bǫdet" ou etera člověka 100 ovec'… …if be-FUT.3SG at certain-GEN.SG person-GEN.SG 100 sheep-GEN.PL ‘if a man have an hundred sheep…’
(Codex Marianus, Matthew 18:12)
(Codex Assemanianus, Matthew 18:12)
This example was brought to my attention by Mirčev (1971).
1
2.
Excursus on (a few) early Slavic Bible texts:
NT Greek Bible (after 45 AD) Latin Vulgate (382)
Czech Dresden Bible (1380)
OCS Codices (late 10th century): Glagolitic: Marianus Assemanianus Zographensis | Cyrillic (later, 11th century): Savvina Kniga Ostromir Gospel
Czech Kralická Bible (1580)
3. Examples of predicative possession in Bible translations 3.1. Where Slavic matches Greek (and Latin) 3.1.1. Luke 1:7
Luke 1:14
3.1.2. Luke 17:6
2
Dative PPCs: English, King James And they had no child, because that Elisabeth was barren, and they both were now well stricken in years.
Greek καὶ οὐκ ἦν αὐτοῖς τέκνον καθότι ἦν ἡ Ἐλισάβετ στεῖρα καὶ1 ἀµφότεροι προβεβηκότες ἐν ταῖς ἡµέραις αὐτῶν ἦσαν
Latin Vulgate Et non erat illis filius, eo quod esset Elisabeth sterilis, et ambo processissent in diebus suis.
OCS, Codex Marianus и не бѣ има чѧда . понеже бѣ елисаветь неплоды . і оба заматорѣвъша вь дьнехъ своихъ бѣашете .
Czech Dresden2 A nebieše jima syn, proto že bieše Alžběta bezdětkyně; a oba biešta proběhla své dni.
Czech Kralická A neměli plodu, protože Alžběta byla neplodná, a oba se byli zstarali ve dnech svých.
And thou shalt have joy and gladness; and many shall rejoice at his birth.
DATIVE PPC καὶ ἔσται χαρά σοι καὶ ἀγαλλίασις καὶ πολλοὶ ἐπὶ τῇ γενέσει αὐτοῦ χαρήσονται
DATIVE PPC et erit gaudium tibi, et exsultatio, et multi in nativitate ejus gaudebunt
DATIVE PPC і бѫдетъ тебѣ радость и веселие . і мъноѕи о рождьствѣ его въздрадѹѭтъ сѧ .
DATIVE PPC a bude tobě radost a utěšenie a mnozí sě budú radovati jeho narození
DATIVE PPC
DATIVE PPC
DATIVE PPC
DATIVE PPC
HAVE Z čehož budeš míti radost a veselé, a mnozí z jeho narození budou se radovati. HAVE
Iměti ‘have’: English, King James And the Lord said, If ye had faith as a grain of mustard seed, ye might say unto this sycamine tree, Be thou plucked up by the root, and be thou planted in the sea; and it should obey you.
Greek εἶπεν δὲ ὁ κύριος εἰ ἔχετε πίστιν ὡς κόκκον σινάπεως ἐλέγετε ἂν τῇ συκαµίνῳ ταύτῃ ἐκριζώθητι καὶ φυτεύθητι ἐν τῇ θαλάσσῃ καὶ ὑπήκουσεν ἂν ὑµῖν.
Latin Vulgate Dixit autem Dominus : Si habueritis fidem sicut granum sinapis, dicetis huic arbori moro : Eradicare, et transplantare in mare, et obediet vobis.
OCS, Codex Marianus рече же гъ҃ . аште бисте имѣли вѣрѫ ѣко зръно горюшьно . гл҃али бисте ѹбо сѵкаминѣ сеи . вьздери сѧ и въсади сѧ въ море . и послѹшала би васъ . ::
Czech Dresden I vecě jim hospodin: „Budete-li jmieti vieru jako zrno horčičné, diete tomuto dřěvu jahodě mořské: Vyvrat' sě a přesad' sě u moře, uposlúchá vás.
Czech Kralická I dí Pán: Kdybyste měli víru jako zrno horčičné, řekli byste této moruši: Vykořeň se a přesaď se do moře, a uposlechla by vás.
HAVE
HAVE
HAVE
HAVE
HAVE
All examples for the Czech Dresden Bible are taken from a later copy, the Olomoucká Bible, which uses orthography closer to Modern Czech. The differences do not affect this analysis.
2
3.2.
Divergences in OCS
3.2.1.
OCS texts do not diverge from Greek very often, and the divergences do not occur uniformly across texts; there six passages in the Book of Luke in Codex Marianus where Greek has a PPC, specifically the verb ‘have’, but OCS does not have a PPC, e.g. Luke 12:4:
Luke 12:4
English, King James And I say unto you my friends, Be not afraid of them that kill the body, and after that have no more that they can do.
Greek Λέγω δὲ ὑµῖν τοῖς φίλοις µου µὴ φοβηθῆτε ἀπὸ τῶν ἀποκτεννόντων τὸ σῶµα καὶ µετὰ ταῦτα µὴ ἐχόντων περισσότερόν τι ποιῆσαι. HAVE
3.2.2.
Luke 9:13
Matth. 18:12
Latin Vulgate Dico autem vobis amicis meis : Ne terreamini ab his qui occidunt corpus, et post hæc non habent amplius quid faciant. HAVE
OCS, Codex Marianus Гл҃ѭ же вамъ дрѹгомъ своимъ . не ѹбоите сѧ отъ ѹбиваѭштиихъ тѣло . и по томь не могѫштемь лиха чесо сътворити NO PPC
Czech Dresden Pravi vám, mým přátelóm: nežásajte sě těch, ješto zabíjejí, a potom nemají, co by viece učinili. HAVE
Czech Kralická Pravím pak vám přátelům svým: Nestrachujte se těch, jenž tělo zabíjejí, a potom nemají, co by více učinili. HAVE
In other passages (one in Codex Marianus), OCS preserves predicative possession in the Greek, but uses a different PPC, e.g. Codex Marianus, Luke 9:13 (Greek dative PPC OCS ‘have’) and Codex Assemanianus, Matthew 18:12 (Greek dative PPC OCS u + genitive PPC): English, King James But he said unto them, Give ye them to eat. And they said, We have no more but five loaves and two fishes; except we should go and buy meat for all this people. How think ye? if a man have an hundred sheep, and one of them be gone astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth into the mountains, and seeketh that which is gone astray?
Greek εἶπεν δὲ πρὸς αὐτούς δότε αὐτοῖς φαγεῖν ὑµεῖς οἱ δὲ εἶπαν οὐκ εἰσὶν ἡµῖν πλεῖον ἢ ἄρτοι πέντε καὶ ἰχθύες δύο εἰ µήτι πορευθέντες ἡµεῖς ἀγοράσωµεν εἰς πάντα τὸν λαὸν τοῦτον βρώµατα DATIVE PPC Τί ὑµῖν δοκεῖ ἐὰν γένηταί τινι ἀνθρώπῳ ἑκατὸν πρόβατα καὶ πλανηθῇ ἓν ἐξ αὐτῶν οὐχὶ ἀφεὶς τὰ ἐνενήκοντα ἐννέα ἐπὶ τὰ ὄρη πορευθεὶς ζητεῖ τὸ πλανώµενον;
Latin Vulgate Ait autem ad illos : Vos date illis manducare. At illi dixerunt : Non sunt nobis plus quam quinque panes et duo pisces : nisi forte nos eamus, et emamus in omnem hanc turbam escas. DATIVE PPC Quid vobis videtur ? si fuerint alicui centum oves, et erravit una ex eis : nonne relinquit nonaginta novem in montibus, et vadit quærere eam quæ erravit ?
OCS, Codex Marianus рече же къ нимъ . дадите имъ вы ѣсти . они же рѣшѧ не имамъ съде вѧште пѧти хлѣбъ . і рыбѹ дъвоѭ . аще ѹбо не мы шьдъше во вьсѧ люди сиѩ҅ . кѹпимъ брашъна .
Czech Dresden I vecě k nim: „Vy jim dajte jiesti.“ Tehdy oni pověděchu: „Nenie u nás viece nežli pět bochencóv a dvě rybě...“
Czech Kralická I řekl jim: Dejte vy jim jísti. A oni řekli: Nemámeť víc než pět chlebů a dvě rybě, leč bychom my snad šli a nakoupili na tento všecken lid pokrmů?
HAVE чъто сѧ вамъ мьнитъ . аште бѫдетъ етерѹ чл҃ вкѹ .п҃ . овецъ . і҅ заблѫдитъ едина отъ нихъ . не оставитъ ли девѧти десѧтъ и девѧти на горахъ . и шедъ иштетъ заблѫждьшѧѩ .
HAVE Co se vám zdá? Kdyby některý člověk měl sto ovec, a zbloudila by jedna z nich, zdaliž nenechá devadesáti devíti, a jda na hory, nehledá té pobloudilé?
DATIVE PPC
DATIVE PPC
DATIVE PPC
U + GENITIVE Co sě vám vidí: by kto jměl sto ovec a jedna z nich když by zablúdila, však ostaví devět a devadesát na horách a jde hledat té, ješto jest zablúdila. HAVE
HAVE
Codex Assemanianus: …аште бѫдетъ оу етера чл҃ вка п҃ овець... U + GENITIVE
3.2.3. Mark 6:2
In still other examples, OCS has a PPC where Greek does not. E.g. Codex Marianus, Mark 6:2 (Greek non-PPC OCS Dative PPC): English, King James …From whence hath this man these things? and what wisdom is this which is given unto him, that even such mighty works are wrought by his hands?
Greek …πόθεν τούτῳ ταῦτα καὶ τίς ἡ σοφία ἡ δοθεῖσα τούτῳ NO PPC
Latin Vulgate …Unde huic hæc omnia ? et quæ est sapientia, quæ data est illi, et virtutes tales, quæ per manus ejus efficiuntur ? NO PPC
OCS, Codex Marianus …отъ кѫдѹ се естъ семѹ . і что прѣмѫдрость данаѣ емѹ . і силы таковы рѫкама его бываѭтъ . DATIVE PPC
Czech Dresden …Otkud jest tomuto toto všecko a kteraká jest toto múdrost, ješto jest jemu dána... DATIVE PPC
Czech Kralická …Odkud tento má tyto věci? A jaká jest to moudrost, kteráž jest jemu dána, že i takové moci dějí se skrze ruce jeho? HAVE
3
3.3.
Divergences in Czech
3.3.1.
Czech Dresden translation is also quite close to Latin syntax, but Old Czech replaces Latin dative PPCs with ‘have’ more often than OCS, e.g. Luke 8:42; in one case Old Czech has an u + genitive PPC where a dative PPC appears in Latin, e.g. Luke 9:13:
Luke 8:42
Luke 9:13
3.3.2. Luke 1:5
3.3.3.
English, King James For he had one only daughter, about twelve years of age, and she lay a dying. But as he went the people thronged him. But he said unto them, Give ye them to eat. And they said, We have no more but five loaves and two fishes; except we should go and buy meat for all this people.
Greek ὅτι θυγάτηρ µονογενὴς ἦν αὐτῷ ὡς ἐτῶν δώδεκα καὶ αὐτὴ ἀπέθνῃσκεν. ἐν δὲ τῷ ὑπάγειν αὐτὸν οἱ ὄχλοι συνέπνιγον αὐτόν.
Latin Vulgate quia unica filia erat ei fere annorum duodecim, et hæc moriebatur. Et contigit, dum iret, a turba comprimebatur
OCS, Codex Marianus ѣко дъшти иночѧда бѣ емѹ . ѣко дъвою на десѧте лѣтѹ . и та ѹмирааше . егда идѣаше народи ѹгнѣтаахѫ и .
Czech Dresden Že jmějieše jedinkú dceru bezmála ve dvúnádcti letech, a ta chtieše jemu umřieti...
Czech Kralická Nebo měl dceru tu jedinou, kteréž bylo okolo dvanácti let, a ta umírala. A když šel, tiskl jej zástup.
DATIVE PPC εἶπεν δὲ πρὸς αὐτούς δότε αὐτοῖς φαγεῖν ὑµεῖς οἱ δὲ εἶπαν οὐκ εἰσὶν ἡµῖν πλεῖον ἢ ἄρτοι πέντε καὶ ἰχθύες δύο εἰ µήτι πορευθέντες ἡµεῖς ἀγοράσωµεν εἰς πάντα τὸν λαὸν τοῦτον βρώµατα
DATIVE PPC Ait autem ad illos : Vos date illis manducare. At illi dixerunt : Non sunt nobis plus quam quinque panes et duo pisces : nisi forte nos eamus, et emamus in omnem hanc turbam escas.
DATIVE PPC рече же къ нимъ . дадите имъ вы ѣсти . они же рѣшѧ не имамъ съде вѧште пѧти хлѣбъ . і рыбѹ дъвоѭ . аще ѹбо не мы шьдъше во вьсѧ люди сиѩ҅ . кѹпимъ брашъна .
HAVE I vecě k nim: „Vy jim dajte jiesti.“ Tehdy oni pověděchu: „Nenie u nás viece nežli pět bochencóv a dvě rybě...“
HAVE I řekl jim: Dejte vy jim jísti. A oni řekli: Nemámeť víc než pět chlebů a dvě rybě, leč bychom my snad šli a nakoupili na tento všecken lid pokrmů?
DATIVE PPC
DATIVE PPC
HAVE
U + GENITIVE
HAVE
Examples also appear where the Czech uses a PPC where one does not occur in Latin, e.g. Luke 1:5: English, King James There was in the days of Herod, the king of Judaea, a certain priest named Zacharias, of the course of Abia: and his wife was of the daughters of Aaron, and her name was Elisabeth.
Greek Ἐγένετο ἐν ταῖς ἡµέραις Ἡρῴδου βασιλέως τῆς Ἰουδαίας ἱερεύς τις ὀνόµατι Ζαχαρίας ἐξ ἐφηµερίας Ἀβιά καὶ γυνὴ αὐτῷ ἐκ τῶν θυγατέρων Ἀαρών καὶ τὸ ὄνοµα αὐτῆς Ἐλισάβετ
Latin Vulgate Fuit in diebus Herodis, regis Judææ, sacerdos quidam nomine Zacharias de vice Abia, et uxor illius de filiabus Aaron, et nomen ejus Elisabeth.
OCS, Codex Marianus Быстъ въ дьни ирода цѣсѣрѣ июдеиска . іереи единъ именемъ захариѣ . отъ ефимѣриѩ авиѣнѧ . і жена его от҃ъ дъштеръ арѡнь . і имѧ еи елисаветъ .
Czech Dresden Byl jest za dnóv Herodových, krále židovského, jeden pop, jménem Zachař, z pořada Abiašova, i bieše jemu žena ze dcer Aaronových a jmě jejie Alžběta.
Czech Kralická Byl za dnů Herodesa krále Judského kněz nějaký, jménem Zachariáš, z třídy Abiášovy, a manželka jeho ze dcer Aronových, a jméno její Alžběta.
NO PPC
NO PPC
NO PPC
DATIVE PPC
NO PPC
Comparison of Czech Bible translations: 14th vs. 16th centuries:
Table 1. Translation of PPCs from the Latin Vulgate into the Czech Dresden Bible and Greek New Testament into the Czech Kralická Bible for the Book of Luke LATIN VULGATE CZECH DRESDEN Latin habeo || Czech matches 95% (72/76) 72 habeo mít 4 habeo other construction in Czech (Also: 9 other constructions in Latin miti in Czech) Latin est + dative || Czech matches 73% (11/15) 11 est+dat. jest + dat. 1 est+dat. mít 1 est+dat. u +genitive 2 est+dat. possessive pronouns (Also: 1 other construction jest + dat. in Czech) Overall Latin Dresden matching PPCs: 91% (83/91)
GREEK NEW TESTAMENT CZECH KRALICKÁ Greek εχω || Czech matches 89% (63/71) 63 εχω mít 8 εχω other construction in Czech (Also: 15 other constructions in Greek mít in Czech) Greek ειναι + dative || Czech matches 14% (2/14) 2 ειναι + dat. jest + dat. 12 ειναι + dat. mít
Overall Greek Kralická matching PPCs: 76% (65/85)
Table 2. Translation of PPCs from Greek New Testament into the Latin Vulgate for the Book of Luke GREEK NEW TESTAMENT LATIN VULGATE Greek εχω || Latin matches 100% (70/70) 70 εχω habeo (Also: 4 other constructions habeo in Latin) Greek ειναι + dative || Latin matches 100% (14/14) 14 ειναι + dat. est+dat. (Also: 1 other construction est+dat. in Latin) Overall Greek Latin matching PPCs: 100% (84/84)
4
3.4.
Tricky Cases
Luke 10:7
4. 4.1.
English, King James And in the same house remain, eating and drinking such things as they give: for the labourer is worthy of his hire. Go not from house to house.
Greek ἐν αὐτῇ δὲ τῇ οἰκίᾳ µένετε ἔσθοντες καὶ πίνοντες τὰ παρ’ αὐτῶν ἄξιος γὰρ ὁ ἐργάτης τοῦ µισθοῦ αὐτοῦ µὴ µεταβαίνετε ἐξ οἰκίας εἰς οἰκίαν.
Latin Vulgate In eadem autem domo manete, edentes et bibentes quæ apud illos sunt : dignus est enim operarius mercede sua. Nolite transire de domo in domum.
OCS, Codex Marianus въ томь же домѹ прѣбываите ѣдѫште и пиѭште ѣже сѫтъ ѹ нихъ . достоинъ бо естъ дѣлатель мьзды своеѩ . не прѣходите из домѹ въ домъ .
NO PPC
NO PPC
U + GENITIVE
Czech Dresden A v témž domu ostaňte jedúce a pijíce to, což u nich jest, nebo jest dóstojen dělník své mzdy. Neroďte sě túlati z domu do domu. U + GENITIVE
Czech Kralická A v témž domu ostaňte, jedouce a pijíce, což u nich jest. Nebo hoden jest dělník mzdy své. Nechoďtež z domu do domu. U + GENITIVE
Semantics and Pragmatics of PPCs in Slavic U + genitive
4.2.
Table 3: Semantics of Possessors and Possessums: u+gen. PPC Possessors Possessums Personal pronouns 100 sheep (OCS Assemanianus) A certain person
Dative PPCs
Table 4: Semantics of Possessors and Possessums: dative PPC Possessors Possessums Personal pronouns (primarily referring to Kinship relations: child, son, daughter, people, once to a raven (Luke 12:24)) husband, wife
5 loaves and 2 fish (Old Czech) Relative pronoun (‘which…’ referencing things to eat and drink) (Something to eat) (No peace)
Person
Other people: debtors
Creditor
Abstract states and concepts: joy, gladness, thanks, care, praise, worship, compassion, “things” (refers to wisdom, knowledge) 100 Sheep (OCS, Matthew 18:12; though note that Codex Assemanianus uses instead u + genitive here) Places: room in an inn (Luke 2:7), storehouse, barn (12:24) Names (fixed construction for naming)
5. 5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.3.1. 5.3.2.
Conclusions Examples from Bible translations confirm that Slavic utilized an inventory of three constructions for expressing predicative possession The verb iměti ‘have’, was the most frequently used in the Bible texts and was the least semantically and syntactically restricted The existential PPCs (the dative PPC and the u + genitive PPC) nevertheless had their own distinct domains of usage in LPS Dative PPCs occurred more often with possessums that included kinship relations, abstract possessums, and fixed syntactic constructions U + genitive PPCs occurred with possessums that were concrete, tangible, and countable/quantifiable (thus comparable to an external standard) 5
References Primary Sources Assemani, Giuseppe Simone, Josef Vajs and Josef Kurz. 1955. Evangeliarium Assemani; Codex Vaticanus 3. slavicus glagoliticus. Pragae: Sumptibus Academiae Scientiarum Bohemoslovenicae. Holy Bible : 1611 edition : King James version. 2003. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson. Kniazevskaia, O. A. 1999. Savvina kniga : drevneslavianskaia rukopis XI, XI-XII i kontsa XIII veka. Moskva: Indrik. Kralická Bible. Available at http://www.fit.vutbr.cz/~michal/kr/.cs.iso-8859-1: accessed on 1-February-2009. Kyas, Vladimír. 1981. Staročeská bible Dráždanská a Olomoucká : kritické vydání nejstaršího českého překladu bible ze 14. století. Praha: Academia. Nestle, Erwin and Alfred Marshall. 1970. The R.S.V. interlinear Greek-English New Testament: the Nestle Greek text. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Pragmatic Resources in Old Indo-European Languages (PROIEL) corpus. Available at http://foni.uio.no:3000/: accessed on 1-May-2009. Tweedale, M. 2005. Biblia Sacra juxta Vulgatam Clementinam. Available at http://vulsearch.sf.net/html: accessed on 1-February-2009. The Unbound Bible. Available at http://unbound.biola.edu/: accessed on 15-January-2009. Vostokov, A. Kh. 1964. Ostromirovo Evangelie 1056-57 goda. S prilozheniem grecheskago teksta Evangelii i s grammaticheskimi obiasneniiami. Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz. Secondary Sources Bauer, Brigitte. 2000. Archaic syntax in Indo-European ; the spread of transitivity in Latin and French. Berlin ; New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Chvany, Catherine V. 1996. When Byt’ means Have. In Selected Essays of Catherine V. Chvany, Yokoyama, Olga and Emily Klenin (eds.). Columbus: Slavica Publishers, Inc. 29-42. Holvoet, Axel. 2005. Attributive and predicative possession: some cases of ambiguity in Baltic and Slavonic. Zeitschrift für Slawistik. 50. 58-67. Isačenko, Alexander V. 1974. On ‘have’ and ‘be’ languages. A typological sketch. In Slavic Forum. Essays in Linguistics and Literature, Flier, Michael (ed.). The Hague; Paris: Mouton. 43–77. Khodova, K I. 1966. Sintaksis predloga 'oy' s roditel'nym padežom v staroslavjanskom jazyke. Scando-Slavica. 12. 96-114. Merell, Jan. 1956. Bible v českých zemích od nejstarších dob do současnosti. Praha: Česká katolická charita. Mirčev, K. 1971. Predlog 'u' v posessivnoj funkcii v istorii bolgarskogo jazyka. In Issledovanija po slavjanskomu jazykoznaniju: Sbornik v chest' shestidesatiletija prof. S. B. Bernshteina, Češo, E.V. (ed.). Moskva: Nauka. 79-84. Mrázek, Roman. 1963. Datel'nyj padež v staroslavjanskom jazyke. In Issledovanija po sintaksisu staroslovjanskogo jazyka, Kurz, Josef (ed.). Praha: Československá akademie věd. 225-261. Schenker, Alexander M. 1995. The dawn of Slavic : an introduction to Slavic philology. New Haven, [Conn.]: Yale University Press. Stassen, Leon. 2005. Predicative Possession. In The World Atlas of Language Structures, Haspelmath, Martin, Hans-Jorg Bibiko, Jung Hagen and Claudia Schmidt (eds.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.
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