Inhoudsopgave Dankwoord ................................................................................................................ v Abstract ................................................................................................................... vii Korte Samenvatting ................................................................................................. xi Inhoudsopgave ........................................................................................................ xv Afkortingen en symbolen ...................................................................................... xxi Hoofdstuk 1 1.1 1.2 1.3
Inleiding ........................................................................................ 1
Inleiding................................................................................................... 1 Geschiedenis ............................................................................................ 1 Toepassingsgebied ................................................................................... 3
Hoofdstuk 2
Power Quality ............................................................................... 5
2.1 Inleiding................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Power Quality parameters ....................................................................... 5 2.2.1 Effectieve waarde ........................................................................... 5 2.2.2 Belangrijkste Power Quality Parameters ...................................... 6 2.2.3 Vermogendefinities ........................................................................ 7 2.2.4 Het begrip Power Factor ............................................................. 10 2.2.5 Onbalans ...................................................................................... 11 2.2.6 Flikker .......................................................................................... 12 Hoofdstuk 3 3.1 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.3 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.7.1
Fotovoltaïsche technologieën en opbrengst .............................. 15
Inleiding................................................................................................. 15 Elektriciteitsvoorziening ........................................................................ 15 Standaard topologie ..................................................................... 15 Netgekoppelde systemen .............................................................. 16 Autonome systemen ...................................................................... 17 Hybride systemen ......................................................................... 17 Onderdelen van een PV-installatie ........................................................ 18 PV-cel Technologieën ........................................................................... 19 Grondstoffen ................................................................................ 20 Celtypes ........................................................................................ 22 Werkingsprincipe ......................................................................... 26 Invertoren .............................................................................................. 27 Plaatsingssystemen ................................................................................ 29 Overige invloedsfactoren op de opbrengst ............................................ 31 Beschikbaarheid van zonne-energie ............................................ 31
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3.7.2 Weerstandsverliezen .................................................................... 39 3.7.3 Schaduw en vervuiling ................................................................. 40 3.7.4 Instralingsverliezen ...................................................................... 40 3.7.5 Degradatie ................................................................................... 40 3.7.6 Temperatuursverliezen ................................................................. 41 3.8 Beoordelingscriteria .............................................................................. 42 3.8.1 Levensduur ................................................................................... 42 3.8.2 Kost per geïnstalleerd vermogen ................................................. 42 3.8.3 Rendement .................................................................................... 42 3.9 Besluit .................................................................................................... 45 Hoofdstuk 4
Invertor ....................................................................................... 47
4.1 Inleiding................................................................................................. 47 4.2 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)............................................. 47 4.3 AC-vorming........................................................................................... 50 4.4 Topologie............................................................................................... 52 4.4.1 Samenstelling ............................................................................... 53 4.4.2 Spanningsversterking ................................................................... 55 4.4.3 Buscondensator ............................................................................ 56 4.5 Vermogenefficiëntie .............................................................................. 57 4.6 Rendement ............................................................................................. 58 4.7 Bedrijfstemperatuur ............................................................................... 60 4.8 Operationele levensduur ........................................................................ 61 4.9 Anti-islanding ........................................................................................ 62 4.9.1 Passieve detectie .......................................................................... 62 4.9.2 Actieve detectie ............................................................................ 62 4.10 Vermogenkwaliteit ................................................................................ 63 4.10.1 DC-injectie ................................................................................... 63 4.10.2 Harmonischen .............................................................................. 63 4.10.3 Resonantie .................................................................................... 64 4.11 Besluit .................................................................................................... 65 Hoofdstuk 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.5
Netkoppeling ............................................................................... 67
Inleiding................................................................................................. 67 Vermogenoverdracht ............................................................................. 67 Regelstrategieën .................................................................................... 68 Masterspanningsregeling: binnenste regelkring .......................... 68 Slave stroomregeling: buitenste regelkring ................................. 70 Regelstrategie van een driefasige invertor................................... 70 DC-injectie ............................................................................................ 72 Ontstaan van DC-injectie............................................................. 73 Testresultaten ............................................................................... 74 Gevolgen van DC-injectie ............................................................ 76 Besluit .......................................................................................... 80 Harmonische emissie ............................................................................. 81
Inhoudsopgave
5.5.1 5.5.2 5.5.3 5.5.4 5.5.5 Hoofdstuk 6
xvii
Inleiding ....................................................................................... 81 Keuze van de frequentiemodulatie-index. .................................... 82 Harmonische injectie (laagfrequent) ........................................... 82 Harmonische injectie ................................................................... 83 Problemen veroorzaakt door harmonische injectie ..................... 84 Spanningsplan ............................................................................ 91
6.1 Inleiding................................................................................................. 91 6.2 Doelstellingen ........................................................................................ 91 6.3 Spanningsplan ....................................................................................... 92 6.3.1 Zonder injectiepunten .................................................................. 92 6.3.2 Met injectiepunt ........................................................................... 93 6.4 Keuze LS-installatie-onderdelen ........................................................... 94 6.5 Gelijktijdigheid ...................................................................................... 96 6.5.1 Gelijktijdigheid van verbruik ....................................................... 96 6.5.2 Gelijktijdigheid van injectie ......................................................... 97 6.6 Simulatieresultaten ................................................................................ 98 6.6.1 Inleiding ....................................................................................... 98 6.6.2 Perfect symmetrische belasting .................................................... 99 6.6.3 Asymmetrische belasting van residentiële netten ....................... 101 6.7 Sterpuntsverschuiving ten gevolge van injectie ................................... 107 6.7.1 Inleiding ..................................................................................... 107 6.7.2 Invloed van de stroom op de sterpuntsverschuiving .................. 107 6.7.3 Invloed van de kabelsectie ......................................................... 107 6.7.4 Invloed van kabeltype................................................................. 109 6.8 Asymmetrische injectie ....................................................................... 110 6.8.1 Asymmetrische injectie, onbelast ............................................... 110 6.8.2 Asymmetrische injectie: maximaal injecteerbaar vermogen ...... 114 6.8.3 Asymmetrische injectie, asymmetrische belasting...................... 117 6.9 Equivalente injectie ............................................................................. 119 6.10 Belastingsverdeling ............................................................................. 121 6.10.1 Belastingstype ABCABC ............................................................ 121 6.10.2 Belastingstype ABCCBA ............................................................ 123 6.10.3 Besluit ........................................................................................ 125 Hoofdstuk 7
Waarschijnlijkheidscurves ...................................................... 127
7.1 Inleiding............................................................................................... 127 7.2 Tijdsafhankelijke injectiecurves .......................................................... 127 7.2.1 Opstellen van een residentieel belastingsprofiel ........................ 127 7.2.2 Opstellen van een energie-injectieprofiel .................................. 129 7.2.3 Tijdsafhankelijke energie-injectie op het einde van de feeder ... 131 7.2.4 Injectieprofiel, zonder verbruik .................................................. 132 7.2.5 Injectie waarbij de feeder voorzien is van een belastingsprofiel 135 7.2.6 Productieverlies ......................................................................... 139 7.3 Besluit .................................................................................................. 141
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Hoofdstuk 8
Normstudie ............................................................................... 143
8.1 Inleiding............................................................................................... 143 8.2 IEC 61215 & IEC 61646: – Design qualification and type approval .. 144 8.2.1 Inleiding ..................................................................................... 144 8.2.2 Testen volgens de IEC 61215 en de IEC 61646 ......................... 144 8.2.3 Acceptatiecriteria ....................................................................... 146 8.3 IEC61730: Photovoltaic (PV) module safety qualification-Part1: Requirements for construction ........................................................................... 146 8.3.1 Inleiding ..................................................................................... 146 8.3.2 Indeling volgens werkspanning en mogelijk contact .................. 146 8.4 IEC61727, IEEE1547, VDE0126: Photovoltaic (PV) systems – Characteristics of the utility interface ................................................................ 147 8.4.1 Inleiding ..................................................................................... 147 8.4.2 Power quality aspecten .............................................................. 147 8.5 IEC 61400-21: Systems - Part 21: Measurement and Assessment of Power Quality Characteristics of Grid Connected Wind Turbines .................... 149 8.5.1 Inleiding ..................................................................................... 149 8.5.2 Testomstandigheden ................................................................... 150 8.5.3 Acceptatiecriteria ....................................................................... 150 8.6 Technisch document C10/11 ............................................................... 151 8.7 Karakteristieken voor de netspanning: EN50160 ................................ 151 8.7.1 Laagspanningsnetten (<1kV) ..................................................... 152 8.8 Besluit .................................................................................................. 154 Hoofdstuk 9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.3.1 9.3.2 9.3.3 9.4 9.4.1 9.4.2 9.4.3 9.4.4 9.4.5 9.5 9.5.1 9.5.2 9.5.3 9.5.4 9.5.5 9.5.6
Investeringsanalyse .................................................................. 155
Inleiding............................................................................................... 155 Wat is een investering ......................................................................... 155 Manieren van investeren ...................................................................... 156 Eigen investering ....................................................................... 156 Leasing ....................................................................................... 157 Third Party Financing ............................................................... 158 Basisbegrippen in het investeringsproces ............................................ 158 Discontovoet .............................................................................. 159 Tijdswaarde van geld ................................................................. 161 Kasstromen en Free Cash Flow (FCF) ...................................... 162 Het zelfstandigheidprincipe ....................................................... 163 Cash flow patronen .................................................................... 164 Projectkasstroom: deelcomponenten van de Free Cash Flows ............ 164 Uitgebreide methode ter bepaling van de projectkasstroom ...... 165 Verkorte methode ter bepaling van de projectkasstroom ........... 169 De investeringsuitgave ............................................................... 170 Veranderingen in werkkapitaal .................................................. 170 Restwaarde van het project ........................................................ 170 Free cash flow op tijdstip j ......................................................... 171
Inhoudsopgave
xix
9.6 Klassieke fouten bij het bepalen van de relevante cash flow ............... 171 9.6.1 Sunk costs ................................................................................... 171 9.6.2 Personeelskosten ........................................................................ 171 9.6.3 Financieringskosten ................................................................... 172 9.6.4 Opportuniteitkosten.................................................................... 172 9.7 Besluit .................................................................................................. 172 Hoofdstuk 10
Investeringsbeslissingsregels en beoordelingsmethodes ....... 173
10.1 Inleiding............................................................................................... 173 10.1.1 Statische terugverdientijd (static payback period) ..................... 173 10.1.2 Verdisconteerde terugverdientijd (discounted payback period) 174 10.1.3 Gemiddeld rendementsmethode (ARR) ...................................... 175 10.1.4 Netto actuele waarde (NAW, net present value, NPV) ............... 176 10.1.5 Interne rendementsgraad (IRR, internal rate of return) ............ 176 10.1.6 Rentabiliteitsindex (RI) .............................................................. 177 10.2 Toepassingsgebied van de technieken ................................................. 178 10.3 Besluit .................................................................................................. 178 Hoofdstuk 11
Investeringen in fotovoltaïsche zonnecellen ........................... 181
11.1 Inleiding............................................................................................... 181 11.2 Inkomsten ............................................................................................ 181 11.2.1 Verminderde aankoop elektriciteit - Valorisatie PV-stroom ...... 182 11.2.2 Groenestroomcertificaten .......................................................... 188 11.2.3 Besparing CO2 certificaten ........................................................ 188 11.2.4 Bijzondere inkomsten in het jaar van de investering ................. 188 11.3 Uitgaven .............................................................................................. 188 11.3.1 Investeringsuitgave .................................................................... 189 11.3.2 Kosten einde levensduur ............................................................ 193 11.3.3 Kosten voor de aansluiting op het distributienet ....................... 193 11.3.4 Kosten voor onderhoud .............................................................. 194 11.3.5 Verhouding van de kosten .......................................................... 194 11.4 Bepalen van de grootte van de installatie ............................................ 195 11.5 Sensitiviteit van de parameters ............................................................ 196 11.6 Besluit .................................................................................................. 197 Hoofdstuk 12
Steunmaatregelen ..................................................................... 199
12.1 Inleiding............................................................................................... 199 12.2 Algemene steunmaatregelen ................................................................ 199 12.2.1 Inleiding ..................................................................................... 199 12.2.2 Werkingsprincipe groenestroomcertificaten Vlaanderen........... 200 12.3 Sectorspecifieke steunmaatregelen ...................................................... 206 12.3.1 Inleiding ..................................................................................... 206 12.3.2 Industrie ..................................................................................... 206 12.3.3 Landbouw................................................................................... 215 12.3.4 Residentieel ................................................................................ 218
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12.3.5 Overheden .................................................................................. 220 12.4 Samenvattende tabel ............................................................................ 220 12.5 Steunmaatregelen in Brussel en Wallonië ........................................... 222 12.5.1 Inleiding ..................................................................................... 222 12.5.2 Steunmaatregelen in Brussel ...................................................... 222 Steunmaatregelen in Wallonië ...................................................................... 225 12.6 Besluit .................................................................................................. 227 Hoofdstuk 13 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8
Economisch rekenmodel .......................................................... 229
Inleiding............................................................................................... 229 Technische parameters ........................................................................ 229 Investering ........................................................................................... 234 Economische parameters ..................................................................... 235 Premies en steunmaatregelen ............................................................... 235 Berekeningen ....................................................................................... 236 Resultaat .............................................................................................. 239 Besluit .................................................................................................. 240
Hoofdstuk 14
Case study ................................................................................. 241
14.1 Inleiding............................................................................................... 241 14.2 Situering van het bedrijf ...................................................................... 241 14.3 Ontvangen offertes .............................................................................. 242 14.4 Evaluatie berekeningen installateur ..................................................... 243 14.4.1 Berekening opbrengst panelen ................................................... 243 14.4.2 Belastingen................................................................................. 243 14.4.3 Terugverdientijd ......................................................................... 244 14.5 Verschillen in berekening .................................................................... 244 14.6 Evaluatie van de offertes ..................................................................... 244 14.6.1 Inleiding ..................................................................................... 244 14.6.2 Verdeling eigen verbruik - injectie ............................................. 245 14.6.3 Economische evaluatie ............................................................... 248 14.6.4 Sensitiviteit van de parameters .................................................. 249 14.6.5 Besluit sensitiviteitsanalyse ........................................................ 254 14.7 Besluit .................................................................................................. 255 Hoofdstuk 15
Algemeen besluit ...................................................................... 257
Referenties ............................................................................................................. 260
