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11 Supply Chain Management Manajemen Rantai Pasokan M. Eric Johnson M. Eric Johnson David F. Pyke David F. Pyke The Tuck School of Business Tuck the School of Business Dartmouth College Dartmouth College Hanover, NH 03755 Hanover, NH 03755 603 (646) 2136 603 (646) 2136 July 27, 1999 27 Jul 1999 Page 2 Halaman 2 22 Introduction Pendahuluan Supply chain management (SCM) is the term used to describe the management of the flow of Manajemen rantai suplai (SCM) adalah istilah yang digunakan untuk menjelaskan pengelolaan aliran materials, information, and funds across the entire supply chain, from suppliers to component producers material, informasi, dan dana di seluruh rantai suplai, dari pemasok ke produsen komponen to final assemblers to distribution (warehouses and retailers), and ultimately to the consumer. final assemblers ke distribusi (gudang dan pengecer), dan akhirnya ke konsumen. 11 In fact, it Bahkan, ia often includes after-sales service and returns or recycling. sering termasuk layanan purna jual dan kembali atau daur ulang. Figure 1 is a schematic of a supply chain. Gambar 1 adalah skematis dari rantai. In Di contrast to multiechelon inventory management, which coordinates inventories at multiple locations, kontras ke multiechelon inventaris, yang koordinat persediaan di beberapa lokasi, SCM typically involves coordination of information and materials among multiple firms. SCM biasanya melibatkan koordinasi informasi dan bahan-bahan di antara beberapa perusahaan. Supply chain management has generated much interest in recent years for a number of reasons. Manajemen rantai pasokan telah dihasilkan lebih menarik dalam beberapa tahun untuk sejumlah alasan. Many managers now realize that actions taken by one member of the chain can influence the Banyak manajer sekarang menyadari bahwa tindakan yang dilakukan oleh salah satu anggota dari rantai dapat mempengaruhi profitability of all others in the chain. profitabilitas yang lainnya di rantai. 22 Firms are increasingly thinking in terms of competing as part of Perusahaan semakin berpikir dalam hal bersaing sebagai bagian dari
a supply chain against other supply chains, rather than as a single firm against other individual firms. sebuah rantai suplai rantai terhadap lainnya, daripada sebagai satu perusahaan terhadap perusahaan lainnya masing-masing. Also, as firms successfully streamline their own operations, the next opportunity for improvement is Selain itu, sebagai perusahaan berhasil merampingkan operasi mereka sendiri, selanjutnya adalah kesempatan untuk perbaikan through better coordination with their suppliers and customers. melalui koordinasi yang lebih baik dengan pemasok dan pelanggan. The costs of poor coordination can be Biaya koordinasi miskin dapat extremely high. sangat tinggi. In the Italian pasta industry, consumer demand is quite steady throughout the year. Italian pasta dalam industri, permintaan konsumen cukup stabil sepanjang tahun. However, because of trade promotions, volume discounts, long lead times, full-truckload discounts, and Namun, karena perdagangan promosi, diskon volume, panjang kali memimpin, sepenuh truk penuh diskon, dan end-of-quarter sales incentives the orders seen at the manufacturers are highly variable (Hammond akhir dari seperempat insentif penjualan yang terlihat pada pesanan produsen sangat variabel (Hammond (1994)). (1994)). In fact, the variability increases in moving up the supply chain from consumer to grocery store Sebenarnya, variabilitas bergerak atas peningkatan dalam rantai suplai dari konsumen ke toko bahan makanan to distribution center to central warehouse to factory, a phenomenon that is often called the bullwhip distribusi ke pusat ke pusat pabrik ke gudang, sebuah fenomena yang sering disebut bullwhip effect (see Figure 2 as an example). efek (lihat Gambar 2 sebagai contoh). The bullwhip effect has been experienced by many students playing Bullwhip efek yang telah dialami oleh banyak siswa bermain the “Beer Distribution Game.” (Sterman (1989); Sterman (1992); Chen & Samroengraja (2000); Jacobs the "Beer Distribusi permainan." (Sterman (1989); Sterman (1992); Chen & Samroengraja (2000); Jacobs (2000)) The costs of this variability are high -- inefficient use of production and warehouse resources, (2000)) Biaya ini variabilitas yang tinggi - tidak efisien penggunaan sumber daya produksi dan gudang, 11 Much of the material in this article is based on Chapter 12 of Silver, Pyke, & Peterson (1998) and Johnson & Pyke Sebagian besar materi dalam artikel ini didasarkan pada Bab 12 dari Silver, Pyke, & Peterson (1998) dan Johnson & Pyke (2000a). (2000a). Page 3 Page 3 33 high transportation costs, and high inventory costs, to name a few. tingginya biaya transportasi, dan biaya inventori tinggi, untuk beberapa nama. Acer America, Inc. sacrificed $20 Acer America, Inc dikorbankan $ 20
million in profits by paying $10 million for air freight to keep up with surging demand, and then paying juta keuntungan oleh membayar $ 10 juta untuk pengiriman udara untuk bersaing dengan permintaan bergelombang, kemudian membayar $10 million more later when that inventory became obsolete. $ 10 juta lebih yang kemudian, ketika inventarisasi menjadi usang. 33 It seems that integration, long the dream of management gurus, has finally been sinking Nampaknya integrasi, panjang mimpi manajemen ahli telah akhirnya telah tenggelam into the minds of western managers. ke dalam pemikiran dari barat manajer. Some would argue that managers have long been interested Beberapa akan menyatakan bahwa manajer telah lama tertarik in integration, but the lack of information technology made it impossible to implement a more di integrasi, tetapi kurangnya informasi teknologi menjadi mustahil untuk menerapkan lebih “systems-oriented” approach. "Sistem berorientasi" pendekatan. Clearly industrial dynamics researchers dating back to the 1950’s Dinamika industri jelas peneliti dating kembali ke 1950 dari (Forrester (1958); Forrester (1961)) have maintained that supply chains should be viewed as an (Forrester (1958); Forrester (1961)) yang telah diperbarui suplai rantai harus dilihat sebagai integrated system. sistem terpadu. With the recent explosion of inexpensive information technology, it seems Dengan ledakan yang murah dari teknologi informasi, tampaknya only natural that business would become more supply chain focused. alam bisnis yang hanya akan menjadi lebih terfokus rantai. However, while Namun, sementara technology is clearly an enabler of integration, it alone can not explain the radical organizational teknologi jelas sebuah enabler integrasi, ia sendiri tidak dapat menjelaskan organisasi radikal changes in both individual firms and whole industries. perubahan pada kedua individu dan seluruh perusahaan industri. Changes in both technology and Perubahan kedua dan teknologi management theory set the stage for integrated supply chain management. teori manajemen mengatur panggung untuk manajemen rantai pasokan terpadu. One reason for the Salah satu alasan change in management theory is the power shift from manufacturers to retailers. perubahan manajemen teori adalah kuasa beralih dari produsen ke pengecer. Wal-Mart, for Wal-Mart, untuk instance, has forced many manufacturers to improve their management of inventories, and even contoh, telah banyak produsen dipaksa untuk meningkatkan pengelolaan persediaan, dan bahkan to manage inventories of their products at Wal-Mart. untuk mengelola inventaris dari produk mereka di Wal-Mart. While integration, information technology and retail power may be key catalysts in the Sedangkan integrasi, teknologi informasi dan ritel daya mungkin katalis kunci dalam surge of interest surrounding supply chains, eBusiness is fueling even stronger excitement. menggelora kepentingan sekitarnya rantai suplai, eBusiness adalah fueling kegembiraan bahkan lebih kuat. eBusiness facilitates the virtual supply chain, and as companies manage these virtual networks, eBusiness memfasilitasi virtual rantai, dan sebagai perusahaan yang mengelola jaringan virtual ini, the importance of integration is magnified. pentingnya adalah integrasi magnified. Firms like Amazon.com are superb at managing the Perusahaan yang hebat seperti di Amazon.com mengelola
22 Certain industries use other terms in place of SCM. Industri tertentu menggunakan istilah lainnya di tempat SCM. For example, many grocery industry executives are pursuing Misalnya, banyak grocery eksekutif industri yang mengejar efficient consumer response (ECR), the equivalent of just-in-time distribution or “continuous replenishment.” We efisien konsumen Tanggapan (ECR), sama dengan hanya dalam waktu distribusi atau "penambahan terus." Kami consider initiatives such as ECR to be aspects of supply chain management. mempertimbangkan inisiatif seperti ECR yang akan aspek manajemen rantai pasokan. 33 See Business Week (September 30, 1996), pg. Lihat Bisnis Minggu (30 September 1996), pg. 72. 72. See also Towill & DelVecchio (1994); Berry, Naim, & Towill Lihat juga Towill & DelVecchio (1994); Berry, Naim, & Towill (1995); and Buzzell & Ortmeyer (1995). (1995), dan Buzzell & Ortmeyer (1995). Page 4 Halaman 4 44 flow of information and funds, via the Internet and electronic funds transfer. aliran informasi dan dana, melalui internet dan transfer dana elektronik. Now, the challenge Sekarang, tantangan is to efficiently manage the flow of products. adalah untuk secara efisien mengelola aliran produk. Some would argue that the language and metaphors are wrong. Beberapa akan menyatakan bahwa bahasa dan metafor yang salah. “Chains” evoke images of linear, "Chains" menimbulkan gambar yang linear, unchanging, and powerless. unchanging, dan berdaya. “Supply” feels pushy and reeks of mass production rather than mass "Supply" merasa lancang dan reeks of mass produksi daripada massa customization. kustomisasi. Better names, like “demand networks” or “customer driven webs” have been proposed Nama baik, seperti "permintaan jaringan" atau "pelanggan didorong webs" telah diusulkan by many a potential book author hoping to invent a new trend. oleh banyak calon penulis buku berharap untuk menciptakan sebuah tren baru. Yet, for now, the name “supply chain” Namun, untuk saat ini, nama "rantai" seems to have stuck. seolah-olah tidak terjebak. And under any name, the future of supply chain management appears bright. Dan di bawah nama apapun, masa depan manajemen rantai suplai muncul terang. Component Producer (s) Komponen Producer (s) Warehouse Gudang Warehouse Gudang Retail Eceran outlets outlet Customers Pelanggan Outside supplier (s) Pemasok luar (s) Landfill Lokasi penimbunan Final Assembly Final Assembly Figure 1: A Schematic of a Supply Chain Gambar 1: Sebuah skematis dari Supply Chain
Page 5 Page 5 55 Figure 2: An Illustration of the Bullwhip Effect Gambar 2: Sebuah Ilustrasi dari Bullwhip Efek Grocery Store Order Size Units Grocery Store Order Ukuran Unit 200 200 400 400 600 600 800 800 11 33 55 77 99 11 11 Month Bulan Units Unit Distribution Center Order Size Units Pusat distribusi Order Satuan Ukuran 200 200 400 400 600 600 800 800 11 33 55 77 99 11 11 Month Bulan Units Unit Central Warehouse Order Size Units Gudang pusat Order Satuan Ukuran 200 200 300 300 400 400 500 500 600 600 700 700 11 33 55 77 99 11 11 Month Bulan Units Unit
Page 6 Page 6 66 Key Components of Supply Chain Management Komponen utama dari Supply Chain Management Supply chain management is an enormous topic covering multiple disciplines and Manajemen rantai suplai merupakan topik besar yang meliputi berbagai disiplin dan employing many quantitative and qualitative tools. Mempekerjakan banyak alat kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Within the last few years, several textbooks Dalam beberapa tahun terakhir, beberapa buku on supply chain have arrived on the market providing both managerial overviews and detailed pada rantai telah tiba di pasar yang baik dan manajerial overviews rinci technical treatments. teknis perawatan. For examples of managerial introductions to supply chain see Copacino Sebagai contoh Introductions manajerial untuk melihat rantai Copacino (1997), Fine (1998) and Handfield & Nichols (1998), and for logistics texts see Lambert, Stock, (1997), BAGUS (1998) dan Handfield & Nichols (1998), dan logistik untuk melihat teks Lambert, Saham, Ellram, & Stockdale (1997) and Ballou (1998). Ellram, & Stockdale (1997) dan Ballou (1998). For more technical, model-based treatments see Untuk informasi lebih teknis, model perawatan berbasis melihat Silver et al. Perak dkk. (1998) and Simchi-Levi, Kaminsky, & Simchi-Levi (1998). (1998) dan Simchi-Lewi, Kaminsky, & Simchi-Levi (1998). Tayur, Magazine, & Tayur, Majalah, & Ganeshan (1999) is an extensive collection of research papers while Johnson & Pyke (2000b) is Ganeshan (1999) merupakan kumpulan penelitian ekstensif kertas sedangkan Johnson & Pyke (2000b) adalah a collection papers on teaching supply chain management. koleksi kertas pada pengajaran manajemen rantai pasokan. Also, there are several casebooks that Juga, ada beberapa yang casebooks give emphasis to global management issues including Taylor (1997), Flaherty (1996), and memberikan penekanan kepada isu-isu global termasuk manajemen Taylor (1997), Flaherty (1996), dan Dornier, Ernst, Fender, & Kouvelis (1998). Dornier, Ernst, Fender, & Kouvelis (1998). Introductory articles include Cooper, Lambert, & Pendahuluan artikel termasuk Cooper, Lambert, & Pagh (1997b), Davis (1993), Johnson (1998a), and Lee & Billington (1992). Pagh (1997b), Davis (1993), Johnson (1998a), dan Lee & Billington (1992). To help order our discussion, we have divided supply chain management into twelve Untuk membantu agar diskusi kami, kami telah dibagi ke dalam manajemen rantai suplai dua belas areas. daerah. 44 We identified these twelve areas from our own experience teaching and researching Kami mengidentifikasi dua belas daerah ini dari kita sendiri pengalaman mengajar dan meneliti supply chain management, from analysis of syllabi and research papers on supply chain, and manajemen rantai pasokan, dari analisis syllabi penelitian dan karya tulis pada rantai suplai, dan from our discussions with managers. dari diskusi dengan manajer. Each area represents a supply chain issue facing the firm. Setiap daerah merupakan rantai masalah yang dihadapi perusahaan.
For any particular problem or issue, managers may apply analysis or decision support tools. Untuk setiap masalah atau isu tertentu, manajer dapat mendukung keputusan atau analisis alat. For Untuk each of the twelve areas, we provide a brief description of the basic content and refer the reader dua belas masing-masing daerah, kami berikan keterangan singkat dari konten dasar dan merujuk pembaca to a few research papers that apply. untuk beberapa karya penelitian yang berlaku. We also mention likely Operations Research based tools that Kami juga menyebutkan kemungkinan Operasional Penelitian yang berbasis peralatan may aid analysis and decision support. Mei bantuan analisis dan mendukung keputusan. We do not provide an exhaustive review of the research Kami tidak memberikan lengkap review penelitian literature, but rather provide a few references to help the reader get started in an area. sastra, tetapi memberikan beberapa referensi untuk membantu pembaca memulai di suatu daerah. For a more Untuk lebih 44 See Johnson & Pyke (2000a) for a list of teaching cases and popular press articles that fit within each area. Lihat Johnson & Pyke (2000a) untuk daftar pengajaran kasus dan tekan populer artikel yang sesuai dengan masing-masing daerah. Page 7 Page 7 77 detailed review of recent research and teaching in supply chain management see Ganeshan, Jack, rinci terhadap beberapa penelitian dan pengajaran dalam manajemen rantai suplai melihat Ganeshan, Jack, & Magazine (1999) and Johnson & Pyke (2000a) respectively. & Magazine (1999) dan Johnson & Pyke (2000a) masing-masing. The twelve categories we define are Dua belas kategori yang akan kita menetapkan • location • lokasi • transportation and logistics • transportasi dan logistik • inventory and forecasting • inventarisasi dan peramalan • marketing and channel restructuring • pemasaran dan saluran restrukturisasi • sourcing and supplier management • sumber dan manajemen pemasok • information and electronic mediated environments • informasi dan elektronik mediated lingkungan • product design and new product introduction • desain produk dan pengenalan produk baru • service and after sales support • layanan purna jual dan dukungan • reverse logistics and green issues • mundur masalah logistik dan hijau • outsourcing and strategic alliances • outsourcing dan aliansi strategis • metrics and incentives • metrik dan insentif • global issues. • masalah-masalah global. Location pertains to both qualitative and quantitative aspects of facility location Lokasi untuk berhubungan baik aspek kualitatif dan kuantitatif fasilitas lokasi decisions. keputusan. This includes models of facility location, geographic information systems (GIS), Ini termasuk model fasilitas lokasi, sistem informasi geografis (GIS),
country differences, taxes and duties, transportation costs associated with certain locations, and perbedaan negara, dan kewajiban pajak, biaya transportasi yang terkait dengan lokasi tertentu, dan government incentives (Hammond & Kelly (1990)). insentif pemerintah (Hammond & Kelly (1990)). Exchange rate issues fall in this category, Kurs masalah jatuh dalam kategori ini, as do economies and diseconomies of scale and scope. lakukan sebagai ekonomi dan diseconomies skala dan cakupan. Decisions at this level set the physical Keputusan pada tingkat ini mengatur fisik structure of the supply chain and therefore establish constraints for more tactical decisions. struktur rantai suplai dan karena itu kendala untuk membuat keputusan yang lebih taktis. Page 8 Halaman 8 88 Binary integer programming models play a role here, as do simple spreadsheet models and Binary integer programming model berperan di sini, seperti yang dilakukan model sederhana dan spreadsheet qualitative analyses. analisis kualitatif. There are many advanced texts specially dedicated to the modeling aspects Ada banyak lanjutan teks khusus yang didedikasikan untuk pemodelan aspek of location (Drezner (1996)) and most books on logistics also cover the subject. lokasi (Drezner (1996)) dan sebagian besar buku tentang logistik juga mencakup subjek. Simchi-Levi et Lewi Simchi-et al. al. (1998) present a substantial treatment of GIS while Dornier et al. (1998) memberikan banyak perawatan GIS sementara Dornier dkk. (1998) dedicate a chapter to (1998) mendedikasikan sebuah bab ke issues of taxes, duties, exchange rates, and other global location issues (Brush, Maritan, & masalah pajak, bea, nilai tukar, dan lain-lain isu global lokasi (Brush, Maritan, & Karnani (1999)). Karnani (1999)). Ballou & Masters (1999) examine several software products that provide Ballou & Masters (1999) meneliti beberapa produk perangkat lunak yang menyediakan optimization tools for solving industrial location problems. alat optimasi lokasi industri untuk memecahkan masalah. The transportation and logistics category encompasses all issues related to the flow of Transportasi dan logistik kategori meliputi semua isu-isu yang terkait dengan aliran goods through the supply chain, including transportation, warehousing, and material handling. barang melalui rantai suplai, termasuk transportasi, pergudangan, dan penanganan bahan. This category includes many of the current trends in transportation management including Termasuk kategori ini banyak yang sedang tren transportasi manajemen termasuk vehicle routing (Bodin (1990), Gendreau, Laport, & Seguin (1996), and Anily & Bramel (1999)), kendaraan routing (Bodin (1990), Gendreau, Laport, & Seguin (1996), dan Anily & Bramel (1999)), dynamic fleet management with global positioning systems, and merge-in-transit. armada manajemen dinamis dengan global positioning system, dan bergabung dalam transit. Also included Juga disertakan are topics in warehousing and distribution such as cross docking (Kopczak, Lee, & Whang adalah topik di pergudangan dan distribusi seperti lintas perkaitan (Kopczak, Lee, & Whang
(1995)) and materials handling technologies for sorting, storing, and retrieving products (1995)) dan bahan-bahan untuk menangani teknologi penyortiran, menyimpan, dan mengambil produk (Johnson & Brandeau (1999) and Johnson (1998b)). (Johnson & Brandeau (1999) dan Johnson (1998b)). Because of globalization and the spread of outsourced logistics, this category has Karena globalisasi dan penyebaran outsourced logistik, kategori ini memiliki received much attention in recent years. menerima banyak perhatian dalam beberapa tahun terakhir. However, we will define a separate category to examine Namun, kami akan menentukan kategori terpisah untuk memeriksa issues specifically related to outsourcing and logistics alliances. masalah khusus yang terkait dengan outsourcing dan aliansi logistik. Both deterministic (such as Kedua deterministic (seperti linear programming and the traveling salesman problem) and stochastic optimization models linear programming dan pedagang masalah) dan stochastic model optimasi (stochastic routing and transportation models with queueing) often are used here, as are (stochastic routing dan transportasi dengan queueing model) yang sering digunakan di sini, seperti juga spreadsheet models and qualitative analysis. spreadsheet model dan analisis kualitatif. Recent management literature has examined the Manajemen baru sastra yang telah diperiksa changes within the logistics functions of many firms as the result of functional integration (Greis perubahan dalam fungsi logistik banyak perusahaan sebagai hasil dari integrasi fungsional (Greis Page 9 Page 9 99 & Kasarda (1997)) and the role of logistics in gaining competitive advantage (Fuller, O'Conor, & & Kasarda (1997)) dan peran logistik dalam mendapatkan keuntungan kompetitif (Fuller, O'Conor, & Rawlinson (1993)). Rawlinson (1993)). Inventory and forecasting includes traditional inventory and forecasting models. Inventarisasi dan peramalan termasuk tradisional inventarisasi dan model peramalan. Inventory costs are some of the easiest to identify and reduce when attacking supply chain Inventarisasi biaya beberapa termudah untuk mengidentifikasi dan mengurangi ketika menyerang rantai problems. masalah. Simple stochastic inventory models can identify the potential cost savings from, for Stochastic model sederhana inventarisasi dapat mengidentifikasi potensi penghematan biaya dari, untuk example, sharing information with supply chain partners (Lee & Nahmias (1993)), but more contoh, berbagi informasi dengan mitra rantai suplai (Lee & Nahmias (1993)), tetapi lebih complex models are required to coordinate multiple locations. kompleks model diminta untuk mengkoordinasikan beberapa lokasi. A few years ago, multiechelon Beberapa tahun yang lalu, multiechelon inventory theory captured most of the research in this area that would apply to supply chains. inventarisasi teori yang diambil sebagian besar penelitian di daerah ini yang akan diterapkan pada rantai suplai. However, in nearly every case, multiechelon inventory models assume a single decision-maker. Namun, hampir di setiap kasus, multiechelon inventarisasi model menganggap satu keputusan.
Supply chains, unfortunately, confront the problem of multiple firms, each with its own decisionRantai suplai, sayangnya, menghadapi masalah dari beberapa perusahaan, masing-masing memiliki keputusan maker and objectives. maker dan objektif. Of course there are many full texts on the subject such as Silver et al. Tentu saja terdapat banyak penuh teks pada subjek seperti Silver et al. (1998) and Graves, Rinnooy Kan, & Zipkin (1993)). (1998) dan kuburan, Rinnooy Kan, & Zipkin (1993)). Useful managerial articles focusing on Berguna manajerial memfokuskan pada artikel inventory and forecasting include Davis (1993) and Fisher, Hammond, Obermeyer, & Raman inventarisasi dan peramalan termasuk Davis (1993) dan Fisher, Hammond, Obermeyer, & Raman (1994). (1994). Clark & Scarf (1960) perform one of the earliest studies in serial systems with Clark & scarf (1960) melakukan salah satu awal dalam studi serial dengan sistem probabilistic demand. probabilistic permintaan. They introduce the concept of an imputed penalty cost , wherein a shortage Mereka memperkenalkan konsep yang imputed biaya penalti, di mana yang kekurangan at a higher echelon generates an additional cost. pada tingkat eselon menghasilkan biaya tambahan. This cost enables us to decompose the Hal ini memungkinkan kita untuk biaya yang membusuk multiechelon system into a series of stages so that, assuming centralized control and the multiechelon sistem ke dalam serangkaian tahap, sehingga dengan asumsi dan terpusat availability of global information, the ordering policies can be optimized. ketersediaan informasi global, susunan kebijakan dapat dioptimalkan. Lee & Whang (1999a) Lee & Whang (1999a) and Chen (1996) both propose performance measurement schemes for individual managers that dan Chen (1996) mengusulkan dua skema untuk pengukuran kinerja individu manajer yang allow for decentralized control (so that each manager makes decisions independently), and in membolehkan untuk desentralisasi kontrol (sehingga setiap manajer membuat keputusan secara independen), dan dalam certain instances, local information only. beberapa kasus, informasi lokal saja. The result is a solution that achieves the same optimal Hasilnya adalah solusi yang sama mencapai optimal solution as if we assumed centralized control and global information. sebagai solusi jika kita diasumsikan terpusat dan informasi global. Page 10 Page 10 10 10 Marketing and channel restructuring includes fundamental thinking on supply chain Saluran pemasaran dan restrukturisasi mendasar termasuk pemikiran rantai structure (Fisher (1997)) and covers the interface with marketing that emerges from having to struktur (Fisher (1997)) dan mencakup antarmuka dengan pemasaran yang harus muncul dari deal with downstream customers (Narus & Anderson (1996)). hilir menangani pelanggan (Narus & Anderson (1996)). While the inventory category Sedangkan inventarisasi kategori addresses the quantitative side of these relationships, this category covers relationship alamat yang kuantitatif samping hubungan ini, kategori ini meliputi hubungan management, negotiations, and even the legal dimension. manajemen, negosiasi, dan bahkan hukum dimensi. Most importantly, it examines the role Yang terpenting, ia meneliti peran
of channel management (Anderson, Day, & Rangan (1997)) and supply chain structure in light of saluran dari manajemen (Anderson, Hari, & Rangan (1997)) dan rantai struktur dalam terang the well-studied phenomena of the bullwhip effect that was noted in the introduction. sumurfenomena belajar dari bullwhip efek yang tercantum dalam pengenalan. The bullwhip effect has received enormous attention in the research literature. Bullwhip efek yang telah menerima banyak perhatian dalam penelitian sastra. Many authors Banyak penulis have noted that central warehouses are designed to buffer the factory from variability in retail orders. telah mencatat bahwa pusat gudang dirancang untuk penyangga variabilitas dari pabrik di ritel pesanan. The inventory held in these warehouses should allow factories to smooth production while meeting Inventarisasi ini diadakan di gudang harus memberi untuk kelancaran produksi pabrik saat rapat variable customer demand. variabel permintaan pelanggan. However, empirical data suggests that exactly the opposite happens. Namun demikian, data empiris menunjukkan bahwa yang terjadi justru sebaliknya. (See (Lihat for example Blinder (1981), and Baganha & Cohen (1998).) Orders seen at the higher levels of the misalnya pesta mabuk-mabukan (1981), dan Baganha & Cohen (1998).) Orders terlihat di tingkat yang lebih tinggi dari supply chain exhibit more variability than those at levels closer to the customer. rantai pameran variabilitas lebih daripada orang-orang di tingkat lebih dekat kepada pelanggan. In other words, the Dengan kata lain, bullwhip effect is real. bullwhip efek yang nyata. Typically causes include those noted in the introduction, as well as the fact that Biasanya penyebab termasuk orang-orang yang tercantum dalam pendahuluan, serta fakta bahwa retailers and distributors often over-react to shortages by ordering more than they need. distributor dan pengecer sering bereaksi berlebihan untuk kekurangan dengan memesan lebih dari yang mereka butuhkan. Lee, Lee, Padmanabhan, & Whang (1997) show how four rational factors help to create the bullwhip effect: Padmanabhan, & Whang (1997) menunjukkan bagaimana empat faktor rasional membantu menciptakan efek bullwhip: demand signal processing (if demand increases, firms order more in anticipation of further increases, permintaan pemrosesan sinyal (jika permintaan meningkat, perusahaan-perusahaan dalam rangka antisipasi lebih dari lebih meningkat, thereby communicating an artificially high level of demand); the rationing game (there is, or might be, a sehingga berkomunikasi dengan artificially tingginya permintaan); yang pencatuan permainan (ada, atau mungkin, sebuah shortage so a firm orders more than the actual forecast in the hope of receiving a larger share of the kekurangan maka perusahaan pesanan lebih dari yang sebenarnya ramalan dengan harapan untuk menerima porsi yang lebih besar yang items in short supply); order batching (fixed costs at one location lead to batching of orders); and item dalam jangka pendek pasokan); rangka batching (biaya tetap di satu lokasi yang mengakibatkan batching pesanan); dan manufacturer price variations (which encourage bulk orders). produsen variasi harga (yang mendorong massal pesanan). The latter two factors generate large Yang terakhir dua faktor besar menghasilkan
orders that are followed by small orders, which implies increased variability at upstream locations. pesanan yang diikuti oleh pesanan kecil, yang menunjukkan peningkatan variabilitas di hulu lokasi. Page 11 Page 11 11 11 Some recent innovations, such as increased communication about consumer demand, via Beberapa inovasi, seperti meningkatkan komunikasi tentang permintaan konsumen, melalui electronic data interchange (EDI) and the Internet, and everyday low pricing electronic data interchange (EDI) dan Internet, dan setiap hari harga rendah 55 (EDLP) (to (EDLP) (untuk eliminate forward buying of bulk orders), can mitigate the bullwhip effect. menghapuskan maju membeli dari massal pesanan), yang dapat mengurangi efek bullwhip. 66 In fact, the number Bahkan, jumlah of firms ordering, and receiving orders, via EDI and the Internet is exploding. perusahaan memesan, dan menerima pesanan, dan IPUS melalui internet exploding. The information Informasi available to supply chain partners, and the speed with which it is available, has the potential to tersedia untuk mitra rantai suplai, dan dengan kecepatan yang tersedia, memiliki potensi untuk radically reduce inventories and increase customer service. radikal mengurangi inventori dan meningkatkan layanan pelanggan. 77 Other initiatives can also mitigate Prakarsa lainnya dapat juga mengurangi the bullwhip effect. bullwhip yang berlaku. For example, changes in pricing and trade promotions (Buzzell, Quelch, & Misalnya, perubahan dalam perdagangan dan harga promosi (Buzzell, Quelch, & Salmon (1990)) and channel initiatives, such as vendor managed inventory (VMI), coordinated Salmon (1990)) dan saluran inisiatif, seperti vendor dikelola inventaris (VMI), dikoordinasikan forecasting and replenishment (CFAR), and continuous replenishment (Fites (1996), Verity peramalan dan perlengkapan (CFAR), perlengkapan dan kontinyu (Fites (1996), kejujuran (1996), Waller, Johnson, & Davis (1999)), can significantly reduce demand variance. (1996), Waller, Johnson, & Davis (1999)), secara signifikan dapat mengurangi kebutuhan berbeda. Vendor Vendor Managed Inventory is one of the most widely discussed partnering initiatives for improving Inventaris dikelola merupakan salah satu yang paling banyak dibicarakan bermitra inisiatif untuk meningkatkan multi-firm supply chain efficiency. multi-perusahaan rantai efisiensi. Popularized in the late 1980s by Wal-Mart and Procter & Populer pada akhir tahun 1980-an oleh Wal-Mart dan Procter & Gamble, VMI became one of the key programs in the grocery industry's pursuit of “efficient Gamble, VMI menjadi salah satu program utama dalam industri bahan makanan sehari-kejaran dengan "efisien consumer response” and the garment industry's “quick response.” Successful VMI initiatives Tanggapan konsumen "dan industri garmen" cepat. "Berhasil VMI inisiatif
have been trumpeted by other companies in the United States, including Campbell Soup and telah trumpeted oleh perusahaan lain di Amerika Serikat, dan termasuk Campbell Soup Johnson & Johnson, and by European firms like Barilla (the pasta manufacturer). Johnson & Johnson, dan Eropa oleh perusahaan seperti Barilla (pasta dengan produsen). In a VMI partnership, the supplier—usually the manufacturer but sometimes a reseller or VMI dalam kemitraan, pemasok-produsen biasanya tapi kadang-kadang atau reseller distributor—makes the main inventory replenishment decisions for the consuming organization. distributor utama-membuat keputusan untuk inventarisasi perlengkapan yang merupakan organisasi. This means the supplier monitors the buyer's inventory levels (physically or via electronic Ini berarti pemasok memantau tingkat inventaris dari pembeli (fisik atau elektronik melalui 55 See Bell, Ho, & Tang (1998a; Bell, Ho, & Tang (1998b) for a discussion of EDLP versus HighLow pricing. They Lihat Bell, Ho, & Tang (1998a; Bell, Ho, & Tang (1998b) untuk diskusi mengenai EDLP tinggi dibandingkan harga rendah. Mereka show with a simple model that High-Low pricers can charge a higher average price without risking the loss of menunjukkan dengan sederhana model yang tinggi-rendah dapat pricers biaya rata-rata harga yang lebih tinggi tanpa risiko kehilangan rational customers. rasional pelanggan. 66 In addition, Baganha & Cohen (1998) note that, if locations that are designed to buffer the factory from variability Selain itu, Baganha & Cohen (1998) dicatat bahwa, jika lokasi yang dirancang untuk penyangga pabrik dari variabilitas in retail orders follow the optimal policy, the variance can in fact be reduced. pesanan ritel di ikuti optimal kebijakan, yang sebenarnya dapat berbeda akan dikurangi. In particular, these locations should Secara khusus, lokasi tersebut harus account for autocorrelation in the demand process; that is, if a retailer orders today, it is unlikely that she will order account autocorrelation dalam proses permintaan; yang, jika pengecer pesanan hari ini, adalah tidak mungkin bahwa ia akan pesanan in the next few days. dalam beberapa hari berikutnya. See Bourland, Powell, & Pyke (1996); Srinivasan, Kekre, & Mukhopadhyay (1994), and Lee, Lihat Bourland, Powell, & Pyke (1996); Srinivasan, Kekre, & Mukhopadhyay (1994), dan Lee, So, & Tang (1999). Jadi, & Tang (1999). Page 12 Page 12 12 12 messaging) and makes periodic resupply decisions regarding order quantities, shipping, and olahpesan) resupply periodik dan membuat keputusan mengenai jumlah pesanan, pengiriman, dan timing. waktu. Transactions customarily initiated by the buyer (like purchase orders) are initiated by the Transaksi customarily diprakarsai oleh pembeli (seperti pesanan pembelian) yang diprakarsai oleh supplier instead. pemasok instead. Indeed, the purchase order acknowledgment from the supplier may be the first Bahkan, pembelian rangka pengakuan dari pemasok mungkin pertama
indication that a transaction is taking place; an advance shipping notice informs the buyer of indikasi bahwa transaksi yang terjadi adalah; muka yang memberitahu pengiriman pemberitahuan dari pembeli materials in transit. bahan transit. Thus the manufacturer is responsible for both its own inventory and the Dengan demikian, produsen bertanggung jawab untuk kedua sendiri dan inventarisasi inventory stored at is customers' distribution centers (Figure 3). inventarisasi disimpan pada pelanggan adalah 'pusat distribusi (Gambar 3). Mfg-DC Mfg-DC Manufacturer Pabrikan VMI-DC VMI-DC VMI-DC VMI-DC VMI-DC VMI-DC VMI-DC VMI-DC Retail Eceran Retail Eceran Retail Eceran Retail Eceran Retail Eceran 3rd-DC DC-3. Retail Eceran Retail Eceran Retail Eceran Figure 3: Typical VMI implementation (adapted from Waller et al. (1999)). Gambar 3: Typical VMI pelaksanaan (diadaptasi dari Waller dkk. (1999)). Because many of these initiatives involve channel partnerships and distribution agreements, this Karena banyak dari inisiatif ini melibatkan kemitraan dan saluran distribusi perjanjian ini category also contains important information on pricing, along with anti-trust and other legal issues kategori juga berisi informasi penting tentang biaya, bersama dengan anti-kepercayaan dan masalah hukum lainnya 77 See for example Moinzadeh & Aggarwal (1997) and Lee & Whang (1999b). Lihat misalnya Moinzadeh & Aggarwal (1997) dan Lee & Whang (1999b). Milgrom & Roberts (1988) note that Milgrom & Roberts (1988) diketahui bahwa inventory and information are substitutes. inventarisasi dan informasi yang substitutes. Page 13 Halaman 13 13 13 (Train (1998)). (Kereta (1998)). These innovations require interfirm, and often intrafirm, cooperation and coordination Inovasi ini memerlukan interfirm, dan sering intrafirm, kerjasama dan koordinasi that can be difficult to achieve. yang dapat sulit untuk dicapai. While marketing focuses downstream in the supply chain, sourcing and supplier Sementara pemasaran berfokus hilir dalam rantai suplai, sumber dan pemasok
management looks upstream to suppliers. manajemen terlihat hulu ke pemasok. Make/buy decisions (Venkatesan (1992), Carroll Membuat / membeli keputusan (Venkatesan (1992), Carroll (1993), Christensen (1994), Quinn & Hilmer (1994), Kelley (1995), and Robertson & Langlois (1993), Christensen (1994), Quinn & Hilmer (1994), Kelley (1995), dan Robertson & Langlois (1995)) fall into this category, as does global sourcing (Little (1995) and Pyke (1994)). (1995)) jatuh ke dalam kategori ini, demikian sumber global (Little (1995) dan Pyke (1994)). The Itu location category addresses the location of a firm's own facilities, while this category pertains to kategori lokasi alamat lokasi perusahaan sendiri fasilitas, sedangkan untuk kategori ini berhubungan the location of the firm's suppliers. lokasi dari perusahaan dari pemasok. Supplier relationship management falls into this category as Supplier manajemen hubungan termasuk dalam kategori ini sebagai well (McMillan (1990) and Womack, Jones, & Roos (1991)). baik (McMillan (1990) dan Womack, Jones, & Roos (1991)). Some firms are putting part Beberapa perusahaan yang meletakkan bagian specifications on the web so that dozens of suppliers can bid on jobs. spesifikasi di web, sehingga puluhan pemasok dapat tawaran pada pekerjaan. GE, for instance, has GE, misalnya, telah developed a trading process network that allows many more suppliers to bid than was possible mengembangkan jaringan perdagangan yang memungkinkan proses lebih banyak dari pemasok ke tawaran itu mungkin before. sebelum. The automotive assemblers have developed a similar capability; and independent Assemblers otomotif yang telah mengembangkan kemampuan yang sama, dan independen Internet firms, such as Digital Market, are providing services focused on certain product Internet perusahaan, seperti Pasar digital, yang menyediakan layanan difokuskan pada produk tertentu categories. kategori. Other firms are moving in the opposite direction by reducing the number of Lainnya adalah perusahaan yang bergerak dalam arah berlawanan dengan mengurangi jumlah suppliers, in some cases to a sole source (Helper & Sako (1995) and Cusumano & Takeishi pemasok, dalam beberapa kasus menjadi satu-satunya sumber (Helper & Sako (1995) dan Cusumano & Takeishi (1991)). (1991)). Determining the number of suppliers and the best way to structure supplier Menentukan jumlah pemasok dan cara terbaik untuk struktur pemasok relationships is becoming an important topic in supply chains (Cohen & Agrawal (1996), Dyer hubungan menjadi topik yang penting dalam rantai suplai (Cohen & Agrawal (1996), Dyer (1996), Magretta (1998), and Pyke (1998)). (1996), Magretta (1998), dan Pyke (1998)). Much of the research in this area makes use of game theory to understand supplier Sebagian besar penelitian di daerah ini yang menggunakan teori permainan untuk memahami pemasok relationships, contracts, and performance metrics. hubungan, kontrak, dan metrik kinerja. See, for instance, Cachon & Lariviere (1996); Lihat, sebagai contoh, Cachon & Lariviere (1996); Cachon (1997); and Tsay, Hahmias, & Agrawal (1999). Cachon (1997), dan Tsay, Hahmias, & Agrawal (1999). The information and electronic mediated environments category addresses long-standing Informasi elektronik dan lingkungan mediated kategori alamat lama berdiri
applications of information technology to reduce inventory (Woolley (1997)) and the rapidly aplikasi teknologi informasi untuk mengurangi inventaris (Woolley (1997)) dan cepat Page 14 Page 14 14 14 expanding area of electronic commerce (Benjamin & Wigand (1997) and Schonfeld (1998)). memperluas kawasan perdagangan elektronik (Benjamin & Wigand (1997) dan Schonfeld (1998)). Often this subject may take a more systems orientation, examining the role of systems science Seringkali hal ini mungkin memakan waktu yang lebih sistem orientasi, meneliti peran sistem ilmu and information within a supply chain (Senge (1990)). dan informasi dalam suatu rantai suplai (Senge (1990)). Such a discussion naturally focuses Alami seperti diskusi terfokus attention on integrative ERP software such as SAP (Whang, Gilland, & Lee (1995)), Baan and perhatian pada integrative software ERP seperti SAP (Whang, Gilland, & Lee (1995)), dan Baan Oracle, as well as supply chain offerings such as i2's Rhythm and Peoplesoft's Red Pepper. Oracle, serta rantai persembahan seperti i2's Rhythm dan Peoplesoft Red Pepper. The Itu many supply chain changes wrought by electronic commerce are particularly interesting to banyak perubahan rantai tegang oleh elektronik commerce sangat menarik untuk examine, including both the highly publicized retail channel changes (like Amazon.com) and the diperiksa, termasuk sangat baik eceran dipublikasikan saluran perubahan (seperti Amazon.com) dan more substantial business to business innovations (like the GE trading process network). lebih banyak inovasi bisnis ke bisnis (seperti GE proses perdagangan jaringan). It is Ini adalah here that we interface most directly with colleagues in information technology and strategy, disini kita antarmuka yang paling langsung dengan rekan-rekan di bidang teknologi informasi dan strategi, which again creates opportunities for cross-functional integration (Lee & Whang (1999b)). yang kembali menciptakan peluang untuk cross-integrasi fungsional (Lee & Whang (1999b)). Product design and new product introduction deals with design issues for mass Desain produk dan produk baru pengenalan berurusan dengan masalah-masalah desain untuk massa customization, delayed differentiation, modularity and other issues for new product introduction. kustomisasi, tertunda diferensiasi, modularitas dan hal-hal lain untuk pengenalan produk baru. With the increasing supply chain demands of product variety (Gilmore & Pine (1997)) and Dengan semakin meningkatnya permintaan rantai berbagai produk (Gilmore & Pine (1997)) dan customization (McCutcheon, Raturi, & Meredith (1994)), there is an increasing body of research kustomisasi (McCutcheon, Raturi, & Meredith (1994)), terdapat peningkatan badan penelitian available. tersedia. One of the most exciting applications of "supply chain thinking" is the increased use Salah satu aplikasi yang paling menarik dari "rantai berpikir" adalah peningkatan penggunaan of postponed product differentiation (Feitzinger & Lee (1997)). diferensiasi produk yang ditunda (Feitzinger & Lee (1997)). Traditionally, products destined Tradisional, produk yg diperuntukkan for world markets would be customized at the factory to suit local market tastes. untuk pasar dunia akan disesuaikan di pabrik yang sesuai selera pasar lokal. While a Sementara
customized product is desirable, managing worldwide inventory is often a nightmare. disesuaikan produk diinginkan, pengelolaan inventaris di seluruh dunia sering merupakan mimpi. Using Menggunakan postponement the product is redesigned so that it can be customized for local tastes in the pertangguhan produk desain ulang sehingga dapat disesuaikan untuk selera lokal di distribution channel. saluran distribusi. The same generic product is produced at the factory and held throughout Generik yang sama produk yang dihasilkan di pabrik dan diselenggarakan di seluruh the world (Figure 4). dunia (Gambar 4). Thus if the French version selling well, but the German version is not, Dengan demikian jika Perancis menjual versi baik, tetapi bukan versi Jerman, German product can be quickly shipped to France and customized for the French market. Jerman produk dapat dengan cepat dikirim ke Perancis dan disesuaikan untuk pasar Perancis. Page 15 Page 15 15 15 Figure 4: Using postponement a product destined for both US and Europe markets is Gambar 4: Menggunakan produk penangguhan telah untuk kedua Amerika Serikat dan Eropa adalah pasar redesigned so that local content can be added to a common platform within distribution didesain ulang agar konten lokal dapat ditambahkan ke dalam platform umum distribusi (adapted from Johnson & Anderson (1999)). (diadaptasi dari Johnson & Anderson (1999)). Manufacturer Pabrikan 44 33 22 11 US Distribution US Distribusi Europe Distribution Distribusi Eropa 44 33 22 11 44 33 22 11 Product Platform Produk Platform Multiple SKUs - Beberapa SKUs -Customers Pelanggan Customers Pelanggan at DC di DC Manufacturer Pabrikan US Distribution US Distribusi Europe Distribution Distribusi Eropa 44 33
22 11 44 33 22 11 Customers Pelanggan Customers Pelanggan 44 33 22 11 44 33 22 11 Page 16 Halaman 16 16 16 For these problems, we find an interface with engineering and development, with clear Untuk masalah ini, kami menemukan sebuah antarmuka dengan teknik dan pembangunan, dengan jelas implications for product cost and inventory savings. implikasi biaya untuk produk tabungan dan inventarisasi. Stochastic inventory models are often used Stochastic inventarisasi model sering digunakan to identify some of the benefits of these initiatives (Lee, Billington, & Carter (1993)). untuk mengidentifikasi beberapa manfaat dari inisiatif ini (Lee, Billington, & Carter (1993)). Also Juga important are issues related to product design (Ulrich & Ellison (1999) and Robertson & Ulrich penting adalah masalah-masalah yang berkaitan dengan desain produk (Ulrich & Ellison (1999) dan Robertson & Ulrich (1998)), managing product variety (Fisher, Ramdas, & Ulrich (1999)) and managing new (1998)), pengelolaan berbagai produk (Fisher, Ramdas, & Ulrich (1999)) dan pengelolaan baru product introduction and product rollover (Billington, Lee, & Tang (1998)). pengenalan produk dan produk Gulirkan (Billington, Lee, & Tang (1998)). The service and after sales support category addresses the critical, but often overlooked, Layanan dan dukungan purna jual kategori alamat penting, tetapi lebih sering, problem of providing service and service parts (Cohen & Lee (1990)). masalah penyediaan layanan dan layanan bagian (Cohen & Lee (1990)). Some leading firms, such Beberapa perusahaan terkemuka, seperti as Saturn and Caterpillar, build their reputations on their ability in this area, and this capability sebagai Saturn dan Caterpillar, membangun reputasi pada kemampuan mereka di daerah ini, dan kemampuan generates significant sales (Cohen, Zheng, & Agrawal (1997)). menghasilkan penjualan signifikan (Cohen, Zheng, & Agrawal (1997)). Stochastic inventory models for Stochastic model untuk inventarisasi
slow-moving items fall into this category, and there are many papers on this topic related to slow-moving item jatuh ke dalam kategori ini, dan banyak karya tulis pada topik ini terkait dengan inventory management (Williams (1984); Cohen, Kleindorfer, & Lee (1986)) and forecasting manajemen inventaris (Williams (1984); Cohen, Kleindorfer, & Lee (1986)) dan peramalan (Johnston & Boylan (1996)). (Johnston & Boylan (1996)). While industry practice still shows much room for improvement Sedangkan industri prakteknya masih banyak ruang untuk menunjukkan peningkatan (Cohen et al. (1997)), several well-known firms have shown how spare parts can be managed (Cohen et al. (1997)), dikenal beberapa perusahaan telah menunjukkan bagaimana suku cadang dapat dikelola more effectively (Cohen, Kamesam, Kleindorfer, Lee, & Tekerian (1990); Cohen, Kleindorfer, lebih efektif (Cohen, Kamesam, Kleindorfer, Lee, & Tekerian (1990); Cohen, Kleindorfer, & Lee (1992); and Cohen, Zheng, & Wang (1999)). & Lee (1992), dan Cohen, Zheng, & Wang (1999)). Reverse logistics and green issues are emerging dimensions of supply chain management Reverse masalah logistik dan hijau yang muncul dari dimensi manajemen rantai suplai (Marien (1998)). (Marien (1998)). This area examines both environmental issues (Herzlinger (1994) and the Daerah ini memeriksa kedua isu lingkungan (Herzlinger (1994) dan reverse logistics issues of product returns (Padmanabhan & Png (1995), Clendenin (1997), and reverse logistik isu produk kembali (padmanabhan & PNG (1995), Clendenin (1997), dan Rudi & Pyke (1998)). Rudi & Pyke (1998)). Because of legislation and consumer pressure, the growing importance of Karena tekanan konsumen dan undang-undang, yang berkembang pentingnya these issues is evident to most managers. hal-hal ini sangat nyata untuk kebanyakan manajer. Managers are being compelled to consider the most Sedang manajer harus mempertimbangkan paling efficient and environmentally friendly way to deal with product recovery, and researchers have efisien dan ramah lingkungan cara untuk menangani produk pemulihan, dan peneliti telah begun significant effort in modeling these systems. mulai signifikan dalam upaya pemodelan sistem ini. Page 17 Halaman 17 17 17 The term “product recovery” encompasses the handling of all used and discarded products, Istilah "produk pemulihan" penanganan meliputi semua produk yang digunakan dan dibuang, components and materials. komponen dan bahan-bahan. Thierry, Salomon, Van Nunen, & Van Wassenhove (1995) note that product Thierry, Salomon, Van Nunen, & Van Wassenhove (1995) dicatat bahwa produk recovery management attempts to recover as much economic value as possible, while reducing the total manajemen upaya pemulihan kembali ke nilai ekonomis sebesar mungkin, sementara mengurangi total amount of waste. jumlah sampah. They also provide a framework and a set of definitions that can help managers think Mereka juga menyediakan sebuah kerangka kerja dan satu set definisi yang dapat membantu para manajer berpikir
about the issues in an organized way (see Figure 5). tentang masalah yang disusun dalam suatu cara (lihat Gambar 5). These authors examine the differences among Ini penulis meneliti perbedaan antara various product recovery options including repair, refurbishing, remanufacturing, cannibalization, and berbagai produk pilihan pemulihan termasuk perbaikan, refurbishing, remanufacturing, cannibalization, dan recycling. daur ulang. The whole process of manufacturing begins, of course, with product design. Seluruh proses produksi dimulai, tentu saja, dengan desain produk. Today, firms Saat ini, perusahaan are beginning to consider design for the environment (DFE) and design for disassembly (DFD) in their adalah untuk mempertimbangkan desain awal bagi lingkungan (DFE) dan desain untuk disassembly (DFD) dalam product development processes. proses pengembangan produk. Unfortunately, AT&T discovered that designing products for reuse can Sayangnya, AT & T menemukan bahwa merancang produk untuk dapat kembali result in more materials and complexity, thereby violating other environmental goals. menghasilkan lebih banyak bahan dan kerumitan, sehingga tujuan melanggar lingkungan hidup lainnya. (See Frankel (Lihat Frankel (1996), who also reports on product takeback and recycling initiatives in numerous countries.) (1996), yang juga laporan tentang produk takeback dan inisiatif daur ulang di sejumlah negara.) Raw Mentah Materials Bahan Parts Bagian Fabrication Pembikinan Modules Modul Subassembly Subassembly Product Produk Assembly Majelis Distribution Distribusi Users User Recycle Recycle Cannibalize Mencopoti Remanufacture Remanufacture Refurbish Membarui lagi Repair Perbaikan Reuse Kembali Landfill Lokasi penimbunan Figure 5: Product Recovery Options (adapted from Thierry et al. (1995)). Gambar 5: Pilihan Produk Pemulihan (diadaptasi dari Thierry dkk. (1995)). The analysis of the recovery situation is considerably more complicated than that of Analisis pemulihan situasi yang sangat lebih rumit daripada yang consumables. habis. Normally, in a recovery situation some items cannot be recovered, so the number of units Biasanya, dalam situasi pemulihan beberapa item tidak dapat dipulihkan, sehingga jumlah unit
demanded is not balanced completely by the return of reusable units. menuntut tidak seimbang sepenuhnya oleh kedatangan reusable unit. Thus, in addition to recovered Dengan demikian, selain untuk kembali units, a firm must also purchase some new units from time to time. unit, perusahaan juga harus membeli beberapa unit baru dari waktu ke waktu. Consequently, even at a single Akibatnya, bahkan di satu location, there are five decision variables: (1) how often to review the stock status, (2) when to recover lokasi, ada lima keputusan variabel: (1) seberapa sering untuk meninjau stok status, (2) ketika kembali ke Page 18 Halaman 18 18 18 returned units, (3) how many to recover at a time, (4) when to order new units, and (5) how many to kembali unit, (3) berapa memulihkan sekaligus, (4) bila pesan baru unit, dan (5) berapa untuk order. urutan. When there are multiple locations, the firm must decide how many good units to deploy to a Ketika ada beberapa lokasi, perusahaan harus memutuskan berapa banyak yang baik untuk menyebar ke unit yang central warehouse, and how many to deploy to each retailer or field stocking location. gudang pusat, dan berapa banyak digunakan untuk setiap toko atau bidang stoking lokasi. With consumable items the lead time to the retailers is a transportation time from the warehouse Dengan barang-barang konsumsi yang mengarah ke pengecer waktu adalah waktu transportasi dari gudang plus a random component, depending on whether the warehouse has stock. plus acak komponen, tergantung pada apakah gudang memiliki stok. With recoverable items, the Dengan kembali item, maka lead time is the transportation time plus the time to recovery, if the warehouse does not have stock. memimpin waktu adalah transportasi waktu plus waktu untuk pemulihan, jika gudang tidak ada stok. So Sehingga in some cases the two systems can be treated in almost the same way. dalam beberapa kasus kedua sistem dapat dirawat di hampir dengan cara yang sama. However, if the recovery facility Namun, jika fasilitas pemulihan has limited capacity, or if the number of items in the system is small, the systems will differ memiliki kapasitas terbatas, atau jika jumlah item dalam sistem kecil, sistem akan berbeda significantly. signifikan. For example, if many items have failed and are now in recovery, they cannot be in the Misalnya, jika banyak item telah gagal dan sekarang sedang dalam pemulihan, mereka tidak dapat di field generating failures. lapangan menghasilkan kegagalan. Therefore, the demand rate at the warehouse will decline. Oleh karena itu, tingkat permintaan di gudang akan menurun. In a consumable Dalam konsumsi system, it is usually assumed that the demand rate does not depend on how many items have been sistem, biasanya diasumsikan bahwa permintaan menilai tidak tergantung pada berapa banyak item telah consumed. dikonsumsi. Most of the research in this area relevant to this article concerns products and packaging after Sebagian besar penelitian di daerah ini yang relevan dengan artikel ini keprihatinan dan kemasan produk setelah
manufacturing has been completed. manufaktur telah selesai. For example, a large US chemical company gained significant Sebagai contoh, sebuah perusahaan besar AS kimia signifikan ikut serta market share in water treatment chemicals by delivering its products in reusable containers. pangsa pasar di dalam air memberikan perawatan kimia oleh produk-produknya di reusable kontainer. The Itu customers (hospitals and other large institutions, for example) need never touch the chemicals or deal pelanggan (rumah sakit dan lembaga-lembaga besar lainnya, misalnya) tidak perlu menyentuh atau menangani bahan kimia with the disposal of used containers. dengan pembuangan yang digunakan kontainer. This problem has been addressed by Goh & Varaprasad (1986); Masalah ini telah dialamatkan oleh Goh & Varaprasad (1986); Kelle & Silver (1989); and Castillo & Cochran (1996), among others. Kelle & Silver (1989), dan Castillo & Cochran (1996), antara lain. Some products that are not reused as is can be disassembled so that some of the parts can be used Beberapa produk yang tidak reused seperti dapat disassembled sehingga beberapa bagian dapat digunakan in remanufactured products. dalam produk-produk remanufactured. Muckstadt & Isaac (1981) report on a model developed in connection with Muckstadt & Ishak (1981) lapor pada model yang dikembangkan dalam kaitannya dengan a manufacturer of reprographic equipment. sebuah produsen reprographic peralatan. There is a single location with two types of inventory: Ada satu lokasi dengan dua jenis persediaan: serviceable and repairable. tahan lama dan dpt. Demands for serviceable units and returns of repairable units occur Tuntutan kuat dan kembali dari unit unit dpt terjadi probabilistically, specifically, according to independent Poisson processes with rates D and fD , probabilistically, secara khusus, sesuai dengan proses Poisson independen dengan harga D dan fd, respectively (where f is a fraction). masing-masing (di mana f adalah pecahan). In addition, repairs are done on a continuous, first come-first served Selain itu, perbaikan dilakukan pada sebuah, pertama datang-pertama dilayani basis (for example, at a local machine shop). dasar (misalnya, di toko komputer lokal). Any demands for serviceable units, when none is Setiap tuntutan kuat unit, bila tidak ada yang available, are backordered at a cost per unit short per unit time. tersedia, yang di backordered biaya per unit per unit waktu singkat. Purchases of new stock from outside Pembelian saham baru dari luar Page 19 Halaman 19 19 19 involve a known lead time. melibatkan waktu yang dikenal memimpin. With respect to purchase decisions, a continuous review ( s , Q ) system is Sehubungan dengan keputusan pembelian, yang terus meninjau (s, T) adalah sistem used; specifically, when the inventory position drops to s or lower, a quantity Q is purchased. digunakan; khusus, ketika turun ke posisi inventaris s atau lebih rendah, T adalah sebuah kuantitas yang dibeli. Inderfurth (1997) extends the Muckstadt & Isaac model to a remanufacturing problem in which Inderfurth (1997) yang meluas Muckstadt & Ishak model ke remanufacturing masalah di mana
there are two decisions each period: how many returned products to remanufacture (the remainder will terdapat dua periode setiap keputusan: berapa banyak produk yang dikembalikan ke remanufacture (sisanya akan be disposed of), and how many new parts to procure. akan dibuang dari), dan berapa bagian untuk memperoleh. In this system, returned products arrive Dalam sistem ini, tiba kembali produk probabilistically and are either remanufactured or thrown away. probabilistically baik dan remanufactured atau dibuang. (In other words, there is no stock of (Dengan kata lain, tidak ada stok returned products.) Newly procured products are stored with remanufactured products in a finished kembali produk.) baru membeli produk disimpan dengan produk remanufactured dalam selesai goods inventory that serves demand that arrives probabilistically. barang inventaris yang melayani permintaan yang datang probabilistically. There are per-unit costs to procure, Ada perunit biaya untuk memperoleh, remanufacture, and dispose, and holding costs are charged against ending inventory each period. remanufacture, dan buang, terus biaya yang dikenakan terhadap setiap periode yang berakhir inventarisasi. For the Untuk case of equal lead times to remanufacture and to procure, Inderfurth shows that the structure of the kasus sama kali mengarah ke remanufacture dan mendapati, Inderfurth menunjukkan bahwa struktur optimal policy is based on two parameters, L optimal kebijakan didasarkan pada dua parameter, L tt and U dan U tt , in each period t . , Dalam setiap periode t. To describe the policy, we need Menggambarkan kebijakan, kita perlu some notation: beberapa notasi: dd tt = the number of units to be disposed of in period t = Jumlah unit yang akan dibuang dalam periode t pp tt = the number of units to procure in period t = Jumlah unit untuk memperoleh dalam waktu t IP IP tt = the inventory position at the beginning of period t = stock on hand (which includes = Inventarisasi posisi pada awal periode t = stok di tangan (yang termasuk products returned this period and finished goods inventory) + procurement orders outstanding + produk kembali periode ini selesai dan barang inventaris) + pengadaan + pesanan beredar remanufacturing orders outstanding – backordered demand remanufacturing pesanan beredar backordered permintaan The optimal policy is then: Yang optimal kebijakan ini kemudian: pp
tt =LL= tt – IP - IP tt and d dan d tt = 0 for IP = 0 untuk IP tt < L
= IP > = IP tt <= U <= U tt ;; pp tt = 0 and d = 0 dan d tt = IP IP = tt –U-U tt for IP untuk IP tt >U>U tt In words, if the inventory position is lower than the lower limit, L Dalam kata-kata, jika inventarisasi posisi lebih rendah daripada batas rendah, L tt , order-up-to L , Pesanan-up-to L tt and do not dan tidak dispose of any units. buang setiap unit. If the inventory position is higher than the upper limit, U Jika inventarisasi posisi yang lebih tinggi daripada batas atas, U tt , dispose “down to” U , Buang "ke bawah" U tt
and do not procure any units. dan tidak menimbulkan salah unit. Otherwise, do not buy or dispose. Jika tidak, jangan membeli atau buang. (Again, all returned units, not disposed (Lagilagi, semua kembali unit, tidak bersedia Page 20 Page 20 20 20 of, are remanufactured.) Inderfurth points out that when one permits a stock of returned units waiting dari yang remanufactured.) Inderfurth menunjukkan bahwa bila kita mengizinkan stok unit kembali menunggu for disposal or remanufacturing, or when the lead times to procure and remanufacture are different, the untuk pembuangan atau remanufacturing, atau ketika memimpin kali untuk mendapatkan dan remanufacture berbeda, yang policy is similar but more complex. kebijakan yang serupa tapi lebih kompleks. van der Laan, Dekker, Salomon, & Ridder (1996) propose a policy for a continuous review van der Laan, Dekker, Salomon, & Ridder (1996) mengusulkan sebuah kebijakan untuk terus meninjau version of this problem. versi masalah ini. Thierry et al. Thierry et al. (1995) looks at the strategic issues related to product recovery. (1995) terlihat pada isu strategis yang berkaitan dengan produk pemulihan. See also Heyman (1977); Penev & de Ron (1996) who study the disassembly process, and van der Laan Lihat juga Heyman (1977); Penev & Ron de (1996) yang mempelajari proses disassembly, dan van der Laan et al. dkk. (1996), van der Laan, Salomon, & Dekker (1997); van der Laan, Salomon, & Dekker (1999); (1996), van der Laan, Salomon, & Dekker (1997); van der Laan, Salomon, & Dekker (1999); Ferrer (1995); Richter (1996); Guide & Spencer (1997); and Taleb, Gupta, & Brennan (1997) who study Ferrer (1995); Richter (1996); Panduan & Spencer (1997), dan Taleb, Gupta, & Brennan (1997) yang belajar other aspects of the remanufacturing process. aspek-aspek lain dari proses remanufacturing. Other reverse logistics issues are also examined by Carter Reverse masalah logistik lainnya juga diperiksa oleh Carter & Ellram (1998). & Ellram (1998). Fleischmann et al. Fleischmann dkk. (1997) provide a review of quantitative models for reverse (1997) memberikan tinjauan kuantitatif model untuk mundur logistics. logistik. Outsourcing and strategic alliances examines the supply chain impact of outsourcing Outsourcing dan aliansi strategis memeriksa rantai suplai dampak outsourcing logistics services . jasa logistik. With the rapid growth in third party logistics providers, there is a large and Dengan pesatnya pertumbuhan di pihak ketiga penyedia logistik, ada yang besar dan expanding group of technologies and services to be examined. memperluas kelompok teknologi dan layanan untuk diperiksa. These include fascinating Ini termasuk menarik initiatives such as supplier hubs managed by third parties. The rush to create strategic relationships with logistics providers and the many well-published failures have raised questions about the future of such relationships. (See Bowersox (1990), (1998).) In any case, outsourcing continues to raise many interesting issues (Cooper, Ellram, Gardner, & Hanks (1997a)). Metrics and incentives examines measurement and other organizational and economic
issues. masalah. This category includes both measurement within the supply chain (Meyer (1997)) and industry benchmarking ((1994), (1997)). Because metrics are fundamental to business management, there are many reading materials outside of the supply chain literature, including accounting texts for instance. Several recent articles concentrate on the link between Page 21 Page 21 21 21 performance measurement and supply chain improvement (O'Laughlin (1997), Johnson & Davis (1998)). Finally, global issues examines how all of the above categories are affected when companies operate in multiple countries. This category goes beyond country specific issues, to encompass issues related to crossboarder distribution and sourcing (Kouvelis (1999)). For Untuk example, currency exchange rates, duties & taxes, freight forwarding, customs issues, government regulation, and country comparisons are all included. Note that the location category, when applied in a global context, also addresses some of these issues. (Cohen & Huchzermeier (1999)and Huchzermeier & Cohen (1996); Arntzen, Brown, Harrison, & Trafton (1995).) As we mentioned earlier, there are several texts devoted to global management. Many Banyak recent articles also examine challenges in specific regions of the world (for example, Asia -- Lee & Kopczak (1997) or Europe -- Sharman (1997)). Conclusion Kesimpulan Supply chain management is an exploding field, both in research and in practice. Major Besar international consulting firms have developed large practices in the supply chain field, and the number of research papers in the field is growing rapidly. Our treatment covered twelve areas often seen in supply chain research and practice. These areas appear to be somewhat disparate, but they are all linked by the integrated nature of the problems at hand. Firms operate in global environments, deal with multiple suppliers and customers, are required to manage inventories in new and innovative ways, and are faced with possible channel restructuring. The field promises to continue growing as the research advances and as firms continue to apply new knowledge in their global networks. Finally, as the Internet changes fundamental assumptions about business, Page 22 Halaman 22 22 22 firms operating in supply chains will be required to understand this new phenomenon and respond accordingly. References Referensi (1994). (1994). Integrated-supply-chain performance measurement. Council of Logistics Management Consortium, October . (1997). (1997). The keys to unlocking your supply chain's competitive advantage. Pittiglio Rabin Todd & McGrath . (1998). (1998). What is the future of third-party logistics. Supply Chain Management Review . Anderson, E., Day, GS, & Rangan, VK (1997). Strategic Channel Design. Sloan Management Review (Summer), 59-69.
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