ARCHITECTURE IN THE ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION: MUSLIM BUILDING OR ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

ARCHITECTURE IN THE ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION: MUSLIM BUILDING OR ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE Ayat Ali Yassin

Architecture Department, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment UniversitiKebangsaan Malaysia (The National University of Malaysia) UKM-Bangi, 43600, Selangor

Dr. NangkulaUtaberta

Architecture Department, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment UniversitiKebangsaan Malaysia (The National University of Malaysia) UKM-Bangi, 43600, Selangor

Abstract The main problem of the theory in the arena of islamic architecture is affected by some of its Western thoughts, and stereotyping the islamic architecture according to Western thoughts; this leads to the breakdown of the foundations in the islamic architecture. It is a myth that islamic architecture is subjected to the influence from foreign architectures. This paper will highlight the dialectical concept of islamic architecture or muslim buildings and the areas of recognition in islamic architecture. It will also widen the knowledge in the characteristics of each point in time according to the stages of islamic architecture from the prophetic age moving through the architecture outside the city of Medina, the Caliphs, the Umayyad, Abbasid, and architectural models by spatial and time periods, taking Iraq as the example to explain how the Islam influents on architecture and vice versa. Keywords: Islamic Architecture

Abstrak Masalah utama pada teori arsitektur islam dipengaruhi oleh beberapa pemikiran barat, dan stereotype arsitektur islam yang mengacu kepada pemikiran barat; Hal ini mengantarkan kepada pecahnya pondasi arsitektur islam. Pernyataan bahwa arsitektur islam bersubyek pada pengaruh arsitektur luar merupakan mitos belaka. Makalah ini akan memaparkan konsep dialek dari arsitektur islam atau bangunan muslim dan daerah yang terkenal dengan arsitektur islam. Selain itu juga memaparkan masa perpindahan kenabian melalui arsitektur di luar Kota Madinah, Khalifah, Umayah, dan Abbasiyah, serta model arsitektural dengan periode ruang dan waktu, mengambil Irak sebagai contoh untuk menjelaskan pengaruh islam pada arsitektur dan sebaliknya. Kata kunci: Arsitektur Islam

Introduction The islamic architecture is not determined, it is not standards and forms, not limited to patterns applied in countries conquered by the Muslims. The more we understand about its architecture, it is recognized that the islamic content is created to establish the building character with a distinct identity. The relation of time and place differs within the architectures created in various Muslim countries. Despite the diversity of solutions, the original feature and the similarity of the surrounding environment weather, construction materials and designer thought are maintained. What distinguishes them is that they bear features consistent with the requirements of rights and

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traditions and the environment in which they live in. These are perfect solutions to their needs. However, they are characterized by Islamic architecture and Islamic art in general, therefore with any common unit collected ,we can identify any piece produced under the Islamic civilization in any country from the Muslim world. Perhaps this is the secret of the superiority of Islamic civilization and artistic ability to paint art products in all countries- there will always be one distinct character of each country. There are different definitions on the term Islamic architecture or Muslim architecture, but in general the concept of Islamic architecture refers to the characteristic of building used by Muslims to serve as their identity1. The creation of this

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architecture dates back to Islam and in areas where it arrived as the Arabian Peninsula, Egypt, the Levant, Arab Maghreb, Turkey, Iran, and others; those under prolonged Islamic rule such as Andalus (Spain now) and India. The Islamic architecture and characteristic singled mainly from the Islamic region and scientific renaissance that followed. They vary from region to region according to climate, architectural, and cultural heritage in the former region, where the spread of open courtyard in the Levant, Iraq, and the Arabian Peninsula2 disappeared while the architecture in Turkey is a result of weather condition, in Yemen is due to the architectural heritage3.

Related Work Many researchers have focused mainly on the islamic architecture and the different terms that were used in the building of Islamic civilization. These differences have raised several questions, which we will attempt to answer them4: Do the islamic civilization develop their own architecture or is it the result of the regional building models evolution which extends its roots to the heritage of those cultures? We find that Lame–Pooles5 used the term architecture in his Alsarasinah book (Hanbook of Sarascenic Art) and the origins of this term from the ancient Greek was also used by Ptolemy. Martin S. Briggs6 used the term Mohammedan architecture in his book (Mohammed an architecture in Egypt and Palestine), Arabic architecture (Arabs), Arab architecture: because of the overlap between Islam and the Arabs. Gostaph Lepon7, who wrote the book Civilization of the Arabs included all their productions and the architectural but was criticized by Lan Poulis, Spears, Ferguson, and Rifuera for determining the Arabism just by including people who live in the Arab and Peninsula, from Morocco to Iraq. The abolition of the Persians architecture, Indians, Chinese and others (Moorish architecture) which was used by the Spaniards8 on the Moroccans, then to Muslims specifically, and expanded to call for all the Muslims from the Philippines and the Pacific Islands. Architect Raaft Chadderchi9 defined the term islamic architecture as the cultural formulas more than it is religious, a term that is inappropriate and contradictory, and there was no unity in design between different environments. However, Turkish (Spirochristov)10, denied the existence of architecture associated with Islam and considered the product of an architect is in pace with the product of the countries that came after solutions of Islam in all parts of the world .Architect Hassan Fathy stated11 (the movement of the hands of the designer does not come from the mind only, but about feeling, spirit and creativity of the designer fingers, it is the creativity of the sprit), so the term Islamic architecture is the most widely accepted because it is comprehensive of all this creativity which is spiritual, not physical tangible. Architect Abdel Baki Ibrahim12 believed that the term launched by islamic architecture and the Orientalists linked the religious aspect of this term

and the term Muslim building gives a deeper understanding because it connects architecture and environmental psychotropic economic rules. Some theorists who believe that the term islamic architecture or islamic building are linked to islamic rulings fixed in Islamic law, and the term urbanization of Muslims shall be outside the framework of Islamic law. This means that the architecture with the values of ‘use’ where each building used by the Muslims is taken as their architecture. It is clear that what is produced by a civilization dominated by Islamic culture, which was formed through the interaction of elements of this culture (religion, art, literature and society) and the building used by Muslims (for example the members of the Muslim community using houses in European cities) must we call it "the Muslims Building"? It does not take into account to any Islamic element. This confusion between what is functional (shared by various human cultures)and what is cultural and stems from the privacy of its techniques and composition of the spatial and aesthetics originated from this culture, thus rejected the term "architecture Muslims" only when referred to the architecture of everyday life that are formed as a result of the culture of Muslim daily with its own specificity, without doubt, but this architecture cannot be relied upon to record the Islamic cultural.

Architecture in the Islamic Civilization The reduction of architecture that evolved in the Islamic civilization in one term is the underestimation of civilization and cultural achievement produced by the islamic civilization. The only decoration and adornment configuration is a complete deviation from the cultural depth provided by the islamic civilization. The use of the term “architecture in the Islamic civilization” as a general framework, while likely to use the term special care of the maintenance of each historical period on the unit such as “Architecture of Islam” or “Architecture Umayyad Early” of “Architecture Abbasid” as well as we can in this regard, looking deeply and in detail in the buildings’ differing features that arose over the islamic civilization: geographical and temporal differences between them are models of architecture in different regions of the Islamic call to reach a comprehensive and logical point to islamic architecture.

Islamic styles and reflection on architecture in Iraq Iraq had a great role in the prosperity of the Arab Islamic civilization that has placed it among the countries of the world. Arab-islamic civilization grew in Iraq in the Abbasid era, and quickly evolved and expanded its facilities. Various researchers tend to believe that the reason behind the fact is that Iraq has the background of an advanced

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civilization. This is reflected in the mosques that were centers of radiation science that have renewed and expanded famous cities Baghdad, Basra, Kufa, Mosul, and other Iraq cities. They have also flourished the life and many religious and civic buildings and reflected the buildings and islamic arts in the Islamic nation; in Iraq in particular. Intellectuality and creativity are to be adopted by the designer in the Muslim architectural planning and decoration, commensurate with the greatness of the heavenly message. The real development of islamic civilization did not start only after the people of ancient civilizations such as the Iraqis, Egyptian, Persians, and others converted to Islam. Religion becomes a source of excellence, and integrated into the craft and creative architecture with Islamic values to reflect the Islamic architecture. There is no doubt that islamic architecture has inherited many experiences from ancient civilizations preceding them, like that of other stages of development prior to starting a new phase. They have their own methods and types of buildings, new and distinctive, as well as their methods of construction that distinguish them, as well as decorative elements and aesthetic, and thus the birth of the distinctive Iraqi islamic style.

Figure 2. Quba Mosque

In Iraq, we can see very little changes in the Prophet buildings. The changes are confined to the Mecca and Medina basic principles of the Islamic development and city planning as not all the people of Iraq are Muslims. Islam was limited to some people. It was a change at the level of housing to isolate the individual, public and private spaces. All forms of art, graphics and motifs on the facades of houses were removing.

Architecture in Modern Prophetic In distinguishing the islamic architecture, it appears to be very simple and strict. Two special islamic architectures in this era that reflect these features are the Quba Mosque and the Prophet’s Mosque. In the Quba mosque, we find examples of the simple in architecture, and the building of the Prophet's Mosque is in the form of a large open courtyard, covered some parts of the palm leaves placed on the branches of the palm, which stretch on the pillars of the palm, very simple and strict13. Even after having undergone a facelift, the mosque retained the same simplicity as compared with the mosques in this period. This is a result from having served many functions: as a hospital courtyard and a camp for prisoners, and the homes of some of the companions and the Muslims who worship in it.

Figure 3. Mar Elea Monastery Near Mosul

Figure 4. One of the Houses in Alhira

Building in era of Caliphs and Umayyad

Figure 1. Prophet Mosque

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The death of the Prophet (PBUH) and the end of the succession of companions, ended the era of simplicity and rigor to begin the Umayyad dynasty ruled from the Levant and its capital, Damascus. After the era of prophecy, every thought is a judgment based on the Qur'an and the Sunnah and its legal provisions. This was also the case in the architecture except for Syria, Palestine and all


Levant, which are Christian Counties and part of the Byzantine Empire, the first of the Umayyad architecture that was greatly influenced by the Christian is clearly reflected in the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus. In rebuilding the Al-Aqsa Mosque, the Dome was of a Rock in a manner to indicate Christian influence with the introduction of some new features of Islamic architecture by adding writings of the Quran or the hadith in the decoration of mosques.

perform prayers and worships and some spaces for private events.

Figure 7. Plan for ALmadenaALMoura in the Righteous Caliphs

Figure 5. Mosque al Umayyad in Damascus

Among The Dome of the Rock, Al Aqsa Mosque, the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, and the Mosque of Kairouan, the Dome of the Rock is least affected by the Christian (Byzantine)architecture.

Figure 8. Plan for ALKuffa City

Figure 6. the Dome of Rock

Every thought that came after the era of prophecy is a judgement based on the Qur’an and the Sunnah. During the Prophet’s era, building study was specialized due to the presence of the Sunnah and conditions of the Qur’an. Even buildings in the post-Prophetic era were based on the judgement. In Iraq, it is said that one of Caliphs is to design a city of Basra (16AH), and the city of Kufa (17AH). The basis of the construction was military. We note that the mosque was located at the center of the city and that the tribes had created for themselves a land around the mosque with the market situated away from the mosque. The houses significantly confirmed the juxtaposition of spatial and principality. This was the Prophet Muhammad’s approach; either at the level of housing did not change radically, except for some converted spaces, which was dedicated for family members to

In the Umayyad period, Damascus was the Umayyad dynasty capital, and was known as the Umayyad style or Shame style, which marked the establishment of palaces and attention to decoration. It was no longer a mosque-centered city as in the past. The separation of home principality from the mosque because of the differences that occured in the beginning of the Umayyad rule, the focal attention deficiencies occured since the beginning of the Umayyad ruling. The appearance of the yard in the center of the house and arranged wan, located symmetrically on the left and right suites, were works of extinction which represented the class known as Hairi. Due to the evolution and spread of confusion in the palaces in Iraq, and the spread of the Umayyad period in some houses of Kufa, Waist and Benny Gided housings, buildings in Iraq in addition to the above, we also observe the emergence of minarets with square columns. Domes are based on a square base; abound in the corridors of the landscape mosaic. The examples are: Palace Om Areyev in Kufa, the palace built by Osakav Jnied in Diyala, and Shaba Palace in the city of Basra.


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Figure 9. Plan for Palace in Iraq

The evolution of architectural thinking in this era, has given us the architectural models creator, and specifically in Iraq, as the Kufa was the center of the Abbasid and later widening the Islamic tide to many parts of the territory: north-southeast-west. Built by Baghdad caliph, Abu Jaafar AlMansour, was a fortress in a form of a circular shape which gave flexibility in controlling parts of the city equally with four gates. This gate set up is known since the ancient Babylon. The order of functional cities in this era (Baghdad and Samarra) was according to the thought of the Abbasid caliphs, so they are a reflection of domestic politics on the functional organization of the city as well as buildings complementary to this thought. The mosque was surrounded by accomodation, government departments commercial areas at the gates.

Figure 10. Entrance for Shaba Palace

Building in Al Abbasid Era: The fall of the Umayyad dynasty in Damascus made way to the beginning of the reign of the Abbasid state, which ruled the country from Baghdad, one of the most affluent cities in Islam .They affected the prosperity of the Abbasids and the simple Islam method in Umayyad architecture, ancient civilizations of Babylon and Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Persian. The fact was the Abbasids’ styles were private domes and minarets, which were developed during the Umayyad Islamic dynasty. The Abbasid model was also unique in the shape of the columns, beams and decorations between pillars in the form of large domes of the mosques. The best examples of the Abbasid mosque models are the al Jama mosque in Samarra, and the Mosque of Abu AlrivhDilv, both in Iraq, and the Ibn Toulon mosque in Cairo.

Figure 12. Baghdad retained

Figure 13. Babylon Gate

Figure 11. IbnToulonmosque in Cairo

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Figure 14. Baghdad Retained Gate

In the city of Samarra, built by the caliph (Mutawakkil) was a rectangular city known as the Tigris River. One aspect of the city, as a defense, the Abu DLF Mosque is located in the outskirts of the city and not in the center as it was known before, next to the Palace of the caliph. We can observe the surrounding of the mosque are housing of the Army Leader, the king's entourage whereby the public housing is situated on the other side of the city. The markets are large and distributed, taking into consideration issues of security to reduce human crowd in a particular place. It is also noticable in the city of Samarra, streets appear as the greatest runs through the city with the width of 200 arm to facilitate the gathering of army in case of emergency. It is not limited to buildings that were constructed in this era as Iraq had already reached its prosperity and excellence of Islamic civilization. However, the creativity peaked not only in Iraq, but also in all the cities that opened at the hands of Muslims. Perhaps the mosque of Samarra, is one of the most unique Muslim architectural creations where the outer walls of the mosque are twisted and This is considered by many researchers as a simulation of the ziggurat temples in the ancient Iraqi civilization days of Assyrian and Babylonian.

where you select the public spaces and semi-public and semi-private and private. This is a reflection of the thought of the Abbasid, which we have observed in urban planning. The school gate, which is characterized with the interface high as to indicate the entrance, built on the optical axis of the chapel to be the first public space. The transition from the level of public space, the city's public space at the school level Iwan right and Iwan left, then a special requested classroom, a private space which are the bedrooms and a breather, and a living room for students and teachers were chosen as rectangular to fit with the events and proportionality and the amount of elongation. This indicates the sensitivity towards ample space and movement for visitors, or to a request to estimate the space needed for the prayers and lessons, without any interference from the movements. There were equal quarters allocated to the doctrines of the four that were once convergent places in Baghdad, and so he wanted Mustansir to provide equal opportunities for students according to their affiliation. We believe that form and function were the result of thought.

Figure 15. Mosque of Almutawakkil

Figure 17. The gate of Mustansiriya

Figure 16. The Ziggurat

Mustansiriya Madrasah When we talk about the Abbasid period, we must stand on the work of art none other than Mustansiriya in Baghdad that was built in 625 AH. It was the first school built gathering the four schools, not only on the teaching of theology and jurisprudence but was also the first university in the world. It was the nucleus of cultural in the city as a whole. We could see from the analysis done on public and private functions that the functional division with responsive occupants and nature,

Figure 18. Detail of the Gate


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Figure 19. AlMustansiriya

Fashioned by region and counties • • • • • • • • • • •

Marrakech and the Andalusia-style (which dates back to the people of North Africa and Andalusia). Fatimid-style relative to the Fatimids in Egypt. Saladin-style relative to the Ayyubids in Egypt. Mamluk style relative to the Mamluks in Egypt. Asaljqa model relative to the Seljuk of Iran Persian Mughal style relative to the Mongols of Central Asia and the country of Persia. Safavid style relative to the Safavids in Iran.Indian Mughal style relative to the Mughal India. Mughal-style Turkish relative to the Mongols of Central Asia. Model relative to the Pashto Pashto tribes in Afghanistan. Ottoman style.

We can see Baghdad has undergone the rule of Albuehi, and admitted that since the Caliph invaders arrived, some physical movement was going on in Baghdad, limiting their role in urban development. The role was the basis for the elite people who were on a high level of civilization who were compared to the invaders. They built house peacocks, the square home and octagonal house, reconstructed Baghdad and the palaces, mosques and hospitals.

Figure 21. Nouri Mosque and The lighthouse Alhaddaba

Then came the ruling of the Seljuk (447 AH / 1055 AD), famous for building a regular school, including regular Baghdad was built in the reign buildings, a wide variety of mosques, schools, walls, baths, palaces, and the role of large. Unfortunately, most of those buildings ceased to exist, leaving only a few including the Nouri Mosque and the Lighthouse of al hadaba, Majahda mosque, Imam Yahya bin QasimBadr al-Din Palace and Mosque of Arbil, leaving only a minaret. From the late period of the Abbasid to the free-Khalifa Nasser al-Din Allah, Iraq and other important parts of the Muslim world under the ruling of the Seljuk until the fall of Baghdad in (656 AH / 1255 AD), were the brightest periods in the history of Arab-Islamic civilization. It has returned to the succession prestige land status, and it raised the status of Baghdad, and many construction and reconstruction. As examples are the Alkhvavin mosque, alKarkhi mosque.

Figure 22. Alkhvavin Mosque

Figure 20. Caliph Palace (House Peacocks) Figure 23. Alkarkhi mosque

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During the Mongols attack on Baghdad, Hulagu suffered vandalism to their heritage buildings.After a short period of its fall, some of its buildings were resumed. New set ups and new buildingsalso took place: minaret of the Mosque of the Caliphs (market spinning), new school reefs, Khan Murjan and some fields, schools, mosques and markets. Nevertheless, among thosethat were defected, some of which still exist are the most famous of these Schools, School of Morgan, the Alovaúah School and mosques such as the Acoli Mosque, SE mosque, Nomani mosque and, the Syed Sultan Ali mosque.

Figure 24. Mosque of the Caliphs

Conclusion We can see the evolution of form and function over time that depended highly on the circumtances of the political and cultural lives of the population. The label (Islamic architecture) goes back to the nineteenth century. As Western Orient called it, a concept and named after the Islamic cultural heritage, and not a condition where the Islamic faith isenshrined.The Muslim building refers to the product of Muslims where shapes are mixed with the thought that moves the qualities and evolves with time according to the variables. It is also noted that the Muslims practice paying respect to the norms of all people, even in the architecture and crafts especially if it does not conflict with the principles of the Islamic religion and Semitism that is so-called contemporary. The Muslims create something from their principles and their time, if theyconsume what is produced by age only, without taking into account their privacy it will be de-identity. We note that the aesthetic phenomenon in Islamic architecture (the fact that it was wonderful to be compatible with the reality of the necessities) is not the ultimate destination for architecture because that will bring to the deviation in the beauty.What distinguishes Islamic architecture is it protects itself from factors that are exposed and meet the needs of its users. Generally,in the different Islamic eras, we can focus on many forms for a concept, such as the police concept, society, and economic so we can ensure and proof the changes in Islamic architecture is always suited for concepts of every existing era.

Figure 25. School of Morgan

Reference The Ottoman Empire was interested in some of these governors and sultans reconstruction of mosques, shrines and schools, some of which still exists today,the establishment of scientific institutes, including the Rashid military Institute during the Mamluk era, which lasted to the year (1247 AH / 1831,) The reconstruction of the Wall of Baghdad after demolition and sabotage, was built on the western side of Baghdad with a wall and a trench. Others that were renewed were the Kingdom House (palace), and alqishleh watch, and finally the school of Sulaimaniyawasbuilt.

1 2

3

4 5 6 7 8 9

10 Figure 25. Kingdom House (Saraya) Alqishleh Watch

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Dr. Alarabi Hassan Bouayad. 2007. The Reference Architecture We Have a Reference Text. Aharrov Magazine. Rabat Asad Yakoub Gogo. 1989. The Privacy of Iraqi Architecture. Seminar In the Privacy of Contemporary Arab Architecture. Baghdad Moustafa Saker. 1988. The Cities In Islam part 2. Baghdad: Dar Al Salasel for Printing, Publishing and Distribution Dr Ali Thouni. Islamic Architecture,Terminology of Islamic architecture and The Early Concept Lame- Poole. 1875. Handbook of Sara scenic Art Martin S.Briggs. 1882. Mohammedan Architecture In Egypt and Palestine Gostaph Lopon. Arab Civilization M. Saladin. Manual De Art Musulman Rafat Algadargi. 1995. Dialogue the Structural In the Art. London: Riad Al Rayes of Books and publishing Dr Ali Thouni. Islamic Architecture,Terminology of Islamic architecture and The Early Concept Dr Ali Thouni. Islamic Architecture,Terminology


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of Islamic architecture and The Early Concept Rafat Algadargi. 1995. Dialogue the Structural In the Art. London: Riad Al Rayes of Books and publishing 13 Yusif Sharif. 1982. The History of Architecture In Various Eras of Iraq. Baghdad.

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DIABETIC PATIENTS AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT: THE ISLAMIC VIEW Dr. Bhzad Sidawi

Architecture Department, College of Architecture, University of Dammam, 31451 Dammam, P O Box 2397 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia e-mail: [email protected]

Dr. Mohamed Taha Ali AlAl-Hariri

Department of Physiology, College of Medicine University of Dammam, 31451 Dammam, P O Box 2114 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Diabetes mellitus, is a serious disease that may lead to severe conditions such as blindness, end-stage of renal disease, limb amputation and a variety of debilitating neuropathies. Previous research indicated that diabetes is caused by a complex interaction of patient’s genetics, life-style and environmental factors. It also highlighted that providing quality and healthy built environment to citizens including diabetic patients would prevent the decline of the patient condition. Accordingly, the Islamic built laws derived from Islamic Sharia have set the grounds of how to provide healthy built environment for citizens. Little research was conducted in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) in regards to the effect of environmental conditions on the health status of diabetic people. In 2011, the present researchers have surveyed a number of diabetic patients to find out the possible impact of built environment settings on the patient’s lifestyle thus how far it would affect the progress of the diabetes. The results showed a close link between a poor home and environmental settings, the patient’s lifestyle, and the health status. The paper argues that certain changes to the built environment must be done and to provide a healthy and safe environment for diabetic patients. The Islamic built laws would largely help in provisioning such healthy environment that helps people to live to abandon their bad habits and adopt healthier lifestyle. Keywords: diabetes, urban pollution, lifestyle, sick building syndrome, sustainable environment, Islamic built laws

Abstrak Diabetes mellitus merupakan penyakit serius yang mungkin membawa kepada kondisi yang parah seperti kebutaan, stadium akhir ginjal, amputasi karena lumpuh, dan bermacam kelemahan yang lain. Penelitian sebelumnya mengindikasikan bahwa diabetes disebabkan oleh interaksi yang kompleks pada genetika pasien, gaya hidup, dan faktor lingkungan. Juga menggambarkan bahwa menyediakan kualitas dan lingkungan binaan yang sehat kepada masyarakat termasuk pasien diabetes akan mencegah penurunan kondisi pasien. Oleh karena itu, Islam mendirikan hukum yang berasal dari Islami Sharia yang mengatur dasar-dasar bagaimana menyediakan lingkungan yang sehat untuk masyarakat. Penelitian kecil dilakukan di Kerajaan Saudi Arabia (KSA) sehubungan dengan efek kondisi lingkungan pada status kesehatan orang diabetes. Pada 2011, peneliti telah mensurvei jumlah pasien diabetes untuk menemukan kemungkingan dampak dari pengaturan lingkungan binaan dari gaya hidup pasien hingga sejauh mana hal itu akan memberi dampak kemajuan diabates itu sendiri. Hasilnya menunjukkan hubungan yang dekat antara rumah miskin dan pengaturan lingkungan, gaya hidup pasien, dan status kesehatan. Makalah ini berpendapat bahwa perubahan tertentu pada lingkungan binaan harus dilakukan untuk menyediakan lingkungan yang aman dan sehat untuk pasien diabetes. Hukum bangunan islami akan membantu secara luas dalam penyediaan semacam lingkungan yang sehat yang membantu masyarakat untuk hidup meninggalkan kebiasaan buruk dan mengadopsi gaya hidup yang lebih sehat. Kata kunci: diabates, polusi kota, gaya hidup, sindrom bangunan sakit, lingkungan yang berkelanjutan, hukum bangunan islam.

Introduction Diabetes is one of the most serious common non-communicable diseases that face people worldwide and diabetic people are patients whose life relies on continuous support, care and

monitoring. Researchers highlighted that diabetes is caused by a complex interaction of patient’s genetics, life-style and environmental factors. The bio-psychosocial model is a new paradigm that recognizes that disease and behaviour are functions


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and result from the interaction among biological, psychosocial, developmental, socio-cultural and ecological factors1. Urban sprawl has been linked to a variety of health-related concerns including air pollution, water quality, traffic accidents, and mental health issues2. The study indicates that urban design and aspects of the built environment can also play an important role in the development of diabetes type 2 and its risk factors3. The sick built environment may also enforce people to adopt habits and lifestyle that is unhealthy and complicate their health status. Studies of the built environment acknowledge that aspects of our physical surroundings can shape choices about diet and physical activity – both important contributors to the development of diabetes3. So the built environment should be properly designed to create a healthy environment and lifestyle. This includes the study of physical surroundings features such as proximity of grocery stores, safe and pleasant opportunities for physical activity, and time spent commuting. Changes should be made to the built environment to positively influence health outcomes and to be made more activity-friendly by improving sidewalks and bicycle paths, building recreation spaces, and instituting mixed land-use patterns in more suburban areas to provide better walking destinations3. The Islamic built laws set rules for building up a healthy relationship between human to human; and the human with the environment. This paper focuses on the built environment and lifestyle factors that would contribute to the development of diabetes and discusses possible solutions that improve the health status of diabetic patients.

The Diabetes Types and Complications Diabetes mellitus (DM) is defined by American Diabetic Association (ADA) and adopted by World Health Organization (WHO) as the following: an individual is said to have normal blood glucose when fasting plasma glucose (FPG) is <6.1 mmol/L (110 mg/dL), impaired fasting glucose (IFG) when FPG is between 6.1-6.9 mmol/L (110 and 125 mg/dL), and DM when FPG is ≥7.0 mmol/L (126 mg/dL) or a random value at or above 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL) [4]. There are – in general- two types of diabetes. In Type 1 Diabetes, the person's own body has destroyed the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. Although type 2 diabetes mellitus can be caused by genetic factors, unhealthy lifestyle happens to be the main cause. A person with Diabetes Type 2 has one of two problems, and sometimes both: a) not enough insulin is being produced; and b) the insulin is not working properly. Diabetes mellitus is the most common noncommunicable disease worldwide and the fourth to

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fifth leading cause of death in developed countries. The International Diabetes Federation (IDF) indicates that the prevalence of diabetes mellitus has reached epidemic levels globally. Estimates for 2010 indicate that 285 million adults have diabetes in the seven regions of the IDF. These numbers represent an increase of 39 million from 2007 and an expected continued increase to 439 million in 20305. While the direct symptoms of diabetes, such as thirst, frequent urination and fatigue, can be mild and may cause little interruption to activities of daily living, it is the complications of the disease, including blindness in adults6 non-traumatic lower-limb amputation7 and kidney failure resulting in transplantation and dialysis8. In addition, the risk of coronary heart disease is two to four times higher in diabetic patients. The risk of stroke or peripheral vascular disease also increases strongly. In fact, the management and treatment of diabetes mellitus mainly type 2 is can considered more than the mere control of blood glucose values, asking for a multidisciplinary approach (i.e. shared care) to reduce macro- and micro-vascular risk factors9.

Diabetes and socio-economic factors Diabetes mainly type 2 is a lifestyle disorder, many studies indicates that, the incidence of this disease is projected to increase as populations age, urbanization increases, diets become ‘westernized’ and levels of physical activity decrease10. Passive entertainment exemplified by television viewing and computer games along with intake of meals, all contribute to disorders of lifestyle11, this imbalance between energy intake (i.e. feeding) and energy expenditure (i.e. physical activity) unfortunately leads to obesity12. Moreover, a growing body of evidence suggests an association between diabetes, diabetes related conditions such as obesity and cardiovascular and; characteristics of the socioeconomic and built environment13. Previous surveys from KSA suggested that diabetes is present in epidemic proportions throughout the country with exceedingly high rates concentrated in urban areas14. A Study showed that, prevalence of diabetes mellitus is highest among the Northern Saudi population15. Another study showed that, incidence of diabetes was higher among African American women in low socioeconomic status (SES) versus higher SES neighbourhoods16, greater risk of coronary heart disease in socioeconomically disadvantaged versus more affluent census block groups17, and higher rates of obesity in socioeconomically deprived neighbourhoods compared to more affluent neighbourhoods18. Other investigations indicate higher rates of diabetes19,20 and obesity19,21&22 in rural areas relative to urban


centres. Poorer health status in socioeconomically deprived and rural environments may reflect, in part, the inaccessibility of such built environmental features as public pools, recreation centres, physical fitness facilities, parks, sidewalks, and streetlights23. Stewart et al13 conducted a study that explores potential county-level associations between diabetes prevalence among adult African Americans and five measures of the socioeconomic and built environment—persistent poverty, unemployment, rurality, number of fast food restaurants per capita, and number of convenience stores per capita. They found Diabetes prevalence rates in South Carolina are among the highest in the nation and there is association between the socioeconomic measures and diabetes13.

Environmental pollution and diabetes B.1. Urban pollution Diabetes is influenced not only by factor in each individual, but by the environment that surrounds the individual. There are many causes to Urban Contamination such as exposure to a chemical or other toxic substance originating from a source outside the building, e.g. motor vehicle exhaust fumes, construction activity, underground petrol spillage24. One important regulated pollutant is particles equal or less than 10 microm in diameter (PM10), formed as a result of fossil-fuel combustion by motor vehicles and stationary sources such as power plants. PM10 are generated from combustion emissions such as automobile exhaust or wood or coal burning and industrial emissions from smelters, paper and steel mills, or cement plants. PM10 can deposit in the lower airways changing portions of the lung, even reaching the circulatory system and, therefore, are considered to be of greater health significance19. Many researchers have found association with environmental pollution and the pathogenesis of diabetes25 and especially with those considered as a sensitive population such as children and with cardiovascular diseases. Balfour and Kaplan26 reported that poor lighting, excessive noise, heavy traffic, and lack of public transit are associated with loss of physical function in adults over 55 years of age. They suggest that these detrimental environmental features discourage neighbourhood excursions. In addition, individuals with diabetes are at greater risk of dying27 and being hospitalized for heart disease during periods of high environmental pollution28. This phenomenon has been explained partially due to the association between exposure to environmental pollution and markers of cardiovascular risk related to decreased heart rate variability29,30 and increased levels of thrombotic and inflammatory factors31,32 since

inflammation is the key pathway leading to atherosclerosis and subsequent adverse cardiovascular events. The diabetic subjects with cardiovascular diseases are more susceptible to the detrimental effects of environmental pollution than diabetics without cardiovascular diseases33&34. Other studies in children have showed that environmental pollution is linked with the development of type 1DM35. A lot of recent studies have showed a relationship between PM10 and diabetes mellitus20, 21,22&23 . The long-term exposure to environmental pollution particles, 2.5 mm in aerodynamic diameter (PM2.5) has been found to be associated with a higher relative risk of mortality among people with diabetes compared with the general population 36. Also similar association found between prevalence of T2DM and PM2.537. A study by Brook et al.38 investigates the relation between diabetes and traffic-related NO2 in two different cities; Toronto and Hamilton. They found significant association between the diabetes prevalence and exposure to traffic-related NO2. Lee et al39 have found similar association between the organic pollutants and prevalence of T2DM (see similar findings by40). Hathout et al35 found association between Prevalence of T1DM and substances O3, SO2 and substances NO2, SO2 and SO441. This possible association between environmental pollution and increased incidence of diabetes should motivate policy makers to issue prevention policies to reduce air pollution and therefore, its, harmful consequences.

B.2.

Sick building syndrome

Buildings are complex environments which can trap and concentrate pollutants as well as generate them. Outside pollutants find their way into buildings through air intakes and inadequate filtering systems. As long as ample ventilation ensures a constant supply of fresh air, indoor pollution problems may be kept to a minimum. However, general ventilation is often inadequate and office equipment may have no local exhaust system venting fumes to the outside42. Youle43 has found that airconditioning systems giving rise to symptoms of sick building syndrome. Researchers have found association between the ventilation rates, CO2-concentrations with health problems in commercial and institutional44 and Office Buildings45. Sick building syndrome has a number of health symptoms such as: lethargy and tiredness, headache, dry blocked nose, sore dry eyes, sore throat, dry skin and/or skin rashes, allergy etc.46, 47,and48. Allergic reaction in sensitive individuals was associated with chest tightness, difficulty in breathing, fever and headache. These health problems may aggravate diabetes. Certain


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materials are identified as causes of Contamination inside the buildings: exposure to chemical or other toxic agent generated within the office space, e.g. methyl alcohol from spirit duplicator, methacrylate from a copier, sulphur dioxide from a heating system, amines used in a humidification system, chlordane used as a pesticide24.

Potential Solutions The green and sustainable buildings design aim is to design buildings that reduce the overall impact of the built environment on human health and the natural environment by: efficiently using energy, water, and other resources, protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity, and reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation. These buildings theoretically use zero energy and do not release harmful substances to the environment, enrich the environment in a way or another thus it mimics the nature. Such buildings should provide healthy indoor environment to its inhabitants and expose them to adequate amount of natural light and ventilation, views of greenery, and close proximity to outdoor green space. Landscape architecture appears to be the primary key at the finest scale to sound mind and body and simply viewing nature reduces the stress of daily urban life 49,50 . Jackson and Kochtitzky51 advocate providing neighbourhood opportunities for walking to accomplish routine activities such as shopping and going to work. Andersen et al.52 report that lifestyle activities such as structured aerobic exercise are effective in losing weight. Critical to this strategy is conducive neighbourhood design. Physical activity is defined as the total of planned and repetitive movements of skeletal muscles, which are performed using energy. The beneficial effects of exercise in patients with type 2 diabetes have been recognized long time ago. Today, the beneficial role of exercise has been fully documented and exercise should be incorporated systematically in the treatment of patients with diabetes53,54,55,56and57. Moreover, exercise has a significant role in the regulation of blood glucose, improves insulin action, metabolism of proteins and fats, prevents complications of diabetes, improves muscle flexibility and strength, has beneficial effects on the cardiovascular system and increases life expectancy of the patients. In addition, physical activity is beneficial for the mental state of the individual, because it increases the energy of the human body, improves self-esteem and decreases depression53,54,55&56. It is widely accepted that healthy nutrition is the basis for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. It contributes positively to the maintenance of blood glucose within normal range

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and minimizes the complications of the disease. Unfortunately the diet in urban dwellers are usually contains a greater proportion of refined carbohydrates, less fibre and more fat in comparison to that in rural environment58. Consequently, the Islamic built laws that are extracted from the Islamic Sharia principals has modified the built form according to the Islam's philosophy, ideology, law, and the requirements of socio-cultural forces in Muslim life [59]. Islamic built laws were used to define the rights, responsibilities of people and how to respond to one's needs without conflicting other people's interests [60] and not to harm people physically and psychologically. These laws provide a flexible framework to the property user/owner that enables him/ her to change his property without harming his neighbours and violating their rights. Ahmed [61] suggests the Islamic built laws can be listed as the following: No-Harm principle: No-Harm principle means that residents' initiated action, which is considered harmful to others or to the environment, should be prevented when affected people asked to be stopped [62, 63 and 64]. This include any annoying and bad smells, smokes, and sounds; and use of the property or a part of it for industrial or commercial use etc. Openings and projections: Akbar [65] states that any individual could project part of his upper floor, such as Mashrabiyahs or cantilevers, on to a through street as long as no damage is caused to the public. Projecting cantilevers over main roads are permissible because the roads are the remains of `dead' lands that could have been `revived' in the past66. He/ she can also open windows and doors on to these roads providing they do not cause harm to their neighbours. Right of appropriation of open spaces, finas: As long as this causes no harm, residents should be free to appropriate open spaces and finas in their residential settlements for a wide range of social and economic activities determined and permitted by the residents themselves without outside intervention65,59. Right of easement (servitude) (Irtifak): Right of easement (servitude) is an exclusive benefit of a property over another adjacent to it, where the two are owned by different owners. This benefit belongs to the first property, even if its owner changes, unless this benefit has been relinquished through a conventional transaction66. Right of pre-emption (shufah): The right of preemption (shufah) is the right of a neighbour or a partner to substitute himself/ herself for the


buyer of an adjacent property or structure when offered for sale by another neighbour or partner63,66. Unfortunately, these principals are not addressed in the present building laws of the KSA. The present built laws set general guidelines on how to consider the home owner’s rights with regards to the construction or alteration of his/her property. These laws specify what designers should do regarding the building setback distances, distance between other properties, and height restrictions of building and so on. These laws do not, for instance, define how the property should be designed to fit the Islamic lifestyle, traditions and norms. There is also no sustainability code such as BREEAM (i.e. BRE Environmental Assessment Method) or LEED (i.e. Energy and Environmental Design) that can be used to assess the building’s performance and find out how far it would negatively impact the environment.

tablets and less than a quarter use insulin. Around a one third of the respondents have high last Fasting blood Glucose reading i.e. more than 200 mg/dL. And a one third of them have medium reading i,e, 151-200 mg/dL and the rest have low reading. Around 21% of the respondents said the Onset date of the disease is from one to five years, 42% sad it is from 6-10 years ago, 12% said that they have it from 11 to 15 years whereas 21% said they have more than 15 years ago. 91% of the respondents have lived in their present address more than 5 years and 6% have been less than 5 years whereas the rest did not reveal the period. 24% have experienced accidents since the onset of the disease and 73% have not. 30% said that the highway is less than 500 meters from their homes, whereas 80% of the respondents said that the main road is less than 500 meters from their homes. 41% of the respondents pointed out that the public amenities are less than 200 meters and 44% said it is less than 500 meters. Around the third said the public gardens are less than 500 meters.

The Research Objectives and Methodology The research has a set of objectives and these are: • To find out the relation between the frequency and progress of diabetes symptoms, the patient’s lifestyle, and built environment settings • To make recommendations on how to enhance the built environment to be healthy, supportive and assistive To achieve the research objectives, a survey questionnaire was carried out to assess the patient’s views about the potential impact of built environment on the progress of the diseases. The survey was used to target 36 patients in March/April 2011. A questionnaire was prepared to inspect the diabetic patients’ views about their environment and lifestyle. During the appointment with each diabetic patient at diabetes’ clinic, King Fahid Teaching Hospital of the University of Damamm, the patient was asked to fill in the questionnaire. Thirty three patients filled in the questionnaire and three returned invalid questionnaires. The sample size however, (i.e. number of respondents) was small and the following simple statistical tests were applied: Mean, percentage, Chi-square Pearson and Cramer’s test of correlation.

The Field Survey Results Patients are from Dammam and Al Khober cities and few are from AlAhsa city and Al Qateef city. The analysis of the questionnaire results showed that 21% of the respondents are between 20 to 40 years old, 55% are between 41-60 years old and the rest are between 61-80 years old. Around a third of the respondents use insulin and tablets. Around 50% use

Figure1. The Frequency Daily Lifestyle Habits

However, 42% of the participants said it is more than 2000 meters from home. 41% said that the Recreation and sport Centre is more than 2000 meters from home, whereas around 22% said it is less than 500 meters from home. More than half of the participants said that they have never or rarely done any morning exercises on daily basis. Only a quarter of the respondents have done frequently/ always morning exercises. More than a third of the surveyed patients said they never/ rarely walk for 30 minutes every day. Around the quarter said they did it frequently and only 10% said they always do it. Around 75% of the respondents said they often/ always watch TV or carry out office work on daily basis. 72% said they often/ always eat fruits and vegetables every day. 27% said they sometimes drink fizzy drinks and eat junk food every day. Around 20% said they smoke excessively on daily basis. Since they have lived in their homes, the respondents complained mostly from the following environmental issues: noise from the traffic, little sun penetration to


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their homes, noise from neighbours, difficulty to wonder around within the neighbourhood, the lack of cleanness of the neighbourhood. The least complains were about the followings: the uncomfortable home furniture, poor air quality in the house, and unpleasant outside views. Around the third said they always/ often suffer from the following health problems since they have had the diabetes: Paraesthesia, blurred vision, extreme tiredness, and extra fat problems since the onset of the diseases. 44% of the respondents said they suffer always/ often from blood pressure problems and 19% experience drowsiness since they have the diabetes. However, around half of them said that they sometimes have stress and around the third have extreme tiredness. Few of the respondents said they experience loss of sensation particularly in the foot limbs or Cardiatric problems. In regards to cross tabulation results, only significant links between variables less than 0.05 are reported here. The examination of data shows that the older patients drink less fizzy drinks than younger patients and this can be considered as a healthy phenomenon. The older patients seem to be more sensitive to the environmental conditions and complain more about the pollutant neighbourhood than the younger patients. Also, they suffer Extreme tiredness and loss of sensation particularly in the foot limbs more than younger patients. Patients with lower last fasting blood Glucose reading, walk more frequently than patients with higher Glucose reading. Al khober and Dammam’s patients tend to walk more frequently than AL Ahsaa and Al Qateef patients. However, they watch more TV or carry out office work than Al Ahsaa and Al Qateef patients. Al Qateef patients drink more frequently fizzy drinks and do excessive smoking more than other patients. However, as the sample of Al Qateef is small, the results cannot be generalized to the whole population. Al Qateef patients have suffered more frequently than other patients from the following sick indoor conditions: annoying air draft, hot air conditions, poor air quality, unpleasant odours and extreme tiredness. Patients who tend to watch more frequently the TV or carry on office work are those who live in an area whereas the recreation and sport Centre is farther. Patients who experience more frequently the loss of sensation particularly in the foot limbs, said that they suffer more frequently from too little indoor air/ ventilation, annoying air draft and noise from neighbours. Patients, who experience more frequently from blood pressure problems, said they suffer more frequently from neighbours’ noise and those who

66

experience more frequently from drowsiness said that they have higher difficulty in wandering around within the neighbourhood.

Discussion and Conclusion The study supported with the literature review showed the negative possible impact of the existing built environment in the Eastern province, KSA on the diabetic patients. The survey Results showed that public gardens and recreation and sport Centres are not well located within the urban context. This would make it difficult for the patients to enjoy walking to and within these centres and parks particularly during the harsh hot weather that last around 6 month in KSA. Therefore, it is no surprise to find that patients who tend to watch more frequently the TV or carry on office work are those who live in an area whereas the recreation and sport Centre is far from their homes. In respect to the lifestyle activities, more than half of the participants said that they have never or rarely done any morning exercises and more than the third said they never/ rarely walk for 30 minutes on daily basis. Around three quarters of the respondents often/ always watch TV or carry out office work every day meanwhile around the same percentages often/ always eat fruits and vegetables on daily basis. Around the third said they always/ often suffer a number of health problems. The respondents complained mostly from a number of environmental issues such as noise from the traffic and neighbours, little sun penetration to their homes, difficulty to wonder around within the neighbourhood, and the lack of cleanness of the neighbourhood. The results showed that the frequency of the symptoms is higher for patients who suffer more frequently from indoor/ outdoor environmental/ urban conditions. The older patients seem to be more sensitive to the environmental conditions than the younger patients. Patients who experience more frequently from drowsiness said that they have higher difficulty in wondering around within the neighbourhood. The literature review showed similar results as it highlighted the close links between the sick built environment and the development of diabetes represented by the frequency of its’ symptoms. The researchers would like to point out the importance of providing healthy built environment to citizens. However, this built environment whether it is indoor or outdoor should be supportive and can assist diabetic patients in their daily life. To create a healthy built environment, corrective measures are suggested and it includes the


alteration of the present built laws in KSA and incorporates the Islamic built laws that consider the rights and responsibilities of citizens in a sustainable way. These laws would enhance the built environment in away that does harm the natural environment and would provide better appreciation to the needs of diabetic population. The researchers appreciate the limitation of the research but argue that it can be used as a foundation for further research. Future research should explore how a healthy environment should be designed and implemented by utilizing the Islamic built laws as a start point thus taking into account the local environmental, cultural and lifestyle issues in KSA in general and the Eastern Province in particular.

8.

Atkins R. 2005. The Epidemiology of Chronic Kidney Disease. Review: Kidney Int. Suppl. 94 (Apr), S14–S18.

9.

American Diabetes Association. 2006. Standards of Medical Care In Diabetes-Diab. Care 29 (Suppl. 1), S4–S42.

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for Diabetes/Metabolic Syndrome”. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 77 Suppl 1:S87-91. 56. Colberg S R. 2007. “Physical Activity, Insulin Action, and Diabetes Prevention and Control”. Curr Diabetes Rev. 3(3):176-84. 57. La Monte M., Blair St., Church T. 2005. “Physical Activity and Diabetes Prevention”. J Appl Physiol. 99: 1205-1213. 58. Stephen O and John S. 1997. “Clinical Review, Science Medicine and the Future Non-Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus the Gathering Stom”. BMJ. 14:955 59. Hakim, Besim Selim. 1986. Arabic-Islamic cities: building and planning principles. London: RKP. 60. Al-Ibrabim Mohammed Husein. 2003. “The Criticism of Modern Architecture in Saudi Arabia”. King Saud Univ. vol. 2, Architecture and Planning pp. 63-80, Riyadh. http://digital.library.ksu.edu.sa/V2M35R116.pdf 61. Ahmed, K. G. 2003. User-Controlled Housing Processes: Towards Socio-Culturally Responsive Low-Income Housing In Cairo, Egypt. Ph.D. thesis. Welsh School of Architecture Cardiff University 62. Hammad, RN. 1997. “Islamic Legislation in Land Use and Planning and Its Effect on Architectural Style”. Open House International. 22 2 : 54-60. 63. Joseph Schacht. 1993. An Introduction to Islamic Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 64. Basim Selim Hakim and Peter G Rowe. 1983. "The Representation of Values In Traditional and Contemporary Islamic Cities". Journal of Architectural Education, 36 4 : 22-28 65. Akbar, Jamel. 1989. "Losing Interest: Blight of the Muslim City". Open House International, 14 3 : 28-35 66. Akbar, Jamel. 1988. Crisis in the Built Environment: The Case of The Muslim City. Singapore: Concept Media.

53. Lecomte P., Romon I., Fosse S., Simon D. 2008. “Fagot-Campagna A. Self-monitoring of Blood Glucose In People With Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Living in France: the Entred Study 2001”. Diabetes Metab.;34(3):219-26. 54. De Feo P., Di Loreto C., Ranchelli A., Fatone C., Gambelunghe G., Lucidi P. 2006. “Exercise and Diabetes”. Acta Biomed. 77 Suppl 1:14-7. 55. Sato Y., Nagasaki M., Kubota M., Uno T., Nakai N. 2007. “Clinical Aspects of Physical Exercise


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SPATIAL AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ASPECTS IN COMMUNITY BASED MOSQUES Luluk Maslucha

Department of Architecture, Faculty of Science and Technology Universitas Islam Negeri (UIN) Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang Jl. Gajayana 50 Malang, Jawa Timur, Indonesia Phone/Fax.: +62 341 558933 e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Indonesia as one of the biggest Muslim countries in the world are very rich in the quality and quantity of mosques architecture. The largest number of mosques in Indonesia is designed, built, and developed by local communities. Unfortunately, the potention of these kind of mosques is often unconsciously forgotten in the field of architectural studies. Therefore, this research is held to define these mosques’ spatial and architectural design aspects which were considered as appropriate for the needs of their local communities’. As a descriptive-qualitative architectural research, the methods employed in this research are (1) field surveying, (2) architectural documenting, and (3) informal interview, which were held in three purposive sample of mosques: Masjid An-Nur Jagalan, Masjid Gading Pesantren, and Masjid Jami’ Kauman Malang. These three mosques were chosen because of their close relations with their surrounding communities and their long time developments by their local societies. The result of this study shows that some specific spatial and architectural elements which were found in these community based mosques are (1) the scale, size, and depth of space, (2) the classification and the placement of space, (3) the architectural expressions, (4) the openness, the boundaries, and the relationship between spaces, (5) the athmospherical qualities of space, (6) the classification of the users in spaces, (7) the intensity of the users in spaces, and (8) the manner and the position of the users in spaces. Keywords: spatial and architectural aspects, community based mosque

Abstrak Indonesia merupakan salah satu negara muslim terbesar di dunia sangat kaya akan kualitas dan kuantitas arsitektur masjid. Jumlah masjid terbesar di Indonesia didesain, dibangun, dan didirikan oleh komunitas lokal. Sayangnya, potensi dari masjid-masjid ini seringkali secara tidak sadar dilupakan pada ranah studi arsitektur. Karena itulah penelitian ini dilakukan untuk mendefinisikan aspek desain ruang dan arsitektural masjid-masjid ini yang dipertimbangkan sesuai dengan kebutuhan masyarakat lokal. Sebagai penelitian arsitektural kualitatif deskriptif, metode yang digunakan pada penelitian ini antara lain (1) Survei lapangan, (2) dokumentasi arsitektural, dan (3) wawancara informal, yang dilakukan pada tiga sampel masjid: Masjid An-Nur Jagalan, Masjid Gading Pesantren, dan Masjid Jami’ Kauman Malang. Ketiga masjid ini dipilih karena kedekatan mereka dengan masyarakat sekitar dan pembangunan yang lama oleh masyarakat lokal. Hasil dari studi ini menunjukkan bahwa beberapa ruang dan elemen arsitektural tertentu ditemukan pada tiga masjid berdasar komunitas ini, antara lain (1) skala, ukuran, dan kedalaman ruang, (2) klasifikasi dan penempatan ruang, (3) ekspresi arsitektur, (4) keterbukaan, pembatas, dan hubungan antar ruang, (5) atmosfer kualitas ruang, (6) klasifikasi pengguna dalam ruang, (7) intensitas penggunan dalam ruang, dan (8) tingkah laku dan posisi penggunan dalam ruang.

Kata kunci: aspek ruang dan arsitektural, masjid berdasar komunitas

Introduction Indonesia as one of the biggest muslim countries in the world are very rich in the quality and quantity of mosques architecture. This is caused Islam spread in almost all parts of Indonesia with

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different ethnic traditions and customs. This is why the mosque architecture in Indonesia is very diverse, appropriate with local conditions of the local community. Mostly mosques in Indonesia is designed, built, and developed by the local communities. Over


the last decades, growth of mosques in Indonesia showed a significant increase of. Although lower than the growth of other religious houses of worship, in the period 1997 to 2004 the growth rate of the mosque in Indonesia reached 64%1. This phenomennon was encouraging, since the development of mosques in indonesia both by individual, government, as well as local communities, indicate the concern of communities’s needs of adequate mosques for moslem’s worship. Unfortunately, the potention of these kind of mosques is unconsciously often forgotten in the field of architectural studies. In recent years can be found several mosques designs that show uniformity of architectural style which is influenced by several things, one of which is due to a shift in development objectives of this mosque. Especially the monumental mosques built by the government or individuals. In recent years, local governments in various regions in Indonesia seem to build monumental mosque with the high cost. The aim is to enhance the prestige of their region. Because the pomp and luxury, monumental mosques were later shifted its function to be a f ziarah tourism2. These mosque’s architectural designs are no longer showing the identity of the communities and the blending with the local communities. The impression’s of these mosques showing an arogancy, monumentality and distance of the surrounding communities. The impact of the presence of mosques with a monumental architectural design is not always good for the local community. Local communities are often the last people to be considered in the architectural design of this monumental mosques. The design of monumental mosques often causing mudharat and psychological distance between the mosque and the communities, because the mosque was attended with their prominence but they was so alienated from the surrounding environment3. This is very different from the self funded mosques that are built by the communities. In these mosques, have a close relationship and much of sense of belonging of their communities. Local wisdom and deep understanding of the local communities characteristics was also manifested in the mosques architectural design that they built. In this paper will be raised how the uniqueness of the spatial and architectural design aspects at 3 mosques in the few areas in Malang, East Java. It is based on aspects of distinctiveness of the famous Islamic communities in Malang, Masjid Jami Kauman, Masjid Annur Jagalan, and Masjid Gading.

Methods As a descriptive-qualitative architectural research, the methods employed in this research are (1) field surveying, (2) architectural documenting, and (3) informal interviews, the which were the resource persons held in three purposive sample of Mosques: Masjid An-Nur Jagalan, Masjid Gading Pesantren, and Masjid Jami 'Kauman Malang. These three were the resource persons chosen mosques

because of their close relations with communities and their surrounding and their long time developments by local societies. The result of this study shows, That some specific spatial and architectural elements found in the which were the resource persons these are community-based mosques (1) the scale, size, and depth of space, (2) the classification and the placement of space, (3) the architectural expressions, (4) the openness, the boundaries, and the relationship the between spaces, (5) the athmospherical qualities of space, (6) the classification of the users in spaces, (7) the intensity of the users in spaces, and (8) the manner and the position of the users in spaces.

Discussion Discussion of aspects of architectural design and spatial mosque in this study are grouped into three components based on space division components, (1) fixed-feature components, (2) semifixed features components, and (3) non fixed-feature components.

Fixed-Feature Components The first space component is a fixed-feature components, (a) the scale, size, and depth of space, (b) the classification and placement of space, and (c) the architectural expressions. Spatial elements and architectural components are grouped into a fixed space (fixed-feature) because these elements tend to be fixed and not changed in the long term. a. The Scale, size, and depth of space There is a difference in scale space in the third mosque studied. There was a monumentality in space scale in the main prayer room of the Masjid An-Nur Jagalan and Masjid Jami' Kauman, while the scale of the main prayer space in Masjid Gading Pesantren mostly familiar. However, in the third mosque there is a proportional ratio between the overall scale of the mosque building with outer space and the scale of the surrounding environment. In Masjid An-Nur Jagalan and Masjid Gading Pesantren scales formed between the mosque building with the surrounding residential neighborhood is a fairly intimate scale space. Meanwhile, the Masjid Jami 'Kauman, monumental scale is formed by the fusion of mosque building in the square that is wide enough in front of the mosque. Psychologically, the monumental scale giving effect a sense of 'small' and 'foreign' to the environment. Space outside the mosque a familiar scale to help visitors who come to feel 'closer' and 'acceptable' in the mosque’s neighborhood. The scale of the mosque with the surrounding environment is part of the human perception of shape (form). This is consistent with the theory proposed in Gestalt Theory4, that there are 6 (six) properties that influence the perception of shape (form), 1) proximity, 2) similarity, 3) closure, 4) continuity, 5) area and symmetry, and 6) figure and ground. The scale of the mosque in this case relates to the distance and size, when the mosque was in


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the neighborhood, then the distance which tend to be close to home and communities supported the mosque an inconspicuous appearance, giving the effect of similarity (similarity) with its environment, so it does not seem strange in the neighborhood. When the mosque which has close proximity to the settlements have too monumental scale, it will give effect to contrast with the surrounding environment, and memorable are not familiar. Therefore, the most appropriate scale of space and buildings for community based mosques is an harmonious scale with the surrounding environment. There are quiet familiar scale of the building and surrounding outer space, balancing size with surrounding environment, and not so monumental. The size and depth of the mosque is closely linked to the scale space. Large spaces tend to have a monumental scale. In the third mosque studied, the size of the main mosque prayer room tends to exceed the space requirements for prayers five times a day on weekdays. This is evident from the mosque daily occupancy during the five daily prayers that only about one to thirteen rows, while the number of rows that are available in mosques it is twenty (Masjid Gading Pesantren), forty (Masjid AnNur Jagalan) to ninety (Masjid Jami 'Kauman) rows. Mosque of daily occupancy at most of the time the five daily prayers can reach up to 50% of the main prayer space can only be observed in the Masjid Gading Pesantren. The rest, the main prayer halls of mosques are just filled with worshipers at Friday prayers and the prayers in Idul Fitri and Idul Adha. At the times like these, the main mosque prayer room is insufficient for the number of jamaah, so the patio and yard is also used as a prayer area. Meanwhile, based on the behavioral science in architecture, size and depth of field affect human perception of space. The space is too large and in tended to be perceived as a space alien or gripping. This is due, the human perception of space is influenced by several things, among them by size. The size can also affect the depth of space. Objects closer seem larger than the same size but with a longer distance5. It can be observed also in the room. Edward T. White states, a reasonable scale will adjust the space between the size of the room with the activities carried out in it, and is based on the physical and spiritual comfort. The book also explained that there is also a lounge with a magnificent scale, where the size of the existing excess space for the activities in it, this is usually to give the impression of majesty and grandeur. That opinions can provide an overview on this research, that when the mosque is located in the middle of the settlement has a large room sizes and contrasts with the surrounding environment, it will increasingly look great as the distance to the surrounding environment is relatively close. The size of a large space will also give the impression of space with great scale, that would provide 'psychological distance' with the surrounding community. Thus, the size and depth of the main prayer halls of mosques-based society should be considered in accordance with the needs and daily occupancy

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mosque, the mosque in order not to be too large and monumental. Furthermore, to meet the needs of occasional mosque during Friday prayers or prayers in Idul Fitri and Idul Adha, patio and courtyard of the mosque as a multipurpose area that can be expanded. Therefore, the design of the terrace and the courtyard of the mosque also should consider the possibilities of expansion of worshipers at this particular moment.

Figure 1. Scale, size, and depth of space in Masjid Annur Jagalan, Masjid Jami’ Kauman, and Masjid Gading Pesantren

b. The classification and placement of space In general, according to the classification and positioned space contained in the third mosque studied can be divided into three zones, (1) inner zone, consisting of a prohibited space such as the mihrab and the main prayer room, and specificpurpose space such as ablution space and space for takmir , (2) transition zone, consisting of a multipurpose space like a patio or porch, and (3) outer zones, consisting of yard and path that are outside space. Based on the type and placement spaces on the third of this mosque, it can be observed the peculiarities of behavior of jamaah who come from local people and newcomer jamaah or traveler. As noted earlier, jamaah who came from the local community has a tendency to directly enter the main prayer space, whereas the newcomer jamaah or travelers tend to perform activities on the patio or porch before and after the following prayers in the main prayer room. Based on the theory of territoriality, this trend shows that the jamaah who came from the local community have regarded the mosque as part of their territory (territories secondary). Meanwhile, the newcomer or traveler jamaah consider that they are not their territory. Therefore, their behavior indicates that they feel more comfortable to move in outer space zone or transition zone (public territory). This is interesting, because as a public building or facility mosque is actually 'owned' by all elements of muslim society. But this phenomenon is also very reasonable because a person's behavior in areas unfamiliar to him usually strongly influenced by the initial perception of the region. Conversely, if the region has been frequently visited, the initial perception is no longer the main


thing that affects behavior. There has been a process of 'habituation' or habituation that makes a person less sensitive again in response to his surroundings. Habituation or habituation occurs when a stimulus that can be perceived no change or constant, so the response to it has decreased. According to Holahan6, there are 3 aspects contained in the environmental stimuli, namely (1) contains nothing new, (2) contains a surprise, and (3) reveals inequality. Therefore, if there are senses in humans can not catch a novelty, surprise, or perceived inequality in the environment, then the response that occurs will decrease the intensity. Of behavioral phenomena that occur on the third mosque above, can be seen that the jamaah who come from surrounding communities more use of the main prayer hall, and many newcomer jamaah and travelers using the patio area or transition zone. This suggests that habituation occurred in jamaah from the surrounding community who freely use the main prayer hall. In contrast to immigrants from outside and travelers who consider that the mosque is a place that is new to them, so they do not usually use the main prayer hall which is still foreign to them. The newcomer jamaah tend to choose the transitional zone of the terrace which is a public territory. Since the jamaah arrivals are still strongly influenced by the initial perception of the environment in the early times of his coming to the mosque, then attention to the impact of the draft zone of outer space and that this transition zone to the perception they need attention. It is important to design the outer space zones and transition zones are open and accepting entrants memorable. Some examples are the design of barrier that is not too close, the terrace is quite spacious, comfortable, and quiet, placement terrace and the main prayer room which is easily visible and accessible from outside the footprint, circulation is easily understood, and the pages are pretty open. Meanwhile, for the jamaah who came from the local community, physical considerations such as ease of achievement, comfort, and peace of the main prayer room is also a factor to consider.

Figure 2. The classification and placement of space in Masjid Annur Jagalan, Masjid Jami’ Kauman, and Masjid Gading Pesantren

c. Architectural Expression Of the three studied mosque, an architectural expression of Masjid Jami Kauman more grandiose and monumental than two other mosques. This is due to the length of the journey of this mosque and the many who have gone through the process of renovation. In addition, the Masjid Jami 'Kauman also located just west of alun-alun Malang that led to the monumental scale of the building which was proportional to the size of the plaza area. However, when entering the main prayer room, a look of grandeur and monumentalism was quite balanced by the locality of architectural form, structure, and material will be retained since the mosque was first built. Therefore, the architectural expression that can be observed in the main prayer room is the architectural expression that was familiar to the local community for decades. Meanwhile, two other mosques of architectural expression is more simple and in harmony with the surrounding residential neighborhood. Comparison of the scale of the mosque building with the surrounding buildings are not too flashy, even the existence of mosques tend to blend with the residential buildings around it. Mosque which reaches a height of two floors is also quite balanced with residential buildings which height ranged between one and two floors. Architectural vocabulary that is used is also not much different from the surrounding environment, such as models of doors and windows, flooring and wall material, barrier, open layout and space, and so on. The third equation of this mosque is the third use the same architectural language that has been conceived as a feature of the mosque communities are commonly used, among which is the number of doors and windows to be a marker of openness mosque, a minaret or roof forms that become markers of the mosque, the calligraphy on the walls, and so on. The existence of such markers is very important that the mosque can be identified or recognized as a mosque by the community, both local people and travelers or immigrants. As already known, the community has a collective memory of the forms which for years they identify and record as the prevalence of the mosque. Hershberger7 in his writings, "predicting the Meaning of Architecture", stating that the meaning of such a process is categorized into the referential meanings associated with the introduction of the form as a symbol of an object or other events, an introduction to the use and benefit (physical, physiological, psychological, social, cultural, and so on). However, it does not mean an architect is bound only to the referential meanings held by this society. The design of the mosque-based architectural expression of this referential meaning, as stated by Mohd. Tajuddin, can be restricted only to the extent that the building had been known as a mosque by the community. Moreover, the architects can explore the diverse architectural forms as long as it does not contain the harm (mudharat).


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Figure 3. The Architectural Expression of Masjid Annur Jagalan, Masjid Jami Kauman, and Masjid Gading Pesantren

designed more flexible. Some spaces such as women's prayer rooms that are semi-permanent, ablution rooms, and bathrooms have more limited openness due to demands for privacy in these spaces. From the above considerations, the design of the main mosque spaces can be designed in a flexible openness through the use of limiting elements of a semi fixed. Nevertheless, the distinction of each room should still be recognized through the juxtaposition relationship between space. Interpenetration spaces can also resulted any time, for example during Friday prayer or more events that requires more open space. This can resulted with barrier elements which flexible and semi fixed, such as folding doors, walls shear, and so on. However, the interpenetration spaces are can not be designed as fixed or permanent spaces because of the need for a clear distinction in the activities of worship in the main prayer room and more diverse activities in the terrace of the mosque.

Semi-fixed Feature Components The second group is semi fixed feature component, (a) the openess, the boundaries, and the relationship between space, and (b) the asphomerical qualities of space. This spatial and architectural elements are grouped into a semi fixed feature because these elements tend to be somewhat fixed but can change fairly, quickly, and easily. a.

The Openness, the boundaries, and the relationship between space Of the various spaces contained in the third mosque studied, in general the main rooms such as the mihrab, the main prayer room, terrace, and yard are open spaces. Mihrab spaces together with the main prayer room, but still can be distinguished from the size of the main prayer room. The main prayer halls in the third mosque was entirely furnished with lots of doors and windows which produces an open impression. Due to the presence of doors and windows that can be easily opened and closed here, the degree of openness of the main prayer room to be very flexible and can be changed at any time depending on the activity that takes place in it. However, the presence of the walls still produce a strong impression of space and a separate area with a terrace and courtyard. The relationship between the main prayer room with terrace was still a juxtaposition relationships, because they still specifically limits the space between them. From the standpoint of perception of space, it is important to still be able to distinguish the types of existing space in the mosque, according to the benefits of each, that is prohibited space, multipurpose space, specific purpose space, and outside space. Sometimes, these spaces are required to be open, but still recognizable the differences. Prohibited space such as the mihrab and the main prayer space bound by the rules of prayers, while the patio or porch is more multipurpose so it can be

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Figure 4. the openess, the boundaries and the relation between space in Masjid Annur Jagalan, Masjid Jami’ Kauman and Masjid Gading Pesantren

b. The atmospherical qualities of space Of some aspects of atmospherichal space that can be felt, lighting is one aspect that greatly affects human perception. Natural lighting and artificial lighting in the third mosque studied producing quality space suitable atmosphere for worship activities and educational activities that take place in it. The atmospherical inner space zone in the mosque is quite bright but not dazzling because it is not from direct sunlight, but the diffuse light entering through existing openings. Similarly, the quality of air circulation and acoustics in the main prayer room. Cross ventilation derived from the number of open doors and windows make the rooms are quite comfortable. The existence of elements of semi-permanent barrier to absorb sound and also prayer rugs to help create peace in the main prayer room. In the other hand, the quality of the atmosphere in the room terraces of the mosque is actually less attention. In some areas of the terrace, natural lighting obtained is the direct rays of the sun's glare and heat. This is because the ceiling height is too


monumental terrace to shade from the sun, wind, and rain. Location of terraces that are too close to the road also resulted in this area is easy to obtain the flow noise and dust coming from the road. This is unfortunate because it is actually the terrace is the best place chosen by the travelers, as described in the previous section. In addition, the terrace is also a multi purpose room which is very useful for a variety of activities at the mosque. Therefore, the atmospherical quality aspects of space, and the design of comfortable teracce must be considered, although not the same with the atmospherical quality in main prayers space. Thus, not only the perception of the early travelers jamaah will be formed by the comfortable of the terrace of this mosque. A long with the existencies of mosques with local communities, referential meanings can be formed by use the terrace for a variety of social activities at the mosque daily.

Figure 5. the asmopherical qualities of space in Masjid Annur Jagalan, Masjid Jami’ Kauman and Masjid Gading Pesantren

non-local student that regulary come to masjid for pray or ta’lim. In contrast, in the Masjid Jami' Kauman, the intensity of travelers jamaah who come to the mosque are not regular enough, especially in the afternoon until the evening. In addition to the above grouping, behavior patterns of jamaah can be classification based on age. Old people, adults, adolescents, and children encountered as user groups in mosque. Children tend to use the mosque as a place to play, meet friends, and study. Sometimes children are not following prayers, but keep playing while waiting to be study on the terrace and courtyard. Meanwhile, the other age groups use mosques as a place of worship in addition to the five daily prayers in congregation as well as a place to stay in touch with neighbors and friends. From the above it can be observed that the presence of various groups who use the mosque for a variety of activities led to the design of the mosque should consider the existence of these various circles. Children who like to play in the mosque should also be considered its existence. Consideration of the existence of children in the mosque can not be avoided, because this is where they get religious education are sometimes not available to them at school and at home. Children can not be kept away from the mosque, because of their referential meaning when adults are also began from childhood. The design of the mosque can be more friendly to children, taking into account the factor of safety and comfort them, while still considering play as the usual activity on the terrace and in the yard does not disturb the worship activity in the main prayer room. For that, the existence of terraces and yard as a multi-purpose area must get the good consideration of various aspects.

Not-fixed Feature Components The third group of the space component is non fixed feature, (a) the classification of the users in spaces, (b) the intensity of the user space, and (c) the manner and position of the user space. This elements are grouped into non-fixed feature component because these relation with humans and their setting that can always change every time. a. The classification of the users in spaces As described in the previous chapter, there are two main groups of users mosque which has a different behavior pattern, jamaah who came from the local community and travelers or jamaah who are coming from different areas. In the three mosques that have been studied, there are differences in the ratio between the number of local jamaah and newcomers jamaah. In Masjid An-Nur Jagalan, the number of local jamah and travelers jamaah can be quite balanced in times of ta’lim. Outside these times, jamaah is dominated by the local communities. Meanwhile, there bit of travelers jamaah in Masjid Gading Pesantren. Local jamaah is dominated by students. Travelers jamaah mostly as

Figure 6. the users in spaces in Masjid Annur Jagalan, Masjid Jami’ Kauman and Masjid Gading Pesantren

b. The intensity of the users in spaces The intensity of the third user of this mosque is very high at certain moments, such as, prayers, learning the Koran, haul, and Friday prayers. However, the daily occupancy at the mosque during prayer five times a day is only about one to thirteen


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rows, while the number of rows that are available in mosques it is twenty (Masjid Gading Pesantren), forty (Masjid An-Nur Jagalan) up to ninety (Masjid Jami 'Kauman) rows. The daily occupancy at most of the time the five daily prayers can reach up to 50% of the main prayer space is only found in Masjid Gading Pesantren. Above facts show that basically the mosque is a multifunctional institution, religious and social functions. Therefore, consideration of the ratio of main prayer room as a prohibited space with wide terraces and a yard that multipurpose should based multi-functionality of this community. The calculation may take into consideration the vast space occupancy prohibited mosque for daily prayers five times, while the vast multipurpose space calculation may consider high intensity users on the occasional mosque activities as mentioned above.

make use of the terrace as a place to wait for the implementation of the prayer. Most of the jamaah who are local students or non local students prefer to directly enter the main prayer room area. Another phenomenon related to the behavior typical of this jamaah is the choice of location when praying. In the third mosque studied, the general location of jamaah who occupy the first rows are the old people and adults.

Conclusions 1.

2.

Figure 7. the intensity of users in spaces in Masjid Annur Jagalan, Masjid Jami’ Kauman and Masjid Gading Pesantren

c. The Manner and the Position of the Users in Space The similarity of the manner and the position of the users can be observed from the third jamaah mosques are came from the local communities that has a tendency to directly enter the main prayer space and move in it, whereas the travelers jamaah tend to move in the terrace mosque a more open and within easy reach. This can be seen from the user's position in the Masjid Jami 'Kauman a much visited by travelers. The intensity of activity in the area of the front terrace and side of the mosque is quite high, especially at times when quite a lot of travelers who visit at this mosque. The travelers rested, calling, chatting, lying down, prayed circumcision in the terrace area of the mosque. Some jamaah travelers even have a tendency to connect the first row in the prayers in this terrace area, instead of taking place in the back row in the main prayer room. Conversely, the local community of Kampung Kauman most directly to the main prayer room and perform various activities in it. By contrast, in the Masjid Gading Pesantren rarely visited by travelers enough, the intensity of activity in the terrace area is very low. Only when there are one or two travelers who stop at this mosque, they

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3.

4.

5. 6.

The calculation may take into consideration the vast space occupancy prohibited mosque for daily prayers five times, while the vast multipurpose space calculation may consider high intensity users on the occasional mosque activities as mentioned above. Thus, all functions can be embodied in the mosque as well without making the mosque building needs grow beyond the limit, and to avoid the monumentality and disproportionate to the scale of buildings in the surrounding environment It is important to design the outer space zone and transition zone that memorable journey, or open and receptive to newcomers, this is because the travelers are just one or two visits to the mosque is still heavily influenced by their initial perceptions of the design of the mosque. Some examples are the design of barrier that is not too close, wide terrace,, comfortable, placement terrace and the main prayer room which is easily visible and accessible from outside, easy circulation, and the open yard. The design of the mosque should utilize markers that have been known in the community, so the building can be identified as a mosque by the community, both local people and travelers. The design of the mosque-based architectural expression of this referential meaning can be restricted only to the extent that the building had been known as a mosque by the community. Moreover, the architects can explore the diverse architectural forms as long as it does not contain the harm (mudharat). It is important to still be able to distinguish the types of existing space in the mosque, according to the benefits of each, that is prohibited space, multipurpose space, specific purpose space, and outside space. In the aspect of quality of atmospheric space, terrace design is quite comfortable. The existence of various groups who use the mosque for a variety of activities led to the design of the mosque should consider the presence of them all. The design of the mosque can be more friendly to children, taking into account the factor of safety and comfort them, while still considering to play the usual activity on the terrace and in the yard does not interfere with the activity of worship is


7.

performed in the main prayer room. Therefore, the existence of terraces and yard as a multipurpose area must get the good consideration of various aspects. The design of the spaces at the mosque may consider preferability (the tendency to choose) users for specific locations in the mosque to gain benefits at the same time to avoid harm from the design of these spaces.

Referensi 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Suryadarma Ali. 2011. Pertumbuhan Masjid Paling Kecil Dibanding Rumah Ibadah Lain. http://www.suaraislam.com/news/berita/nasional/2578pertumbuhan-masjid-paling-kecil-dibandingrumah-ibadah-lain, diakses tanggal 25 April 2011 Yulia Eka Putrie. 2010. “Merenungkan Kembali Makna Monumentalitas Arsitektur Masjid”. Dalam Prosiding Seminar Makna 101010 Jurusan Arsitektur ITS Surabaya. Yulia Eka Putrie Putrie. 2010. “Merenungkan Kembali Makna Monumentalitas Arsitektur Masjid”. Dalam Prosiding Seminar Makna 101010 Jurusan Arsitektur ITS Surabaya. Deddy Halim. 2005. Psikologi Arsitektur: Pengantar Kajian Lintas Disiplin. Jakarta: PT. Gramedia Deddy Halim. 2005. Psikologi Arsitektur: Pengantar Kajian Lintas Disiplin. Jakarta: PT. Gramedia CJ. Holahan. 1976. ”Environmental Change in psychiatric setting: A social system analysis”. Human Relations. February 1976 vol. 29 no. 2 p. 153-166 Robert G. Hershberger. 1974. “Predicting the Meaning of Architecture”. dalam Jon Lang, Charles Burnette, Walter Moleski and David Vachon (eds.). Designing for Human Behavior. Stoudsburg, Pennsylvania: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc. 150


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PENERAPAN TEKNOLOGI SMART BUILDING PADA PERANCANGAN SMART MASJID Khalid Abdul Mannan

Jurusan Teknik Arsitektur, FSaintek, UIN Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang e-mail: [email protected]

Aulia Fikriarini Muchlis

Jurusan Teknik Arsitektur, FSaintek, UIN Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Indonesia has the largest Muslim population in the world, followed by a large number of mosques scattered in various places and these mosques sometimes have a problem regarding the efficiency in managing the resources of a mosque. This paper is designed to introduce the concept of mosque design based on the principles of smart building with the literature study methods and analysis, and comparison to the values in the philosophy of the Qur'an to determine the suitability of the application of smart building technology in the design of a mosque. With the support of some religious activities program, the expected result is "smart mosque", that would also suit with the site and user.

Keywords: mosque, smart building

Abstrak Indonesia merupakan negara dengan penduduk muslim terbanyak di dunia. Walaupun demikian, di balik jumlahnya yang banyak, sering dijumpai permasalahan menyangkut efisiensi dalam pengelolaaan sumber daya sebuah masjid. Tulisan ini dibuat untuk mengenalkan konsep perancangan masjid berdasarkan prinsip-prinsip smart building, dimana smart building adalah teknologi untuk mengangkat tingkat efisiensi dalam pengelolaan sebuah bangunan. Metode yang digunakan adalah studi literatur dan analisis,disertai komparasi dengan nilainilai perancangan dalam al-Qur’an untuk menentukan tingkat kesesuaian penerapan teknologi smart building dalam perancangan sebuah masjid. Hasilnya adalah teknologi smart building sesuai untuk diterapkan dalam perancangan masjid.

Kata kunci: masjid, smart building

Pendahuluan Indonesia merupakan negara dengan penduduk muslim terbanyak di dunia. Pertumbuhan penduduk muslimnya yang pesat berpengaruh terhadap jumlah masjid di Indonesia yang tumbuh dengan pesat pula. Dengan jumlah penduduk muslim di tahun 2012 yang mencapai 88% atau sekitar 210 juta dari 240 juta penduduk Indonesia, kini terdapat sekitar 600 ribu masjid di Indonesia dengan pertumbuhan mencapai 60% per tahun. Walaupun demikian, di balik jumlahnya yang banyak, sering kita jumpai permasalahan menyangkut esensi dan nilai dalam perancangan sebuah masjid. Hal ini antara lain dipengaruhi oleh cara pandang seorang arsitek dalam memahami filosofi dari sebuah masjid. Apabila dalam perancangannya masjid dipahami sebagai rumah Tuhan, implikasi yang muncul adalah perlombaan untuk merancang masjid yang terbesar, termahal,

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terbaik, ataupun terindah1. Kemewahan arsitektur masjid seringkali dijadikan simbol kesyukuran atas rahmat Allah swt., yang sebenarnya kontradiktif dengan anjuran untuk tidak berlebih-lebihan dan menonjolkan diri2. Dengan demikian, dapat disimpulkan bahwa masjid yang baik bukanlah masjid yang indah dari bentuknya saja, namun juga benar, sesuai nilai-nilai ajaran Islam yang terkandung dalam al-Qur’an dan Hadits. Oleh karena itu, pendekatan yang sesuai untuk dipakai dalam perancangan masjid adalah pendekatan kontekstual, dimana isu ataupun permasalahan yang ada menjadi hal yang diangkat untuk diselesaikan melalui perancangan sebuah masjid. Permasalahan tersebut antara lain mencakup permasalahan sosial seperti kemiskinan dan tingginya angka pengangguran serta permasalahan lingkungan seperti global warning dan efek rumah kaca.


Terkait hal tersebut, teknologi smart building dapat menjadi alternatif solusi untuk penyelesaian masalah lingkungan dalam perancangan sebuah masjid. Teknologi smart building mampu mengangkat tingkat efisiensi pengelolaan dalam sebuah bangunan, sehingga sesuai untuk mengurangi konsumsi energi yang digunakan dalam aktivitas sebuah masjid. Selain itu banyak persamaan antara prinsip-prinsip dari teknologi smart building dengan nilai-nilai ajaran Islam seperti kemanfaatan, efisiensi, dan ketidak-mubaziran. Hal ini secara tidak langsung dapat menjadi contoh penerapan nilai-nilai ajaran Islam secara langsung, sehingga masyarakat ke depannya diharapkan dapat lebih menerima dan mengerti arti sesungguhnya dari nilai-nilai ajaran Islam tersebut.

Metode Metode yang digunakan adalah studi literatur pada tema dan objek yang dibahas, yakni masjid dan smart buidling. Hasil dari studi literatur kemudian dikomparasikan dengan nilai-nilai ajaran Islam dalam al-Qur’an untuk menentukan tingkat kesesuaian antara teknologi smart buildingdengan nilai-nilai ajaran Islam. Hasil dari komparasi tersebut berupa prinsip-prinsip dasar smart building yang sesuai dengan nilai-nilai ajaran Islam. Selanjutnya, prinsip-prinsip tersebut digunakan sebagai acuan dalam studi banding pada rancangan masjid-masjid yang sudah ada. Dari hasil studi banding nantinya diperoleh jenis teknologi smart building apa saja yang sesuai untuk diterapkan dalam perancangan sebuah masjid.

Hasil dan Diskusi Istilah masjid memiliki akar kata dari bahasa Aram. Kata masgid (m-s-g-d) dalam bahasa Aram berarti tiang suci atau tempat sembahan, ditemukan dalam sebuah inskripsi dari abad ke-5sebelum masehi. Kata masjid dalam bahasa Inggris disebut mosque yang berasal dari kata mezquita dalam bahasa spanyol yang kemudian populer dan dipakai dalam bahasa Inggris secara luas3. Istilah masjid sendiri secara terminologis berarti suatu badan atau institusi yang diperuntukkan sebagai pusat ibadah dari orang-orang mukmin, dimana sentral kegiatan mereka berpusat disana, mulai dari kegiatan menghambakan diri kepada Allah swt sampai kepada perjuangan hidup yang berdimensi dunia semata. Dr Makhmud Syafi’e dalam tulisannya “Perspektif Sejarah dan Hukum Islam”4 menyebutkan bahwa mengingat akar kata masjid bermakna tunduk dan patuh, maka hakikat masjid itu adalah tempat melakukan segala aktivitas ibadah sebagai manifestasi dari ketaatan kepada Allah semata. Ditinjau dari jenisnya, ibadah dalam Islam terbagi menjadi dua, dengan bentuk dan sifat yang berbeda antara satu dengan lainnya. Umay M. Dja’far Shiddieq memaparkan bahwa ibadah ditinjau dari jenisnya terbagi menjadi dua jenis, yaitu ibadah mahdah dan ibadah ghairu mahdah. Ibadah mahdhah

atau ibadah khusus adalah ibadah yang ketentuannya akan tingkat, tata cara dan perincian-perinciannya telah ditetapkan oleh Allah swt. Jenis ibadah yang termasuk ibadah mahdhah adalah wudhu, tayammum, mandi hadats, shalat, shiyam, haji dan umrah. Sedangkan ibadah ghairu mahdhah atau ibadah umum adalah segala amalan yang diizinkan oleh Allah.Contoh ibadah ghairu mahdhah adalah belajar, dzikir, tolong menolong dan lain sebagainya. Dalam penerapannya, ibadah ghairu mahdah mencakup ke dalam seluruh perbuatan baik yang dilakukan dengan niat untuk mencari ridha dari Allah. Maka, apabila dalam masjid digunakan teknologi terbaru yang bermanfaat dengan niat baik maka hukum penggunaanya adalah mubah, karena sifatnya yang termasuk ke dalam kategori ibadah maghdah. Smart building sendiri sebenarnya bukanlah hal baru dalam dunia konstruksi atau pembangunan. Smart buildingsystem atau mungkin juga biasa disebut intelligent building system adalah sebuah integrasi teknologi dengan instalasi bangunan yang memungkinkan seluruh perangkat fasilitas gedung dapat dirancang dan diprogram sesuai kebutuhan, keinginan, dan kontrol otomatis terpusat. Banyak sekali perbedaan pendapat mengenai pengertian smart building. Untuk itu dalam bukunya Intelligent Buildings and Automation, Shengwei Wang membaginya ke dalam 3 kategori yang terdiri dari: a. Performance Based Definitions Dengan mengoptimalkan performa bangunan yang dibuat untuk efisiensi lingkungan dan pada saat itu juga mampu menggunakan dan mengatur sumber energi bangunan dan meminimalkan life cost perangkat dan utilitas bangunan. Smart building menyediakan efisiensi tinggi, kenyamanan dan kesesuaian dengan lingkungan dengan mengoptimalkan penerapan struktur, sistem, servis dan manajemen. Smart building juga harus mampu beradaptasi dan memberikan respon cepat dalam berbagai perubahan kondisi internal maupun external dan dalam menghadapi tuntutan users. b. Services Based Definitions Dalam tujuan utamanya bangunan harus mampu menyediakan kualitas servis bagi user. Japanese Intelligent Building Institute (JIBI) mendefinisikan smart building atau intelligent building adalah sebuah bangunan dengan fungsi servis komunikasi, otomatisasi bangunan dan mampu menyesuaikan dengan aktivitas user. Di Jepang 4 aspek layanan servis dibagi menjadi 4 sesuai dengan key issue smart building yaitu: 1. Layanan dalam menerima dan menghubungkan informasi serta mendukung efisiensi control manajemen 2. Menjamin kepuasan dan kenyamanan user yang bekerja atau berada di dalamnya 3. Merasionalkan manajemen bangunan dalam menyediakan layanan administrasi yang murah. 4. Perubahan yang cepat, fleksibel dan ekonomis dalam responnya terhadap sosiologi lingkungan,


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komplektivitas dan bermacam-macamnya tuntutan pekerjaan serta strategi bisnis. c. System Based Definitions Smart building harus memiliki sebuah teknologi dan system teknologi yang digabungkan. Chinese Intelligent Building Design Standard mengeluarkan standar yang harus dimiliki smart building yaitu menyediakan otomatisasi bangunan, system jaringan komunikasi, optimalisasi integrasi komposisi dalam struktur, sitem, servis, manajemen dalam menyediakan efisiensi tinggi, kenyamanan dan ketenangan bagi users. Dari uraian di atas dapat disimpulkan bahwa bangunan smart building atau intelligent building haruslah memenuhi aspek-aspek perancangan seperti: 1. Menyediakan informasi dan mengoptimalkan performa building system dan fasilitas. 2. Aktif dalam memonitor dan mendeteksi kesalahan dan kekurangan dalam building systems. 3. Mengintegrasikan system untuk dalam kegiatan bisnis, real time report dan manajemen operasi utilitas, energy dan kenyamanan users. 4. Menggabungkan tools, teknologi, sumber energy dan layanan dalam mengkontribusikan konservasi energy dan sustainability atau keberlanjutan lingkungan.

Penerapan Smart Building dalam Bangunan Dalam smart building melibatkan berbagai instalasi dan penggunaan kecanggihan dan terintegrasi dalam system teknologi bangunan. Sistem ini mencakup otomatisasi bangunan, keamanan, telekomunikasi, sistem pengguna, dan sistem manajemen fasilitas. Smart Building mengenali dan menunjukkan kemajuan teknologi dan konvergensi sistem bangunan, unsur-unsur umum dari sistem dan fungsionalitas tambahan bahwa sistem telah terintegrasi. Smart building memberikan tindak lanjut informasi mengenai bangunan atau ruang dalam bangunan untuk memungkinkan pemilik bangunan atau penghuni mengelola gedung dan ruang. Smart building memberikan pendekatan yang paling efektif dalam mendesain dan dalam membangun system teknologi. Cara konvensional merancang dan membangun sebuah bangunan namun mengoperasikan system secara terpisah. Artinya kurang ada kerjasama antara semua sub-sistem sehingga sistem yang ada secara keseluruhan menjadi tidak. Lebih jauh dijelaskan pada gambar di bawah ini:

Gambar 1.1. Sistem Kontrol Teknologi Bangunan Konvensional (sumber: Sinopoli, 2010:3)

Smart building mengambil pendekatan yang berbeda dalam merancang sebuah sistem. Pada dasarnya, satu desain atau koordinat dari seluruh desain bangunan bersistem teknologi termasuk ke dalam dokumen konstruksi yang terpadu dan konsisten. Dokumen konstruksi menentukan setiap sistem dan alamat sistem elemen umum atau sebuah integrasi untuk sistem. Ini termasuk kabel, jalur kabel, peralatan kamar, database sistem, dan komunikasi protokol antar perangkat. Salah satu desain konsolidasi ini kemudian dipasang oleh kontraktor, disebut sebagai Kontraktor Teknologi atau sebagai Master System Integrator. Proses ini mengurangi ineffisiensi dalam proses desain dan konstruksi, menghemat waktu dan uang. Selama operasi bangunan, bangunan sistem teknologi yang terintegrasi secara horizontal antara semua subsistem maupun vertikal, yang subsistem dalam sistem manajemen fasilitas bisnis memungkinkan system informasi dan data operasi gedung digunakan oleh beberapa individu yang menempati dan mengelola bangunan. Lebih jauh mengenai penjelasan smart building system dijelaskan pada gambar berikut ini:

Gambar 2.19. Penerapan Integrated Building System pada Smart Building (sumber: Sinopoli, 2010:4)

Smart Building juga memiliki komponen penting mengenai penggunaan energi dan sustainable bangunan dan jaringan smart elektrical. Otomatisasi bangunan sistem, seperti kontrol HVAC, pencahayaan kontrol, manajemen daya, dan

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metering memainkan peran utama dalam menentukan efisiensi energi operasional bangunan. Jaringan smart elektrical erat dengan Smart Building. Kekuatan pendorong untuk Smart Building economic, energy, dan technology. Smart dalam memanfaatkan infrastruktur teknologi informasi bangunan utama dan mengambil keuntungan dari teknologi yang ada. Untuk pengembang dan pemilik, smart building meningkatkan nilai properti. Untuk properti dan manajer fasilitas, smart building menyediakan subsistem yang lebih efektif dan lebih efisien dalam manajemen, seperti konsolidasi sistem manajemen. Untuk arsitek, insinyur, dan kontraktor konstruksi, itu berarti menggabungkan bagian-bagian dari desain dan konstruksi yang dihasilkan dan efisiensi dalam manajemen proyek dan penjadwalan proyek.

Kesimpulan: Building

Prinsip-Prinsip

Dasar

Smart

Dari penjabaran diatas dapat disimpulkan prinsip-prinsip dasar dari smart building terkait perancangan masjid sebagai tempat ibadah. Prinsipprinsip tersebut adalah : a. Efisiensi Salah satu tolak ukur keberhasilan suatu bangunan dalam menerapkan tema smart building adalah apabila bangunan tersebut sudah efisien dalam pengelolaannya. Dalam kaitannya dengan perancangan smart masjid, prinsip efisiensi dapat diterapkan mulai dari pemilihan lokasi, perencanaan material, perencanaan pembangunan, perencanaan sistem utilitas, hingga perencanaan desain bentuk bangunan. b. Efektif Prinsip efektif dalam smart building berarti penerapan teknologi yang tepat guna, dimana alat ataupun material yang dipilih sesuai dengan yang dibutuhkan. Secara filosofis hal ini berarti ketepatan antara jawaban yang diberikan atas persoalan yang ada. Dalam perancangan smart masjid ini, prinsip efektif dapat diterapkan di seluruh aspek perancangan, terutama diterapkan pada hasil akhir desain masjid, yang diharapkan mampu sejalan dengan masalah yang menjadi issue yang ingin diselesaikan melalui perancangan masjid ini. c. Kemudahan Mudah dalam hal ini berarti mudah dalam mengoperasikan, mudah dalam perawatan, serta sistem yang ada mudah untuk ditiru dan dikembangkan ditempat lain dimana dalam perancangan smart masjid ini diharapkan dapat menjadi protoype, percontohan bagi masjid-masjid lainnya dalam mengembangkan dan membuat masjid yang efektif dan efisien. Dengan demikian, bangunan masjid akan menjadi media pembelajaran tak langsung, dimana masyarakat yang ada diharapkan dapat mengambil pelajaran dari sistem yang ada. d. Penerapan Teknologi Terbaru Penerapan teknologi terbaru berarti menanamkan semangat kebaruan dimana kita diajak untuk terus belajar dan mencari hal-hal yang baru yang sekiranya berguna bagi lingkungan dan

masyarakat sekitar. Penerapan prinsip ini yakni pada pencarian inovasi yang bermanfaat, yang nantinya digunakan sebagai bagian dari perancangan smart masjid ini. Itulah empat hal yang menjadi tolak ukur penerapan prinsipsmart building dalamperancangan objek bangunan masjid ini. Satu hal yang penting adalah prinsip-prinsip tersebut akan menjadi satu kesatuan yang baik apabila seluruh sistem yang dipakai dapat diintegrasikan menjadi sebuah sistem besar yang terpadu.

Referensi

1

Rasdi, Mohammad Tajuddin. 2010. Rekabentuk Masjid Sebagai Pusat Pengembangan Masyarakat. Malaysia: Desktop Publisher

2

Putrie, Yulia Eka. 2009. Kontradiksi Simbol dan Substansi Nilai Islam dalam Arsitektur Masjid. Lembaga Penelitian dan Pengembangan UIN Malang. Laporan Penelitian Tidak Diterbitkan.

3 4

http://wikipedia.org/wiki/masjid Syafi’ie, Makhmud. Tt. Perspektif Sejarah dan Hukum Islam. unpublished


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PENERAPAN PRINSIP SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PADA PERANCANGAN PONDOK PESANTREN ENTERPRENEUR Achmad Siddiq Annur

Jurusan Teknik Arsitektur, Fakultas Sains dan Teknologi, UIN Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang e-mail: [email protected]

Andi Baso Mappaturi

Jurusan Teknik Arsitektur, Fakultas Sains dan Teknologi, UIN Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang

Abstract Unhealthy competition among economic actors, and exploitation of natural resources without preservation, caused a complicated problem in the community. Poor-quality education, especially in moral and religious education, to be one of the causes of these problems. Therefore, the existence of boarding school as an educational institution based on Islam is expected to be a solution to decline moral values and religion in this nation. Through a combination of formal and religious education at a boarding school will provide a strong mental training for the formation of individual intelligent and noble. In addition, a boarding school with speech entrepreneurship curriculum in the education system, can provide an added value to the institution. Prospective employers are responsible for each other and the environment, and economic actors are honest and committed. Entrepreneur Boarding can be part of an effort to maintain the sustainability of resources, both natural and human resources. Sustainable development, as the purpose of the object, is a theme that describes every aspect of the design object. Sustainable development has three principles of sustainability; the natural environment sustainability, social sustainability and economic sustainability. Starting from the planning of design, the building process, until the use of the building, always accompanied by the consideration of the three aspects of sustainability. Through the application of sustainable development as the design theme of the boarding school entrepreneurs will produce buildings that are environmentally and socially friendly, in addition to continue to provide investment for owners, users, and the surrounding community. Keywords: Boarding School Entrepreneur, Sustainable Development, Three Dimensions of Sustainable Development

Abstrak Persaingan tidak sehat antar pelaku ekonomi, serta pemanfaatan sumber daya alam yang berlebihan tanpa diimbangi dengan pelestariannya, kini menjadi permasalahan pelik di tengah masyarakat. Pendidikan yang kurang berkualitas, khususnya pendidikan moral dan agama, menjadi salah satu penyebab atas permasalahan tersebut. Oleh sebab itu, keberadaan Pondok Pesantren sebagai lembaga pendidikan berbasis agama Islam diharapkan dapat menjadi solusi atas menurunnya nilai-nilai moral dan agama pada bangsa ini. Melalui perpaduan antara pendidikan formal dan pendidikan agama pada pondok pesantren akan memberikan pelatihan mental yang kuat untuk terbentuknya individu cerdas dan berakhlak mulia. Di samping itu, pondok pesantren dengan pembekalan kurikulum kewirausahaan pada sistem pendidikannya, dapat memberikan nilai tambah terhadap lembaga pendidikan tersebut. Sehingga dihasilkanlah calon pengusaha yang bertanggungjawab terhadap sesama dan terhadap lingkungan, serta pelaku ekonomi yang jujur dan berkomitmen. Pondok Pesantren Enterpreneur dapat menjadi bagian dari usaha untuk mempertahankan keberlanjutan sumber daya, baik sumber daya alam maupun manusia. Pembangunan yang berkelanjutan atau yang dikenal dengan sustainable development, sebagaimana tujuan dari obyek pondok pesantren enterpreneur itu sendiri menjadi tema yang menjiwai tiap aspek perancangan obyek tersebut. Sustainable development memiliki tiga prinsip keberlanjutan, yakni: keberlanjutan lingkungan alam, keberlanjutan sosial, dan keberlanjutan ekonomi. Mulai dari tahap perencanaan, pembangunan, hingga penggunaannya, selalu diiringi oleh pertimbangan akan keberlanjutan tiga aspek tersebut. Melalui penerapan tema sustainable development pada perancangan pondok pesantren enterpreneur akan dihasilkan bangunan yang ramah lingkungan dan ramah terhadap masyarakat, di samping tetap memberikan investasi bagi pemilik, pengguna, serta masyarakat di sekitarnya. Kata kunci: Pondok Pesantren Enterpreneur, Sustainable Development, Tiga Dimensi Sustainable Development

Pendahuluan Fenomena sosial yang terjadi saat ini tidak lepas dari permasalahan pendidikan dan

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perekonomian, atau korelasi antara keduanya. Sebagian besar masyarakat memahami tujuan dari pendidikan hanyalah untuk menunjang perekonomian di masa mendatang. Padahal esensi terpenting dari


eksistensi pendidikan ialah pembentukan karakter serta pengendalian perilaku seseorang. Akibatnya, banyak pelaku ekonomi di negeri ini yang saling bersaing secara tidak sehat, dan saling merugikan satu sama lain. Demi tujuan mendapatkan keuntungan yang sebesar-besarnya, mereka tidak segan untuk melakukan eksploitasi terhadap lingkungan, tanpa ada kesadaran untuk melestarikannya kembali. Melihat fenomena tersebut, perlu adanya pendidikan sikap dan mental yang lebih ketat, agar masyarakat dapat lebih memperhatikan manusia dan lingkungan sekitarnya selain untuk mendapatkan keuntungan semata. Islam sebagai agama yang dipeluk oleh mayoritas penduduk Indonesia, telah mengajarkan kepada penganutnya untuk selalu menjaga hubungan yang baik dengan Tuhannya, dengan sesama, serta dengan lingkungan alam. Peran manusia sebagai khalifah di bumi, juga termasuk di dalam ajaran Agama Islam. Namun, kurangnya kepedulian terhadap sesama dan terhadap lingkungan alam, banyak terjadi di negeri yang sebagian besar penduduknya beragama Islam ini. Dari sini, terlihat jelas bahwa terdapat hubungan antara kurangnya pemahaman tentang Agama Islam pada masyarakat, dengan rusaknya perekonomian serta eksploitasi alam besar-besaran yang kini terjadi. Pondok pesantren sebagai lembaga pendidikan berbasis agama Islam memiliki peluang untuk mendidik moral dan perilaku masyarakat Indonesia. Penekanan pada pendidikan anak pesantren atau santri tidak hanya pada ilmu agama dan ilmu umum saja, melainkan juga pada pembentukan pribadi yang beriman, bertaqwa, serta berakhlak mulia. Di sisi lain, sebagai lembaga pendidikan pondok pesantren diminati oleh sebagian besar masyarakat Indonesia yang mayoritas penduduknya muslim. Tercatat ada sekitar 21.521 pondok pesantren di Indonesia dengan jumlah santri yang tidak kurang dari 3 juta orang1.Harapannya, melalui pondok pesantren inilah permasalahan ekonomi bangsa dapat terselesaikan. Perkembangan pesat lembaga pendidikan pondok pesantren di Indonesia mengiringi pula perkembangan keilmuan yang diajarkan di dalamnya. Saat ini klasifikasi pondok pesantren tidak hanya sebatas model yang berbeda antara pondok pesantren salaf dan modern saja. Lebih bervariasi lagi, terdapat beberapa pondok pesantren dengan ciri khas masing-masing sesuai bidang pendidikan yang ditekankan. Contohnya pondok pesantren tahfidz al Quran yang khusus membimbing santri yang ingin menghafal al Quran hingga pondok bahasa asing yang didalamnya menerapkan penggunaan bahasa asing dalam percakapan sehari-hari. Dari fenomena permasalahan ekonomi yang terjadi di Indonesia saat ini, alangkah baiknya jika terdapat pondok pesantren yang menyediakan fasilitas pendidikan perekonomian, yang dalam hal ini adalah wirausaha. Maka perancangan pondok pesantren berbasis wirausaha atau pondok pesantren enterpreneur menjadi menarik untuk dibahas, sebagai solusi atas isu sosial yang terjadi di masyarakat dewasa ini.

Keberadaaan Pondok Pesantren Enterpreneur menjadi sebuah perwujudan integrasi keilmuan, baik integrasi antara ilmu agama dan ilmu pengetahuan umum, integrasi antara ilmu secara teori maupun praktek, integrasi antara ilmu tentang sikap individu terhadap ilmu tentang kemasyarakatan, serta integrasi antara kehidupan dunia dan akhirat. Dalam Islam telah diajarkan tentang pentingnya keseimbangan antara kehidupan dunia dan akhirat, yang dalam firman-Nya berbunyi: "Dan, carilah pada apa yang telah dianugerahkan Allah kepadamu (kebahagiaan) negeri akhirat, janganlah kamu melupakan bagianmu dari (kenikmatan) duniawi dan berbuat baiklah (kepada orang lain) sebagaimana Allah telah berbuat baik kepadamu, dan janganlah kamu berbuat kerusakan di (muka) bumi. Sesungguhnya Allah tidak menyukai orang-orang yang berbuat kerusakan." (al Qashash: 77).

Dari ayat tersebut, Allah memerintahkan kepada manusia untuk selalu berusaha mencari kebahagiaan di akhirat dengan selalu beribadah serta menjauhi larangan-Nya. Manusia juga memiliki hak untuk mendapatkan kebahagiaan di kehidupan dunianya dengan belajar dan bekerja keras. Dalam upaya mencari kebahagiaan di dua dunia tersebut Allah memberikan syarat. Syarat yang pertama yaitu manusia harus saling memberikan kebaikan kepada sesama, sehingga dalam beribadah maupun bekerja janganlah sampai merugikan orang lain. Syarat berikutnya, dalam pencarian kebahagiaan di dunia maupun akhirat, Allah melarang manusia untuk merusak alam. Manusia sebagai khalifah di muka bumi harus dapat mengatur keseimbangan alam untuk dapat dimanfaatkan namun dan melestarikannya sekaligus. Pondok Pesantren Enterpreneur, erat kaitannya dengan prinsip keberlanjutan atau sustainable development. Keberlanjutan dari segi kehidupan sosial masyarakat, keberlanjutan ekonomi masyarakat, serta keberlanjutan lingkungan alam, merupakan tiga aspek yang perlu dipertahankan sebagai prinsip dasar sustainable development atau disebut sebagai tiga dimensi sustainable development. Tujuan utama Pondok Pesantren Enterpreneur pada dasarnya merupakan lembaga pendidikan yang menghasilkan masyarakat berpendidikan dan bermoral, dalam hal ini menunjang keberlanjutan dalam aspek sosial. Di samping itu, kegiatan pendidikan kewirausahaan dalam pondok pesantren ini bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kualitas perekonomian masyarakat, yang dalam hal ini menunjang aspek ekonomi. Sedangkan dari segi lingkungan ditunjang dengan desain perancangan Pondok Pesantren Enterprenenur yang ramah lingkungan dan meminimalisir eksploitasi alam, di samping keberadaannya yang mengharuskan untuk tetap melestarikan lingkungan dalam segala aspek.


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Gambar 1: Tiga Dimensi Sustainable Development2

Melalui alasan-alasan itulah, perlu kiranya untuk mengkaji perancangan Pondok Pesantren Enterprenenur dengan menerapkan nilai-nilai keberlanjutan ke setiap aspek rancangannya. Mulai dari penataan massa, bentuk bangunan, hingga material yang digunakan, haruslah menunjang ketiga aspek sustainable. Hingga aktifitas yang dihasilkan melalui perancangan ini juga harus tetap mempertahankan nilai-nilai keberlanjutan.

Hasil dan Diskusi Sustainable development, menjadi salah satu strategi pelestarian sumber daya, baik alam maupun manusia. Penerapannya dimulai dari tahap perencanaan, proses pembangunan, hingga proses pengoperasian dan pengembangan. Pemikiran fisik bangunan yang berkelanjutan serta aktifitas didalamnya yang bersifat kontinu harus sudah ada dalam konsep ide perancangan. Pertimbangan prinsip tiga dimensi dalam sustainable development juga harus ada untuk tiap tahapannya. Dengan begitu pelestarian lingkungan, pertimbangan debit dan kredit, serta pengaruh sosial bagi masyarakat menjadi bagian dari tiap proses penyelenggaraan Pondok Pesantren Enterpreneur. Dalam pembahasan ini akan dijelaskan tentang prinsip tiga dimensi dalam sustainable development, pada pengadaan lembaga pendidikan pondok pesantren enterpreneur. Sustainable development selalu berupaya mempertahankan kelestarian alam, serta menjaga secara moral akan kesadaran mengupayakan efisiensi penggunaan energi dalam aktifitasnya di tiap tahapan penyelenggaraannya, yang dapat dipaparkan sebagai berikut2: 1.

Tahap perencanaan Pencarian lokasi yang tepat untuk pembangunan adalah bagian terpenting dalam tahap perencanaan. Ketepatan dalam pencarian lokasi juga dilihat dari aspek tiga dimensi sustainable. Perencanaan dalam desain dan tampilan juga perlu diperhatikan dan dikaitkan dengan prinsip tiga dimensi. a. Lingkungan

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Perencanaan yang baik akan selalu memperhatikan keberlanjutan unsur-unsur alam. Tanah, air, udara, dan api menjadi istilah bagi unsur alam yang perlu untuk dipertahankan. • Tanah Dalam pencarian lokasi, perlu untuk memahami kebutuhan obyek terhadap sebuah site yang akan ditempati. Untuk pembangunan Pondok Pesantren Enterpreneur dibutuhkan lahan yang cukup luas. Selain karena kebutuhan akan massa bangunan yang banyak, kurikulum wirausaha yang menjadi nilai tambah dalam pesantren ini membutuhkan lahan tambahan yang cocok sebagai area wirausaha. Untuk mengatasi kondisi ketersediaan lahan yang semakin menyempit di kota besar, dibutuhkan strategi yeng tepat dalam mengolah lahan yang terbatas. Tanah berkontur dapat dijadikan sebagai alternatif, dengan syarat kegunaan lahannya tepat untuk obyek dan sesuai aturan daerah setempat yang diatur dalam Rencana Detail Tata Ruang Kota (RDTRK). Fungsi bangunan yang kompleks menuntut penggunaan lahan untuk area industri, pertanian dan perkebunan, peternakan dan perikanan, serta perdagangan skala desa, selain untuk area pendidikan sebagai fungsi utama. • Air Pondok Pesantren pada umumnya memfasilitasi para santri dalam aktifitasnya sehari-hari, terutama kebutuhan air. Kegiatan wirausaha pun diperkirakan membutuhkan konsumsi air yang cukup banyak, sehingga dalam penentuan lokasi, kandungan air tanah pada lahan perlu dipertimbangkan. Adanya sungai yang mengalir dapat menjadi potensi yang sangat menguntungkan selain mengandalkan suplai air bersih dari PDAM. • Udara Jauh dari polusi udara menjadi keinginan bagi setiap orang dalam mendirikan tempat tinggalnya. Kendati sulit menghindari polusi udara di area kota, namun strategi dalam peminimalisir masuknya polusi masih dapat dilakukan. Kebutuhan akan penghawaan yang sejuk dan bersih sangat penting diperhatikan dalam tiap ruangan. Intinya adalah membentuk sistem sirkulasi dari penataan massa bangunan yang memungkinkan udara bersih dapat mengalir ke tiap sisi pada site, serta menghindari udara kotor masuk ke dalam site dan ruangan. • Api Unsur lain yang penting untuk dipertahankan keberlanjutannya ialah energi, yang dilambangkan oleh api. Kebutuhan akan listrik dalam memenuhi penerangan maupun penunjang aktifitas lainnya tidak kalah dengan kebutuhan terhadap air dan udara. Bahkan untuk menjalankan sebuah kegiatan wirausaha, energi listrik menjadi bagian terpenting yang belum tergantikan. Penataan massa yang memungkinkan dihasilkannya pencahayaan alami


dibutuhkan dalam perancangan, sehingga mengurangi penggunaan energi. Strategi daylighting pada tiap massa dapat memasukkan cahaya matahari yang optimal. Di samping itu, pengadaan sumber energi alternatif dapat dilakukan untuk menunjang pemenuhan kebutuhan energi yang sangat tinggi pada obyek. Perlu pertimbangan lebih jauh untuk tetap mempertahankan potensi alami yang ada pada site. Dengan kata lain, desain rancangan haruslah menyesuaikan dengan kondisi asli lahan, bukan mengolah lahan untuk disesuaikan dengan desain bangunan. b. Sosial Penentuan lokasi juga tidak lepas dari pertimbangan sosial. Sebagai lembaga pendidikan berbasis agama Islam, pondok pesantren sebisa mungkin berada di wilayah masyarakat bebas konflik antar agama, untuk memperlancar proses pembangunan dan penyelenggaraannya. Keberadaan obyek baik dalam proses pembangunan maupun tahap penyelenggaraan tidak boleh mengganggu masyarakat sekitar. Dalam segi bentuk dan tampilan bangunan, juga diusahakan agar tidak menimbulkan kesan kontras terhadap bangunan di sekitarnya. Lebih baik, keberadaan pondok pesantren enterpreneur dapat menjadi pusat bagi daerah di sekitarnya melalui kegiatan-kegiatan kemasyarakatan. c. Ekonomi Pertimbangan mendasar yang kebanyakan orang anggap sebagai sesuatu yang paling utama yaitu pertimbangan ekonomi. Taksiran terhadap debit dan kredit dalam pembangunan dan penyelenggaraan obyek perlu perhatian khusus. Mulai dari penentuan lokasi, yang berupaya untuk mendapatkan tempat yang memiliki potensi tinggi untuk dimanfaatkan. Pengoptimalan material lokal juga menjadi solusi untuk menekan pengeluaran dalam proses pembangunan. Penentuan lokasi yang strategis dengan pangsa pasar yang tepat juga sangat diperlukan untuk mendapatkan peluang tingginya minat calon santri untuk menuntut ilmu di pesantren enterpreneur sehingga dapat meningkatkan pendapatan ketika proses penyelenggaran pondok pesantren tersebut. Proses Pembangunan Dalam tahap pembangunan, sustainable development memberikan penekanan untuk senantiasa melakukan kebijakan terhadap segala macam sumber daya. Tiga dimensi dalam sustainable development turut menyertai dalam mengambil kebijakan-kebijakan tersebut. Proses pembangunan merupakan pengerjaan atas apa yang telah direncanakan dalam tahap perencanaan. a. Lingkungan Sikap bijak dalam mengolah tanah pada site, menjadi keharusan dalam pembangunan dengan tema keberlanjutan. Semaksimal mungkin kondisi asli tanah tetap dipertahankan, untuk meminimalisir kerusakan pada potensi hidup di sekitar site. Potensi alami seperti pohon, sungai, dan kontur tanah tidak dianggap sebagai penghalang dalam proses

pembangunan. Potensi alami tersebut justru perlu dipertahankan untuk dapat dimanfaatkan baik dalam proses pembangunan maupun dalam proses penyelenggaraan pondok pesantren nantinya. Cut and fill pada lahan berkontur tetap dilakukan, namun dengan pertimbangan yang seefektif mungkin, untuk menghindari perubahan kondisi lahan yang drastis. Upaya-upaya tersebut juga dapat menunjang aspek keberlanjutan ekonomi, karena biaya pengolahan tanah yang dapat ditekan seminimal mungkin. b. Sosial Proses pembangunan yang baik ialah yang tidak menimbulkan keluhan pada masyarakat sekitar atas gangguan yang ditimbulkan. Penggunaan alat berat perlu pertimbangan karena penggunaannya yang menimbulkan polusi baik udara maupun suara atau kegaduhan. Misalnya digunakan hanya jika tenaga manusia tidak sanggup melaksanakannya. Proses pembangunan dengan melibatkan masyarakat setempat akan lebih baik, karena dari situlah akan terwujud rasa kepemilikan dari masyarakat atas obyek. Upaya ini juga dapat menunjang untuk menghasilkan keuntungan dari segi ekonomi. c. Ekonomi Seperti yang telah dijelaskan sebelumnya, bahwa dua aspek di atas yaitu aspek lingkungan dan sosial, dalam upaya menjaga keberlanjutannya juga berpengaruh pada aspek ekonomi. Tidak dapat dipungkiri bahwa dalam tahap pembangunan, pertimbangan secara ekonomi menjadi prioritas yang paling diperhatikan. Mulai dari penggunaan material lokal yang relatif rendah biaya, hingga penggunaan sumber daya alam yang dihasilkan oleh potensi lahan itu sendiri, seperti: air, pasir, batu kali, dan lain sebagainya. Dalam usaha meminimalisir biaya, kekuatan struktur juga tetap diperhatikan, karena resikonya akan lebih buruk jika dilihat dari segi ekonomi pada tahap pengembangan nantinya. Penerapan aspek keberlanjutan ekonomi dapat dilakukan dengan menjadikan objek sebagai bangunan yang tumbuh. Dengan kata lain, kebutuhan akan adanya penambahan massa atau penambahan ruang serta renovasi dalam tahap pengembangan nanti, dapat dilakukan tanpa merusak struktur bangunan asli, sehingga mengurangi pengeluaran dari biaya renovasi bangunan tersebut.

2.

3.

Proses Penyelenggaraan dan Pengembangan Tahap ini merupakan yang terpenting dalam pengadaan lembaga pendidikan pondok pesantren enterpreneur. Dari sini akan dibuktikan betapa keberadaan Pondok Pesantren Enterpreneur dapat menjadi solusi atas permasalahan moral dan perekonomian pada masyarakat, serta keikutsertaannya dalam mempertahankan keberanjutan sumber daya, baik alam maupun manusia. Pada tahap ini, pondok pesantren enterpreneur memberikan fasilitas serta membentuk sistem, yang menunjang keberlanjutan dari tiga aspek sustainable development. Beberapa fasilitas yang diberikan Pondok Pesantren Enterpreneur, baik yang berfungsi


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sebagai sarana pendidikan maupun sebagai fasilitas umum, di antaranya: a. Masjid Merupakan elemen penting dalam penyelenggaraan pondok pesantren. Kegiatan peribadatan baik yang berupa ibadah mahdoh seperti: solat, dzikir, dan lain sebagainya, serta ibadah yang ghoiru mahdoh seperti: mengaji, diskusi, dan lain sebagainya, dilakukan di tempat tersebut. Masjid di sini berfungsi juga sebagai penunjang aspek sosial, di mana masjid dapat digunakan pula untuk kegiatan kemasyarakatan dengan warga sekitar. b. Gedung serba guna Kegiatan santri yang membutuhkan kapasitas ruang yang cukup banyak, seperti seminar, pertunjukan seni religius, atau acara tahunan santri yang bersifat kolektif, dapat dilakukan di bangunan ini. Di samping itu, gedung serba guna juga disewakan untuk umum. Sehingga keberadaan ruang ini menjadi penunjang aspek ekonomi karena menjadi salah satu sumber pendapatan lembaga pondok pesantren. c. Asrama Merupakan salah satu elemen penting pondok pesantren. Asrama untuk santri laki-laki dan perempuan pada umumnya dipisah dengan jarak yang cukup jauh untuk menghindari pergaulan langsung antara santri dan lawan jenis. Asrama menjadi penunjang aspek sosial, di mana seluruh aktifitas santri di dalamnya ditekankan sikap akhlakul karimah, baik dalam aktifitas individu maupun aktifitas bersama. Hal ini akan membentuk moral santri yang baik dan bertanggungjawab, sehingga dapat mengantisipasi kemorosotan moral generasi muda di Indonesia. Pengadaan asrama santri ini juga menunjang aspek keberlanjutan sosial yang baik di tengah masyarakat negeri ini. d. Sekolah Merupakan elemen penting lain dalam pendirian pondok pesantren. Sama seperti sekolah pada umumnya, sekolah atau madrasah di pondok pesantren juga memberikan pendidikan formal berupa kurikulum nasional. Fasilitas ini jelas merupakan penunjang aspek sosial, karena memberikan kemudahan pada santri untuk menuntaskan kewajiban pendidikannya di sekolah. e. Rumah pengasuh dan guru Fasilitas ini merupakan perwujudan kepedulian pondok pesantren terhadap para pengajar. Memungkinkan pengasuh atau guru yang bertempat tinggal jauh agar tidak perlu mencari tempat baru di wilayah tersebut. Fasilitas ini juga menunjang aspek sosial dalam upaya memuliakan peran guru yang kini banyak diremehkan. f. Koperasi pondok pesantren Fasilitas ini merupakan salah satu penunjang praktek kewirausahaan. Pengelola koperasi merupakan santri pondok pesantren itu sendiri bersama pengasuh sebagai pembimbingnya. Keterlibatan warga sekitar dalam penggunaan fasilitas ini juga diperlukan, sehingga, dapat memberikan penghasilan yang lebih tinggi untuk pemasukan pondok pesantren. Disamping sebagai

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penunjang aspek ekonomi, koperasi juga menunjang aspek sosial, di mana santri diajarkan untuk berinteraksi dalam kegiatan ekonomi bersama masyarakat. g. Fasilitas pendidikan kewirausahaan Merupakan fasilitas penunjang yang menjadi pembeda dengan pondok pesantren lainnya. Pendidikan wirausaha dilakukan dengan memberikan pengalaman langsung untuk merasakan pekerjaan sebagai seorang enterpreneur. Pengalaman tersebut akan menjadikannya ilmu yang sulit untuk dilupakan, sehingga ke depannya dapat dikembangkan ketika berada di lingkungan masyarakat. Selain melatih dalam keahlian berbisnis, fasilitas ini juga memberikan pendidikan moral kepada santri untuk senantiasa bertanggungjawab,baik kepada konsumen, maupun kepada sumber daya alam yang telah dimanfaatkan untuk kegiatan kewirausahaan. Mereka akan berhati-hati dalam mengolah limbah industri agar tidak mencemari lingkungan. Selain itu, tanggung jawab terhadap lingkungan juga dilakukan dengan melestarikan kembali apa yang telah dimanfaatkan untuk kegiatan wirausaha. Ada berbagai macam bentuk wirausaha. Namun tidak semuanya diajarkan dalam pendidikan wirausaha di pondok pesantren ini. Penekanan kegiatan wirausaha lebih pada pengelolaan alam dan budidaya. Agar pembentukan sikap tanggung jawab terhadap alam lebih dapat tertanam pada jiwa santri. Berikut macam-macam fasilitas wirausaha yang sekiranya dapat diterapkan pada pendidikan wirausaha di Pondok Pesantren Enterpreneur3. Tabel 1: Fasilitas Pendidikan Wirausaha No

Fasilitas

Kebutuhan ruang

1

Fasilitas pendidikan peternakan

Kandang unggas, kandang kambing dan domba, kandang kelinci, lahan rumput gajah

2

Fasilitas pendidikan pertanian dan perkebunan

Lahan untuk sawah, lahan untuk perkebunan, ruang persemaian (germinator room), ruang pengomposan (composting), lumbung padi

3

Fasilitas pendidikan perikanan

Kolam ikan air tawar, kolam pembibitan dan pengembangan lele, kolam pembibitan dan pengembangan mujair

4

Fasilitas pendidikan keahlian

Lab computer, praktek memasak, praktek menjahit, praktek kecantikan


ruang ruang ruang

Di samping fasilitas, aktifitas pun perlu diperhatikan dalam penyelenggaraan kegiatan pendidikan di pondok pesantren. Melalui fasilitas-fasilitas yang telah disebutkan di atas, diharapkan dapat menghasilkan aktifitas-aktifitas yang juga menunjang keberlanjutan dari tiga dimensi sustainable development. Sehingga, keberadaan pondok pesantren enterpreneur benar-benar dapat mendukung upaya keberlanjutan baik pada lingkungan, sosial, maupun ekonomi.

Kesimpulan Penerapan prinsip tiga dimensi sustainable development, memperkuat keberadaan Pondok Pesantren Enterpreneur sebagai lembaga pendidikan yang mencetak wirausahawan yang bertanggungjawab. Tidak hanya dari desain bangunannya saja, penerapan prinsip sustainable development menjiwai seluruh tahap pengadaan Pondok Pesantren Enterpreneur, antara lain: • penentuan lokasi yang tepat dan berpotensi dari segi ketersediaan sumber daya alam, kondisi mayarakat, serta peluang penyelenggaraan kegiatan wirausaha. • proses pembangunan yang bijak terhadap alam dan masyarakat, dengan meminimalisir penggunaan alat berat, dan mengoptimalkan penggunaan material alami. • penyelenggaraan pendidikan pondok pesantren enterpreneur dengan fasilitas dan aktifitas yang tepat dan menjunjung tinggi prinsip keberlanjutan tiga dimensi sustainable. Dari pemaparan secara umum tersebut, dapat dikembangkan lagi untuk lebih detailnya tentang penerapan prisip sustainable development pada tiap aspek perancangan secara lebih detail.

Referensi 1

2 3

http://www.scribd.com/astaga/d/ 24613026 Depag -LaporanKhusus-Prestasi-Santri-danMurid-Madrasah-Meningkat-Signifikan Ian L McHarg, penerjemah Sugeng Gunadi. 2005. Merancang Bersama Alam. Airlangga: Surabaya Guzairi, Ahmad Faiz. 2010. Desain Tata Ruang Kamar di Pesantren. UIN-Maliki Press: Malang


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THE ISLAM-ORIENTED HOUSE STRUCTURE IN KANO: A VANISHING HERITAGE IN MODERN CITY COMPOSITION Ahmad Yahya

Department of Islamic Studies Federal College of Education PMB 3045 Kano State, Nigeria email : [email protected]

Abstract The debut of colonialism along with the consequent de facto supremacy of the Western world did not only negatively impact on the economy and polity of the Muslim world. It has also, to some reasonable extent, polluted the social system, particularly the structure and form of cities. Human scale is gradually diminishing as a yardstick for construction and is being replaced by a mathematical one. Collectivism, which used to characterize Muslims' social set-up, is now being over-shadowed by stark individualism. The Islamic social values which used to be the binding force that held Muslims together are now being crushed by moral relativity. The situation becomes so chronic that many people begin to assume that Islam has a very negligible role to play in the formation and construction of modern cities. Kano, a predominantly Muslim state in NorthWestern Nigeria, inherited a thousand year-old Islam-oriented building architecture which made it a model Islamic city in pre-colonial Africa. Of special reference is the residential structure which no doubt reflects Islamic culture. Unfortunately, this age-old heritage is now being pushed to the brink of extinction by the almighty modern architecture. This paper explores the Islamic in the Kano traditional residential structure and attempts to comparatively bring into light the extent to which it is diminishing in the modern building architecture. The paper suggests blending the two for a peaceful and harmonious co-existence. Keywords: islamic values, Kano traditional settlement, modern architecture

Abstrak Kolonialisme dari dunia Barat tidak hanya berdampak negatif terhadap perekonomian dan pemerintahan dari dunia Muslim. Hal ini juga mempengaruhi sistem sosial, khususnya struktur dan bentuk kota. Skala bangunan yang manusiawi semakin berkurang dan tergantikan oleh konstruksi dengan standar matematis. Kolektivisme, yang digunakan untuk mengkarakterisasi dunia Muslim, sekarang dibayangi oleh karakter individualisme. Nilainilai sosial Islam yang digunakan untuk menjadi kekuatan yang mengikat dunia Muslim sekarang sedang dihancurkan oleh relativitas moral. Situasi menjadi begitu kronis dan banyak orang mulai menganggap bahwa Islam memiliki peran yang minim dalam pembentukan dan pembangunan kota modern. Kano, sebuah negara mayoritas Muslim di Utara-Barat Nigeria, mewarisi arsitektur yang berorientasi pada nilai nilai Islam yang telah ada ribuan tahun dan membuatnya menjadi model kota Islam pra-kolonial di Afrika. Dari referensi khusus yang ada, warisan ini adalah struktur perumahan yang tidak diragukan lagi sangat mencerminkan budaya Islam. Sayangnya, warisan ini sekarang sedang diambang kepunahan oleh arsitektur modern yang mendominasi. Makalah ini membahas Islam dalam struktur perumahan tradisional Kano dan mencoba untuk merefleksikan dalam bangunan arsitektur modern. Makalah ini berusaha untuk melihat penggabungan keduanya untuk menciptakan harmonisasi lingkungan. Kata kunci: nilai-nilai Islam, rumah tradisional Kano, Arsitektur modern

Introduction This paper is an attempt to bring into light the landmarks of Islam in the formation and construction of cites as they affect Hausaland, taking Kano as an example. The paper explains the concept of city in Islam and examines Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah as the first ideal Islamic city. An elucidation is made on the contact of Islam with and its influence on Hausaland, particularly Kano, as per the construction of residence. The paper examines the traditional house structure in Kano and explains the extent to which it is Islam-oriented. Also discussed is the

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gradual decline of this heritage and its replacement by residences that can be best described as westernoriented.

Islam and urbanization A study conducted less than a decade ago indicates that more than half of humankind will, by the end of the 20th century, live in urban areas and up to 60% by the year 20201. One of the basic missions of Islam is emancipation of the humankind from the shackles of


superstition, witchcraft and other forms of ideological slavery. This is followed by ennobling human behaviour and adorning it in such a way that human becomes distinct from other creatures. Next is stressing collectivism and obliteration of atomism along with its regalia. Some scholars are of the view that Islam is urban and it is the urban setting which facilitated its successful spread in the world2 because people saw in it a civilizing force besides its spiritual benefits. One scholar admits that it 'supplied the creative element out of which arose a new civilization'3. Many communities in Africa embraced it because they were offered great improvement in their lifestyle, including principles of communal living4. Along this line it is observed that: Among the most fundamental and compelling archetypes has been the notion of the Ummah, the emblem of Muslim religious and social universe. The charge of revaluing the urban structure in accordance with the ideals of the Ummah-and moreover, all of its complexities, cultivated a unique and robust configuration of urban space, the product of which was a fusion between the dictates of the faith and the practical matters of urban living. The assertion of this new-found identity thus indicates the epitome of the Islamic city5. As the microcosmic nucleus was formed in the cities of Makkah and Madinah it is not surprising that in many parts of the world, since the first century of the Hijrah, the Islamic community proliferated cities. This central position which urbanism and of course city acquire in Islam may not be unconnected with its aim of evolving a unique model community on earth. A scholar avers that: …classical antiquity could not separate civilization from city life. It was the cities which secured conquered territories for Hellenism. Islam, too, needed the city as a base, and it needed it as the only locale in which the correct life as prescribed by the Book of God and the Prophet's Tradition could be lived out to the full2. This led some scholars to conclude that the islamic community is essentially urban6. It is important at this juncture to point out that urbanism of a community is not only based on having a large number of people or comprising multiple settlement areas. It is also measured with having a unanimously recognized and acknowledged leader, who is capable to deliver and trustworthy as well as possesses all qualities of a good leader. He avails to all and sundry of the right to criticize and suggest7. Stages of urbanization The process of urbanization comprises four stages. These are explained as under:

1. The first stage is characterized by the core of the city being small with its inhabitants and buildings being few. Only primitive tools are used in building which is also rustic. 2. The second stage is marked by abundant city planning, appearance of sophisticated building materials and growth in population. Pace of building picks up and activity becomes more intense. 3. In the third stage building comes to a halt and population recedes. Consequently work vanishes as a result of the dwindling population. This obviates a quest for more building materials. The latter are substituted by material salvaged from existing structures. 4. In the fourth and final stage a rustic way of building is reverted to. This signifies a return to square one. The pace is now that of simplicity and deterioration of civilization. Eventually, Allah raises up a new generation8. The city in Islamic perspective Human being, by his very nature, is civic (Muduni). This means that he is a being whose survival, welfare and existence as a whole spring from communal origin. He can only thrive, exist and survive with the help of interacting and interrelating with others, as a matter of necessity9. He cannot survive alone and independent of others. Whatever happens to the individual stems from communal frame and whatever happens to the community is inherently related to the individual. Human being therefore can be said to be naturally more inclined to collectivism than to atomism. This is why an area is referred to as a city if it contains a large number of people. This is partly due to the high rate of interaction, which is natural to human being. The benefit is even greater when there are people of diverse cultural, ethnic and religious backgrounds. This is because besides increasing the degree of inter-dependence there is also the benefit of sharing cultures, ideas, zealousness, etc. of others. As Islam is a faith which is congruent with the human nature, a Muslim therefore naturally interacts, agrees to differ and be differed from. The care and concern of Islam over what pollutes the society should not be over emphasized. Material as well as moral integrity is the sacred right of all which no one must infringe upon. This explains, and Allah knows best, why most of the crimes that are punishable or retaliatable in Islam are those that threaten the unity, moral integrity and material prosperity of the society10. Islam encourages a harmonious co-existence of the natural, built and social environments which can be realized through maintaining equilibrium between the natural environment and the natural forces and elements. This explains why, throughout Muslim history, the natural forces and elements have been maximally made use of. In hot areas like Kano, for instanc, narrow streets were constructed to preserve the cool night air during the hot hours of the day. Ideal buildings are, as inferred from the Qur'an (3:198, 9:72, 32:19, 4:57, 76:13-14, 77:41-42), those


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that are built amidst natural environment. The Muslim is taught to regard the natural environment as a fellow creature, the harming of which will be retaliated on the Day of Reckoning. He therefore lives peacefully with it11.(Rahman: 2005). One of the conventional definitions of a city is a place with a minimum of ten thousand people and with a municipality which should consist of at least five thousand people12(Saremi: 2008). What should be taken into cognizance is the fact that the determining factor in integrating Islamic societies is the concept of unity in diversity13 (Martin as quoted by islamicart.com). The correct definition of a city in Islam is a place where a large number of people (may be of different backgrounds) dwell with equity and fairness, guided by laid down rules and in which multi-dimensional interests of the people are appropriately taken into consideration. The city in Islam 'offers a pervasive movement and repeated in the metropolis in which every man was received equally as one of God's servants, and might try his fortune'14. Islam lays down some guidelines in order to make interactions sober, sound and healthy. These guidelines govern the relationships between neighbours, parents and their children, brothers, husbands and wives, rich and poor, rulers and the ruled, knowledgeable and ignorant, men and women, indigene and stranger, Muslim and nonMuslim, young and old, etc. These combine to make the Muslim developed and the Muslim community civilized. Categories of buildings in Islamic city structure The five values of Islam leave no stone unturned as far as human activities are concerned. These are the obligatory, the prohibited, the recommendable, the disliked and the allowed. Construction, by its form and nature, encompasses human activity in its entirety. It therefore encompasses man's intellectual, economic and aesthetic activity15. Buildings, according to Islamic perspectives pertaining city structure, are categorized as follows: 1. The necessary buildings: places of worship such as mosques, walls and outposts which serve as a protection for the lands of Islam and fortresses fall under this category. This is why many Muslim cities were walled and full of mosques. In Kano there is the Badala, which was a wall that surrounded the city, stretching to about 25 kilometres. Though it is neglected and left at the mercy of mud-brick makers, its remnants are still visible. 2. The recommended buildings: included in this category are minarets which serve the purpose of Adhan (call to prayer) and markets for buying needed items and for easing hardship in procuring them. The oldest market in Kano is the Kurmi market which still thrives. 3. The permitted buildings: These include houses which serve to protect life, property, honour and integrity of people. The family, which is the pivot of the Islamic social system springs from

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and thrives in the house. Life, property and honour rank among the indispensables of Shari'ah. 4. Proscribed buildings: these include buildings that shelter abominable acts such as brothels, bars, casinos, buildings on graves, buildings on encroached lands and buildings on lands belonging to others8. History bears witness to the fact that brothels, bars and casinos emerged in Muslim cities after the debut of colonialism which destroyed all the fabrics of Islam in the colonies. In Kano, during the reign of Emir Abbas, residences inherited by women began to be converted into quasi-brothels. When this was discovered an order was issued that henceforward only monetary value of houses would be given to women if such residences should fall under their inheritance. This short-lived order helped to ameliorate the situation16. Aims of building cities in Islam Ostentation, arrogance, superiority complex, atomism, unguided and unrestricted freedom stripped of religious attire are not what cities are meant for, as far as Islam is concerned. The basic aim is to strengthen the cohesion of Muslims in particular and the entire human race in general. The Qur'an (4:1) says: O mankind! Reverence your Guardian-Lord, who created you from a single person, created, of like nature, his mate, and from them twain scattered (Like seeds) countless men and women;- reverence Allah, through whom ye demand your mutual (rights), and (reverence) the wombs (That bore you): for Allah ever watches over you.

The Prophet of Islam, upon whom be Peace, explains further that: People are children of Adam and Adam was (created) from clay17.

As for the unity of the Muslim community as one family the Prophet, upon whom be Peace, is reported to have said: (The simile of the) believer ('s relationship) to (another) believer is like (that of) a building, each part supporting the other18.

He is also, in another instance, reported to have said: You will find believers in their compassion, love and affection to one another to be like a body which its entirety stings and pains when an organ is harmed18.

This can be realized when people of different ethnic, cultural and religious backgrounds are brought together to live as one family and as one body. During the reform of Shehu Usmanu Danfodio in Hausaland the Jihad leaders built cities and mosques in order to make Islamic unity strong, educating people and assigning them different responsibilities to manage society's needs19.


Basic requirements for a city in Islam By its nature Islam, as already indicated, is an urban religion. This is largely because it favours communal practice over individual worship. Urban in this context means communal. Most of Islam's aspects of worship, belief and values emphasize social gathering and discourage isolationism or nomadism. A city is no more than a mechanism by which rules of the society can consolidate and maintain their power. Islam lays much emphasis on peace and security which result to prosperity in any social set up. These three are considered to be main ingredients for urban rejuvenation and growth 20. In Madinah, the Prophet, upon whom be Peace, introduced a new concept in urban setting. Good and sound neighbourhood was portrayed by him as the unit of community formation which eventually results to a city. The western world imbibed this concept thirteen centuries later and refers to it in their writings as urban community, urban village, traditional neighbourhood, etc. Conventional standards demand that a city should have a substantial number of people and must have a municipality. In addition to this Islam, taking into cognizance al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (the illuminated city) lays emphasis on the social dimension as well. There was a unanimously agreed leadership of the Prophet, upon whom be Peace, in whom Allah combined all the qualities of a good leader. He administered the affairs of the community with justice and fairness, guiding it to all that is good and turning it away from evil. Above all he implemented the Shari'ah, a Devine code of life. Secondly, there was the community comprised of people who were kind, compassionate, considerate and caring to one another. Their pride lied not in aboriginality but in being the servants of Allah. Each of them was ready to sacrifice anything for the sake of the leader, the system and the entire community. Thirdly, there was a constitution in the form of Divine Revelation (the Qur'an) which has man's spiritual, moral and material development as its topmost priority. Moreover, this constitution contains no contradictions or obscurities whatsoever21. Islamic injunctions pertaining to living in cities The distinguishing feature of a city, in Islamic perspective, which makes it distinct from a village and Bedouin life, is large number of people. Islam always lays emphasis on what is communal. Praying in congregation, for example, carries more reward than performing it alone. A prayer is stipulated once in a week to be performed in a very large congregation. Another type of prayer is performed twice in a year and in a mammoth congregation. In cases of moon sighting the testimony of a large number of people is preferred. The Prophet, upon whom be Peace, is reported to have said: Community is a mercy22

He is also reported to have discouraged a Bedouin life or living in isolation:

‘He will become harsh-tempered he who lives in isolation’

Sheikh Muhammad Bello, one of the leaders of the 19th century Islamic reform movement in Hausaland and a son to Sheikh Usmanu Danfodio19(as quoted by Hakim and Ahmed: 2006) explained that it is only a Fitnah (crisis) which will force people to escape the city. Therefore, living in villages is better than living as a Bedouin and living in cities is better than living in villages

The first Islamic city It is generally accepted that the first ideal Islamic city was al-Madinnah al-Munauwarah. Formerly called Yathrib the Prophet, upon whom be Peace, upon his arrival, changed its name to alMadinah, meaning 'the ideal Islamic city'. This shows one of the zenith of the Prophet's aspirations which is to bring a large number of the Muslims together under Prophetic leadership and bound together by a strong Islamic unity, worshipping Allahu Ta'ala without any restraint. The Prophet, upon whom be Peace, was born in Makkah, which was a city and migrated to Madinah, which was also a city. It was there that the greater portion of the Qur'an was revealed. After migration, the Prophet, upon whom be Peace, embarked on proper planning of both the social and physical environment. A polity was established where: The main theoretical ingredients of Islam were fully put into practice. Relationship between the community members was based on Islamic brotherhood to such an extent that a Madinite would share all what he had with a Muhajir 2. The first thing which the Prophet, upon whom be Peace, did was building a mosque. This indicated two things: 1. That Allahu Ta'ala and His worship should always be superior and the common goal of all Muslims in every settlement; 2. That one should live as and be proud of being a servant of Allah whom He creates out of His Mercy. This negates the philosophy which requires one to be proud of being human who evolved and emancipated himself from the socalled merciless grip of the gods. After the construction of the Prophet's mosque he then built a home which was an indication of its being a primary and important unit in a city structure. An area close to the mosque was designated to be a market where commercial activities would ensue without being unmindful of the prayer. Roads were then built. Smaller roads measured five arm lengths which would comfortably allow two camels to pass by one another. Bigger roads measured ten arm lengths. When the Prophet's companions built the cities of Basrah and Kufah small roads were constructed to measure ten arm lengths while bigger ones measured sixty arm lengths 23 .


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After building his house, market and roads the Prophet, upon whom be Peace established a brotherhood between the Muhajirun (companions who migrated to Madinah from Makkah) and Ansar (the people of Madinah) to actualize and symbolize the aim of living in cities which is to strengthen social unity. The city of Madinah, under the Prophet's leadership, brought both Muslims and Jews together as brothers and keepers of one another. It can therefore be understood that the Prophet, upon whom be Peace, established an ideal city and an ideal urban community in Madinah under the guidance of a revealed constitution24. The first model of Islamic city was therefore al-Madinah alMunauwarah25. Hausaland and its contact with Islam Islam was once the predominant religion in more than half of the civilized world. It stretched over three continents from Pyrenees and Siberia in West and North Europe to the farthest end of Asia, up to China and New Guinea in the East. From Morocco in North Africa to the southern tip of Africa, covering two-thirds of the African continent26. In West Africa, activities of the Sufi orders, Muslim traders, itinerant scholars and reformers facilitated its spread. The role of conquest was very negligible27. Hausaland was located in the Central Bilad alSudan bordering Kanem Bornu in the east and Songhai in the west28. Today Hausaland covers Northern Nigeria and Niger Republic. It is borderd by Borno in the east, Dahomey in the west, Adar in the north and by Gwari and southern Bauchi tribes in the south29. Hausa itself is a multi-ethnic society. The bulk of the inhabitants are believed to have migrated into the region sometime before 10th century from the central Sahara. They settled in the central Savannah and mixed with the indigenous people. This resulted to multi-ethnic society, sharing a common language, Hausa28. Islam spread into this part of the world since 8th century30. Islamic social values and the traditional Hausa way of life have inter-mixed for such a long time that many basic tenets of Hausa society are Islamic. Islam has, for quite sometime, been a very powerful social landmark in the acculturating frontiers of Hausa as an ethnic group both at home and in migration31. Kano: A historical overview Kano originated as a spiritual centre in which Tsumburbura, the then acclaimed deity, was housed at the Dala hilltop under Barbushe. With gradual increase in population other chieftains resided at other defensive sites along with their followers. Kano became an important commercial and manufacturing centre during the Bagauda dynasty between 10th and 11th centuries32. When Sarki Yaji Dan Tsamiya (1349-1385) was converted to Islam by a group of fourty Wangarawa missionaries from Mali under the leadership of Abdur-Rahman al-Zaiti he built the first mosque29. However Islam had been there more than 3 centuries earlier. The period of

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Sarki Yaji Dan Tsamiya (1349-1385) was the time during which Islam became a state religion in Kano.

Figure1. The aerial view of Kano city

Sarki Gazarzawa built the first Badala (protective wall)33 which was fortified by Sarki Muhammadu Rumfa (1467-1499) to incorporate a large area in the south-western part of the city 32. Further additions to the city which defined the limit of the Badala space were effected by Sarki Muhammadu Nazaki (1582-1618). Emirs of Kano after the Jihad of Shehu Usmanu Danfodio established sub-urban settlements outside the Badala as Gandu (summer place). Telegraphic communications linked Kano with the coast during the British colonialism in 190433. As at 1903 Kano contained an estimated number of 170 walled towns indicating 'a symbiotic relationship between rural and urban dwellers for a long period of time'34. By 1911 a railway line was extended from Lagos to Kano. This hampered the commercial and industrial position of Kano. Today Kano is one of the thirty six states of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, lying between Latitude 130N in the North and 110N in the south and Longitude 80W in the west and 100E in the east. It is made up of 44 Local Government Areas. Its total land area is 20,760 Square Kilometres. Kano City is located on Latitude 12.000N and Longitude8.300E. It became a state in 196435. Kano is some Kilometres from the edge of the Sahara Desert and some 1140 Kilometres away from the Atlantic Ocean. It borders Jigawa state by the north and east, Katsina and Kaduna states by the west and south-west respectively and Bauchi state by the south-east. Kano has a population of 9,383,682 according to the 2006 National Census, majority of which are Muslim Hausa and Fulani. Categories of settlements in Kano Settlements in Kano can be categorized into three: a. Pre-colonial: comprising the old city (and Fagge) in which avail most of the Islam-oriented houses. b. Colonial: comprising areas such as Sabongari, Tudun Wada and Nassarawa. c. Post-colonial: comprising Hotoro, Na'ibawa, Kurnar Asabe, etc34. Today there are over two thousand mosques in Kano. This includes the roadside praying enclosures


and a minimum of 20 Jumu'ah mosques located in various parts of the metropolis. Urbanistic elements in Kano In present day Kano three distinct urbanistic elements can be isolated, each with different urban features and peculiar physical morphology. These are: 1. The traditional walled historical city with its traditional spatial character and largely traditional architecture. This part is called Birni. 2. The industrial and stranger districts which are laid out on a regular geometric pattern, based on imitation of foreign models. 3. The functionally laid out European quarters with a high standard of facilities, European types of housing and plenty of greenery. It was initially racial-based, particularly in the preindependence time, but now largely occupied by top government functionaries32. Present-day Kano urban society is dichotomized into the walled city dwellers and those outside it (Waje). Autochthonous Kano people lived in the former and stranger elements originally constituted the latter. The walled city housed almost all the most important traditional cultural institutions such as Kurmi market, Dala hilltop, Gwauron Dutse hilltop, Emir's palace, central Friday mosque, etc. Modern institutions and amenities, on the other hand, cluster outside the walled city. The cosmopolitan nature of Kano was attested to by some European scholars, such as Birth, who visited Kano in 1851. People of diverse ethnic backgrounds were found, since that time, to live with one another in peace and harmony34.

The dwelling unit is the basic cellular element of the city. Its multiplication produces an urban form, the success or failure of which in promoting privacy depends on the sort of physical interrelationships set forth between these units36. House in urban Kano is divided into three realms: a. The public realm. b. The transitional realm c. The private realm The Public Realm The public realm comes first, followed by the transitional and finally the private realm. In the public realm there are basically four things. First comes the wide and spacious forecourt (Filin Kofar gida), followed by a single main entrance (Kofar gida) positioned in a battered wall which is thicker at the bottom and thin at the top. It is observed that 'Hausa builders have learned, through accumulated experience of many generations, that the stability of a wall is increased by decreasing the thickness of the wall towards the top…' 37. Aligned with this wall by one side or both sides of the main gate of the house are seats made of clay and mud bricks (Dakali) for resting and/or waiting. What one sees next is the main entrance hall (Zaure) which is so wide and deep that it can comfortably accommodate a very long ladder. All are allowed to be at the forecourt while only the permitted ones can have direct access to the entrance hall except, perhaps if the main entrance is closed or locked.

The structure of residence in urban Kano

Figure 4. The entrance hall (zaure)

Figure 2. The kofar gida with dakali alongside its wall

Figure 5. From zaure to soro

Figure 3.The kofar gida

The house or residence is the building block of cities, hamlets, towns, conurbans, etc. One scholar observes that:

The Transitional Realm The transitional domain is what comes next. This is because it serves as a link between the public and the private realms. The entrance room (Soro) or rooms (Soraye) and in some instances, such as in the houses of the affluent or chiefs, the special reception area (Kudandan) are what this part of the house contains. The Soro comes immediately after


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the Zaure. The number of Soro may be two, three, four or even more, depending on the social or economic status of the owner. These Soraye (plural of Soro) have entrances positioned at different angles and of varying sizes. The first Soro is larger than the second one and so on. The last one is the narrowest. Some houses, particularly those of chiefs and rich people, have a special reception area called Kudandan or Shamaki. It is normally positioned inbetween the second to the last and the last Soro. It is reserved for receiving special guests. It may be roofed or roofless and normally protrudes to the right. The last Soro is followed by a U-shaped corridor which opens to the inner courtyard of the house (Cikin gida). The Private Realm In the private realm what one sees first is the Turaka or the house master's separate area (in some cases). It contains a large parlour inside which there is a bedroom and at another angle the toilet. In some cases foodstuff are stored there. Except the house master or his wife/wives, nobody goes there. In some houses a separate part for the mother of the house master comes next which also contains a parlour inside which there is a bedroom and a toilet. What comes next is a very wide and spacious open courtyard. Its size depends on the magnitude of the family, the socio-economic or the political status of the owner38.

There is a reasonable distance between rooms in such a way that no door or window of a room directly faces the opposite room. Similarly, no sound or movement from one room could be heard in another room. This parlour contains the innermost and the most private part of the house. This is the bedroom or Daki It serves not only as a sleeping place but also as an area that keeps valuable items38.

Figure 8. Entrance to the parlour (rumfa) and the coverless windows on top of it

In the wife's room, on the right, is a short mud barrier called Ingurfuni or Babbaka. It begins some distance by the right from the entrance and stretches to about 2.5 metres, leaving a gap from the other wall. This gap serves as a passage to the inner room. Height of this barrier does not reach up to the room's ceiling16. The room is thus partitioned into Farfajiya (outer part serving as a reception area for special female guests) and Kurya (the inner part where the bed, in some cases, made up of mud, is positioned). Lamp hole (Alkuki) is carved in the wall and pot for storing cool drinking water (Randa or Tulu), with a cover (Faifai), rests on the floor against the mud barrier. Suspended from the room's ceiling by a rope is a container pendulum (Ragaya) in which very personal and vital items such as money, thread, needles, cotton, etc., are kept.

Figure 6.The house master's private area (turaka)

Figure 9. A wife's daki in the rumfa

Figure 7. The special reception area (kudandan)

The open courtyard modifies the climate and allows for outdoor activities with protection from wind and sun in very hot areas like Kano. It also serves as an air well into which the cool, night air can sink39. As traditional house in urban Kano is highwalled with few or no windows it withstands severe elements like hot winds and blown sand. Positioned at the far end of this open courtyard is a large parlour (Rumfa) that houses the wives' rooms and a female guest room. There is a single entrance to it from Tsakar gida and two coverless windows high on top of it. The roofing is dome-like (Daurin guga).

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Figure 10. The innermost part of the room (kurya)


Toilet is positioned at a reasonable distance such that the young might need the company of an adult to access it. It is designed to serve two purposes; bath and stooling. What one sees first is a wide space for taking bath. Next is the stooling area which is raised some inches above the level of the bathing space. At the edge of the pit designated for defecating, a sloped drainage is made to the west. One is expected to squat on the pit facing the west which is where the sloped drainage is while turning his back to the east. Evolution of residence in urban Kano In urban Kano residence can be said to have passed about four phases. Phase one was when the population was small. House in this phase was very large, wide and extremely spacious. This might partly be due to readiness to accommodate others, relative or otherwise. Thickness of a wall, for example, might measure up to six feet. There were no storey buildings partly because of the availability of vast land. There was no single room without an attached parlour. The Turaka area alone can make a full house today.

Figure 11. The inner open courtyard (filin tsakar gida)

The second phase was when the population started to expand. Size of houses began to decrease. The size of Zaure and the number of Soraye, for example, started to lessen. The open courtyard became narrower. Multi-storey buildings emerged but with very narrow windows which from inside could not be reached by a very tall person. Single rooms began to replace rooms enveloped by a very wide and spacious parlour. The third phase was characterized by the gradual elimination of Zaure and its replacement with shops (Shago) used for either sleeping or commercial purposes. Size of the open courtyard and that of Zaure were grossly reduced. Separate house or houses within a house began to appear, possibly due to disputes over inheritance or buy-over. The fourth, which is the final phase, is generally characterized by dearth of space and the desire to congest in the municipality. Consequently, the price of plots of land became exorbitant. House structure became completely alien and divorced from the indigenous religion and culture. Zaure, Soro, Filin kofar gida, Filin tsakar gida, etc., all disappeared. Shago now replaced Soro while Zaure is replaced with sitting room. Open courtyard is now very much narrow or even extinct.

A House (Gida) as perceived by Kano people Concieving residence as a sleeping place cuts across most cultures, tribes and nations. The primary function of a house is to provide a sleeping place and protection against rain, cold or sun heat. However, to the Kano people, a house should do more than this as there are many equally important functions expected of an ideal house. Protection, preservation and safeguard of one's dignity, self-respect, honour, esteem, faith and mark of distinction are the primary purposes of a house. This is because in a Muslim Hausa society, like Kano, one is considered responsible (Mutum mai mutunci) whose association should be sought and cultivated when he is dignified, honourable and worthy of respect40. The perception of a house can therefore be summed up in (but not necessarily limited to) the following: 1. It is a safeguard of the owner's integrity, privacy and personal secrets. 2. It is a place for socialization. Occasions such as wedding ceremony, naming ceremony, social discourse, funeral, courtship, investiture, circumcision and (sometimes) internment take place in the house. It therefore constitutes one's social garment and a pre-requisite for personal integrity. 3. It is an avenue for inculcating and enhancing the spirit of brotherhood and social cohesion. For instance men and boys of different Gidaje (plural of Gida) gather for social discourses, eating, reconciliation, etc. 4. It is a place where home-based craft and trade activities, such as weaving, leatherwork, blacksmithing, etc., are carried out 41 5. It is a mosque as acts of worship such as prayer, meditation, litanies, etc., are performed. 6. It is a school or class for holding lesson41 These and many others make a house acquire a central position in the life of Kano people. The Islam-based principles guiding the construction of residence in urban Kano Residential buildings in urban Kano and their structure are traced to originate from the culture and faith of the people. Though some aspects of the residential structure may bear environmental or climatic stamps, greater portion are ascertained to be in conformity with the Islamic ethical principles. This explains why these residential structures are referred to as 'Islam-oriented'. Prominent among these principles include, but are not limited to the following: 1. Audio-visual privacy of inmates is worth safeguarding and protecting. 2. Neighbour's rights are sacred and beyond question. 3. Safeguarding moral integrity of the society is mandatory and not optional. 4. Separation of the sexes is a virtue while illegal and amoral intermingling is an evil. 5. Revering knowledge and scholarship is an act of worship and therefore rewardable.


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6. Guests are blessing to the house. Being always prepared to warmly receive them is a religious obligation. 7. Providing for the needy, the wayfarer, the distressed and even the passer-by is not a burden but a Prophetic precept worth emulating. 8. Social unity and cohesion along with their facilitators are the fabric of happiness, harmony and success which ease the way for the attainment of Allah's pleasure. 9. Consanguinity and affinity are the building blocks of a sober, strong and serene society. Reflection of these principles on residential structure in urban Kano 1.Audio-visual privacy of inmates is worth safeguarding and protecting. This is attested to be the purpose of a house not only in Kano but in Hausaland generally. The Zaure, the Soraye, and the Turaka are results of this principle. Zaure serves as an area for seeking permission and it is there that the house owner meets his guest. It is constructed in such a way that the guest is not availed to the inner part of the house. Not a sound or movement from inside the house could be heard there. The Dakali is provided for the guest to wait for the house master or one of the male inmates. By so doing the latter is protected from being seen impromptu before he comes out. 2.Neighbour's rights are sacred and beyond stampede. In as much as one cares for his own privacy that of his neighbour must also be safeguarded. This is one of the things which explain absence of mulitistorey buildings at the initial stage in this part of the world. When multi-storey buildings emerged their windows were made very narrow and at a height which a very tall person inside the room could not reach. The rearing of domestic animals (such as goats and sheep) and birds (such as chickens and ducks) within the wide open courtyard ensures that a neighbour is not harmed. Similarly, entrances of opposite houses do not directly face each other in order to safeguard neighbour's privacy. 3.Safeguarding moral integrity of the society is mandatory and not optional. All avenues that will avail non-members of a house to its private realm are blocked by the Zaure and the Soraye. Female members of a house, particularly wives and older female children, are curtailed from being seen by a guest or a passer-by. Female-only ceremonies take place indoors within the open courtyard. In this way adultery and fornication and their preliminaries are substantially curtailed. 4.Separation of the sexes is a virtue while illegal and amoral intermingling is an evil. One of the functions of Zaure and Soraye is to provide accommodation for older boys. The moment they reach maturity age they now no longer sleep in the private realm of the house. The Soro or Zaure

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now become their new sleeping place, though they may have access into the house in the day time. Grown-up girls continue to sleep in their respective mothers' rooms till they get married. The wide open courtyard also serves as a female-only venue for social festivities. Here no male non-inmate can see or hear what is going on. Female guest is received by female inmates and the reception area is also inside. 5.Revering knowledge and scholarship is an act of worship and therefore rewardable. The Zaure serves as a school where different lessons are given. Various branches of Islamic studies, astrology, astronomy and philosophy are studied here. Each student reads his own book while the teacher explains. This type of lesson is generally known in Kano as Karatun Zaure ( the entrance hall lesson). In some cases the Soraye serve as classes where there is a night school (Makarantar dare). The spacious house forecourt, in some areas, functions as children Qur'anic school (Makarantar allo). 6. Guests are blessing to the house. Being always prepared to warmly receive them is a religious obligation. As receiving guest is considered as a virtue and he/she is seen as a blessing, Kudandan, female guest room, Zaure and Soro provide shelter and warm reception to a guest. Female guest is received inside while a very important guest is received at the Kudandan. If he is a relative or an intimate friend of the house master he sleeps either in the Soro or in the Zaure. A guest never feels belittled by being accommodated in the Zaure or Soro. 7.Providing for the needy, the wayfarer, the distressed and even the passer-by is not a burden but a Prophetic precept worth emulating. It is an established tradition in Kano that one eats along with others. This is due to the teaching of Islam that blessing lies in feeding or eating along with others. The Zaure and the Filin kofar gida serve this purpose. Food is brought from inside the house to the Zaure in the morning and at noon while dinner is brought to the Filin kofar gida. Breakfast and lunch take place in the Zaure where eating in the sight of the public is avoided. Dinner takes place at the forecourt because it is in the night. In all occasions whoever comes is welcome. In this way an indigent, passer-by, wayfarer, etc., are provided with breakfast, lunch and dinner. 8.Social unity and cohesion along with their facilitators are the fabric of happiness, harmony and success which ease the way for the attainment of Allah's pleasure. Structure of residence in urban Kano provides for the facilitation of social cohesion, brotherhood and concern. The Filin tsakar gida, Zaure and Filin kofar gida perform this function. Every morning neighbours gathered in the Zaure where Rechauffe or warmed dinner leftover is served as breakfast. This occasion is called 'Cin Dumame'. Similarly, reconciling between disputing parties and resolving conflict in


the neighbourhood take place in the Zaure. Filin kofar gida serves as a male-only avenue for wedding ceremony, naming ceremony, graduation, funeral services and mourning. The inner open courtyard is a female-only venue for festivities and mourning. 9.Consanguinity and affinity are the building blocks of a sober, strong and serene society. Many people in Kano operate the extended family system. A number of generations may reside in the same house under mutual assistance, care, respect, love and protection. This explains the provision of a very wide open courtyard. This is an African culture which Islam further encourages. It is observed that: The compound was the focus of social organization. This responded to the needs of the group. It could be altered to accommodate the fluctuation in family size, extending for a growing family or reducing when someone dies…The traditional courtyard house is never a completed project. As family size increases, more rooms are built on the lot's unused land 42 . The gradual decline of this type of residence

Figure 12. Modern residences that are gradually replacing the traditional islam-oriented ones

This is what used to be a residential structure in urban Kano. It can be referred to as a dual heritage as it combined between the purely traditional and the Islamic. Islamic ethics are successfully integrated in such a way that it led to the eventual creation of a built environment that is humanscaled. However, with the passage of time, particularly after the debut of colonialism in what is today known as Northern Nigeria, things began to change. The traditional building materials were the first victims of the almighty colonial architecture, followed by the Islam-oriented house structure. As mental subservience is more fatal than economic servility the colonialists spared no effort and no energy in seeing to it that they not only facilitated the extinction of this Islam-based residential structure but also the gradual wiping away of the philosophy behind its construction43. Our architects, policy makers and town planners now fancy the substantially secular-based western architecture which is, as described by one scholar, 'rooted in the abstract and existentialist philosophy, promoting nothing save the distancing of architecture from any spiritual or cultural

codification'44(Radoine: 2008). This secular architecture is only preoccupied with promoting class divergence, competitiveness, materialism, exotic desires, profit making and unlimited freedom 45 (Hamouche: 2008). This sad development is further described by as follows: …We have a situation today in which most people have lost the wisdom and experience that generated the traditional fabric. The link was lost between Islamic cultural identity and its manifestations in the built environment as modern concepts and practices have continued to shape urbanization outside of that rich tradition46.

Figure 13. Modern residential structure, a symbol of atomism?

Today a schizoid tendency preponderates in Muslim society in which it both strives, though to lesser degree, to maintain its deep attachment to Islam as well as hanker over tasting the fruits of the current order 47(Khalid: 2002). In addition to the invasion of western architecture, other factors which facilitate the gradual decline of these Islam-oriented residential structures include: • Emphasis on western-style buildings by the government. • Change of taste on the part of both the affluent and the elite. • Land fragmentation. • Inheritance disputes. • Difficulty in land accessibility. • Financial constraints These combine to silently push this heritage to the brink of decline and extinction. This heritage is now being replaced by houses which structure is substantially alien and divorced from the religion and culture of the Kano people. Audio-visual privacy is de-emphasised and regard for the rights of neighbour is now a thing of the past. This is because all barriers such as Zaure, Soro, Kudandan, etc., which safeguard the privacy of the house are now condensed to a very narrow corridor which directly avails those from outside to the private realm of the house. In some cases the sitting room has direct linkage with the inner part of the house and the kitchen. A guest therefore can vividly see and hear what is going on inside. He can also watch the house master's wife while on her way to or from the kitchen. Multi-Storey buildings are constructed with their windows facing the private realm of a neighbour's house. Suck-away are constructed on the road, obstructing public right of passage while power generators are stationed outside polluting the air


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and annoying neighbours with terrible sound. The human scale in these modern houses is forced to give way for the domination of the geometrical one. The brick enclosure isolates one from the people and wanes away from him the spirit of concern for the welfare of others as well as the feeling of social belonging. This symbolizes the replacement of collectivism with individualism or atomism which is repugnant to the Islamic social philosophy.

Figure 14. Direct view of the cikin gida from outside. An indication that audio – visual privacy is now a thing of the past

Comparing the traditional Islam-oriented residential structure with the western/modernityoriented one, it becomes clear that in the former a house is conceived as a safeguard for integrity and privacy, an abode for the inmates, a stop-over for the wayfarer, a helping hand for the needy, an avenue for social cohesion, a venue for celebrities, an office for private discussion, a protection for the neighbour's integrity, a haven for societal morality and chastity, a mosque and a school. In the latter, however, a house will be found to be narrowed down to a solitary, a prison, a symbol of uncontrolled freedom, a disturbance to and infringement upon the neighbour's rights, an ostentation, a despair to the wayfarer and a street.

Figure 15. Air pollution, blockage and obstruction of public right of passage

The major difference between the two is that while in the Islam-oriented residential structure a house is divided into three distinct realms; the public, the transitional and the private, the western-oriented one is loosely divided into the public and the private. All these notwithstanding, it should not be inferred that this paper is clamouring for a return to using the traditional building materials and structure

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while totally denouncing modern architecture with all its concomitant fruits. What is required is, borrowing the words of one scholar, 'to look back, keep the connection and not loose the track'47. There are some western structures which need to be incorporated into the indigenous ones and viceversa. There can therefore be a mixture between the two in such a way that while the traditional retains a substantial portion of the residential structure a significant fraction of the building material should continue to be modern. Through this a society maintains a continuous link with its past and at the same time rip the fruits of modernity. Conclusion This paper discussed in some detail the Islamoriented traditional structure of residence in urban Kano. This includes the extent to which they are Islamic and how this heritage is gradually being pushed to the periphery of extinction by modern western architecture in the contemporary city composition. Going by what is so far discussed the paper concludes that Islam is the pioneer of cities which are ethics-integrated and deeply impacted on the lives of the Kano people including the way they perceive and construct their residences. The structure of western-styled houses which are gradually replacing the Islam-oriented ones in modern Kano city fail to or hardly reflect Islamic values as the traditional ones do. However, the two can be blended together for the emergence of cities that are both traditional and modern. References 1. K.Lynch, T.Binns, E.Olofon. 2000. Urban Agriculture Under Threat: the Land Security Question in Kano. www.cityfarmer.org/LandSecurityKano.RTF (Accessed December 17, 2008). 2. Beg. 1983. Two Lectures on Islamic Civilization' in Buaben, J. (nd). ''What Makes a Good City? A Muslim Perspective''. www.faithforthecity.org.uk/Papers/Islam.pdf(Accessed January 2, 2009). 3. Jomier. 'Islam' The Encyclopedia of Islam in Buaben, J. (nd). ''What Makes a Good City? A Muslim Perspective'' www.faithforthecity.org.uk/Papers/Islam.pdf(Accessed January 2, 2009). 4. A.Toynbee. 'The Preaching of Islam'. in Buaben, J. (nd). ''What Makes a Good City? A Muslim Perspective''. www.faithforthecity.org.uk/Papers/Islam.pdf(Accessed January 2, 2009). 5. M.Bridges (nd). ''Searching for the Islamic City: the Transformative Power of the Ummah''. http://www.writemyline.com/mebridges.com/Isl amic%20city.pdf (Accessed December 30, 2008). 6. Amir, A. (nd). '' Binac al-Daulah al-Muduniyyah'' http://news.maktoob.com/article/1963020/-‫ﺑﻨ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ــﺎ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺪﻧﻴﺔ‬-‫( اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ‬Accessed October 20, 2008).


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ARCHITECTURE IN THE ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION: MUSLIM BUILDING OR ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

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