Instructional technology uses scientifically based procedures to develop, evaluate, and improve instructional programs and products so that they can be optimally effective. It involves detailed analysis of the subject matter to be learned, structuring the instructional presentation into an appropriate sequence, selection and use of appropriate media for presenting material, and the use of appropriate meth ods of assesing student performance to evaluate the effectiveness of the instruction. teknologi instruksional menggunakan prosedur ilmiah berdasarkan mengembangkan , mengevaluasi , dan meningkatkan program instruksional dan produk sehingga mereka bisa secara optimal yang efektif . Ini melibatkan analisis rinci dari materi pelajaran yang harus dipelajari , penataan presentasi instruksional ke urutan yang tepat , pemilihan dan penggunaan media yang tepat untuk menyajikan materi , dan penggunaan ods met sesuai assesing kinerja siswa untuk mengevaluasi efektivitas instruksi many people may still believe all that is required or good instruction, is to select instructions who are "good" at their specially. It is not necessary that these instructors know anything about communicating that specialty to others. What those who think this do not realize is that there is now a body of knowledge (called instructional technology) that is as sophisticated as any of these other specialties. This body of knowledge that is rich in procedures and techniques. In this chapter, I present some of the basic procedures and techniques that instructional technologists use in their craft. banyak orang mungkin masih percaya semua yang diperlukan atau instruksi yang baik , adalah untuk memilih instruksi yang " baik " di khusus mereka . Hal ini tidak perlu bahwa instruktur ini tahu apa-apa tentang berkomunikasi khusus yang kepada orang lain . Apa mereka yang berpikir ini tidak menyadari adalah bahwa sekarang ada tubuh pengetahuan ( disebut teknologi instruksional ) yang secanggih apapun ini spesialisasi lainnya . Ini tubuh pengetahuan yang kaya prosedur dan teknik . Dalam bab ini , saya menyajikan beberapa prosedur dasar dan teknik yang menggunakan teknologi instruksional dalam kerajinan mereka . Tool 1 : Instructional Design Model As mentioned earlier, instructional technologists spend most of their time planning, developing, adn ieldsting instructional programs and materials. They use a process that has been developed to assure that the instructional programs and materials they create will be effective. To produce these effective programs and materials, instructional technologists follow an instructional design process. The insert "Educational Technology Model for Developing Effective Instruction" shows a typical instructional design model. Alat 1 : Instructional Design Model Seperti disebutkan sebelumnya , teknologi instruksional menghabiskan sebagian besar waktu mereka merencanakan , mengembangkan , adn ieldsting program pembelajaran dan bahan . Mereka menggunakan proses yang telah dikembangkan untuk menjamin bahwa program pembelajaran dan materi yang mereka buat akan efektif . Untuk menghasilkan programprogram dan bahan yang efektif , teknologi instruksional mengikuti proses desain instruksional . Insert " Teknologi Pendidikan Model Pengembangan Instruksi Efektif " menunjukkan model desain instruksional khas .
The diagram shown in the insert below may look a little bit complicated at first, but it is a description of the process involved in instructional technology. The irst step is to determine an instructional goal-a general statement about what learner should be able to do as a result of the instruction. The instructional goal is then expressed in a more specific way as a list of objectives. There may be several objectives for each instructional goal. After the objectives have been carefully selected and stated, tests are developed as way to measure whteher the learner is able to perform the instructional goal. The test can be used either before the instruction (to see if a learner can already perform the objectives, and if so, skip the instruction) or following the instruction (to see if the instruction was successfull). Next, instructional activities are planned that will help the student learn to perform the objective. The planning of these activities also includes selection Tool 3. Task Analysis Another tool that instructional technologists use to develop effective instructional programs and products is task analysis. Task analysis is probably the most important tool the instructional tool the instructional technologist uses because it assures that the necessary content is included in the instruction. It also helps to assure that the content is presented in the appropriate sequence, without leaving out any necessary inormation. There are several diferent task analysis techniques that are used to define the content for an instructional module, unit, or course. These include techniques or analyzing the content structure, techniques or analyzing procedures, critical incident analysis, hierarchical task analysis, and other such techniques. Selecting the best or most appropriate technique depends on the nature of the task or content, and the environment in which the task is to be performed. The insert “Task Analysis Diagram” shows the results of one type of task analysis. The type of analysis shown in the insert is called a hierarchical task analysis-because it shows the build-up of the components of the target skill (subtracting whole numbers). Instructional programs and products that are based on this type of scientific analysis are much more effective than instruction that is simply made up out o one’s head. Even for a very experienced teacher, it is really not possible to understand how to teach a student most effectively unless one perorms this type off analysis before building the instruction. Alat 3. Analisis Tugas Alat lain yang teknologi instruksional gunakan untuk mengembangkan program pembelajaran yang efektif dan produk adalah analisis tugas. analisis tugas mungkin adalah alat yang paling penting alat instruksional teknolog pembelajaran menggunakan karena menjamin bahwa konten yang diperlukan termasuk dalam instruksi. Hal ini juga membantu untuk memastikan bahwa konten yang disajikan dalam urutan yang tepat, tanpa meninggalkan apapun inormation diperlukan. Ada beberapa teknik analisis tugas yang berbeda yang digunakan untuk menentukan konten untuk modul, unit, atau kursus instruksional. Ini termasuk teknik atau menganalisis struktur konten, teknik atau prosedur menganalisis, analisis insiden kritis, analisis tugas hirarkis, dan teknik seperti lainnya. Memilih yang terbaik atau yang paling tepat teknik tergantung pada sifat dari tugas atau konten, dan lingkungan di mana tugas yang akan dilakukan. Insert "Tugas Analisis Diagram" menunjukkan hasil satu jenis analisis tugas. Jenis analisis ditampilkan di insert disebut tugas hirarkis analisis-karena menunjukkan build-up dari komponen keterampilan sasaran (mengurangkan bilangan bulat). program instruksional dan produk yang didasarkan pada jenis analisis ilmiah yang jauh lebih efektif daripada instruksi yang hanya terdiri dari satu kepala. Bahkan untuk guru yang sangat berpengalaman, itu benar-benar tidak mungkin untuk memahami bagaimana untuk mengajar siswa yang paling efektif kecuali satu melakukan jenis off analisis sebelum membangun instruksi.
Tool 4. Media Selection Charts Schools rely far too heavily on the teacher, the lecture, the textbook, and supplementary print materials for presenting instructional content. Other types of instructional tools will often be better in terms of ability to provide individualized presentations and flexible amounts of practice. The following list shows other ways to deliver instruction that are very effective when used appropriately. Self-paced learning Computer-based tutorials Computer-based practice and drills Multimedia packages Videodisc Computer simulations Audiotape with worksheets Slidetape with worksheets Self-instructional modules Small-group formats Cooperative learning Games Distance learning Instructional technologists use scientific principles of learning to help determine which of the above methods should be used to deliver instruction for a particular learning objective and group of learners. They do this by analyzing what attributes need to be present in the instructional presentation. That is, they determine if pictures are needed, if self-paced practice will be needed, if display of color and motion is necessary. Then they selct the most readily available and economical means that will provide the features called or by the objective. These attributes o learning have been embodied in charts that aid the proper selection of instructional media. Examples of such cahrts are shown in the insert “Media Selection Charts”. One chart is used for selecting media for presentation to a group. Another chart is used for selecting media for self-paced learning for individual students, and a third charts for media to be used for small group interaction. To use these chart, instructional technologists start with one or a group of related learning objectives and subject content. Then they decide on answer to the questions at the top of each chart A “yes” answer to a question will lead to the next lower level. Then they answer the questions at that level of the chart. The decisions at each level eventually lead to a group of media from which a final choice can be made. As noted in the previous chapter, media will play a much larger role in schools and other learning environments in the future.
Charts Pemilihan Media Sekolah mengandalkan terlalu berat pada guru, kuliah, buku pelajaran, dan bahan-bahan cetak tambahan untuk menyajikan konten pembelajaran. Jenis lain dari alat pembelajaran akan sering lebih baik dalam hal kemampuan untuk memberikan presentasi individual dan jumlah fleksibel praktek. Daftar berikut menunjukkan cara lain untuk memberikan instruksi yang sangat efektif bila digunakan dengan tepat. Sendiri mondar-mandir belajar. tutorial berbasis komputer. praktik berbasis komputer dan latihan. paket Multimedia Videodisc. simulasi komputer. Rekaman dengan lembar kerja. Slidetape dengan lembar kerja. modul diri instruksional. format kecil-kelompok. Pembelajaran kooperatif. Pertandingan. Pembelajaran jarak jauh. teknologi instruksional menggunakan prinsip-prinsip ilmiah belajar untuk membantu menentukan metode di atas harus digunakan untuk memberikan instruksi untuk tujuan belajar tertentu dan kelompok peserta didik. Mereka melakukan ini dengan menganalisis atribut apa perlu hadir dalam presentasi instruksional. Artinya, mereka menentukan apakah gambar yang diperlukan, jika praktik mandiri akan diperlukan, jika layar warna dan gerak diperlukan. Kemudian mereka memilih cara yang paling tersedia dan ekonomis yang akan menyediakan fitur yang disebut atau dengan tujuan. Atribut ini pembelajaran telah diwujudkan dalam grafik yang membantu pilihan yang tepat media pembelajaran. Contoh cahrts seperti ditunjukkan dalam insert "Media Selection Charts". Satu grafik digunakan untuk memilih media untuk presentasi ke grup. grafik lain digunakan untuk memilih media untuk pembelajaran diri yang serba untuk masing-masing siswa, dan grafik ketiga untuk media yang akan digunakan untuk interaksi kelompok kecil. Untuk menggunakan grafik ini, teknologi instruksional mulai dengan satu atau sekelompok tujuan pembelajaran terkait dan konten subjek. Kemudian mereka memutuskan jawaban atas pertanyaan di atas setiap grafik. Sebuah jawaban "ya" untuk pertanyaan akan mengarah ke tingkat yang lebih rendah berikutnya. Kemudian mereka menjawab pertanyaan-pertanyaan pada tingkat grafik. Keputusan di setiap tingkat akhirnya mengarah pada sebuah kelompok media yang pilihan akhir dapat dibuat. Seperti yang tercantum dalam bab sebelumnya, media akan memainkan peran yang lebih besar di sekolah dan lingkungan belajar lainnya di masa depan. Tool 5 Testing And Revising The Instruction Instructional technology uses scientific methodologies to test instructional programs to verify that these programs are capable of producing the desired results with real students. The goal is to identify how the isntructional materials or methods might be improved. There are three basic data-gathering techniques that are used to determine the effectiveness of instruction and
to locate areas ffor revision and improvment. The three basic techniques are pretest, embedded test items, and posttests. Pretests Pretesting is vitally important for trying out the instruction because it provides a benchmark to work from. Pretesting determines the learners readiness for the instruction by showing if an individual learner already understands the subject matter or can perform some aspects of the skill to be taught. It also indicates whether the learner has appropriate preperation for starting a course or studying a topic. (For example, some students may lack basic aritmethic skills that would disqualify them from starting to study algebra). The pretest also indicates at what point the instructional program should begin (remedial, lower level, or higher level) for that student or group of students. It also helps to motivate the learners by arousing their curiosity and interest and by showing them what will be required of them at the end of the instructional period, unit, or course. Most important, though, is that the pretest provides baseline data for determining learner growth by comparing scores on the pretest with scores on the posttest. Pretests sometimes take the form of: Pencil and paper tests Observations of performance (where the observer uses a rating sheet or checklist to determine competencies exhibitied by the learners); or A questionnare to determine background characteristics of the learners such as previous experience, interests, and goals. For determining improvement in performance, however, the most common form of pretesting is a pencil and paper test based on the critical competencies to be taught. Remember, these critical competencies were expressed as precision objectives. Remember, these critical competencies were expressed as precision objectives. Accomplishment of these critical competencies is measured by how well the learners perform on the objectives. This is why formulation of precision objectives is so important. The precision objectives form the basis for both the pretest and the posttest. The same test (or a modified form of it) can be used for both pretesting and posttesting of students. Pretests are not used to evaluate the students or to assign grades. They are used as a way to evaluate the effectiveness of the instructional program that will be delivered to the students. Of interest to the instructional technologists is the amount of learning that has taken place between the pretest and the posttest. The instructional technologist wants to see if the instructional program was effective in moving the learners from the point where they cannot do something to the point where they can do it. One way to measure objectives and then, after the instruction has been completed, compare pretest scores with posttets scores. The insert “Using Pretests and Posttests to Determine Learning Growth” shows one way of laying out the pretest and posttest scores. As Shown in the insert, the learning gains were large on all objectives except 3 and 8. In the case of objectives 3 and 8, only small learning gains were made. This shows that the instruction related to objectives 3 and 8 may be weak, inacurate, or incomplate and mya need to be revised and improved in some way. Instructional technologists have various methods and techniques for constructing valid and effective pretests and posttests . These tests may be multiple-choice, short-answer, or essay type test, or they may be tests that require observation of actual performance. The decision as
to whether the pretests and posttests are multiple-choice, short-answer, or some other type is not an arbitrary decision. Rather it is based on whether the skill being tested is an intellectual skill, a conceptual skill, a verbal skill, a psychomotor skill, or, as is often the case, a combination of these. It is critical that both pretest and posttest items measure the exact competencies described in the objectives. Objectives that ask the student to state, deine, or classify something will all require a different format for questions and responses. Sometimes teachers can construct their own tests for pretesting puposes, but often this requires the expertise of persons with in-depth training and understanding of psychometrics and other specialized knowledge. Embedded Test Items Embedded test items are an additional way to locate weak points in an instructional program. An embedded tets item is like a practice question or problem that is part of the instructional process. The instructional technologist inserts these items into the instructional program for the purpose of seeing if the learner can perform the skill immediately after it is taught. These embedded questions may be some of the same type off questions as on the pretest and posttest but they are inserted into the instruction at appropriate points along the way. If the learner is not able to perform the skill immediately after it was taught, the instruction may need to be clarified or broken down into simpler steps or stages. Posttests Posttests, of course, are used to asses the objectives of the instructional module, unit, or course. The posttets may be the same test that was used as the pretest or it may be a more indepth, more complete form of test that covers the same objectives. Posttests are generally used by teachers for the purpose of assigning a grade to each student. However, to the instructional technologist, the primary purpose of the posttest is to identify the areas of the instruction that are not working well. If a student fails to perform well on the posttest (wether the test is a pencil-and-paper test or some type of performance test), the instructional technologist should be able to look at the pretest, the embedded tets items, and the posttest and identify where in the learning process the student began to fail to under-stand the instruction. Once the instructional technologist has collected pretest data, data showing performance on embedded test items, and posttest data, these can be laid out in the form of a table or line graph showing how the students performed on objectives on the pretest, embedded test items, and posttest. By looking at the table or graph, the instructional technologist can see where the instruction is weak. These are not the only tools that are used by instructional technologists, but they are samples of the kinds of tools that are used to scientifically plan, test, evaluate, and revise instruction so that it can be optimally effective for most students. Tools 6 and 7, to be discussed next, are tools that can be used by teachers, curriculum specialists, or others to locate instrcutional materials and programs that have been designed and tested by instructional technologists. Tool 6 The education software selector The majority of instructional materials and products used by schools are “off the shelf”, that is, ready-made and available from commercial companies that produce these materials for educational use. Locating the best materials for students can be a difficult task. Foriunately,
there is a tool called The Education Software Selector (TESS). TESS is now available on CDROM. TESS is produced by the Educational Products Inormation Exchange (EPIE) Institute. EPIE provides objective educational hardware and software evaluations to the education and training communities much like the Costumers Union provides evaluative information about household products to general consumers. EPIE’s evaluations and analyses of eduactional materials, equipment, and systems include emperical information on performance and effects on learners. Like consumers union, Epie accepts no advertising or commercial sponsorship o any kind so that it can remain unbiased. All income is derived from subscriptions, contract services from state and local educational software at every level from preschool to college. TESS is the most definitive information source on availabality of all types of microcomputer educational software. EPIE also ofers the following evaluation services of use to schools and school systems Its newsletter EPIEgram covers a wide range of topics from text books to computer technology and is published nine times a year The EPIE Report on Computer-Based Integrated Systems evaluates the major integrated instruction systems (or integrated learning system). Integrated learning systems are those that include computer workstations for each student and combine hardware, software, on line practice, test taking, and a management system and provide a full-blown multiyear curriculum via computer. EPIE’s Curriculum Analysis Services or Education (CASE) provides schools with a means of analyzing, designing, and aligning its curriculum objectives, its textbooks, and other instructional resources A schools testing program can be compared to state and national tests and curriculum priorities. The service provides grade-by-grade printed reports that are useful for understanding and improving a schools curriculum and instructionalprogram Textbook Profiles provides an analysis and evaluation of textbooks from an instructional technology (learning effectiveness) perspective. EPIE Report is biannual publication that describes trends in instructional materials and equipmnet. A-V/V Pro/Files, another biannual report, provides evaluative information about audiovisual and video products Micro PRO/Files is a bimonthly publication that gives an in depth analysis of microcomputer hardware and software In addition to EPIE, other agencies attempt to help educators with the computer materials selections of materials. These include MicroSift, published by the North west Regional Education Lab, and Pipeline, published by the CONDUIT Clearinghouse at the University of Lowa. Tool 7. Multimedia Indices Several good indices exist to help educators select most appropriate and effective media materials for student. One of the more comprehensive guides dealing with audiovisual media is a set of indices published by the National Information Center for Educational Media (NICEM). The NICEM indices are arranged accroding to media format, such as slide, filmtrips, overhead transparancies, films, and videotapes. A CD-ROM version of these indexes is
available under the title A-V On-line. This on-line version can be accessed through computerized search service such as DIALOG. Any library subscribing to such a search service will have a terminal where you can access the NICEM references on-line. There are also other indices of instructional materials such as the one available from the National Information Center for Special Education Materials. This index provides inormation on the content of materials and their applicability to specific disability conditions and is helpful in preparing educational programs or handicapped learners. The videodisc compendium is an index deveted exclusively to videodiscs. Several other sources, such as Core Media Collection for Elementary Schools and Core Media Collection ffor Secondary Schools, cover a broad range of media formats These sources recommend specific audiovisual titles as core materials for elementary and secondary student learning. Other, more specialized sources or indices of media materials are listed at the end of this chapter.
