Page 1 The Paradigms of Quality: Paradigma Kualitas: Evolution and Revolution in the History of the Discipline

Page 1 11 The Paradigms of Quality: Paradigma Kualitas: Evolution and Revolution in the History of the Discipline Evolusi dan Revolusi di Sejarah disiplin Kevin Dooley Kevin Dooley Arizona State University Arizona State University Departments of Industrial Engineering & Management Departemen Teknik Industri & Manajemen PO Box 875906 PO Box 875906 Tempe AZ 85287-5906 Tempe AZ 85287-5906 Phone: 480-965-6833 Telepon: 480-965-6833 Fax: 480-965-8692 Fax: 480-965-8692 [email protected] Kevin.Dooley @ asu.edu Advances in the Management of Organizational Quality , Vol. Kemajuan dalam Pengelolaan Kualitas Organisasi Vol. 5, JAI Press: 1-28 5 Tekan, JAI: 1-28 Abstract Abstrak The quality of goods and services has always been a societal concern. Kualitas barang dan jasa selalu menjadi perhatian masyarakat. In this paper I describe the Dalam tulisan ini saya menjelaskan evolution of the discipline of quality via an evolutionary model of paradigm development. evolusi dari disiplin kualitas melalui model evolusioner dari paradigma pembangunan. Using Menggunakan a narrative approach, I propose three epochs within the evolution of the discipline: a prependekatan narasi, saya mengusulkan tiga zaman dalam evolusi disiplin: praindustrial paradigm of caveat emptor , an industrial paradigm of quality control , and a post- industri paradigma emptor peringatan, sebuah paradigma industri pengendalian mutu, dan pascaindustrial paradigm of total quality management . paradigma industri manajemen kualitas total. My model suggests that each paradigm was model saya menunjukkan bahwa setiap paradigma the result of the discipline's adaptation to environmental contingencies. hasil dari disiplin yang adaptasi untuk kontinjensi lingkungan. I also propose that the Saya juga mengusulkan bahwa essential nature of the paradigm was foreshadowed in the previous epoch as a local variation sifat penting dari paradigma ini meramalkan pada zaman sebelumnya sebagai variasi lokal which was later selected globally when evironmental changes occurred. yang kemudian dipilih secara global ketika perubahan Lingkungan, terjadi. I extend the model to Aku memperpanjang model untuk predict what might constitute the challenges of the next quality paradigm. memprediksi apa yang mungkin merupakan tantangan paradigma kualitas berikutnya. Page 2 Page 2 22 Introduction Pengantar

Society has always been concerned about the quality of the goods and services provided Masyarakat selalu khawatir tentang kualitas barang dan jasa yang diberikan to them. kepada mereka. For the lack of poor quality, a house might have fallen on its ancient inhabitants, a Untuk kurangnya berkualitas buruk, rumah mungkin telah jatuh pada penduduk kuno, sebuah fishing ship may have sunk while at sea, or a battle may have been lost due to arms that would kapal penangkap ikan mungkin telah tenggelam sementara di laut, atau pertempuran mungkin telah hilang karena senjata yang akan not work. tidak bekerja. Over the ages though the concept of quality has developed into a discipline, a Selama usia meskipun konsep kualitas telah berkembang menjadi disiplin, seorang complex set of principles and assumed truths that define how the quality of goods and services is set kompleks prinsip dan kebenaran diasumsikan yang mendefinisikan bagaimana kualitas barang dan jasa to be assessed, managed, delivered and assured. akan dinilai, dikelola, dikirimkan dan terjamin. The purpose of this paper is to describe the evolution of the discipline of quality via an Tujuan makalah ini adalah untuk menggambarkan evolusi dari disiplin kualitas melalui evolutionary model of paradigm development. evolusioner model pengembangan paradigma. The evolutionary model posits that the tenets of Model evolusi ini berpendapat bahwa ajaran the discipline are the result of adaptation, namely, that the conditions present in a given era of disiplin adalah hasil dari adaptasi, yaitu, bahwa kondisi hadir dalam era tertentu time shape the nature of the discipline. waktu membentuk sifat disiplin. Using a narrative approach, I propose three epochs Menggunakan pendekatan narasi, saya mengusulkan tiga zaman within the evolution of the discipline. dalam evolusi dari disiplin. The first paradigm of quality, present from ancient times Paradigma pertama kualitas, hadir dari zaman kuno until the industrial evolution, is best desribed by caveat emptor . sampai evolusi industri, yang terbaik adalah dideskripsikan oleh emptor surat keberatan. Artisans produced goods of Pengrajin memproduksi barang dari certain quality and it was up to the consumer to appraise the quality of these goods. berkualitas dan terserah konsumen untuk menilai kualitas barang-barang. The The reputation of the artisan was at stake for those quality characteristics that could not be reputasi tukang yang dipertaruhkan bagi mereka karakteristik kualitas yang tidak dapat ascertained in a manifest way, ie latent quality attributes of the product. dipastikan dengan cara yang nyata, kualitas laten yaitu atribut produk. Trademarks, guilds, Merek dagang, serikat pekerja, and punitive measures were used to extend caveat emptor to situations where it was not feasible. dan langkah-langkah hukuman digunakan untuk memperluas emptor surat protes untuk situasi di mana itu tidak layak. The industrial evolution raised the level of product and process complexity, and hence a Evolusi industri mengangkat tingkat kompleksitas produk dan proses, dan karenanya new quality paradigm of quality control was borne, coinciding with a broader set of changes paradigma baru kualitas pengendalian mutu ditanggung, bertepatan dengan satu set perubahan yang lebih luas

taking place under the realm of scientific management. terjadi di bawah bidang manajemen ilmiah. Out of this came the development of Dari sinilah muncul pengembangan basic quality practices such as sampling inspection, the use of statistical methods within a dasar yang bermutu praktek-praktek seperti inspeksi, penggunaan metode statistik dalam framework of scientific management, standardization, and a functionalization of the discipline. kerangka manajemen ilmiah, standardisasi, dan fungsionalisasi dari disiplin. Much of the twentieth century was spent developing the techniques of quality control . Sebagian besar abad kedua puluh adalah menghabiskan mengembangkan teknik kontrol kualitas. During Selama the latter part of the twentieth century global competition forced organizations to become equally bagian terakhir dari persaingan global abad kedua puluh memaksa organisasi untuk menjadi sama concerned about the improvement of quality as they had been about the control of quality, hence prihatin tentang peningkatan kualitas mereka telah tentang kontrol kualitas, maka a third paradigm arose, that of total quality management (TQM) . TQM brought the awareness paradigma ketiga muncul, bahwa manajemen mutu total (TQM) dibawa. TQM kesadaran and practice of quality principles to a new level, and emphasized such things as organizational dan praktek prinsip-prinsip kualitas ke tingkat yang baru, dan menekankan hal-hal seperti organisasi learning and participative management. belajar dan manajemen partisipatif. Furthermore, the paradigms of quality control and TQM can be seen as having been Selanjutnya, paradigma pengendalian kualitas dan TQM dapat dilihat sebagai telah foreshadowed as niche responses to local environmental contingencies in the previous paradigm. meramalkan sebagai respon ceruk untuk kontinjensi lingkungan lokal dalam paradigma sebelumnya. During the epoch of caveat emptor , elements of the quality control paradigm can be seen in more Selama era emptor peringatan, unsur-unsur dari paradigma pengendalian kualitas dapat dilihat di lebih Page 3 Page 3 33 advanced cultures such as the Chinese dynasties and the Roman Empire with the arising of maju budaya seperti dinasti Cina dan Kekaisaran Romawi dengan timbulnya standards regarding the quality of goods, and the emphasis on standardization, conformance, and standar yang berkenaan dengan kualitas barang, dan penekanan pada standarisasi, kesesuaian, dan control in complex military systems. kontrol dalam sistem militer yang kompleks. During the epoch of quality control , elements of the TQM Selama zaman pengendalian kualitas, elemen TQM paradigm can be seen in the development of Japanese-style quality control, and in the writings of paradigma dapat dilihat dalam perkembangan gaya kualitas kontrol-Jepang, dan dalam tulisan

Juran and Feigenbaum. Juran dan Feigenbaum. Each of these local variations was later selected when evironmental Masing-masing variasi lokal kemudian dipilih saat Lingkungan, changes occurred. perubahan terjadi. I shall first present the evolutionary model and address the basic issues involved in the Saya pertama kali akan menyajikan model evolusioner dan mengatasi masalah dasar yang terlibat dalam study of a paradigm and discipline. studi tentang paradigma dan disiplin. I will then present a narrative history of the discipline's Saya kemudian akan menyajikan narasi sejarah dari disiplin's evolution, using the model as a theoretical template, or lens. evolusi, dengan menggunakan model tersebut sebagai template teoritis, atau lensa. I will then extend the model to Saya kemudian akan memperpanjang model untuk predict what might constitute the challenges of the next quality paradigm. memprediksi apa yang mungkin merupakan tantangan paradigma kualitas berikutnya. Paradigms and Disciplines Paradigma dan Disiplin Thomas Kuhn's (1970) work on scientific paradigms is our starting point. 1970) karya Thomas Kuhn (pada paradigma ilmiah adalah titik awal kita. At the heart of Di jantung Kuhn's argument is that at a given epoch of time, a paradigm, or set of shared principles and Kuhn's argumen adalah bahwa pada zaman waktu tertentu, paradigma, atau seperangkat prinsip bersama dan assumptions, defines what is "normal science"; and that normal science describes the vast asumsi, mendefinisikan apa yang "ilmu normal", dan bahwa ilmu normal menggambarkan luas majority of work within that era. sebagian besar bekerja di dalam era tersebut. For example, Newton's laws of motions defined the paradigm Misalnya, hukum-hukum Newton's gerak didefinisikan paradigma of astronomy for several centuries, until the discovery of relativity. astronomi selama beberapa abad, hingga ditemukannya relativitas. Kuhn asserts that scientists Kuhn menegaskan bahwa para ilmuwan spend little effort in examining issues that are outside the paradigm, and that most work is menghabiskan sedikit usaha dalam memeriksa isu-isu yang berada di luar paradigma, dan bahwa pekerjaan sebagian besar focused on refining the theories essential to the paradigm and problem solving within the berfokus pada memperbaiki teori penting untuk paradigma dan pemecahan masalah dalam paradigm. paradigma. Kuhn points out that work that is critical of the paradigm's principles and assumptions Kuhn menunjukkan bahwa pekerjaan yang kritis terhadap paradigma prinsip-prinsip dan asumsi is typically ignored, criticized, and/or subsumed to be due to special circumstances. biasanya diabaikan, dikritik, dan / atau dimasukkan terjadi karena keadaan khusus. For Untuk example, there was little sympathy for theories concerning a sun-centric solar system within an Misalnya, ada sedikit simpati untuk teori tentang sebuah pusat sistem mataharimatahari dalam sebuah

earth-centric astronomical paradigm. bumi-sentris paradigma astronomi. It is only when great anomolies occur between observation Hal ini hanya bila anomali besar terjadi antara observasi and theory that a paradigm can be replaced by another. dan teori bahwa paradigma dapat digantikan oleh orang lain. Thus paradigms can be thought of as Dengan demikian paradigma dapat dianggap sebagai evolving via a model of punctuated equilibrium, where long periods of slow evolutionary change berkembang melalui model punctuated equilibrium, dimana panjang periode perubahan evolusioner lambat are interrupted by short periods of revolutionary change (Gersick, 1991). terganggu oleh jangka pendek perubahan revolusioner (Gersick, 1991). Even though Kuhn's work focused on paradigms pertaining to scientific research, the Meskipun's bekerja Kuhn berfokus pada paradigma yang berkaitan dengan penelitian ilmiah, concepts appear to easily "stretch" to a more generalizable context, namely, a discipline based on konsep-konsep tampaknya mudah "peregangan" untuk sebuah digeneralisasikan konteks yang lebih, yaitu, disiplin berdasarkan a community of practice (Brown and Duguid, 1991). sebuah komunitas praktik (Brown dan Duguid, 1991). According to institutional theory, a Menurut teori kelembagaan, sebuah discipline in fact is a highly developed, culturally-based entity that acts as a paradigm. disiplin sebenarnya adalah, budaya yang dikembangkan berbasis entitas yang sangat yang bertindak sebagai sebuah paradigma. A A discipline is a very important phenomenon to study because “disciplines rule by controlling disiplin merupakan fenomena yang sangat penting untuk belajar karena "aturan disiplin dengan mengendalikan Page 4 Page 4 44 belief systems. sistem kepercayaan. Their primary weapons are ideas. senjata utama mereka adalah ide-ide. They exercise control by defining reality--by Mereka melakukan pengendalian dengan mendefinisikan realitas - oleh devising ontological frameworks, proposing distinctions, creating typifications, and fabricating merancang kerangka ontologis, mengusulkan perbedaan, menciptakan typifications, dan fabrikasi principles or guidelines for action” (Scott and Backman, 1990, p. 290). prinsip-prinsip atau pedoman bagi tindakan "(Scott dan Backman, 1990, hal 290). Further, "disciplines tell Selanjutnya, "disiplin katakan actors which problems should be addressed, how they should be addressed, and what their aktor yang masalah harus ditangani, bagaimana mereka harus ditangani, dan apa yang mereka outcome should look like. hasil akan terlihat seperti. As such, they define both a frame of mind (cognitive) as well as a Dengan demikian, mereka menentukan baik kerangka pikiran (kognitif) serta frame of action (normative)" (Dooley, Durfee, Shinde, and Anderson, 2000, p. 289). kerangka tindakan (normatif) "(Dooley, Durfee, Shinde, dan Anderson, 2000, hal 289).

We can use evolutionary theory (Cohen and Stewart, 1994) to develop a model of how a Kita dapat menggunakan teori evolusi (Cohen dan Stewart, 1994) untuk mengembangkan sebuah model tentang bagaimana discipline might evolve over time. disiplin mungkin berevolusi dari waktu ke waktu. First is the notion of environmental adaptation--an entity will Pertama adalah gagasan adaptasi lingkungan - suatu entitas akan evolve characteristic traits that make it "fit" well with the current environment. berkembang sifat karakteristik yang membuatnya "cocok" dengan baik dengan lingkungan saat ini. Thus, we would Jadi, kami akan expect the characteristics of a discipline--what it believes is important, how reality is observed mengharapkan karakteristik disiplin - apa itu percaya yang penting, bagaimana realitas yang diamati and modeled, what actions are prescribed--to fit well within the historical environment within dan dimodelkan, tindakan apa yang diresepkan - agar sesuai dengan baik dalam lingkungan sejarah dalam which it is embedded. yang tertanam. Since the discipline of quality is essentially concerned with commerce Karena disiplin kualitas pada dasarnya adalah berkaitan dengan perdagangan and industry, that is the environment to which it has historically adapted. dan industri, yaitu lingkungan yang telah diadaptasi historis. The second element of the model is local variation due to niche environmental Unsur kedua dari model ini variasi lokal karena niche lingkungan conditions. kondisi. An entity will attempt to adapt to whatever environment it faces, regardless of Entitas akan mencoba untuk beradaptasi dengan lingkungan apapun yang dihadapinya, tanpa whether the environment is uniform on a global basis, or heterogenous and highly local. apakah lingkungan seragam secara global, atau heterogen dan sangat lokal. Thus Demikian differences between the local and global environment may give rise to adaptations that only take perbedaan antara lingkungan lokal dan global dapat menimbulkan adaptasi yang hanya mengambil place locally. tempat lokal. These adaptations are beneficial locally, but not globally, and so they remained Adaptasi ini bermanfaat secara lokal, tapi tidak secara global, sehingga mereka tetap contained within a small niche of the larger population. terkandung dalam ceruk kecil dari populasi yang lebih besar. When we apply this concept to a Ketika kita menerapkan konsep ini ke discipline, it implies that a discipline may be practiced differently in certain locales than in disiplin, ini menunjukkan bahwa disiplin mungkin dipraktekkan secara berbeda dalam locales tertentu daripada others, due to local contingencies. lain, karena kontinjensi lokal. The discipline of quality, while relatively uniform within a Disiplin kualitas, sementara yang relatif seragam dalam given epoch of time, has had such local variations. zaman waktu tertentu, telah memiliki variasi setempat.

The final element of the model ties together the first two, namely, that a revolutionary Elemen terakhir dari model ikatan bersama dua yang pertama, yaitu bahwa seorang revolusioner change in the paradigm or discipline can take place when environmental conditions change perubahan paradigma atau disiplin dapat terjadi ketika kondisi lingkungan berubah drastically, and that it is one of the local niche variations that is likely to be selected as a new drastis, dan bahwa ini adalah salah satu variasi niche lokal yang mungkin untuk dipilih sebagai yang baru global adaptation. global adaptasi. Thus the discipline is thought to leapfrog from one paradigm to the next by Dengan demikian disiplin diperkirakan melompati dari satu paradigma ke yang berikutnya oleh selecting some variation of itself that has arisen due to previously local (only) environmental memilih beberapa variasi itu sendiri yang telah muncul karena sebelumnya lokal (saja) lingkungan pressures. tekanan. In summary, the model proposed is: Secara ringkas, model yang diusulkan adalah: 1. 1. The discipline of quality at a specific epoch in time reflected the business environment of Disiplin kualitas pada suatu zaman tertentu dalam waktu mencerminkan lingkungan bisnis that epoch. itu zaman. Page 5 Page 5 55 2. 2. Variations in the practice of the discipline occurred under special (local) circumstances. Variasi dalam praktek disiplin yang terjadi di bawah khusus (lokal) keadaan. 3. 3. These variations were later selected, retained, and developed when the business environment Variasi ini kemudian dipilih, dipertahankan, dan dikembangkan ketika lingkungan bisnis changed drastically. berubah drastis. I propose that the discipline of quality has seen three iterations of this model: a preindustrial Saya mengusulkan bahwa disiplin kualitas telah melihat tiga iterasi model ini: pra-industri paradigm of caveat emptor , an industrial paradigm of quality control , and a postindustrial paradigma emptor peringatan, sebuah paradigma industri pengendalian mutu, dan pasca-industri paradigm of total quality management . paradigma manajemen kualitas total. I shall now use a narrative approach to describe each of Saya sekarang akan menggunakan pendekatan narasi untuk menggambarkan masing-masing these paradigms. paradigma ini. The Paradigm of Caveat Emptor Paradigma Caveat Emptor In a pre-industrial era, the quantity and quality of goods were the two essential Dalam era pra-industri, kuantitas dan kualitas barang adalah dua penting characteristics defining an economic transaction. mendefinisikan karakteristik transaksi ekonomi. According to the seventeenth century Menurut abad ketujuh belas

economist Nicholas Barbon, "The qualities of wares are known by their colour, sound, smell, Nicholas ekonom Barbon, "Kualitas barang-barang yang dikenal dengan warna mereka, suara, bau, taste, make, or shape. rasa, membuat, atau bentuk. The difference in the qualities of wares are very difficultly distinguished; Perbedaan kualitas barang-barang sangat difficultly dibedakan; those organs that are the proper judges of those differences, do very much disagree; some men organ-organ yang merupakan hakim yang tepat dari perbedaan, apakah sangat tidak setuju; beberapa orang have clearer eyes, some more distinguishing ears, and other nicer noses and tastes; and every memiliki mata lebih jelas, beberapa telinga lebih membedakan, dan hidung yang lebih bagus lainnya dan selera; dan setiap man having a good opinion of his own faculties, it is hard to find a judge to determine which is manusia memiliki pendapat yang baik fakultas sendiri, sulit untuk menemukan seorang hakim untuk menentukan yang best" (Barbon, 1690). Barbon considers quality to be subjective and experiential. terbaik "(Barbon, 1690). Barbon mempertimbangkan kualitas untuk menjadi subyektif dan pengalaman. The concept of quality in this era was transcendental, related to the philosophical concept Konsep mutu dalam era ini adalah transendental, berkaitan dengan konsep filosofis of qualia, akin to Plato's concept of "beauty"--we know it when we see it (Garvin, 1988). dari qualia, mirip dengan konsep Plato's dari "keindahan" - yang kita tahu ketika kita melihatnya (Garvin, 1988). Quality was thought of as an instantaneous phenomena, arising from the basic senses. Kualitas dianggap sebagai sebuah fenomena seketika, yang timbul dari indera dasar. As Seperti Pirsig's hero Phaedrus relates "Quality doesn't have to be defined. You understand it without Pirsig pahlawan Phaedrus berhubungan "Kualitas tidak harus didefinisikan. Anda memahami tanpa definition, ahead of definition. definisi, definisi depan. Quality is a direct experience independent of and prior to Kualitas adalah pengalaman langsung independen dan sebelum intellectual abstractions" (Pirsig, 1991, p. 64). abstraksi intelektual "(Pirsig, 1991, hal 64). These qualia are experienced in two ways: immediately (manifest characteristics) and Qualia ini berpengalaman dalam dua cara: langsung (karakteristik nyata) dan through use (latent). melalui penggunaan (laten). Barbon adds: "Besides, those qualites that belong to artificial wares,such as Barbon menambahkan: "Selain itu, mereka qualites yang milik barang-barang buatan, seperti depend upon the mixture, make or shape of them, are more difficultly discovered: those wares, tergantung pada campuran, membuat atau bentuk mereka, lebih difficultly ditemukan: mereka barang-barang, whose quality are produced by the just mixture of different bodies, such as knives and razors, yang kualitasnya diproduksi oleh campuran hanya tubuh yang berbeda, seperti pisau dan pisau cukur,

whose sharpness arise from the good temperament and mixture of the steel & iron, are not to be ketajaman yang timbul dari temperamen yang baik dan campuran baja & besi, tidak dapat found out, but by the use of them: and so doth the mixture, and well making of hats, cloth, and ditemukan, tapi dengan menggunakan mereka: dan begitu Sesungguhnya campuran, dan juga pembuatan topi, kain, dan many other things" (Barbon, 1690). banyak hal-hal lain "(Barbon, 1690). Page 6 Page 6 66 Bigliazzi and Mirandola (1995, p. 185-86) quote anicent Roman writer Vitruvius Bigliazzi dan Mirandola (1995, hal 185-86) mengutip penulis Romawi anicent Vitruvius concerning how this was operationalized in ancient Rome: "Unfortunately it is impossible to tentang bagaimana ini dioperasionalkan di Roma kuno: "Sayangnya tidak mungkin assess the quality of baked bricks beforehand. menilai kualitas batu bata dipanggang terlebih dahulu. They have to be laid: if they are of good quality Mereka harus diletakkan: jika mereka memiliki kualitas yang baik they will withstand storms and the heat of the summer; but if they have been made from mereka akan menahan badai dan panas musim panas, tetapi jika mereka telah dibuat dari unsuitable clay or if they have been insufficiently baked, then they will reveal their defects. atau tidak cocok tanah liat jika mereka telah kurang dipanggang, maka mereka akan mengungkapkan cacat mereka. Therefore it is best to build roofs from old tiles; then the walls too will certainly be solid." Oleh karena itu yang terbaik untuk membangun atap dari ubin tua, maka dinding pun pasti akan solid ". Thus the consumer was responsible for assuring the quality of the goods they purchased-Dengan demikian konsumen bertanggung jawab untuk memastikan kualitas barang yang mereka dibeli in essence, caveat emptor . pada dasarnya, peringatan emptor. The concept of caveat emptor, or "let the buyer beware", has roots in Konsep emptor peringatan, atau "biarkan pembeli berhati-hati", memiliki akar dalam English common law (and certainly predates that). umum hukum Inggris (dan tentu ada sebelum itu). For perishable goods such as foodstuffs Untuk barang yang mudah rusak seperti bahan makanan whose quality characteristics are manifest, caveat emptor was feasible and practical. karakteristik kualitas yang yang nyata, emptor peringatan ini layak dan praktis. In Dalam Germany, food vendors and other craftsmen such as shoemakers or coopers were required to makanan vendor, Jerman dan pengrajin lain seperti pembuat sepatu atau Coopers diharuskan locate next to one another, presumably so consumers could directly compare the quality of goods cari di samping satu sama lain, mungkin sehingga konsumen langsung bisa membandingkan kualitas barang to one another in a facile manner (Lerner, 1995); no doubt the lay-out of the common satu sama lain secara lancar (Lerner, 1995), tidak diragukan lagi lay-out dari umum marketplace or bizarre served much the same function. pasar atau aneh melayani banyak fungsi yang sama.

For those manufactured goods whose quality characteristics were primarily latent, a Bagi barang-barang manufaktur yang kualitasnya karakteristik terutama laten, sebuah different kind of social contract was needed to ensure quality. berbagai jenis kontrak sosial diperlukan untuk menjamin kualitas. Barbon relates "Because the Barbon berhubungan "Karena difference in the qualities of wares, are so difficultly understood, it is that the trader serves an perbedaan dalam kualitas barang-barang, begitu difficultly dipahami, itu adalah bahwa pedagang melayani apprendiceship to learn them; and the knowledge of them is called the mystery of trade; and in apprendiceship untuk belajar mereka, dan pengetahuan mereka disebut misteri perdagangan, dan dalam common dealing, the buyer is forced to rely on the skill and honesty of the seller, to deliver berurusan umum, pembeli dipaksa untuk mengandalkan keterampilan dan kejujuran penjual, untuk menyampaikan wares with such qualities as he affirms them to have: it is the sellers interest, from the barang-barang dengan kualitas seperti dia menegaskan mereka untuk memiliki: itu adalah penjual bunga, dari expectation of further dealing, not to deceive; because his shop, the place of dealing, is known: harapan menangani lebih lanjut, bukan untuk menipu, karena tokonya, tempat menangani, diketahui: therefore, those persons that buy of pedlars, and wandering people, run great hazard of being Oleh karena itu, orang-orang yang membeli dari pedagang keliling, dan orangorang berkeliaran, jalankan bahaya besar yang cheated. tertipu. Those wares, whose chief qualities consist in shape, such as all wearing apparel, do not Mereka barang, kualitas kepala yang terdiri dalam bentuk, seperti semua memakai pakaian, jangan so much depend upon the honesty of the seller; for though the trader or maker, is the inventor of begitu banyak bergantung pada kejujuran penjual, karena walaupun pedagang atau pembuat, adalah penemu the shape, yet it is the fancy and approbation of the buyer, that brings it into use, and makes it bentuknya, namun itu adalah mewah dan persetujuan dari pembeli, yang membawa ke dalam digunakan, dan membuat pass for a fashion" (Barbon, 1690). lulus untuk fashion "(Barbon, 1690). Thus the science of the manufacture, the "mystery of the trade", became an important Dengan demikian ilmu tentang pembuatan, "misteri perdagangan", menjadi penting element in providing quality goods. elemen dalam menyediakan barang-barang berkualitas. The passing down of this procedural knowledge through an Berlalunya bawah ini pengetahuan prosedural melalui appreticeship became a mainstream component of medieval society. appreticeship menjadi komponen utama masyarakat abad pertengahan. In many European countries Di banyak negara Eropa guilds were formed that formalized the profession and its embedded expertise. serikat terbentuk yang diformalkan profesi dan tertanam keahliannya. The expert Ahli knowledge remained primarily tacit however. tetap terutama pengetahuan tacit namun. As Conterio and Da Villa (1995, p. 332) relate Sebagai Conterio dan Da Villa (1995, hal 332) terkait

Page 7 Page 7 77 regarding shipbuilding in Venice, "The actual quality of the finished ship depended largely on tentang pembuatan kapal di Venesia, "Kualitas sebenarnya dari kapal selesai bergantung sebagian besar pada the skill of the men who built it. keterampilan dari orang-orang yang membangunnya. The shape and dimensions of the ships originated largely in the Bentuk dan dimensi kapal berasal sebagian besar di minds of carpenters and caulkers, who passed on their skills from generation to generation, pikiran tukang kayu dan caulkers, yang lulus pada keterampilan mereka dari generasi ke generasi, sometimes recording knowledge in written form. kadang-kadang merekam pengetahuan dalam bentuk tertulis. There was no school to teach them their trade-- Tidak ada sekolah untuk mengajar mereka perdagangan mereka all their knowledge was acquired through years of experience and practice. semua pengetahuan diperoleh melalui tahun pengalaman dan praktek. In short, the entire Singkatnya, seluruh shipbuilding industry was based on the eye and experience of the master craftsman." industri galangan didasarkan pada mata dan pengalaman dari empu. " While standards existed for the measuring quantity of items (an essential element of Sedangkan ada standar untuk mengukur jumlah item (elemen penting dari commerce), standards for quality were less prevalent. commerce), standar untuk kualitas kurang lazim. As George (1968, p. 50) states, during the Seperti George (1968, hal 50) menyatakan, selama industrial revolution in the nineteenth century "quality control... was little, if any, improved over revolusi industri di abad kesembilan belas "pengendalian kualitas ... masih kecil, jika ada, membaik the previous systems. sebelumnya sistem. Products continued to be made from nonstandardized materials using Produk terus dibuat dari bahan non-standar menggunakan non-standardized methods, thereby resulting in products of variable quality. Metode nonstandar, sehingga menghasilkan produk kualitas variabel. The only real Satu-satunya nyata standards used were measures of dimensions, weights, and in some instances, purity. standar yang digunakan adalah ukuran dimensi, berat, dan dalam beberapa kasus, kemurnian. The most Yang paling common form of quality control was the inspection of the product by the purchaser, under the Bentuk umum pengendalian kualitas adalah pemeriksaan produk oleh pembeli, di bawah Common Law rule of caveat emptor ". Hukum Umum aturan emptor keberatan ". Caveat emptor was not feasible in all situations. Peringatan emptor tidak layak dalam segala situasi. For more complex products it was not Untuk produk yang lebih kompleks itu bukan feasible for the consumer to observe quality prior to purchase. layak bagi konsumen untuk mengamati kualitas sebelum membeli. Two mechanisms arose for Dua mekanisme timbul untuk

extending caveat emptor to such situations. memperluas emptor Peringatan untuk situasi seperti itu. First, punitive actions were taken against those Pertama, tindakan penghukuman terhadap mereka diambil craftsmen or workers who produced poor quality work. pengrajin atau pekerja yang menghasilkan karya berkualitas buruk. For example, The Code of Hammurabi Sebagai contoh, Kode Hammurabi (Babylonia) from 2150 BC states: "If a builder has built a house for a man, and his work is not (Babilonia) dari 2150 SM menyatakan: "Jika seorang pembangun telah membangun sebuah rumah untuk seorang pria, dan karyanya tidak strong, and the house falls in and kills the householder, that builder shall be slain" (Harper, kuat, dan rumah jatuh dan membunuh rumah tangga, bahwa pembangun harus dibunuh "(Harper, 1904). 1904). In Germany, "bakers who reduced the weight of bread, cakes, and pastry were punished Di Jerman, "roti yang mengurangi berat roti, kue, dan kue kering yang dihukum by being locked up in a basket and lowered into the river in front of the whole town (Lerner, oleh dikurung dalam keranjang dan diturunkan ke sungai di depan seluruh kota (Lerner, 1995, p. 1995, hal 218). 218). In India, punishments were primarily financially-based (Goswamy, 1995). Di India, hukuman terutama finansial berbasis (Goswamy, 1995). In Dalam Russia, Peter the Great made the following decree in 1723: "If a stoppage occurs among the Rusia, Peter Agung membuat keputusan berikut tahun 1723: "Jika penyumbatan terjadi di antara troops during combat due to oversight by the secretaries and sriveners, the latter should be pasukan selama pertempuran karena pengawasan oleh sekretaris dan sriveners, yang terakhir harus flogged on their naked parts without mercy. dicambuk pada bagian telanjang mereka tanpa belas kasihan. The master gets 25 whips and a fine of 10 rubles per Sang guru mendapat 25 cambuk dan denda 10 rubel per faulty gun. pistol salah. The foreman should be flogged until he loses consciousness… The secretary of the mandor harus dicambuk sampai ia kehilangan kesadaran ... Sekretaris dari rank should be stripped to become a copier. pangkat harus dihilangkan untuk menjadi mesin fotokopi. The scrivener should be denied his Sunday glass of ahli menulis harus menyangkal kaca Minggu vodka for one year" (Konareva, 1995, p. 390). vodka selama satu tahun "(Konareva, 1995, hal 390). The second mechanism was marks, or trademarks. Mekanisme kedua adalah tanda, atau merek dagang. In China, as early as 300 BC the Di Cina, sedini 300 SM names of craftsmen, slaves, and officials were inscribed in weapons to ensure traceability of poor nama pengrajin, budak, dan pejabat yang tertulis di senjata untuk memastikan ketertelusuran miskin Page 8 Page 8 88

product (Quipeng, Meidong, and Wenzhoa, 1995). produk (Quipeng, Meidong, dan Wenzhoa, 1995). This in fact ensured that the previous Hal ini sebenarnya memastikan bahwa sebelumnya mechanism, punitive action, could be used. mekanisme, tindakan menghukum, dapat digunakan. These marks became more than just tracers, Tanda-tanda menjadi lebih dari sekedar pelacak, however; they became a source of pride. Namun, mereka menjadi sumber kebanggaan. In Germany, marks began to be used extensively on Di Jerman, tanda mulai digunakan secara luas pada everything from weapons to stonemasonry to clothing in the fourteenth century; this also had mulai dari senjata untuk stonemasonry untuk pakaian dalam abad keempat belas, ini juga memiliki "supply chain" implications, as for example clothiers could purchase material and use it without "Supply chain" implikasi, seperti untuk Clothiers misalnya bisa membeli material dan menggunakannya tanpa prior inspection, due to the validation of its quality via its mark (Lerner, 1995). sebelum pemeriksaan, karena validasi kualitasnya melalui mark (Lerner, 1995). As these marks Sebagai tanda ini were developed and coupled with trades, they quite literally became "trademarks" and were a dikembangkan dan digabungkan dengan perdagangan, mereka secara harfiah menjadi "merek dagang" dan merupakan source of great professional pride. sumber kebanggaan profesional yang besar. Given the importance and continued evolution of marks in Mengingat pentingnya dan evolusi terus tanda di Europe, the importance of the "ISO 9000 mark" in the twentieth century should have come as no Eropa, pentingnya "tanda ISO 9000" pada abad kedua puluh harus datang karena tidak ada surprise. kejutan. C aveat emptor can be seen as an adaptation to the business environment, which consisted C emptor aveat dapat dilihat sebagai adaptasi terhadap lingkungan bisnis, yang terdiri primarily of products whose attributes were mainly manifest and thus could be directly observed terutama produk yang atribut terutama nyata dan dengan demikian dapat secara langsung diamati upon purchase by the consumer, and little complexity in terms of variation and volume of atas pembelian oleh konsumen, dan kompleksitas sedikit dalam hal variasi dan volume product. produk. For those items that were more complex, the expertise of the artisan, operationalized Untuk item-item yang lebih kompleks, keahlian bagi seniman, dioperasionalkan through trademarks and punitive actions, was the primary quality assurance mechanism. melalui merek dagang dan tindakan penghukuman, adalah jaminan kualitas mekanisme utama. In ancient times one can see that in some complex societies, community-based standards Pada zaman kuno orang dapat melihat bahwa di beberapa masyarakat yang kompleks, berbasis standar komunitas

for quality were developed. untuk kualitas dikembangkan. The Zhou dynasty of China (approx. 1000 BC) decreed "utensils The Dinasti Zhou Cina (sekitar 1000 SM) menetapkan "peralatan under standards are not allowed to be sold on the market; carts under standard are not allowed to di bawah standar tidak diperbolehkan untuk dijual di pasar; gerobak dibawah standar tidak diizinkan untuk be sold on the market; cottons and silk of which the quality and size are not up to standards are dijual di pasar; katun dan sutra yang kualitas dan ukuran yang tidak memenuhi standar adalah not allowed to be sold on the market" (Juran, 1990, p. 32). tidak diperbolehkan untuk dijual di pasar "(Juran, 1990, hal 32). Another "local variation" that predated the era of quality control but had many of its Lain "variasi lokal" yang mendahului era kontrol kualitas tapi banyak dari nya elements were military systems that emphasized standardization, control, and conformance. unsur-unsur adalah sistem militer yang menekankan standardisasi, kontrol, dan kesesuaian. In Dalam ancient Rome, standardization took place in measurement systems, normalization of the size of Roma kuno, standardisasi berlangsung di sistem pengukuran, normalisasi ukuran basic items like bricks and pipe, morphological normalization in the design of buildings, and dasar item seperti batu bata dan pipa, normalisasi morfologi dalam desain bangunan, dan building regulations regarding the quality of housing and housing material (Bigliazzi and peraturan bangunan tentang kualitas perumahan dan bahan perumahan (Bigliazzi dan Mirandola, 1995). Mirandola, 1995). Military management was responsible for much of the early emphasis on Militer manajemen bertanggung jawab untuk banyak penekanan awal standard practices as a means to achieve quality. praktik standar sebagai sarana untuk mencapai kualitas. Romans of the sixth century had developed Roma abad keenam telah mengembangkan strict rules concerning the exact and precise ways in which soldiers should arrange their articles aturan ketat dan tepat tentang cara-cara yang tepat di mana tentara harus mengatur artikel mereka of equipment and clothing (Spaulding, 1937). peralatan dan pakaian (Spaulding, 1937). The management system responsible for the Semakin sistem manajemen yang bertanggung jawab atas arsenal of Venice in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries employed such concepts as piecework gudang Venesia di abad kelima belas dan keenam belas digunakan konsepkonsep seperti piecework pay for satisfactory work, self-inspection by artisans, inspection by foreman, apprentice membayar untuk pekerjaan yang memuaskan, inspeksi-diri oleh seniman, pemeriksaan oleh mandor, magang Page 9 Page 9 99 examinations, and standardization of designs (Lane, 1934; George, 1968). pemeriksaan, dan standarisasi desain (Lane, 1934; George, 1968). Such quality systems Seperti kualitas sistem

were the exception, however--nevertheless, they were a precursor of what was to come. adalah pengecualian, namun - namun, mereka adalah pelopor dari apa yang akan terjadi. For example, the nineteenth century economist Charles Babbage foresaw many of the Misalnya, abad kesembilan belas ekonom Charles Babbage meramalkan banyak changes that loomed ahead. perubahan yang menjulang ke depan. Even though it was not until Frederick Taylor made explicit such Meskipun tidak sampai Frederick Taylor dibuat eksplisit seperti principles almost a century later, Babbage foreshadowed some of the aspects of quality control prinsip hampir satu abad kemudian, Babbage meramalkan beberapa aspek pengendalian kualitas that the industrial age would become concerned with: "Outlines of a description of any of the bahwa usia industri akan menjadi prihatin dengan: "Garis dari deskripsi dari setiap mechanical arts ought to contain information on the following points… To what defects are the seni mekanik harus berisi informasi tentang hal-hal berikut ... Untuk apa cacat adalah goods liable? barang bertanggung jawab? What substitutes or adulterations are used? Apa pengganti atau adulterations digunakan? What waste is allowed by the master? Apa limbah diperbolehkan oleh master? What tests are there of the goodness of the manufactured articles? Tes apa ada kebaikan dari barang diproduksi? The weight of a given Bobot yang diberikan quantity, or number, and a comparison with that of the raw material? kuantitas, atau nomor, dan perbandingan dengan bahan baku? Who provide tools? Siapa yang menyediakan alat-alat? Master, or men? Guru, atau laki-laki? Who repair tools? Siapa alat perbaikan? Master, or men? Guru, atau laki-laki? What is the expense of the machinery? Apakah biaya mesin? What is the annual wear and tear, and what its duration? Apakah memakai tahunan dan air mata, dan apa durasi? Is there any particular trade for making Apakah ada usaha khusus untuk membuat it? itu? Where? Dimana? Is it made and repaired at the manufactory? Apakah dibuat dan diperbaiki di pabrik? … Whether the same article, but of ... Apakah artikel yang sama, tetapi superior, equal, or inferior make, is imported?" (Babbage, 1832). unggul, sama, atau lebih rendah membuat, diimpor)? "(Babbage, 1832. The Paradigm of Quality Control Paradigma Pengendalian Mutu A discipline does not shift to a new paradigm at some discrete instance in time; rather, disiplin A tidak beralih ke paradigma baru di beberapa contoh diskrit dalam waktu, melainkan, change takes place relatively rapidly over a period of time (Kuhn, 1970). perubahan terjadi relatif cepat selama periode waktu (Kuhn, 1970). Thus it is impossible to Jadi tidak mungkin pinpoint a single reason, or cause, for a paradigm shift. menentukan alasan tunggal, atau menyebabkan, untuk perubahan paradigma. However, a collection of events can be Namun, koleksi kejadian dapat identified that signify significant change and departure from the existing paradigm. diidentifikasi yang menunjukkan perubahan yang signifikan dan keberangkatan dari paradigma yang ada.

The industrial revolution and the factory system gave rise to increased product and Revolusi industri dan sistem pabrik menimbulkan peningkatan produk dan process complexity and hence difficulties with the control of quality, cost, and inventory--it is kompleksitas proses dan karenanya kesulitan dengan kontrol kualitas, biaya, dan persediaan - itu adalah the factory that literally caused a revolution in how the discipline of quality was practiced. pabrik yang secara harfiah menyebabkan revolusi dalam bagaimana disiplin kualitas dipraktekkan. The The discipline of quality was not unique in this regard; all aspects of organizational management disiplin kualitas tidak unik dalam hal ini, semua aspek pengelolaan organisasi evolved. berevolusi. Issues of complexity, control, and motivation were met with new management systems Isu kompleksitas, kontrol, dan motivasi yang bertemu dengan sistem manajemen baru which invoked division of labor and separation of labor and management, piecepay yang dipanggil pembagian kerja dan pemisahan tenaga kerja dan manajemen, piecepay compensation schemes, and eventually, the system of scientific management. skema kompensasi, dan akhirnya, sistem manajemen ilmiah. Richard Richard Arkwright, Sir James Steuart, and Adam Smith were among the first advocates of such new Arkwright, Sir James Steuart, dan Adam Smith adalah di antara para pendukung pertama seperti baru systems (George, 1968). sistem (George, 1968). Individual motivation was seen as a key to process improvement: "Set a man to labor at Motivasi individu dilihat sebagai kunci untuk proses perbaikan: "Mengatur orang untuk tenaga kerja di so much a day, he will go on at a regular rate, and never seek to improve his method: let him be begitu banyak hari, ia akan pergi dengan tarif reguler, dan tidak pernah berusaha untuk memperbaiki metodenya: biarlah ia Page 10 Page 10 10 10 hired by the piece, he will find a thousand expedients to extend his industry" (Steuart, 1767). disewa oleh lembaran, ia akan menemukan seribu expedients untuk memperpanjang industri-Nya "(Steuart, 1767). The division of labor was seen as a means not only to improve productivity but also process Pembagian kerja dipandang sebagai sarana bukan hanya untuk meningkatkan produktivitas, tetapi juga proses quality: "...if anyone confines himself to a small number (of tasks) he will perform them with kualitas: "... jika ada yang membatasi dirinya pada sejumlah kecil (tugas) dia akan melakukan mereka dengan much more rapidity, but, what is of higher consequence, with greater correctness and precision" jauh lebih kecepatan, tapi, apa konsekuensi yang lebih tinggi, dengan ketelitian yang lebih besar dan presisi " (Mill, 1826); and as a means to improve pride of work: "(Use a beneficial suggestion system (Mill, 1826), dan sebagai sarana untuk meningkatkan kebanggaan kerja: "(Gunakan sistem saran menguntungkan

because) every person connected with it should derive more advantage from applying any karena) setiap orang yang berhubungan dengan itu harus berasal lebih banyak keuntungan dari menerapkan apapun improvement he might discover" (Babbage, 1832). perbaikan ia mungkin menemukan "(Babbage, 1832). The introduction of interchangeable parts placed even more emphasis on uniformity of Pengenalan bagian dipertukarkan ditempatkan lebih menekankan bahkan pada keseragaman product. produk. Thomas Jefferson describes the application of the idea to muskets: "...It consists in the Thomas Jefferson menggambarkan penerapan ide untuk senapan: "... Ini terdiri di making of every part of them exactly the alike, that what belongs to any one, may be used for pembuatan setiap bagian dari mereka persis sama, bahwa apa yang milik orang lain, dapat digunakan untuk any other musket in the magazine" (Durfee, 1894). Shewhart alludes to the establishment of setiap senapan lain di majalah "(Durfee, 1894). Shewhart menyinggung pembentukan one-sided tolerance limits in (approximately) 1840 and two-sided limits in 1870; conformance to satu sisi toleransi batas di (sekitar) 1.840 dan batas dua sisi pada tahun 1870; kesesuaian terhadap such limits could be mechanically checked by "go-no go" gauges which meant that "All he had batas tersebut dapat secara mekanis diperiksa oleh "go-tidak pergi" gauges yang berarti "Semua ia to do was stay within tolerance limits--he didn't have to waste time trying to be unnecessarily lakukan adalah tetap berada dalam batas toleransi - dia tidak perlu membuang waktu mencoba untuk menjadi tidak perlu exact" (Shewhart, 1939, p. 3). tepat "(Shewhart, 1939, p. 3). Frederick W. Taylor was responsible for taking the management ideas that had preceded Frederick W. Taylor bertanggung jawab untuk mengambil ide-ide manajemen yang telah mendahului him and synthesizing them into a coherent management philosophy , and as such, his principles of dia dan sintesa mereka ke dalam filosofi manajemen koheren, dan karena itu, prinsip-prinsip tentang scientific management form the basis of most management practice in the twentieth century. manajemen ilmiah membentuk dasar dari praktek manajemen yang paling di abad kedua puluh. As Seperti an engineer with Midvale Steel in the late 1800's, he observed the typical problems that plagued seorang insinyur dengan Midvale Steel di akhir 1800-an, ia mengamati masalah khas yang dialami organizations: unclear responsibilities, little standardization, no incentive for performance, organisasi: tanggung jawab tidak jelas, standardisasi sedikit, tidak ada insentif untuk kinerja, systematic "soldiering", decisions based on rule of thumb, no training, and finally "that sistematis "keprajuritan", keputusan berdasarkan aturan praktis, pelatihan tidak, dan akhirnya "yang

management apparently disregarded the obvious truth that excellence in performance and manajemen tampaknya mengabaikan kebenaran jelas bahwa keunggulan dalam kinerja dan operation would mean a reward to both management and labor" (George, 1968, p. 90). By 1911 operasi akan berarti hadiah kepada manajemen dan tenaga kerja "(George, 1968, hal 90). Dengan 1911 he had developed these ideas into four key managerial principles: (a) develop a science for each dia mengembangkan ide-ide menjadi empat prinsip manajerial kunci: (a) mengembangkan ilmu pengetahuan untuk masing-masing man's work, (b) train and develop the workman, (c) heartily cooperate with others, and (d) divide itu pekerjaan manusia, (b) melatih dan mengembangkan pekerja, (c) sungguhsungguh bekerja sama dengan orang lain, dan (d) membagi work and responsibility between labor and management (Taylor, 1911). pekerjaan dan tanggung jawab antara pekerja dan manajemen (Taylor, 1911). Taylor emphasized the systemic nature of these principles and warned against confusing Taylor menekankan sifat sistemik prinsip-prinsip ini dan memperingatkan terhadap membingungkan the managerial philosophy with the common tools associated with scientific management, such filosofi manajerial dengan alat-alat umum yang terkait dengan manajemen ilmiah, seperti as time study, standardization, compensation schemes, and modern cost systems, etc. (George, sebagai waktu belajar, standardisasi, skema kompensasi, dan sistem biaya modern, dll (George, 1968). 1968). One should note the similarity between Taylor's concern with that of W. Edwards Orang harus perhatikan kesamaan antara keprihatinan Taylor dengan yang W. Edwards Deming, who has contended that management seeks "instant pudding" through its concern over Deming, yang telah berpendapat bahwa manajemen mencari "puding instan" melalui keprihatinannya atas Page 11 Page 11 11 11 statistical process control, quality circles, etc. without understanding the management philosophy statistik proses kontrol, lingkaran kualitas, dll tanpa memahami filosofi manajemen as a system: "You can install a new desk, or a new carpet, or a new dean, but not quality control. sebagai sistem: "Anda dapat menginstal sebuah meja baru, atau karpet baru, atau dekan yang baru, namun tidak mempunyai pengendalian kualitas. Anyone that proposes to 'install quality control' unfortunately has little knowledge about quality Siapapun yang mengusulkan untuk 'menginstal kontrol kualitas' sayangnya memiliki sedikit pengetahuan tentang kualitas control. kontrol. Improvement of quality and productivity, to be successful in any company, must be a Peningkatan kualitas dan produktivitas, untuk menjadi sukses di perusahaan apapun, harus learning process, year by year, top management leading the whole company" (Deming, 1986, p. proses pembelajaran, dari tahun ke tahun, manajemen puncak memimpin seluruh perusahaan "(Deming, 1986, hal

133). 133). Taylor's principles of scientific management are responsible for many of the management prinsip-prinsip manajemen ilmiah Taylor bertanggung jawab untuk banyak dari manajemen practices that organizations follow today: research, standards, planning, control, and cooperation. praktek-praktek yang organisasi berikut ini: penelitian, standar, perencanaan, pengendalian, dan kerjasama. Organizational structures correspondingly changed as a result of division of labor and struktur organisasi Sejalan berubah sebagai akibat dari pembagian kerja dan scientific management. manajemen ilmiah. At the turn of the century inspectors worked along side workers under Pada pergantian abad inspektur pekerja bekerja sepanjang sisi bawah production foreman. mandor produksi. This set up a conflict, however, as productivity was the first priority of the Hal ini membuat konflik, namun, seperti produktivitas prioritas pertama production foreman, and quality suffered. mandor produksi, dan kualitas menderita. Blame for poor quality was likely to go from the Blame untuk kualitas miskin mungkin untuk pergi dari inspector to the foreman and back to the workers, thus making inspection an enemy of inspektur untuk mandor dan kembali ke pekerja, sehingga membuat pemeriksaan musuh production. produksi. Much unfit material was delivered to military customers during World War 1 Banyak materi yang tidak layak disampaikan ke pelanggan militer selama Perang Dunia 1 because of this structure, and many firms took the inspectors out of production's control and put karena struktur ini, dan banyak perusahaan mengambil inspektur luar's kontrol produksi dan menaruh them under inspection foremen and a chief inspector (Juran and Gryna, 1980). mereka di bawah mandor inspeksi dan seorang inspektur kepala (Juran dan Gryna, 1980). This was the Ini adalah beginning of the "quality control" department, which was to be the cornerstone of management awal kualitas kontrol "departemen", yang menjadi landasan manajemen of quality for decades to come. kualitas selama beberapa dekade yang akan datang. The central inspection department was responsible for such Departemen inspeksi pusat bertanggung jawab untuk seperti functions as vendor inspection, process inspection, final inspection, measurement laboratories, berfungsi sebagai inspeksi vendor, proses pemeriksaan, pemeriksaan akhir, laboratorium pengukuran, and salvage. dan penyelamatan. These revolutionary changes in the work environment led to a new paradigm of the Perubahan-perubahan revolusioner dalam lingkungan kerja menyebabkan paradigma baru dari quality discipline that we shall entitle quality control. Unlike its predecessor paradigm, the kualitas disiplin yang kami berhak kontrol kualitas. Tidak seperti paradigma pendahulunya, yang responsibility for controlling manifest quality characteristics shifted from the consumer back to tanggung jawab untuk mengendalikan karakteristik kualitas nyata bergeser dari konsumen kembali ke

the producer, and it became systematized and functionalized (like everything else in early produsen, dan itu menjadi sistematis dan difungsikan (seperti yang lainnya di awal twentieth century organizational management). abad kedua puluh manajemen organisasi). The inception of the Inspection Engineering Dimulainya Inspeksi Teknik Department at Western Electric's Bell Telephone Laboratories (Hawthorne Works) in 1924 Jurusan Telepon Bell Laboratories Electric Barat (Pekerjaan Hawthorne) pada tahun 1924 marked the beginning of a new era in the management of quality. menandai awal dari sebuah era baru dalam pengelolaan kualitas. Among the department's Di antara departemen members were Walter Shewhart, Harold Dodge, George Edwards, Joseph Juran, and Harry anggota Walter Shewhart, Harold Dodge, George Edwards, Joseph Juran, dan Harry Romig. Romig. Out of this group came many of the singular contributions to the practice of quality Dari kelompok ini datang banyak kontribusi tunggal untuk praktek kualitas control and management: acceptance sampling, statistical process control, and the responsibility DNS dan manajemen: sampling penerimaan, pengendalian proses statistik, dan tanggung jawab of management. manajemen. Edwards coined the term "quality assurance" and advocated quality as part of Edwards menciptakan istilah "berkualitas" mutu dan kualitas menganjurkan sebagai bagian dari Page 12 Page 12 12 12 management's responsibility (Gitlow, Gitlow, Oppenheim, and Oppenheim, 1989): "...It puts a tanggung jawab manajemen (Gitlow, Gitlow, Oppenheim, dan Oppenheim, 1989): "... Ini menempatkan man at the head of the quality control program in a position to establish and make effective a manusia pada kepala program pengendalian kualitas dalam posisi untuk membentuk dan mengefektifkan sebuah company-wide policy with respect to quality, to direct the actions to be taken where it is Seluruh kebijakan perusahaan yang berkaitan dengan kualitas, untuk mengarahkan tindakan yang akan diambil di mana ia necessary and to place responsibility where it belongs in each instance" (Harrington, 1983, p. 8). diperlukan dan ke tempat tanggung jawab di tempatnya dalam setiap "(Harrington, 1983, hal 8). Dodge, Romig, and Walter Bartky developed the concepts and tools of statistical sampling plans Dodge, Romig, dan Walter Bartky mengembangkan konsep dan alat-alat rencana sampling statistik for the enumeration of product quality between 1925 and 1926, defining and operationalizing untuk penghitungan kualitas produk antara 1925 dan 1926, mendefinisikan dan mengoperasionalkannya concepts such as: producer and consumer's risks, probability of acceptance, operating konsep-konsep seperti: produsen dan's risiko konsumen, probabilitas penerimaan, operasi characteristic curves, lot tolerance percent defective and average quality limits, average total karakteristik kurva, toleransi banyak persen rata-rata batas kualitas dan cacat, total rata-rata

inspection, and double sampling. inspeksi, dan sampling ganda. Dodge and Romig first published their sampling plans in 1929 Dodge dan Romig pertama kali diterbitkan rencana sampling mereka di tahun 1929 (Dodge and Romig, 1959). (Dodge dan Romig, 1959). At the same time Shewhart was developing the concept of control Pada saat yang sama Shewhart sedang mengembangkan konsep kontrol charts for the identification of process variation and stability, with the publication of his text grafik untuk identifikasi variasi proses dan stabilitas, dengan publikasi teks nya coming in 1931 (Shewhart, 1931). datang pada tahun 1931 (Shewhart, 1931). Kuhn notes that the establishment of written standards and Kuhn mencatat bahwa pembentukan standar tertulis dan textbooks are often the first signals that a paradigm has formed, and that "normal science" is buku teks sering sinyal pertama yang paradigma telah terbentuk, dan bahwa "ilmu normal" adalah being performed. sedang dilakukan. The content of Shewhart's book define the quality profession as primarily one Isi buku Shewhart mendefinisikan kualitas profesi terutama sebagai salah satu of employing statistical methods and keeping historical records. dari menggunakan metode statistik dan menyimpan catatan sejarah. The focus of the management of quality in the 1930's was essentially along the lines of Fokus manajemen kualitas pada tahun 1930 adalah dasarnya sepanjang baris establishment of several societies and standards. pembentukan beberapa masyarakat dan standar. Shewhart began the Joint Committee for the Shewhart mulai Komite Bersama untuk Development of Statistical Applications in Engineering and Manufacturing in 1929 (Olmstead, Pengembangan Aplikasi Statistik dalam Rekayasa dan Manufaktur pada tahun 1929 (Olmstead, 1956), and in 1930 the American Society for Testing and Materials formed a Committee on the 1956), dan pada tahun 1930 American Society untuk Pengujian dan Material membentuk Komite Interpretation and Presentation of Data (Industrial Quality Control, 1967). Interpretasi dan Penyajian Data (Pengendalian Mutu Industri, 1967). This provided an Hal ini memberikan opportunity to disseminate his ideas to a broader audience (Booth, 1964), which included kesempatan untuk menyebarkan ide-idenya kepada khalayak yang lebih luas (Booth, 1964), yang termasuk lectures at University College in London (Simon, 1949). kuliah di University College di London (Simon, 1949). The British Standards Number 600 Nomor Standar Inggris 600 entitled "Application of Statistical Methods to Industrial Standardization and Quality Control" berjudul "Penerapan Metode Statistik Industri Standardisasi dan Pengendalian Mutu" was established in 1935, and the US Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 established quality didirikan pada tahun 1935, dan Makanan, Obat, dan Kosmetik Undang-undang AS 1938 kualitas yang ditetapkan standards for a broad range of consumer products (Banks, 1989). standar untuk berbagai produk konsumen (Bank, 1989). In Europe, the German Di Eropa, di Jerman

Standards Committee was formed in 1926 (Lerner, 1995), and the British Standards Institution Komite Standar dibentuk pada tahun 1926 (Lerner, 1995), dan British Standards Institution was formed in 1931 (Hutchins, 1995). dibentuk pada tahun 1931 (Hutchins, 1995). World War II had a profound impact on the practice of quality in organizations in the Perang Dunia II memiliki dampak yang mendalam mengenai praktek kualitas dalam organisasi di US, and eventually, globally. AS, dan akhirnya, secara global. Prior to the war, the US government assured procured quality Sebelum perang, pemerintah AS meyakinkan diperoleh kualitas via inspection and test of conformance to specifications. melalui inspeksi dan uji kesesuaian dengan spesifikasi. The same approach was retained for the Pendekatan yang sama dipertahankan untuk war, only now greatly increased volume strained the quality assurance system. perang, hanya sekarang sangat meningkat volume tegang sistem jaminan kualitas. The The Page 13 Page 13 13 13 government's solution was to begin to rely heavily on acceptance via sampling inspection, and Solusi pemerintah adalah mulai sangat bergantung pada penerimaan melalui pemeriksaan sampling, dan set forth to produce standards for such (Juran, 1991). ditetapkan untuk menghasilkan standar untuk tersebut (Juran, 1991). The "Guide for Quality Control" (Z1.1- The "Panduan untuk Pengendalian Kualitas" (Z1.11941), "Control Chart Method for Analyzing Data" (Z1.2-1941), and "Control Chart Method of 1941), "Control Chart Metode Analisis Data" (Z1.2-1941), dan "Control Chart Metode Controlling Quality During Production" (Z1.3-1942) standards were established for process Pengendalian Mutu Selama Produksi "(Z1.3-1942) standar yang ditetapkan untuk proses control, and Edwards, Dodge, Romig, and Gause established the Armed Service Forces tables for kontrol, dan Edwards, Dodge, Romig, dan Gause mendirikan Angkatan Bersenjata Layanan tabel untuk sampling inspection in 1942 (later to be established as MIL-STD-105D) (Wareham and Stratton, inspeksi, pada tahun 1942 (kemudian akan ditetapkan sebagai MIL-STD-105D) (Wareham dan Stratton, 1991). 1991). Courses were established to teach military suppliers how to implement these standards, Kursus didirikan untuk mengajarkan pemasok militer bagaimana menerapkan standarstandar, and a model course developed at Stanford was adopted by the Engineering, Science, and dan kursus model yang dikembangkan di Stanford diadopsi oleh Engineering, Sains, dan Management War Training program, overseen by the War Production Board. Manajemen Pelatihan Perang program, diawasi oleh Dewan Produksi Perang. Holbrook Holbrook Working, a Stanford professor and key instructor in the program, estimated 7553 people went Bekerja, seorang profesor Stanford dan instruktur utama dalam program ini, diperkirakan 7553 orang pergi

through the Stanford courses alone, receiving 409,000 hours of instruction (Wareham and Stratton, 1991). Approximately 31,000 students went through statistical quality control training of some sort during the war (Walton, 1986). Eugene Grant, also one of the instructors, credits the formation of the American Society of Quality Control to the gathering of quality professionals during these training sessions and subsequent follow-ups (Grant and Lang, 1991). The great influx of newly trained quality practitioners changed once again the organizational structure designed to manage quality. New procedures included company quality control manuals, in-house statistical training, quality data systems, formal problem solving approaches, measurement standards, quality audits, and quality reports. Soon after reliability engineering also became recognized as being an important task. The carrying out of these new functions became the task of the "quality engineer", and the associated quality control department, which now held a status higher than had ever previously been the case. The quality Kualitas control department eventually gave way to the quality assurance department, which typically had elevated status and reported directly to the vice president of manufacturing (Juran, 1991). This Ini influx of quality practitioners due to the war time efforts, and the subsequent organizational changes that ensued, can be seen as a local variation that was later selected for on a global basis during the next paradigm. One must certainly question why such wide-spread training and application of modern statistical methods did not have more of a profound impact on industry. The answer may Jawabannya mungkin partially lie in the composition of those war-time classes: "The top executives could usually not Page 14 Page 14 14 14 afford to attend an eight day course..." (Wareham and Stratton, 1991, p. 39). W. Edwards Deming, one of the program's instructors and a student of Walter Shewhart's, also observed the releative ineffectivness of the wartime training, and this became a theme in his later teachings. Juran also states several reasons for the decline of statistical quality control in the 1950's. First, the control chart applications were not appealing to upper management since they only dealt with the sporadic problems and not the chronic waste upon which bottom line results

depended. tergantung. Secondly, the task of process control was not one in which the worker or foreman was involved, thus allowing a disassociation of the activity. Lastly, when recession came, companies downsized their quality control groups, which had been previously funded on a costplus nature by the defense department (Juran, 1991). In summary, the discipline began to evolve beyond the paradigm of quality control, but the business environment was not supportive of or ready for such development. During this era of quality control quality experts such as Edwards, Juran and Feigenbaum were vocal in their call for management to be more responsible, and responsive, to the topic of quality. kualitas. Juran stated "It is most important that top-management be quality minded. In the absence of sincere manifestations of interest at the top, little will happen below...The interest of top management usually stems from the desire to achieve a good quality reputation among the consuming public...What is too frequently not realized is that the achievement of such quality reputation requires that the idea--the propaganda--permeate the entire organization" (Juran, 1945). Feigenbaum also echoed the importance of management commitment: "I submit that to enable Quality Control to be really effective as a long rather than short term matter...we must work on making Quality Control a member of the regular management team" (Feigenbaum, 1952). 1952). The publication of Juran's first edition of the Quality Control Handbook (Juran, 1951a) and the beginning of the "Management's Corner" column in Industrial Quality Control in 1951 (Juran, 1951b) continued to espouse the importance of planning in the management of quality (DelMar and Sheldon, 1988), though it was not until thirty to forty years later that such changes took full force. There was also the realization that the management of quality of manufactured products required quality control of all functional areas of the organization. Edwards stated: "Another possibility is the establishment of the quality control as a functional part of top management...(good quality) results from the planned and interlocked activities of all the Page 15 Page 15 15 15

organizational parts of the company...Expanded application of quality control has wide and deep social (and economic) implications" (Edwards, 1946, p. 18). Such interlocking activities were described by Juran in his description of the "quality atom" (Juran, 1951a), by Deming in his depiction of the production system (Deming, 1956), and by Feigenbaum in his Quality Control: Principles, Practice, and Administration (Feigenbaum, 1951), where a systemic view of the product life cycle was emphasized. With this began administrative applications of statistical quality control grew, first starting with personnel evaluation and time studies, cost control, and safety (Bicking, 1950), and later expanding into R&D and service applications. Feigenbaum fine-tuned his ideas on organization-wide quality efforts into the concept of "Total Quality Control", or TQC: "The underlying principle of total quality control is that, to provide genuine effectiveness, true quality control management must start with the design of the product and end only when the product has been placed in the hands of the customer who has remained satisfied...(thus) quality is everybody's job in a business" (Feigenbaum, 1957, 1961). It was in Japan however where local adaptations to the business environment were strongest, and where the seeds of the next paradigm were sewn most strongly. Decimated by World War II, Japan's industry had to be built from the ground up. With few precious resources to draw upon, Japan had to rely on its own industrial creativity to rise to a level of competitiveness in commerce. Japan had done little prior to World War II concerning the discipline of quality. In the 1940's several important organizations were formed: Japan Management Association (1942), Japan Standards Association (1945), and the Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) (1946); all aided in the reconstruction of the country (Nonaka, 1995). Americans on-loan from Bell Laboratories introduced JUSE members to Shewhart's 1931 book and the Z.1, 2, and 3 quality control standards, and several members became intrigued by the concepts. In 1950 JUSE Managing Director Kenichi Koyanagi requested Deming, who had been in Japan several year previous to aid in census-taking, to deliver lectures concerning quality control methods (Walton, 1986). Deming's courses included "Training of Quality Control Engineers and Statisticians in Industry" and several lectures for top

management (Kilian, 1988). It was here that Deming told them "...they could capture markets the world over within five years" and reminiscing "They beat that prediction. Within four years, buyers all over the world were screaming for Japanese products" (Walton, 1986, p. 14). Deming donated the royalties from publication of his Japanese lectures back to JUSE, Page 16 Page 16 16 16 where they were used to initiate the Deming Prize in 1951. The purpose of the Deming Prize is to recognize those companies that have successfully applied TQC, based on statistical quality control. kontrol. The formalization of a criteria for excellence in quality systems, the proactive stance that JUSE took in supporting and promoting the Prize, and the influence of winning companies helped spread the concepts of TQC for decades to come. Juran was subsequently invited to Japan in 1954, where he taught managers, engineers, and professors the organizational structures and functions for management of quality (Juran, 1954). 1954). The managerial focus that Juran taught was meshed with the practices of statistical quality control and other Japanese practices to form "Company-Wide Quality Control", or CWQC (Imai, 1986). 1986). By 1960 Japan had made significant in-roads into world markets. Koyanagi attributed the success to "excellent personality and high-spirited humanity of American teachers like Dr. Deming and Dr. Juran...depth and usefulness of Dr. Shewhart's philosophy and methods... (and) integration of quality control with management science and engineering technology (Koyanagi, 1964, p. 1964, p. 61). 61). Conversely Deming attributed the success of Japanese efforts in the 1950's and 1960's to several interdependent characteristics: (a) determination and confidence to become 'world class', (b) Japanese industrial experience and pride of workmanship, (c) understanding and commitment to Shewhart's concepts of statistical quality control (especially with respect to the notion of common and special causes, and the implications thereof), (d) proactive support by top management and government, (e) proper statistical education, and (f) open channels of communication (Deming, 1967). The phenomena of "QC Circles", which began in Japan around 1962, should be considered an important step in the revolution towards a new paradigm of quality. The purpose Tujuan

of a QC Circle was to gather a small group of departmental workers together to spend time (usually off-hours) solving departmental quality problems. Juran attributes the initiation of the concept to the Japanese view of division of labor: "Japanese concepts of organizing work do not follow the strict Taylor concept of division of work, ie planning to be done by engineers, and execution to be done by foreman and workers. Instead, the Japanese leave a good deal of planning and creativity to be carried out by the production force. These same concepts of organizing work have carried over to the quality function" (Juran, 1967, p. 330). With massive training of workers in the methods of statistical quality control (Pareto analysis, cause and effect Page 17 Page 17 17 17 diagrams, histograms, graphs, control charts, stratification, and binomial probability paper), support from management, and national promotion (the Annual Foreman's QC Conference and the JUSE journal Quality Control for the Foreman were started in 1962) the idea of QC circles took off, with 8000 registered circles by 1966 (Juran, 1967), and some 200,000 by 1984 (JUSE, 1985). 1985). QC circle membership was voluntary, and projects were typically selected locally. Interdepartmental quality problems were addressed by "Quality Teams", which typically consisted of workers, supervisors, and engineers, and had specific management direction. It is interesting to compare the motivation aspects of the Japanese QC circle movement with other motivational programs at that time. First introduced in the 1930's, the "Scanlon Plan" for employee participation enjoyed popularity for several decades. The Scanlon Plan focused team attention on the "quality of work life", and issues involving quality, productivity, ergonomics, and safety were typically addressed (Feigenbaum, 1983). The Zero Defects Program (ZD), developed for the purpose of acheiving 'perfection' of quality, also had strong motivational components (Crosby, 1964; Halpin, 1966). ZD is based on setting of requirements, management support, and positive reinforcement. Behind ZD is the belief that people want to do their best, but supervisors don't necessarily create a vision for perfection; this new vision is created by "reconditioning the employee to take a personal interest in everything he does" (Halpin, 1966, p. 2). ZD is begun with a kick-off day, pamphlets that describe the program, and

pledge cards that employees sign to signify their commitment to the program (Crosby, 1964). Conversely Japanese QC circles took a very different approach to employee motivation. The QC circles were supported by formal training programs in statistical methods and problem solving; there was generally no pay for successful ideas; membership was voluntary and generally off-hours; and group efforts were emphasized over individual efforts. Juran attributes the leadership of Japanese managers, the security of life-time employment and associated benefits, and their differing view of organizational structures as the reasons why motivation for participation in QC circles was high (Juran, 1967). Others have also attributed the general humaritarian world view of the Japanese for the natural inclination towards continual improvement of quality (Pabst, 1972). The power of QC circles and subsequent employee involvement, coupled with the Japanese concern with detailed planning, helped mature the concept of TQC into a new stage: Japanese TQC. At the heart of Japanese TQC is a customer-driven strategy. From such a Page 18 Page 18 18 18 strategy three management functions emerge: daily management, cross-functional management, and hoshin planning. Daily management deals with those activities that revolve around the organization's processes. Employee involvement, QC circles, training, and suggestion programs are combined with the widespread use of the standard set of statistical quality control tools to yield small, incremental improvement, or Kaizen (Imai, 1986). Tracking of daily progress is made highly visible and is the focal point for all employees. Cross-functional management involves interactions between functional boundaries in the organization, such as design and manufacturing, and between the organization and its environment, ie customers and suppliers. Japanese TQC has placed great emphasis on the interactions which occur between boundaries, leading to such innovations as the Kanban system and just-in-time manufacturing (Monden, 1983), and quality function deployment (Akao, 1990). Hoshin planning, or management by policy, might be considered the Japanese counterpart to management by objectives. Goals of the Tujuan dari organization are flowed down into specific policies so that there is overall coordination of the

organization to its customers. The success of the Deming Prize in Japan lead to the general practice of operational (quality) audits, performed by the company president. With the results of such audits strategic plans were readjusted and coordination held. Japanese TQC represents the third paradigm of the quality discipline, total quality management . It took a crisis in the West, however, for these concepts to be embraced widely throughtout the developed world. dikembangkan dunia. The Paradigm of Total Quality Management Because of the pervasiveness of TQM as a topic of discourse, I shall be relatively brief in my summary of the basic tenets of this paradigm. The reader is referred to works such as Anderson, Rungtusanatham, and Schroeder (1994), Dean and Bowen (1994), Deming (1986), Ernst & Young (1992), Hackman and Wageman (1995), and Spencer (1994). A number of different environmental changes led to the widespread adoption of TQM principles, and the subsequent development of these principles into tools, techniques, and methodologies. metodologi. The rise of consumerism, and thus higher quality requirements, began in the late 1960's and had a profound impact on the management of quality from the customer perspective (Juran, 1970). Global competition, brought about by both technical and political changes, made Page 19 Page 19 19 19 competition all the more intense. This has furthered the choices available to the customer, and deeply sensitized organizations to their competitive challenges. Nowhere was this been more deeply felt than in the automotive business, where US firms held the bulk of the US market for decades only to see it erode to because of superior performance and quality by Japanese and German automobiles (Business Week, 1987). Professionals in quality have long advocated the importance of product excellence: "Superior product quality is the key to the continued economic health of the nation today" (Feigenbaum, 1966, p. 81). It took some time, however, to recognize the strategic importance of quality to firm success. The Profit Impact of Marketing Strategies (PIMS) studies showed that higher quality products could have significant impact of profit and ROI (Buzzell and Heany, 1974). As Garvin shows (Garvin, 1988), many companies found (or re-found) competitive success when quality

dimensions were brought into consideration during the strategic planning process. One striking Satu mencolok example was Xerox, where Xerox's share of the US copier market fell from 96 to 46 percent in the 1970's, due primarily to Japanese competitors. A new emphasis on benchmarking competitor performance, attending to customer satisfaction, and focus on new product development helped regain Xerox's status as an industry leader. In general, the new emphasis on strategic quality management placed new demands on the organization, in terms of market research, benchmarking, life-cycle costing, and measurement of customer satisfaction (Garvin, 1988). In the 1980's and 1990's corporate leadership began to strongly espouse the important of quality. kualitas. John Akers of IBM stated: "In today's fiercely competitive global business arena, quality is the bedrock requirement for survival" (Akers, 1991, p. 26). David Kearns of Xerox added: "As a nation we are just beginning to understand the power of quality as a competitive weapon. We Kami are just beginning to fully realize that we are faced with a never-ending spiral of increased competition and heightened customer expectations" (Stratton, 1990a, p. 22). An important event which crystallized quality as a organizational strategy was the inception of the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA) in the United States, and the subsequent development of national awards in Australia, France, Canada, Great Britain, and Mexico, to go along with the long-existing Deming Prize in Japan (Dooley, Bush, Anderson, and Rungtusanatham, 1990). Since 1988 the MBNQA has had several hundred corporate applicants. Tens of thousands of companies have requested the application guidelines, however, testifying to the use of the MBNQA in aligning corporate strategy and practice with the quality philosophy Page 20 Page 20 20 20 (Main, 1990; Stratton 1990b). Organizational quality practices also become the benchmark requirement for supplier certification, started by Ford with the Q101 program and made famous by Motorola's request that all suppliers make plans for pursuing the MBNQA. At a national level, the European Economic Community set forth organizational quality system standards which must be met in order for

firms to access EEC's markets. As stated by Marquardt, et al. (1991, p. 25) "The ISO 9000 series embodies comprehensive quality management concepts and guidance...The ISO 9000 series was published in time to meet the growing need for international standardization in the quality arena and the wide adoption of third-party quality systems certification schemes." The changes that took place in the practice of quality under the paradigm of TQM are too numerous to expand upon here; a summary of such changes follows: • Quality moved from being the responsibility of the quality department to be the responsibility of everyone, in particular, management. • Product quality shifted from being a product differentiator to being a necessity to compete at all. semua. • The importance of quality was extended beyond physical products, to include services and information; and extended its reach into new arenas such as health care, education, government, and religion. • Issues of learning, training, education, and self-management (ie the human systems component of quality) came to the forefront of practice. • Benchmarking and other methods of learning "best practices" flourished. • Organizations established executive line authority (eg Vice President for Quality) for quality. kualitas. • Methods aimed at the continuous improvement of process quality were developed and widely disseminated and utilized. Improvement of process quality, whether through continuous improvement or reengineering, became a mainstream organizational activity. • Organizations recognized the importance of focusing all of their activities on the customer and their requirements. Measures of customer satisfaction and retention became a key managerial metric for many organizations. Some may point to the faddish-ness of the TQM movement, and downgrade the importance of Page 21 Page 21 21 21 these developments. Part of the frustration with the "results" TQM has provided has to do with over-sold expectations, a hope for the "quick-fix", and with the natural phenomenon of rising aspirations (Dooley and Flor, 1998). There could be little doubt, however, that even without the moniker of "TQM", the principles, tenets, and assumptions of TQM have become deeply embedded in organizational practice and will remain a part of the organizational landscape. The Future of Quality If the existing paradigm of TQM continues, what types of developments in the field

should we expect? On the other hand, if we are on the brink of a paradigm transition, can we identify "local adaptations" that may in fact be selected later? Several future scenarios are outlined. diuraikan. A Kuhnian model of paradigm evolution would predict that if the current quality paradigm of TQM continues, then more context-specific theories and models will be developed that refine the more generalized existing knowledge base. We can already see this happening along a number of fronts, because it appears that the effectiveness of certain TQM activities may be dependent on the environment in which the organization finds itself in. For example, in a large scale study of over 500 companies (global), the International Quality Study (Ernst & Young, 1992) indicates that certain TQM practices may be more or less valid, depending on the maturity of the company. For low quality performers, a focus on teams, customer contact, empowerment, process simplification, design quality, and inspection worked best; for medium range performers, a focus on wide-scale process improvement, training, supplier involvement, metrics, design of new products, and a quality vision were best; and for high range performers, a focus on leadership, benchmarking, total employee involvement, strategic quality, innovation and product niching, and a highly visible quality vision worked best. There is also some question as to whether TQM's focus on control is appropriate for environments where there is high uncertainty in roles, tasks, and organizational priorities (Sitkin, Sutcliffe, and Schroeder, 1994). In low uncertainty, "control is cybernetically valid", while in high uncertainty, "the only reasonable goal may be to do a good job of exploration and learning" (Green and Welsh, 1988, p. 554; March, 1991). Process improvement activities based on process metrics may actually be counterproductive (Dean and Bowen, 1994); in fact, companies are growing frustrated with the lack of success they have had in using metricbased Page 22 Page 22 22 22 management to control and improve their new product development processes (Griffin, 1993). Fredrickson (1984) and others (eg Daft and Lengel, 1986; Lord and Maher, 1990) have found that comprehensive decision making--prototypical of TQM--was negatively related to performance in a highly unstable environment.

This proposition--that the holistic mechanisms of TQM, which tend to be rather mechanistic and deterministic in nature, may not be well-suited for environments where a high level of adaptability is required--is supported by recent developments in the field of complexity theory (Dooley, Johnson, and Bush, 1995). For example, Kauffman's work (1995) suggests that organizations are best optimized by optimizing semi-autonomous "patches", loosely coupled together. bersama-sama. A patch represents a more local organizational entity, such as a work group or division. divisi. This strategy of distributed optimization stands in contrast to TQM's belief that an organization is best optimized by paying attention to the whole. Kauffman's work also suggests that the customer should be "listened to" most of the time, but not all of the time. Similar Mirip arguments from innovation scholars exist (eg Christensen, 1997). Kauffman's model of evolution on rugged landscapes suggests that a process that has complex interactions between the variables associated with it cannot be easily optimized by trialand-error learning (a hallmark ofof TQM); such an approach will almost certainly lead to getting "stuck" at a local rather than global optimum. In such rugged landscapes, experiments must be continuously performed, because not only are there multiple optima, but the landscape itself is constantly changing and shifting due to its coupling with other organizational landscapes. Thus, one prediction is that the models and theories associated with TQM will become more context-specific ; in management theory terms, this means a growing emphasis on contingency and configuration theories (Doty, Glick, and Huber, 1993). As a discipline develops more context-specific theory, it also has the potential to dissipate away, into other, existing disciplinary structures. In many organizations today the quality department, and quality-related jobs within various parts of the organization have been eliminated. dieliminasi. The reasoning is, if quality is everyone's job, why do we need a separate function to carry out these activities? It is possible that the concepts and practices of TQM will become so deeply embedded in ordinary organizational practice that the function itself will be essentially "dissipated". Thus, a logical prediction is the quality discipline will die . Juran (1995) argues against this, noting that the notion of eliminating the quality Page 23 Page 23 23 23 professional is just as absurd as the notion of eliminating accountants--one will always need

quality specialists and experts, just as one will always need financial specialists and experts. This is especially true as companies begin to use more sophisticated statistical methods. AA growing number of companies (Motorola, GE, DuPont), under the aegis of "six sigma", are training "brown belts" and "black belts"--statistical quality engineering experts. There have been Ada calls for the profession itself to modernize, especially with respect to statistical methods; the pervasiveness and voluminous nature of measurement data in most modern manufacturing processes make many of the existing statistical methods of the field moot, and yet the discipline has been extremely slow in moving to computer-aided techniques and adopting more sophisticated statistical methods (Gunter, 1998). Another way in which the quality discipline could evolve within the existing TQM paradigm is for the quality discipline to broaden its scope and focus on the enterprise and/or the community. One can examine trends in both academia and industry practice over the last century and note that efforts have successively focused on larger and larger scope. Scientific Ilmiah management focused primarily on issues at a task level, and 1930's efforts in work design and egronomics focused on issues at a job level. Individual areas (eg mechanical engineering, electrical engineering) continued to make progress on issues at a task and job level, while the field of industrial engineering (and others) focused on issues at a level of process. TQM and other recent efforts (eg world class manufacturing, organizational learning, benchmarking) have shifted the focus to issues at a level of the system. The next obvious level of scope is that of the enterprise; an enterprise is defined as a collection of organizations whose goal is to coordinate themselves towards providing value to some end consumer (Choi and Dooley, 2000). One can already see this trend by the growing interest in enterprise requirements planning (ERP) and supply chain management. Examination Pemeriksaan of this century-long trend also highlights the fact that at each level, a focus on control emerges first, followed by a focus on issues of improvement. To-date, ERP and supply chain management efforts have focused almost solely on issues of control. We can predict therefore

that in the near future, a growing number of efforts will be focused on improving the quality of the enterprise, and this may represent the next paradigm of the quality discipline, if the methods and theories that need to be used differ significantly from existing TQM theories and methods. Beyond the level of enterprise, we have a level of community; green manufacturing efforts and Page 24 Page 24 24 24 ISO 14000 foreshadow this level of concern. It is not surprising to see so many quality professionals involved in the implementation of ISO 14000 environmental assurance programs; it may merely be a precursor of things to come. A number of other changes and improvements to the practice of TQM are likely: • Whenever an organizational task can be effectively automated, it eventually will be. Classical statistical process control (SPC) is an example where human intervention has been historically required because diagnosis and corrective action could not be effectively automated. otomatis. The need for classical, human-centered SPC will diminish with advances in automation, feedback control, and automated diagnosis. • The growing interest in "knowledge management" signifies an awareness that process knowledge, or know-how, matters. Knowledge management systems marshall the strength of information technology in order to share knowledge across space and time (Dooley, Skilton, and Anderson, 1998). Whatever knowledge resources can be made explicit and shared, however, can also be imitated. Since the ultimate value of the firm depends on knowledge that cannot be imitated, it is reasonable to assume that knowledge which is tacit and not easily imitated, as opposed to explicit, will grow in importance. For this reason we might expect that quality systems will increasingly focus on tacit knowledge. • TQM's focus on the customer is only a half-truth; for the most part, organizations focus on segments or cliques of customers, not individual customers. The growth of "one-to-one" marketing, increasing flexibility in production and logistics, product postponement, and ecommerce all support the goals of mass customization--being able to serve the needs of individual customers. Quality systems will need to increasingly focus on the management of individual customer requirements. • The constant improvement of quality in a particular market segment makes it increasingly difficult for a firm to create new value with its products. As firms get better at understanding

what customers want and delivering it, this skill will not be differentiable--it will simply be required to remain in business. In order to enhance competitive stance, companies will focus on getting better at understanding the unarticulated needs of their customers, and develop solutions aimed at “total value creation”. Page 25 Page 25 25 25 • There has been a wave of interest in applying quality concepts to "special" processes, such as new product development, supply chain management, and information systems. This is Ini adalah likely to be followed by a wave of interest in new process and service development. • Quality efforts have tended to be most prevalent in industries where quality competition is fierce. Because of the intimate tie between their services and the constraint of geography, the areas of government and education have essentially been competitor-less. With a growing awareness that government services can often be done better by private firms, and with the dawning of distance-based and technology-enabled education, competition in government and education will likely force serious quality improvement efforts there. • Increasingly the most important issue will not be quality leadership, product quality, process quality, or service quality... it will be information quality. It is perhaps this last bullet item that deserves most attention in terms of how the discipline of quality might change in a more significant manner, ie shift to a new paradigm. We Kami should expect that the quality discipline will evolve simultaneously with other changes in the world of business. dunia bisnis. In the past several years the Internet has brought on numerous changes in the nature of how business is conducted, and this will continue to be the trend. Currently however, e-commerce is still struggling with the basic quality issues such as delivery times and customer service, so it is unlikely that "the Internet Age" will immediately transform the discipline. Over time though, the Internet may preclude such significant changes. A recent NSFsponsored conference (http://nmm.eas.asu.edu/workshop/) on the topic of computer networks and quality highlighted this potential shift. In the age of telephones, the only part of the system that had to be considered relative to quality was the physical network itself; the telephones themselves were ubiquitous, uniform, and reliable. As communications developed on computer

networks (as opposed to telephony networks) in the 1980's, designers and operators knew that they had to consider not only the physical network, but also the devices that were attached to the end of the network, eg the personal computers, and sometimes even the applications. For Untuk example, one scenario where quality might be comprimised is where one computer at one node in the network was incompatible with another, different computer at another node of the network (eg IBM PC's and Apple MacIntoshes). Page 26 Page 26 26 26 With the advent of the Internet, things get even more complicated. In a local area network, all of the hardware (and protocol software) is compatible, and arranged into a single system. sistem. On the Internet though, the network is actually a compilation of networks, put together by vendors and providers that may in fact be competitive with one another. An e-mail sent on the Internet may traverse (in an unpredictable and unrepeatable patterns) dozens of different networks and servers, and each component of the system may or may not act in concert with the other components. Additionally, attention to quality of service on the Internet must also include the user: the total quality package includes the physical network, the devices attached to nodes of the networks, and the customers using the information/computing devices (Baumann, Bhattacharya, Capone, Dooley, Fritsch, and Palangala, 1999). On the Internet, a user is essentially free to behave in any number of different ways, without signalling or identifying what their exact needs are. adalah. How can we ensure quality of service on the Internet when in fact we don't know, any may never know, the exact requirements of each customer? The Internet provides other basic challenges with respect to quality. With "no one in charge", who is responsible for quality? How can quality be ensured, end-to-end, when in fact the elements of the system are not put in place in a purposeful, cooperative manner? Who is Siapa supposed to provide "quality leadership" to the Internet? How can the quality of information be assured when its source is potentially of unknown origin? How can the Internet and other information systems guard themselves against security breaches and purposeful acts of harms

while maintaining ease of use for its honest users? The issue of Internet quality of service is an example of other changes that are likely to take place in the business world in general. As supply and distribution chains fractionate and become ever more complex, the business world looks less like an organized heirarchy and more like a complex adaptive system (Dooley, Johnson, and Bush, 1995; Choi and Dooley, 2000), and our TQM paradigms based on predictability, control and linearity may be insufficient--we simply may not be able to address all of these challenges by improving the existing paradigm of TQM. To that effect, one may look at how issues of Internet quality are dealt with, as a precursor to a possible new paradigm for the quality discipline. Page 27 Page 27 27 27 Conclusion Kesimpulan I have put forth the proposition that the discipline of quality can be thought of as evolving over time through three paradigms: caveat emptor, quality control, and total quality management. Elements of each paradigm can be identified, post-hoc, as being present within the previous paradigm, in some local manner. This leads naturally to the question of: what's next? Within the Dalam existing paradigm of TQM, theories and models are likely to become more domainspecific, and improvements will be made to existing methods and approaches. The issue of quality of service on the Internet may foreshadow a change in the existing TQM paradigm, to perhaps something best described as "distributed and emergent TQM". The model put forth in this paper is based on narrative. While the case study put together may be convincing, it is hardly a test of hypothesis as the narrative is by design opportunistic in what is included and what is not. A more rigorous test of the hypotheses put forth here is in order, with the most likely and useful method for doing so being content analysis of historical (textual) data. The next step in this research program will be to examine the contents of Industrial Quality Control/Quality Progress , the discipline's hallmark trade journal, over a period of fifty-plus years, using sophisticated content analysis methods to indentify the epochs of time so-claimed to represent a particular paradigm of thought and practice (and therefore language). bahasa).

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