Chapter 3
Business Research Design (Desain Penelitian Bisnis) Bisnis)
• Definisi Desain Penelitian • Jenis-jenis desain penelitian
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Definisi Desain Penelitian
Kerangka (framework)/cetak biru (blueprint) yang berisikan rencana dan prosedur untuk mengarahkan penelitian (mengumpulkan, mengukur, dan analisa data) menjawab masalah penelitian (research questions). 2
Clarifying the Research Question Exploration
Discover the Management Dilemma Define the Research Questions Refine the Research Questions
Research Proposal Research Design Strategy (type, purpose, time frame, scope, environment) Data Collection Sampling Design Design Instrument Development And Pilot Testing
Data Collection & Preparation Data Analysis and Interpretation
Research Reporting Management Decision
Exploration
T A H A P A N P E N E L I T I A N
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Research Design Research Proposal
Research Design Strategy (type, purpose, time frame, scope, environment) Data Collection Design
Sampling Design
Instrument Development & Pilot Testing
Data Collection & Preparation 4
Types of Research Design Research Design
Conclusive Research Design
Exploratory Research Design
Descriptive Research Cross-Sectional Design Single CrossSectional Design
Causal Research
Longitudinal Design
Multiple CrossSectional Design
Sumber: Malhotra, 2004; Zikmund, 2002
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Menentukan Desain Penelitian Apakah tujuan penelitian spesifik & data yg dibutuhkan sudah jelas?
Tidak
Penelitian Eksploratori
Penelitian Konklusif
Analisis Data & Intepretasi Hasil Ya Perlu Penelitian Lanjutan?
Ya
Tidak
Perlu uji hubungan kausal ?
Penelitian Deskriptif
Ya Penelitian Kausal
Tidak
Analisis Data & Intepretasi Hasil Beri Rekomendasi
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Exploratory Studies
Bila gagasan/persoalan yang diteliti kurang jelas, lakukan penelitian/studi eksplorasi.
Melalui studi eksplorasi dapat dikembangkan konsep yang lebih jelas, menetapkan prioritas penelitian, mengembangkan definisi operasional, atau memperbaiki desain penelitian.
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Faktor Pembeda Tujuan
Data yg dibutuhkan Sumber data
Riset Eksploratori Umum, untuk menemukan pandangan awal ttg suatu situasi Samar Kurang terdefinisi
Riset Konklusif Spesifik, untuk memperoleh informasi bagi pengambilan keputusan Jelas Terdefinisi dgn baik
Sampel
Umumnya kecil, dipilih secara subjektif, yg dapat memberi pandangan (insight)
Relatif besar, dipilih secara objektif agar hasil dpt digeneralisasi
Pengumpulan data
Fleksibel, tidak perlu prosedur
Ketat, perlu prosedur yg jelas
Analisis data
Informal, umumnya tidak kuantitatif
Kesimpulan, rekomendasi
Cenderung sementara Sumber: Malhotra, 2004; Zikmund, 2002
Formal, umumnya kuantitatif Cenderung final 8
Desain dan Metode Penelitian
DESIGN
EKSPLORATIF
1. Teknik Kualitatif 2. Analisis Data Sekunder METODE 3. Experience Survey 4. Focus Group Discussion (FGD) 5. Two-Stage Design
DESKRIPTIF Cross Sectional Longitudinal KAUSAL Design (CSD) Design Single Multiple CSD CSD 1. Survei Eksperimen 2. Observasi Tidak Terstruktur 3. Analisis Data Sekunder 4. Panel 5. Interrelationship Studies (metode korelasional)
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Studi Eksplorasi: Teknik Kualitatif Studi eksplorasi dapat dilakukan dg teknik kuantitatif maupun kualitatif. Dalam praktek, lebih banyak teknik kualitatif. Teknik Kualitatif yang dapat digunakan antara lain: • Individual Depth Interview • Participant Observation • Film, Photographs, & videotape • Projective techniques & psychological testing • Case studies • Street ethnography • Elite or expert interviewing • Document analysis (to evaluate historical or contemporary confidential) • Proxemics and kinesics (use of space and body motion communication) 10
Studi Eksplorasi: Secondary Data Analysis
Langkah awal studi eksplorasi adalah mencari data sekunder melalui literatur.
Bahan-bahan data sekunder adalah dokumen-dokumen yang telah dipublikasikan berbagai perusahaan/peneliti.
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Example: Vans Incorporated
Secondary data shows: • Lots of skaters were in trouble with the law for skating around the city. • There were not too many places for skaters go skating safely. Idea: Opening large skate parks next to shopping malls. Primary research was conducted to assess consumer preferences & the demand for large skate parks next to malls research results confirmed this. Decision: • The park opened in 1998, attendance 250,000 went over target of 100,000 skaters. • In 2002, Vans opened its 11th park in Orlando. Conclusion: research which started with analysis of secondary data had led to successful expansion strategy.
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Studi Eksplorasi: Experience Survey
Experience Survey dilakukan dengan menginterview orang-orang secara individual maupun kelompok.
Peneliti harus menggali gagasan-gagasan orang yang diwawancarai tentang isu-isu penting atau aspek-aspek dari subyek dan menemukan apa yang penting.
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Repositioning Diet Cherry Coke 2001, sales down more than 8 million cases. Industry experts consultation Diet Cherry Coke was not positioned correctly. Brand image was a key factor influencing soft drink sales. It was perceived as conventional & old fashioned, inconsistent with Cherry Coke. Research to measure the image & positioning of Diet Cherry Coke confirmed the experts’ Brand then repositioned to align it more closely to the image of Cherry Coke. Targeted younger drinkers. Packaging was remade consistent with Cherry Coke. Placed with Cherry Coke in a teen-targeted promotional giveaway. Sales recovered. 14
Studi Eksplorasi:
Focus Group Discussions (FGD)
Free flowing (1-3 hours) Group interview (8-10 people) Guided by moderator Start with broad topic & focus in on specific issues Using videocassettes & tapes The most common uses are:
• • • • •
Testing advertising copy or marketing promotions Positioning products or services Testing new concepts Testing usability of a product Generate new ideas 15
When to Avoid Focus Groups
Focus groups should not be used to make a final decision. Results of focus groups are not statistically valid and should be used more as a thermometer to test the temperature of the market rather than as a ruler to provide precise measurements. Likewise, the following represent good examples of when to avoid using focus groups When you need a numerical response to questions like “what percentage…?” or “how many…?”
Focus groups do not provide quantitative results. When you need to explore issues that are very personal or sensitive in nature. People are not really comfortable discussing personal topics in a group situation. When you want to set prices for your products or your services. Again, these results are not quantitative in nature hence it is not advisable to make final pricing decisions based on small group responses. 16
Studi Deskriptif Bentuk studi Deskriptif lebih formal dan terstruktur dibanding eksplorasi, dengan pernyataan (hipotesis) dan pertanyaan investigatif yang lebih jelas. Studi deskriptif digunakan menjawab tujuan penelitian, seperti berikut: Deskripsi fenomena atau karakteristik terkait dengan sebuah populasi (who, what, when, where, and how) Estimasi proporsi populasi yang memiliki karakteristik/ perilaku tertentu Menentukan persepsi ttg karakteristik produk Menemukan asosiasi di antara berbagai variabel (correlational study) 17
Descriptive Research
Time-frame of research… Cross-sectional design (CSD) Longitudinal design
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Studi Cross-sectional vs Longitudinal
Studi cross-sectional dilakukan pada suatu titik waktu tertentu yg bersamaan dari berbagai tempat yg berbeda.
Studi longitudinal dilakukan pada berbagai pengulangan sepanjang rentang waktu tertentu dari suatu tempat yang sama. 19
Cross-Sectional Designs
The collection of information from any given sample of population elements only once. Single cross-sectional designs: only one sample of respondents and information is obtained from this sample only once. Multiple cross-sectional designs: two or more samples of respondents, and information from each sample is obtained only once. Often, information from different samples is obtained at different times. 20
Longitudinal Designs A fixed sample (or samples) of population elements is measured repeatedly on the same variables A longitudinal design differs from a cross-sectional design in that the sample or samples remain the same over time
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Cross-Sectional Data may not Show Change Brand Purchased
Time Period Period 1 Survey
Brand A Brand B Brand C Total
200 300 500 1000
Period 2 Survey
200 300 500 1000
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Longitudinal Data may Show Substantial Change
Brand Purchased in Period 1 Brand A Brand B Brand C Total
Brand Purchased in Period 2 Brand A 100 25 75 200
Brand B 50 100 150 300
Brand C 50 175 275 500
Total 200 300 500 1000
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Studi Kausalitas
Studi Kausalitas: jenis penelitian yang ditujukan untuk menjawab permasalahan mengapa.
Contoh: Mengapa kinerja perusahaan menurun? Karena dipengaruhi oleh faktor… (terjadi hubungan kausalitas (sebab-akibat) Perhatian: Jika hanya hubungan korelasi bukan merupakan hubungan kausalitas
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Studi Kausalitas Jenis-jenis hubungan (relationship) kausalitas: 1. Symmetrical Relationship. Bentuk hubungan dimana dua variabel berubah bersama-sama, dg asumsi perubahan masing-masing variabel bukan karena perubahan variabel yang lain. 2. Reciprocal Relationship. Terjadi jika dua variabel saling memengaruhi satu sama lain. 3. Asymmetrical Relationship. Bentuk ini terjadi jika perubahan satu variabel (variabel independen) berakibat pada perubahan variabel lain (variabel dependen) 25
Potential Sources of Error in Research Designs Total Error
Non-sampling Error
Sampling Error
Response Error
Researcher Error Surrogate Information Error Measurement Error Problem Definition Error Data Analysis Error
Interviewer Error
Respondent Selection Error Questioning Error Recording Error Cheating/dishonest Error Sumber: Malhotra, 2004; Zikmund, 2002
Non-response Error
Respondent Error Inability Error Unwillingness Error
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Errors in Research Design
Total error is the variation between the true mean value in the population and the observed mean value obtained in the research project. Sampling error is the variation between the true mean value for the population and the true mean value for the original sample. Non-sampling errors can be attributed to sources other than sampling, and they may be response/no response: including errors in problem definition, approach, scales, questionnaire design, interviewing methods, and data preparation and analysis. 27
Errors in Research Design
Non-response error arises when some of the respondents included in the sample do not respond. Response error arises when respondents give inaccurate answers or their answers are misrecorded or misanalyzed.
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Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
Qualitative
Quantitative
Focus of research
Understand
Describe, Explain, and predict
Researcher Involvement
Limited ; controlled to prevent bias
Research purpose
Describe, or predict ; build and test theory
Sample design
Non
Sample size
Small
Research design
and interpret
High researcher is participant or catalyst In-depth understanding; theory building probability; purposive
May evolve or adjust during the course of the project Often uses multiple methods simultaneously or sequentially Consistency is not expected Involves longitudinal approach.
Probability Large
Determined before commencing the project Uses single method or mixed methods Consistency is critical Involves either a crosssectional or a longitudinal approach
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Qualitative vs Quantitative Research
Qualitative
Quantitative
Participant Preparation
Pre-tasking is common
No preparation desired to avoid biasing the participant
Data type and preparation
Verbal or pictorial descriptions Reduced to verbal codes (sometimes with computer assistance)
Verbal descriptions Reduced to numerical codes for computerized analysis
Data Analysis
Human analysis following computer or human coding; primarily non-quantitative Forces researcher to see the contextual framework of the phenomenon being measured— distinction between facts and judgments less clear Always ongoing during the project.
Computerized analysis – statistical and mathematical methods dominate. Analysis may be ongoing during the project Maintains clear distinction between facts and judgment.
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Features of Qualitative & Quantitative Research Qualitative
Quantitative
"All research ultimately has a qualitative grounding" - Donald Campbell
"There's no such thing as qualitative data. Everything is either 1 or 0" - Fred Kerlinger
The aim is a complete, detailed description.
The aim is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.
Researcher may only know roughly in advance what he/she is looking for.
Researcher knows clearly in advance what he/she is looking for.
Recommended during earlier phases of research projects.
Recommended during latter phases of research projects.
The design emerges as the study unfolds.
All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
Researcher is the data gathering instrument.
Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or equipment to collect numerical data.
Data is in the form of words, pictures or objects.
Data is in the form of numbers and statistics.
Subjective - individuals’ interpretation of events is important ,e.g., uses participant observation, in-depth interviews etc.
Objective – seeks precise measurement & analysis of target concepts, e.g., uses surveys, questionnaires etc.
Qualitative data is more 'rich', time consuming, and less able to be generalized.
Quantitative data is more efficient, able to test hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail.
Researcher tends to become subjectively immersed in the subject matter.
Researcher tends to remain objectively separated from the subject matter.
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Research with Informants (Qualitative)
Research with Subjects (Quantitative)
1. What do my informants know about their culture that I can discover?
1. What do I know about a problem that will allow me to formulate and test a hypothesis?
2. What concepts do my informants use to classify their experiences?
2. What concepts can I use to test this hypothesis?
3. How do my informants define these concepts?
3. How can I operationally define these concepts?
4. What folk theory do my informants use to explain their experience?
4. What scientific theory can explain the data?
5. How can I translate the cultural knowledge of my informants into a cultural description my colleagues will understand?
5. How can I interpret the results and report them in the language of my colleagues? 32
Teknik-teknik Kualitatif Teknik Kualitatif yang bisa digunakan al:
• Individual Depth Interview • Participant Observation • Film, Photographs and videotape • Projective techniques and psychological testing • Case studies • Street ethnography • Elite or expert interviewing • Document analysis (to evaluate historical or contemporary confidential) • Proxemics and kinesics (use of space and body motion communication)
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Individual Depth Interview and Group Interviews
Individual Interview
Research Objective : Explore life of individual in depth Create case histories through repeated interview s over time Test a survey
Group Interview
Topic Concerns : Detailed individual experiences, choices, biographies. Sensitive issues that might provoke anxiety
Participants: Time pressed participant or those difficult to recruit (e.g., elite or high-status participants) Participants with sufficient language skill (e.g., those older than seven) Participants whose distinction would inhibit participation
Research Objective: Orient the researcher to a field of inquiry and the language of the field Explore a range of attitudes, opinions, and behaviors Observe a process of consensus and disagreement Add contextual detail to quantitative findings Topic Concerns : Issues of public interest or common concern Issues where little is known or of a hypothetical nature Participants : Participants whose backgrounds are similar or not so dissimilar as to generate conflict or discomfort. Participants who offer a range of positions on issues.
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Jenis Interviews
Wawancara tidak terstruktur /Unstructured Interview
Interviews
Wawancara semi terstruktur /Semi-structured Interview Wawancara terstruktur /Structured Interview
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Statistical studies vs. Case Studies
Studi secara statistikal dirancang lebih untuk mengungkapkan keluasan cakupan daripada kedalamannya. Studi ini mencoba mengungkapkan karakteristik suatu populasi dengan melakukan inferensi karakteristik suatu sampel. Hipotesis-hipotesis diuji secara kuantitatif. Generalisasi atas temuannya disajikan berdasarkan keterwakilan sampel dan validitas dari rancangannya.
Studi kasus lebih menekankan pada sebuah analisis kontekstual yang menyeluruh atas kejadian-kejadian atau kondisi-kondisi yang lebih sempit dan menekankan interrelasinya.
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Teknik Kualitatif: Teknik-Teknik Projektif
Word association: Participants are asked to match images, experiences, emotions, products and services, even people and places, to whatever is being studied. Contoh: “Apa yang Anda pikirkan bila mendengar kata KEJU……”
Sentence completion: Participants are asked to complete a sentence Contoh: “Lengkapi kalimat berikut ini: Restoran yang menawarkan diskon kartu kredit berarti… ….. “
Cartoons or empty balloons Participants are asked to write the dialog for a cartoon-like picture
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A Cartoon Test
………. ……… ………
Giant
Let’s see if we can pick up some house wares at Giant
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Teknik Kualitatif: Teknik-teknik Projektif
Component sorts: Participants are presented with a flash cards containing component features and asked to create new combinations
Sensory sorts: Participants are presented with scents, textures, and sound, usually verbalized on cards, and asked to arrange them by one or more criteria
Laddering or benefit chain: Participants are asked to link functional features to their physical and psychological benefits, both real and ideal
Thematic Apperception Test:
Participants are confronted with a picture (usually a photograph or drawing) and asked to describe how the person in the picture feels and thinks 39
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
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Teknik Kualitatif: Teknik-teknik Projektif
Imagination exercises: Participants are asked to relate the properties of one thing/person/brand to another. Imaginary universe: Participants are asked to assume that the brand and its users populate an entire universe; then they describe the features of this new world
Visitor from another planet: Participant are asked to assume that they are aliens and are confronting the product for the first time; they then describe their reactions, questions, and attitudes about purchase or retrial.
Personification. Participants are asked to imagine inanimate objects with the traits, characteristics, and features, and personalities of humans. “if brand X were a person, what type of person would brand X be ? 41
Teknik Kualitatif: Teknik-teknik Projektif
Authority figure. Participants are asked to imagine that the brand or product is an authority figure and to describe the attribute of the figure.
Ambiguities and paradoxes. Participants are asked to imagine a brand as something else (e.g., a Tide dog Food or Marlboro cereal), describing its attributes and position
Semantic mapping. Participants are presented with a fourquadrant map where different variables anchor the two different axes; they then spatially place brands, product components, or organizations within the four quadrants
Brand mapping. Participants are presented with different brands and asked to talk about their perceptions, usually in relation to several criteria. They may also be asked to spatially place each brand on one or more semantic map. 42
Contoh Brand Mapping High moisturizing 7
Dove 4
Zest Lever 2000
Biore 5
Nondeodorant
2 Lux
Safeguard
Coast 8
Deodorant
3 1
Giv Lifebuoy Medicare 6
low moisturizing 43
