Sapaan Uda dan Uni dalam Bahasa Minangkabau Kontaminasi dengan Sapaan Mas dan Mbak dalam Bahasa Jawa

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Sapaan Uda dan Uni dalam Bahasa Minangkabau Kontaminasi dengan Sapaan Mas dan Mbak dalam Bahasa Jawa Adrias, M.Pd., STKIP PGRI Sumatera Barat

Abstract Indonesia secara geografis adalah berpulau-pulau dan menjadikan masyarakatnya memiliki perbedaan bahasa yang disebut dengan bahasa lokal atau bahasa daerah. Dalam berkomunikasi sehari-hari, pada umumnya masyarakat Indonesia menggunakan bahasa daerah termasuk dalam menggunakan sapaan. Di minangkabau sapaan untuk saudara laki-laki atau panggilan pada laki-laki yang dianggap lebih dewasa dari dirinya, maka dipanggil dengan Uda. Begitu juga untuk saudara perempuan atau pada perempuan yang dianggap lebih dewasa dari dirinya, maka dipanggil Uni. Namun, akhir-akhir ini seiring perkembangan zaman sapaan untuk Uda dan Uni mulai diganti dengan sapaan bahasa daerah lain yang dianggap lebih berprestise. Masyarakat Minangkabau ketika berada pada pusat keramaian, perkantoran, dan sewaktu berbelanja di swalayan lebih senang mengucapkan sapaan Mas untuk panggilan pada laki-laki dan sapaan Mbak untuk panggilan pada perempuan. Pengaruh unsur bahasa nusantara maupun bahasa asing pada sapaan Uda dan Uni secara perlahan akan merusak tatanan bahasa daerah di Indonesia khususnya bahasa Minangkabau. Untuk itu, bahasa daerah perlu mendapat perhatian khusus, karena seiring perkembangan zaman akan selalu mempengaruhi perekmbangan bahasa daerah. Kata Kunci: Kontaminasi, Mas dan Mba, Sapaan, Uda dan Uni

1. Pendahuluan Bahasa Indonesia merupakan bahasa persatuan bangsa Indonesia yang tercantum dalam Sumpah Pemuda Indonesia pada butir ketiga. Selain memiliki bahasa permersatu bangsa Indonesia juga memiliki keberagaman bahasa daerah sebagai khazanah bangsa. Keberagaman bahasa daerah tersebut merupakan komponen penting yang perlu dijaga oleh semua masyarakat Indonesia. Salah satu dari keberagaman bahasa daerah yang ada di Indonesia adalah bahasa Minangkabau. Bagi masyarakat Minangkabau, bahasa Minangkabau merupakan bahasa pertama atau disebut dengan bahasa Ibu yang masih terpelihara dengan baik di kalangan penuturnya. Secara umum masyarakat Minangkabau dalam interaksi komunikasi sehari-hari lebih cenderung menggunakan bahasa Minangkabau termasuk dalam tegur sapa. Namun, seiring perkembangan zaman dan kemajuan di segala aspek membawa sebuah perubahan bagi masyarakat termasuk perubahan bagi pengguna bahasa. Perubahan dan perkembangan pengguna bahasa juga sampai pada tingkat pengguna bahasa daerah khususnya bahasa Minangkabau. Penutur bahasa daerah khususnya masyarakat Minangkabau mulai menerima perubahan terhadap perkembangan bahasa terutama dalam penggunaan sapaan. Faktor-faktor yang dapat mempengaruhi perkembangan bahasa daerah khususnya penggunaan sapaan diantaranya kemajuan teknologi seperti penggunaan bahasa pada dunia maya, menerima informasi baik media elektronik maupun media cetak. Kemudahan dalam menerima informasi dalam kemajuan teknologi membawa dampak positif bagi perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan. Namun, bagi perkembangan budaya khususnya budaya berbahasa menjadi kontaminasi sebagian pengguna bahasa daerah. Masyarakat lebih cenderung mengikuti perkembangan bahasa yang sesuai dengan informasi yang mereka terima di situasi saat ini. Masyarakat pengguna bahasa lebih bangga menggunakan bahasa yang baru mereka terima dibandingkan bahasa daerah yang lebih duluan mereka kenal yang sudah dianggap kuno bahkan kurang berprestise. Akibatnya perlahan mereka mulai meninggalkan bahasa asli daerah, tanpa mereka sadari secara perlahan mereka telah merusak keberagaman bahasa. Salah satu bentuk bahasa daerah Minangkabau yang sudah mulai ditinggalkan penuturnya adalah penggunaan sapaan Uda dan Uda. Masyarakat Minangkabau lebih cenderung

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menggunakan sapaan Mas dan Mbak dalam bahasa Jawa yang dianggap lebih berprestise. Untuk itulah, dalam makalah ini membahas faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi masyarakat Minangkabau menggunakan sapaan Mas dan Mbak dalam bahasa Jawa dibandingkan Uda dan Uni dalam bahasa Minangkabau. 2. Kata Sapaan Menurut Chaer (2006: 107) kata sapaan adalah kata yang digunakan untuk menyapa, menegur, atau orang kedua yang diajak bicara. Bagi masyarakat Minangkabau kata sapaan yang digunakan oleh penutur dalam komunikasi sehari-hari merupakan cerminan kesopanan berbahasa dalam peristiwa tutur. Misalnya, dalam menyapa, menegur, atau memanggil lawan tutur. Seseorang tidak tepat memakai kata sapaan untuk menyapa orang lain, terutama untuk orang yang lebih tua maka orang tersebut dianggap kurang sopan atau dalam filosofis masyarakat Minangkabau tidak tahu kato mandaki. Menurut Ayub, dkk. (1984: 10-13) dalam penelitiannya kata sapaan nonkekerabatan yang berlaku di Minangkabau dilihat dari segi pemakaiannya dapat dibagi menjadi: (1) sapaan umum, (2) sapaan adat, (3) sapaan agama, dan (4) sapaan jabatan. Bentuk sapaan umum digunakan dalam hubungan tidak resmi, baik dalam kekerabatan maupun di luar kekerabatan. Contoh bentuk sapaan umum yang masyarakat Minangkabau adalah Uda dan Uni. Sapaan yang digunakan untuk menyapa seseorang yang memiliki peranan penting dalam suatu kaum disebut sapaan adat. Misalnya, bentuk sapaan adat yang digunakan dalam bahasa Minangkabau Datuak yang dimaknai adalah orang yang dituakan dalam suatu kaum atau suku tertentu. Selanjutnya, sapaan agama merupakan sapaan yang digunakan untuk menyapa dan menyebut seseorang yang bertugas atau mengetahui hal-hal yang berhubungan dengan agama. Kata sapaan ini diberikan kepada seseorang dan disesuaikan dengan pekerjaan dan keahlian tersebut dalam bidang agama. Bentuk kata sapaan agama yang digunakan oleh masyarakat Minangkabau adalah Buya kata sapaan terhadap ulama dan Garin kata sapaan terhadap penjaga masjid. Untuk kata sapaan jabatan adalah kata sapaan yang diberikan kepada seseorang yang berkaitan dengan jabatan yang dipangkunya dan tidak dikaitkan dengan hubungan kekerabatan. Sapaan jabatan ini biasanya disesuaikan dengan jabatan seseorang, misalnya Kapalo Kampuang bentuk kata sapaan terhadap kepala kampung. Bagi masyarakat Minangkabau sapaan Uda dipakai dalam hubungan kekerabatan hubungan genetik, sapaan umum, dan hubungan kekerabatan akibat perkawinan. Apabila ditinjau dari kesantunannya, sapaan Uda juga dipakai dalam hubungan kekerabatan melihat statusnya dari hubungan akibat perkawinan tanpa melihat umur. Seperti sapaan Uda terhadap saudara laki-laki suami atau Istri. Walaupun demikian, usia dari suami ataupun istri lebih tua, tetapi ia tetap memanggil Uda dari saudara tua laki-laki suami atau istri. Hal tersebut menggambarkan pentingnya kesantunan dalam tutur sapaan bagi masyarakat Minangkabau. Sapaan juga merupakan salah satu komponen bahasa yang penting karena dalam sapaan itu dapat ditentukan suatu interaksi akan berlanjut (Kartomihardjo, 1988: 238). Sapaan Uda dan Uni dalam bahasa Minangkabau biasanya merupakan sapaan pilihan utama dalam tegur sapa bagi penuturunya. Untuk kondisi saat ini sapaan tersebut sudah mulai terkontaminasi dengan berbagai sapaan bahasa asing terutama dengan sapaan Mas dan Mbak dalam bahasa Jawa. Disaat berada di pusat perbelanjaan, perkantoran atau tempat-tempat yang dianggap tempat publik maka peristiwa penggunaan sapaan Mas dan Mbak terjadi. Dari gambaran permasalahan di atas dapat diuraikan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi penggunaan sapaan Uda dan Uni dalam bahasa Minangkabau yang kontaminasi dengan sapaan Mas dan Mbak dalam bahasa Jawa sebagai berikut. 1) Media massa elektronik Kata media massa berasal dari medium dan massa, kata "medium" berasal dari bahasa latin yang menunjukkan adanya berbagai sarana atau saluran yang diterapkan untuk mengkomunikasikan ide, gambaran, perasaan dan prinsipnya semua sarana aktivitas mental manusia. Kata "massa" yang berasal dari daerah Anglosaxon berarti instrumen atau alat yang

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pada hakikatnya terarah kepada semua saja yang mempunyai sifat massif. Tugasnya adalah sesuai dengan sirkulasi dari berbagai pesan atau berita, menyajikan suatu tipe baru dari komunikasi yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan fundamental dari masyarakat dewasa ini. Berbagai macam sajian komunikasi ditayangkan oleh media massa elektronik sampai pada penggunaan sapaan dalam bahasa prokem maupun penggunaan sapaan pada daerah tertentu. Untuk penggunaan sapaan daerah yang sering muncul di media massa elektronik adalah sapaan Mas dan Mbak dalam bahasa Jawa. Akhirnya hal tersebut sangat mempengaruhi penggunaan sapaan yang terdapat di daerah khususnya sapaan dalam bahasa Minangkabau. 2) Sapaan Mas dan Mbak dianggap lebih sopan Bagi sebagian masyarakat Minangkabau sapaan Mas untuk panggilan laki-laki yang lebih tua begitu juga untuk panggilan Mbak lebih sopan dibandingkan dengan panggilan Uda dan Uni dalam bahasa Minangkabau. Hal tersbut dipengaruhi oleh pradigma yang berkembang dalam masyarakat Minangkabau bahasa yang digunakan dalam tuturan masyarakat Jawa memiliki intonasi yang lembut. 3) Sapaan Mas dan Mbak dianggap lebih berprestise “Maaf Mbak, pakaian yang ini apa diskon Mbak?” Mbak yang dipanggil tersebut bukan berasal dari Jawa tapi asli perempuan Minang yang seharusnya dipanggil dengan Uni. Kasus lain juga dapat dikemukakan “Mas, pengurusan buku tabungan yang sudah hilang bagian mana ya Mas?” Mas yang dipanggil bukan laki-laki yang berasal dari Jawa atau bukan keturunan Jawa tetapi asli Minangkabau. Pemakaian kata sapaan dari peristiwa tersebut dianggap lebih memiliki prestise dan komunikatif sebagian masyarakat Minangkabau. Kemampuan komunikatif itu adalah kemampuan untuk menggunakan bahasa sesuai dengan fungsi, situasi, norma, dan konteks sosialnya (Chaer dan Agustina, 1995: 5). Sapaan mengandung bentuk penghormatan atas perbedaan status sosial, jabatan, budaya, usia, dan tingkat keformalan tuturan. Sapaan Uda dan Uni dalam masyarakat Minangkabau, selain berkaitan dengan unsur kekerabatan juga mengandung penghormatan terhadap lawan bicara. Namun, di Minangkabau, sapaan Uda dan Uni mulai tertajadi pergeseran kurang mengandung unsur penghormatan terhadap lawan bicara. 4) Sapaan Mas dan Mbak dianggap lebih moderen Di era perkembangan zaman yang maju ini, sistem kehidupan manusia sudah semakin tinggi sehingga tidak bisa dipungkiri adanya pertemuan antarbudaya yang kadangkala berbenturan satu sama lain. Adanya benturan budaya itu memaksa seseorang untuk menggunakan ‘bahasa lain’ sebagai pengungkap ide bahkan agar terjadi komunikasi yang baik, budaya bawaan ‘disingkirkan terlebih dahulu’. Oleh karaena itu, kaitannya dengan perkembangan sapaan dalam bahasa Minangkabau juga membawa pergeseran makna bagi sebagian masysarakat. Anggapan pengganti sapaan Uda dan Uni dengan Mas dan Mbak dalam bahasa Jawa lebih moderen dan sesuai perkembangan zaman. Namun, sapaan Uda dan Uni sudah dianggap tidak mampu mengikuti perkembangan zaman dan dianggap kuno atau kampungan. Kedua sapaan itu sudah mengalami pergeseran menjadi sebuah sapaan terhadap para status sosialnya yang dianggap rendah. 3. Penutup Penggunaan sapaan Uda dan Uni dalam bahasa Minangkabau di kalangan masyarakat Minangkabau khususnya ditempat perbelanjaan dan instansi perkantoran mengalami penurunan cukup signifikan dan terkontaminasi dengan penggunaan sapaan Mas dan Mbak dalam bahasa Jawa. Hal itu terjadi karena berdasarkan hasil survei dan pengamatan sebagian besar masyarakat Minangkabau lebih cenderung menggunakan sapaan Mas dan Mbak dalam bahasa Jawa. Pembiaran itu bisa terjadi karena sapaan Uda dan Uni dalam bahasa Minangkabau sudah dianggap tidak bergengsi, tidak sopan, tidak moderen, dan dipengaruhi oleh perkembangan

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media massa elektronik lebih cenderung menggunakan sapaan Mas dan Mbak dalam acara yang ditayangkan.

Pustaka Acuan Ayub, Asni. dkk. 1984. Sistem Sapaan Bahasa Minangkabau. Jakarta: Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa. Chaer, Abdul. 2006. Tata Bahasa Praktis Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Bharatara Karya Aksara. Chaer, Abdul dan Agustina. 1995. Sosiolinguistik, Perkenalan Awal. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta. Kartomiharjo, Soeseno. 1988. Bahasa Cermin Kehidupan Masyarakat. Jakarta: Depdikbud.

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Pelestarian Bahasa Lokal pada Masyarakat Urban Dr. Sugiyono, Badan Bahasa Dr. des. Luh Anik Mayani, Badan Bahasa

1. Situasi kebahasaan di Indonesia Berdasarkan tipe ekologi bahasa, Mühlhäusler (2002:385) menggolongkan situasi kebahasaan di Indonesia ke dalam tipe ketiga, yaitu ekologi kompetitif. Ekologi ini ditandai dengan adanya perbedaan kekuatan bahasa-bahasa dalam suatu ekologi bahasa dan juga ditandai dengan adanya rekontruksi ekologi secara berkelanjutan. Dalam hal ini, kekuatan bahasa Indonesia berkompetisi dengan kekuatan bahasa daerah. Dengan kedudukannya sebagai bahasa nasional, bahasa Indonesia menjadi semakin penting, sedangkan bahasa daerah menjadi terpinggirkan. Sebagai bahasa resmi negara, bahasa Indonesia secara umum digunakan, misalnya, dalam bidang pendidikan dan administrasi pemerintahan. Dengan demikian, bahasa Indonesia memiliki prestise yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan bahasa daerah, baik di tingkat nasional maupun regional. 2. Hubungan antara migrasi dan penggunaan bahasa Resosudarmo dan Suryadarma (2011:1) memaparkan bahwa tingkat urbanisasi di Indonesia mengalami peningkatan yang sangat pesat. Pada tahun 1950 tingkat urbanisasi adalah 15%, lalu berkembang menjadi 30% pada tahun 1990, dan mencapai 48% pada tahun 2005. Lebih lanjut mereka menjelaskan bahwa migrasi dilandasi oleh alasan ekonomi. Seseorang akan bermigrasi jika keuntungan yang dia dapatkan karena bermigrasi lebih besar dibandingkan dengan tidak bermigrasi. Migrasi berdampak pada perubahan penggunaan bahasa. Penelitian yang menampilkan efek migrasi terhadap penggunaan bahasa di Indonesia, di antaranya pernah dilakukan oleh Steinhauer (1994), Himmelmann (2010), Sofian (2012), dan Anderbeck (2013). Hasil studi dari tiap-tiap penelitian tersebut adalah sebagai berikut. Berdasarkan penelitiannya tentang situasi bahasa dan linguistik di Indonesia, Steinhauer (1994) mencontohkan bahwa pada tahun 1990 penggunaan bahasa Minangkabau menjadi lebih luas dibandingkan dengan penggunaan bahasa Batak sebagai akibat dari kebiasaan pemuda Minang untuk merantau (bermigrasi) ke daerah perkotaan (ibid 1994:761). Selanjutnya dia juga menyebutkan bahwa migrasi dapat mengubah daerah yang secara linguistik bersifat homogen menjadi lebih heterogen. Misalnya, daerah Sumatra yang menjadi target transmigrasi (Lampung, Sumatra Selatan, Jambi, Riau dan Sumatra Utara). Karena transmigrannya berasal dari pulau Jawa, bahasa Jawa pun dipakai di daerah tersebut (ibid 1994:765). Berkaitan dengan urbanisasi, secara umum dia menyimpulkan bahwa ciri dari kehidupan urban adalah penggunaan bahasa Indonesia dianggap lebih tepat dibandingkan dengan penggunaan bahasa lokal (ibid, 1994:758). Himmelmann (2010) yang melakukan studi kasus di Sulawesi Tengah menyoroti adanya pergeseran bahasa di daerah Tomini-Tolitoli. Dalam hal ini, bahasa Indonesia menggeser penggunaan dan ranah bahasa lokal. Dia menjelaskan ada dua skenario pergeseran bahasa, yaitu imigrasi dan emigrasi (ibid 2010:52—53). Imigrasi adalah skenario penutur bahasa lain dari luar daerah “mengambil alih“ komunitas tutur bahasa Tomini-Tolitoli. Sementara itu, emigrasi adalah skenario perpindahan penutur bahasa Tomini-Tolitoli ke pusatpusat pendidikan dan pekerjaan yang mengharuskan mereka untuk menggunakan bahasa Indonesia. Menurutnya faktor utama penyebab pergeseran bahasa, dari bahasa daerah ke bahasa Indonesia, adalah penggunaan bahasa Indonesia sebagai bahasa utama di sekolah, pesatnya dan meluasnya jaringan televisi, dan perkembangan sistem transportasi yang sangat cepat (ibid 2010 60—61).

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Sejalan dengan hasil studi yang dikemukan oleh Himmelmann (2010), Anderbeck (2013) menyatakan bahwa faktor-faktor yang berkontribusi terhadap penurunan status hidup bahasa-bahasa lokal di antaranya adalah urbanisasi, politik sentralisasi, dan bahasa Indonesia sebagai medium pendidikan. Mengenai penurunan status hidup bahasa-bahasa di Indonesia, Anderbeck (2013) melaporkan bahwa 178 bahasa lokal di Indonesia berstatus terancam punah atau mengalami penurunan status. Sofiah (2011:302) yang meneliti tentang pemakaian bahasa dengan orang tua berbeda suku menyatakan bahwa bahasa Indonesia mendapat posisi yang cukup dominan dalam masyarakat urban, seperti di Jakarta dan sekitarnya. Selain peralihan ke bahasa mayoritas (bahasa yang digunakan sebagai lingua franca oleh penduduk di daerah urban), urbanisasi juga memunculkan fenomena bilingualisme (Grosjean 1982). Pendapat ini sejalan dengan temuan Boyd dan Andersson (1991) yang melakukan penelitian perubahan bahasa di Swedia. Mereka menjabarkan bahwa hampir setengah populasi imigran yang merupakan generasi kedua merupakan penutur bilingual yang aktif. Sebagai kelompok minoritas, mereka menggunakan bahasa ibu mereka, yaitu Finnish ketika mereka berbicara dengan orang tua atau anggota komunitas tutur yang sudah tua (yaitu generasi pertama). Sebaliknya, bahasa kelompok mayoritas (bahasa Inggris Amerika) mereka gunakan ketika mereka berbicara dengan imigran lain atau penduduk asli. Berdasarkan uraian di atas dapat disimpulkan bahwa migrasi menyebabkan (1) adanya pergeseran bahasa, peralihan dari bahasa daerah ke bahasa mayoritas/lingua franca. Peralihan ke bahasa mayoritas mengakibatkan melemahnya status bahasa minoritas yang pada akhirnya dapat menyebabkan kepunahan bahasa. Misalnya, peran penting bahasa Indonesia sebagai lingua franca di daerah urban dapat menyebabkan terpinggirkannya bahkan punahnya bahasa daerah. (2) Terjadinya fenomena bilingualisme: imigran tidak hanya menguasai bahasa ibu mereka, tapi juga menguasai bahasa mayoritas. Akan tetapi, pada kondisi bilingualisme ini ranah pemakaian bahasa minoritas sangat terbatas, misalnya hanya pada lingkungan keluarga. (3) Migrasi juga menyebabkan daerah target menjadi lebih heterogen. Dengan kata lain, migrasi dapat menyebabkan bertambahnya jumlah bahasa dalam satu ekologi bahasa. 3. Strategi untuk melestarikan bahasa lokal pada daerah/masyarakat urban Pertanyaan yang muncul kemudian adalah bagaimana cara mempertahankan bahasabahasa yang terdapat dalam ekologi bahasa di daerah urban tersebut? Strategi apa yang dapat diterapkan untuk mempertahankan keberagaman bahasa tersebut? Teori ekologi bahasa memandang bahwa (1) tujuan pemertahanan bahasa adalah untuk menjaga keberagaman bahasa, tidak hanya mempertahankan satu bahasa (Mühlhäusler 1996:322); (2) hubungan fungsional antarbahasa-bahasa menjadi perhatian utama. Ekologi bahasa didefinisikan sebagai kajian interaksi antara suatu bahasa dan lingkungannya (Mühlhäusler 2002:375). Mühlhäusler (2002:386) menyebutkan bahwa tujuan utama perencanaan ekologi bahasa adalah untuk meningkatkan struktur keragaman yang dapat diterapkan dalam subdomain sebagai berikut.  Mempertahankan bahasa-bahasa minoritas dalam ekologi, tidak hanya mempertahankan bahasa mayoritas yang paling dominan digunakan dalam ekologi.  Menawarkan sejumlah bahasa untuk dipelajari oleh pembelajar bahasa kedua, tidak hanya berfokus pada satu bahasa.  Melibatkan penutur asli serta non-penutur asli dalam program revitalisasi bahasa. Selanjutnya, setiap bahasa memiliki sistem ekologinya masing-masing. Sistem ekologi yang mendukung suatu bahasa belum tentu dapat mendukung bahasa lain (Mühlhäusler 2002: 376). Strategi yang dapat diterapkan untuk tiap-tiap daerah urban tidaklah sama. Daerah urban harus dibedakan menjadi dua, daerah urban yang relatif homogen dan daerah urban yang heterogen. Selain itu, strategi pemertahanan bahasa lokal juga disesuaikan dengan vitalitas

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bahasa itu sendiri. Contoh strategi pemertahanan bahasa lokal di daerah urban dipaparkan sebagai berikut. a) Strategi untuk daerah urban yang relatif homogen Ekologi bahasa yang dicontohkan di sini adalah ekologi bahasa Bali. Bahasa Bali adalah satu-satunya bahasa daerah asli yang dituturkan di Bali. Status vitalitas bahasa Bali adalah bahasa yang berkembang (developing language). Bahasa ini sudah memiliki sistem tulis dan sudah diajarkan di sekolah selama puluhan tahun. Bahasa Bali masih digunakan secara luas dalam komunikasi sehari-hari oleh mayoritas orang Bali. Di daerah perkotaan, selain bahasa Bali, bahasa yang juga dituturkan adalah bahasa Indonesia dan bahasa daerah yang berasal dari daerah asal imigran. Dalam seting homogen seperti ini, mengajarkan bahasa Bali sebagai satu-satunya bahasa daerah yang diajarkan di sekolah tidak akan merusak ekologi bahasa di daerah ini. Sebagai bahasa yang berkembang, cara lain untuk mempertahankan bahasa Bali adalah untuk mendorong para orang tua yang masih berusia muda untuk menggunakan bahasa Bali di rumah dengan dan di lingkungan anak-anak. Selain pemertahanan, peningkatan prestise bahasa Bali dapat dilakukan dengan menerbitkan karya sastra, seperti puisi, cerita pendek, cerita rakyat, serta permainan. b) Strategi untuk daerah urban yang heterogen Contoh ekologi bahasa dengan seting heterogen yang dicontohkan di sini adalah ekologi bahasa Tajio, satu bahasa daerah di Sulawesi Tengah. Tajio adalah bahasa dengan status tergeser (shifting language). Ia belum memiliki sistem tulis dan tidak diajarkan di sekolah. Tajio hidup dalam ekologi bahasa bersama dengan bahasa daerah lain, yaitu bahasa Pendau, Kaili, Bugis, serta bahasa Bali dan Jawa di daerah transmigrasi. Bahasa Indonesia berfungsi sebagai lingua franca untuk interaksi antara penduduk lokal Sulawesi dan imigran yang berasal dari luar Sulawesi. Sementara itu, bahasa Kaili digunakan sebagai bahasa utama dalam komunikasi di antara penduduk lokal Sulawesi. Dalam hal ini, bahasa Tajio memiliki peran yang sangat terbatas, hanya digunakan di antara penutur bahasa Tajio. Dilihat dari fungsi tiap-tiap bahasa daerah dalam komunitas tutur tersebut, bahasa yang dapat dipilih untuk diajarkan di sekolah adalah bahasa Kaili. Alasannya adalah karena bahasa ini memiliki kedudukan yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan bahasa daerah lainnya. Akan tetapi, harus diingat bahwa hanya mengajarkan satu bahasa daerah di sekolah tidak mencerminkan ekologi bahasa di daerah tersebut. Dengan kata lain, pemertahanan semua bahasa dalam ekologi tersebut seharusnya dilakukan dengan mengajarkan semua bahasa daerah yang ada (cf. Mühlhäusler 1996). Akan tetapi, dilihat dari status vitalitasnya, bahasa Tajio dapat dipertahankan dengan cara mengembangkan komunitas tutur untuk mendukung, menggunakan, dan melindungi bahasa tersebut secara eksklusif. Mendorong para orang tua untuk menggunakan bahasa daerah di rumah, dengan dan di sekitar generasi muda. Selanjutnya, upaya pemertahanan bahasa Bali dan bahasa Jawa di wilayah ekologi bahasa Tajio tentunya berbeda dengan cara mempertahankan bahasa Bali di Bali atau bahasa Jawa di Jawa. Karena keduanya hanya digunakan dalam komunitas tutur Bali/Jawa yang sangat terbatas, upaya pemertahanannya adalah dengan mengharapkan para orang tua untuk menggunakan bahasa daerah dan menciptakan domain penggunaan bahasa daerah di komunitas mereka. Tujuannya adalah untuk memberikan kesempatan kepada anak-anak mereka untuk menggunakan bahasa daerah. Domain-domain yang dimaksud bisa berupa rumah tangga, pusat komunitas, tempat ibadah, dsb. 4. Simpulan Migrasi menyebabkan (1) adanya pergeseran bahasa, peralihan dari bahasa daerah ke bahasa mayoritas/lingua franca. Peralihan ke bahasa mayoritas mengakibatkan melemahnya status bahasa minoritas yang pada akhirnya dapat menyebabkan kepunahan bahasa. Misalnya,

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peran penting bahasa Indonesia sebagai lingua franca di daerah urban dapat menyebabkan terpinggirkannya bahkan punahnya bahasa daerah. (2) Terjadinya fenomena bilingualisme: imigran tidak hanya menguasai bahasa ibu mereka, tapi juga menguasai bahasa mayoritas. Akan tetapi, pada kondisi bilingualisme ini ranah pemakaian bahasa minoritas sangat terbatas, misalnya hanya pada lingkungan keluarga. (3) Migrasi juga menyebabkan daerah target menjadi lebih heterogen. Dengan kata lain, migrasi dapat menyebabkan bertambahnya jumlah bahasa dalam satu ekologi bahasa. Strategi yang dapat diterapkan untuk tiap-tiap daerah urban tidaklah sama. Daerah urban harus dibedakan menjadi dua, daerah urban yang relatif homogen dan daerah urban yang heterogen. Selain itu, strategi pemertahanan bahasa lokal juga dapat disesuaikan dengan vitalitas bahasa itu sendiri.

Daftar Pustaka Anderbeck, Karl. 2013. (submitted for publication in Pacific Linguistics’ ICAL 2012 Proceedings, Vol. 2: Language Documentation and cultural practices in the Austronesian world). Grosjean, F. 1982. Life with Two Languages: An Introduction to Bilingualism. Cambridge, Massachussetts, and London, England: Harvard University Press. Himmelmann, Nikolaus. 2010. “Language Endangerment Scenarios: A Case Study from Northern Central Sulawesi”. In Florey, Margaret (Ed), Endangered Languages of Austronesia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2013. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Mühlhäusler, Peter. 1996. Linguistic Ecology. London: Routledge. Mühlhäusler, Peter. 2002. “Ecology of Languages”. In Kaplan, Robert B. (Ed), The Oxford Handbook of Applied Linguistics (pp. ). ford: ford ni ersity Press. Rehner, Jon et.al. (Eds). 1999. Revitalizing Indigenous Languages. Arizona: Flagstaff. Resosudarmo, Budy & Daniel Suryadarma. 2011. The effect of childhood migration on human capital accumulation: evidence from rural-urban migrants in Indonesia. (Working Papers in Trade and Development). Canberra: Australian National University. Sally Boyd & Paula Andersson. 1991. “Linguistic Change Among Bilingual Speakers of Finnish and American English in Sweden – Background and Some Tentati e Findings”. In Gothenburg Papers in Theoretical Linguistics 63. Göteborgs University Sweden. Sofiah, Nia Kurnia. 2011. “Pemakaian Bahasa dalam Keluarga dengan rang Tua Berbeda Suku (Sebuah Studi Kasus)“. In Prociding on The 5th International Conference on Indonesian Studies. FIB Universitas Indonesia. https://icssis.files.wordpress.com/2012/ 05/1819072011_24.pdf. Steinhauer Hein. 1994. “The Indonesian language situation and linguistics; Prospects and possibilities”. In Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 150 Volumes of Bijdragen; A Backward Glimpse and a Forward Glimpse 150 (1994), no: 4, Leiden, 755-784. http://www.kitlv-journals.nl.

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Peranan Analisis Medan Makna (Semantic Field) dalam Pengayaan Kosakata N.K. Mirahayuni, Universitas 17 Agustus 1945 Surabaya Susie Chrismalia Garnida, Universitas 17 Agustus 1945 Surabaya

Abstrak Makalah ini membahas manfaat analisis linguistik tentang konsep medan makna dan analisis kohesi dalam membantu pengayaan kosakata pembelajar bahasa. Makalah ini didasarkan atas lima penelitian terpisah namun sejenis yang dilakukan oleh lima mahasiswa S1 UNTAG Surabaya untuk tugas akhir mereka tentang tipe-tipe relasi semantik. Sumber data dalam kelima penelitian tersebut adalah teks fiksi dan non-fiksi. Fokus dari makalah ini adalah bagaimana analisis semantik seperti ini membantu pembelajar bahasa memperluas dan memperkaya jejaring kosakata mereka bersamaan dengan kegiatan membaca ataupun analisis karya sastra. Makalah ini menunjukkan bahwa, melalui satu kata kunci, seorang pembelajar bahasa dapat membangun satu jejaring (network) kosakata yang luas dan kompleks, dengan masing-masing butir kosakata menunjukkan relasi semantik tertentu dengan kata kuncinya dan juga konteks pemakaiannya. Makalah ini juga membahas langkah-langkah analisis dan bagaimana masingmasing langkah ini membantu pengayaan kosakata secara bertahap dan praktis. Kata kunci: medan makna, tipe-tipe relasi semantis, pengayaan kosakata pembelajar bahasa

1. Pendahuluan Pertumbuhan penguasaan kosakata dalam konteks amatlah mendasar khususnya bagi pembelajar bahasa asing.Terlebih bagi pembelajar di bidang kebahasaan dan kesastraan, kebutuhan penguasaan kosakata beserta rentang nuansa makna denotatif dan metaforik semakin meningkat untuk dapat memahami kekayaan makna diksi naskah-naskah secara lebih lengkap. Seorang pembelajar bahasa Inggris, misalnya, akan menghadapi hampir setengah juta kata dalam kamus Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, selain begitu banyak istilah teknis yang hanya ada dalam kamus khusus untuk bidang-bidang tertentu dan neologisme terbaru, termasuk juga perubahan bentuk kata benda dan kata kerja dan kata-kata jadian (derivasi) dari kata-kata yang ada dalam kamus tersebut (Denning, et al., 2007:3). Keuntungan dari kosakata yang amat besar ini adalah tingkat kecermatan dan rentang pilihan kata yang ada dalam bahasa tersebut. Dalam bahasa Inggris terdapat banyak kata yang bersinonim yang perbedaan nuansa maknanya amat tipis. Akan tetapi, kosakata yang luarbiasa besar jumlahnya ini dapat juga memberi kerugian, khususnya ketika seorang pembelajar bahasa harus menggunakan kamus untuk mencari kata yang tidak diketahuinya. Suatu bahasa dengan kosakata yang besar seperti bahasa Inggris dapat menjadi beban yang besar ketika seseorang memulai untuk mempelajari kata-kata dan maknanya. Apakah jumlah kosakata ini akan menjadi keuntungan atau kerugian bagi seseorang, yang jelas, seseorang yang memiliki penguasaan kosakata yang luas dapat mengatakan sesuatu dengan cara-cara yang menyiratkan perbedaan halus (Ibid., hlm. 4). Selain itu, penguasaan kosakata yang memadai dapat menunjukkan apakah seseorang adalah seorang pembicara yang baik atau membosankan, dan apakah ia berhasil atau gagal dalam suatu tes sikap dan wawancara mencari pekerjaan. Dalam hal ini, keberhasilan ataupun kegagalan seringkali disebabkan oleh seberapa memadai kemampuan kita untuk berbicara, memahami dan membaca dan menulis. Metode dan strategi belajar telah dipromosikan demi peningkatan penguasaan kosakata bagi pembelajar, baik penguasaan kata demi kata dalam lembar aktivitas (misalnya, Molinsky dan Bliss, 2007; Hunter dkk., 2005) ) dengan atau tanpa konteks pemakaiannya (misalnya, seri English Vocabulary in Use oleh McCarthy dan O’Dell (1994, 1999). Berbagai situs online menyediakan sarana belajar kosakata, seperti misalnya Wordnet, Framenet Data, dan Visuword.com. Situs Wordnet, misalnya, dirancang sebagai sistem

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pengacuan leksikal secara online berdasarkan teori psikolinguistik tentang daya ingatan leksikal manusia. Dalam sistem ini, butir-butir leksikal yang dari kategori-kategori leksikal nomina, verba dan adjektiva yang menunjukkan satu konsep leksikal dirancang dalam suatu relasi sinonim, sementara tipe relasi semantis lainnya dihubungkan dengan kelompok sinonim tersebut (Miller, dkk., 1993:1). Dalam tulisan-tulisan terpisah, Miller (1993), Fellbaum (1993), Fellbaum dkk. (1993), Beckwith dkk. (1993) menjelaskan prinsip kerja dan rancangan sistem Wordnet dan implementasinya sebagai piranti lunak pencari data. Situs Framenet, misalnya, menyediakan secara online Framenet Index of Lexical Unit (http://framenet.icsi.berkeley.edu/findupal/reading_activity) berupa daftar butir leksikal beserta definisi, ilustrasi pemakaian baik secara literal maupun ungkapan serupa yang lebih metaforik. Melalui situs seperti http://www.visuword.com, tersedia link dengan berbagai situs kamus sinonim, kamus thesaurus, kamus kosakata dan kamus elektronis. Kesemuanya diharapkan dapat mendorong penguasaan kosakata secara cepat, praktis, akurat dan tepatguna. Makalah ini membahas bagaimana analisis medan makna, khususnya analisis tipe-tipe hubungan makna (semantic relations) dapat membantu bukan saja penguasaan kosakata dalam naskah, hubungan semantik antar kata, terlebih kekayaan makna dan tujuan pemilihan diksi tertentu. Makalah ini bertolak dari hasil-hasil penelitian yang dilakukan beberapa mahasiswa di bidang linguistik tentang hubungan semantik (semantic relations) yang bertopik seputar konsep tentang medan makna (semantic field) dan kohesi dalam naskah-naskah fiksi dan non-fiksi. Dalam makalah ini dibahas bagaimana analisis klasifikasi hubungan-hubungan semantik bukan saja membantu pembelajar bahasa mengidentifikasi tipe hubungan semantik tertentu, melainkan juga lebih jauh dapat mengungkap hubungan antara pilihan tipe semantik relations tertentu dan fungsinya dalam naskah. Selanjutnya, dibahas juga bagaimana nuansa dan tipe makna itu membentuk suatu jejaring (network) pengayaan kosakata. Hubungan atau relasi semantik (semantic relations) adalah salah satu konsep dasar pemerian hubungan makna antar kata atau kelompok kata dalam bidang ilmu semantik. Dalam konsep ini, makna kata dapat diidentifikasikan bukan berdasarkan fitur makna bawaan (innate semantic features), melainkan berdasarkan hubungan tertentu dengan kata yang lain, misalnya, hubungan sinonim, antonim, polisemi dan kolokasi (cf. Halliday dan Hasan, 1976; Kreidler, 1997). Pengetahuan tentang hubungan makna kata seperti ini secara kuantitatif dan kualitatif menambah penguasaan kosakata bagi pembelajar bahasa. Selanjutnya, ketika kata-kata yang diidentifikasikan adalah bagian dari satu naskah utuh yang memiliki tema atau pesan tertentu, maka pemerian tipe makna kata dapat dimanfaatkan untuk memahami lebih lanjut apa fungsi pilihan kata dengan tipe hubungan makna tertentu terhadap inti pesan atau tema yang hendak disampaikan. Makalah ini mencoba membahas dua pertanyaan pokok: (1) apa tipe relasi semantik yang ditemukan dan (2) apa fungsi pilihan tipe relasi semantik tertentu terhadap isi pesan teks. Pembahasan ini diharapkan dapat memberikan gambaran khususnya kepada pembelajar bahasa tentang memanfaatkan analisis linguistik untuk pengayaan kosakata, dan pemahaman teks. 2. Metode Pembahasan ini mengembangkan hasil penelitian dari lima (5) tugas akhir mahasiswa seputar pemanfaatan konsep relasi semantik dalam memahami hubungan suatu tema dalam teks fiksi dan non-fiksi dengan pilihan kata dan jenis hubungan yang tampak dalam kata-kata yang menjabarkan konsep tema tersebut. Kelima skripsi tersebut adalah: Firdaus Ma’wa (2011, selanjutnya diacu dengan FM), Ayu C. Irnanda (2014, atau ACI), Danang T. Hutomo (2014, atau DTH), Fauzan D. Rahman (2014, atau FDR) danVinessa Ravinda, (2014, atau VR). Kelima skripsi tersebut memiliki keserupaan dalam bidang penelitian, yaitu analisis medan makna (semantic field atau model analisis linguistik sejenis yaitu analisis kohesi leksikal, namun bervariasi pada sumber dan jenis data. Dari pemerian hasil penelitian dalam tugas akhir ini dikembangkan bagaimana analisis linguistik terhadap tipe relasi semantis dapat mengembangkan pemahaman terhadap aspek tema atau isi pesan suatu teks, baik teks fiksi maupun non-fiksi.

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3. Hasil Dari lima penelitian berbeda dapat dideskripsikan hasil-hasil berikut ini. Kelima penelitian tersebut memberikan hasil berupa pemerian tipe-tipe relasi semantis antarkata. Kecuali satu penelitian (FM), keempat penelitian memulai identifikasi dan pemilihan data setelah mengetahui dan menentukan tema dari teks yang menjadi sumber datanya.Tema-tema tersebut adalah leadership atau kepemimpinan (ACI), racism atau rasisme (DTH), survival atau pertahanan hidup (FDR) dan health atau kesehatan (VR).Tema-tema tersebut menjadi kata kunci utama untuk pemilihan data berupa kosakata dalam teks. Sementara FM memulai dengan menentukan beberapa kata kunci berupa nama-nama tokoh utama dan obyek yang sering muncul dalam dua teks cerpen yang dianalisis. ACI menganalisis medan makna dari kata kunci “leadership”. ACI meneliti tipe-tipe relasi semantis dengan kata kunci leadership dalam sebuah buku non-fiksi bertopik manajemen kepemimpinan (Maxwell, 2011). Dari analisis ditemukan 259 repetisi atau perulangan (baik repetisi utuh maupun parsial), 30 sinonim, 135 antonim, 243 hiponim, 6 kata umum, 422 kolokasi. DTH menganalisis medan makna dengan kata kunci “racism”. DTH meneliti tiga tipe relasi semantik (yaitu sinonim, antonim dan hiponim) dari sebuah karya otobiografi berjudul Malcolm X Autobiography (A. Haley) dengan kata kunci racism. Dari hasil analisis ditemukan sejumlah kata dan frasa yang menunjukkan ketiga jenis hubungan semantik di atas, yaitu sinonim (14), antonim (4) dan hiponim (21). FDR menganalisis medan makna dengan kata kunci “survival” . FDR meneliti tipe-tipe relasi semantik verba-verba dengan kata kunci survival dari sebuah novel berjudul The Hunger Games (S. Collins). Dari kata kunci itu diperoleh 77 verba dengan rincian 34 hiponim, 13 sinonim, 21 antonim, and 14 kolokasi. VR menganalisis medan makna dengan kata kunci “health”. VR meneliti tipe-tipe relasi semantik dengan kata kunci “health” dari kata sifat (adjektiva) pada sejumlah iklan produk kosmetik. Hasil analisis terhadap 55 adjektiva ditemukan 20 hiponim, 4 sinonim, 16 antonim, and 15 kolokasi. FM menganalisis medan makna dengan kata kunci tokoh-tokoh utama dalam cerpen. FM meneliti tipe-tipe hubungan kohesif dengan kata-kata kunci berupa tokoh-tokoh utama dalam dua cerpen karya W.S. Maugham, yaitu Mr. Know-All dan The Station. Tipe relasi semantik yang ditemukan yaitu perulangan, sinonim, superordinat, general words, kolokasi, complimentariness, part to part, part to whole, dan proximity. 4. Pembahasan Bagaimana analisis medan makna dan tipe-tipe relasi semantik dapat membantu pengayaan kosakata bagi pembelajar bahasa? Ada empat butir yang dapat dibahas pada kesempatan ini. Pertama, analisis medan makna dan tipe-tipe semantik dilakukan terhadap kata-kata dalam pemakaiannya yang nyata di dalam teks yang dipelajari dalam kelas-kelas membaca ataupun analisis karya sastra. Kelima penelitian yang disebutkan di atas mengambil data dari teks tertulis baik naskah fiksi maupun non-fiksi. Fakta ini membantu pembelajar mengenali hubungan makna kata dalam konteks pemakaiannya. Aplikasinya bagi pembelajar bahasa adalah bahwa pengayaan kosakata ini dapat dilakukan terhadap berbagai jenis naskah dengan tingkat kompleksitas struktur dan informasi yang dapat disesuaikan dengan tingkatan pembelajaran. Model analisis medan makna ini dapat dilakukan secara integratif dengan memanfaatkan materi pembelajaran kelas ketrampilan berbahasa maupun kelas analisis sastra ataupun teks. Kedua, analisis dapat dilakukan dalam secara bertingkat, dimulai dari identifikasi hubungan perulangan, sinonim, antonim, hiponimi dan kolokasi. Analisis dapat dimulai dengan tahapan yang paling mudah, misalnya identifikasi item yang menunjukkan perulangan (repetisi) penuh (misalnya, leadership—leadership) maupun perulangan sebagian (misalnya, leadership—

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lead, leader, leading). Analisis dilanjutkan dengan mencari sinonim. Misalnya, dalam naskah yang diteliti, kata kunci survival bersinonim dengan verba-verba sprint, run, struggle, defend, hurdle, keep moving, gather courage, would live, and stay alive; kata kunci racism bersinonim dengan segregation, humiliation, bigotry, degradation, slavery, dst. Analisis antonim menghasilkan satu set kata dengan makna berlawanan, misalnya dari kata kunci racism ditemukan kata-kata antonim seperti: liberating, respect, integrate; dari kata kunci health ditemukan sejumlah adjektiva dalam iklan produk kosmetik seperti weak, damaged, fragile, coarse, thick, unmanageable, thin, stubborn, dark, pigmented, dull, dry, scaly, harsh, tired, and cracked. Analisis hiponim dengan kata kunci health, misalnya, menghasilkan adjektiva seperti glossing, smooth(-er), soft(-er), luxurious, even, radiant, gorgeous, supple, mild, gentle, beautiful, rich, cool, dewy, delicate, balanced dan luminous. Analisis kolokasi dengan kata kunci health menghasilkan adjektiva seperti silky, shiny, stronger, shinier, natural, age-defying, younger, sparkling, brighter, thick, thin, even-toned, youthful, ageless, dan glowing. Ketiga, analisis dilanjutkan identifikasi yang bersifat struktural, misalnya, jenis kata, bentuk frasa, fungsi dalam kalimat. Misalnya, kata kunci leadership memiliki hubungan semantik tertentu dengan berbagai kata dan frasa seperti repetisi (lead (V), leading (Adj)); sinonim: a winning coach (FN); to gain influence (FV), to invest with authority (FV), have some power and authority (FV), delegate (FV); antonim: to oppress, to beat your peers, shrink their influence down, rarely get it, lack power (FV); kata umum: (FN) the top person, the busiest people,the boss; hiponim: leadership characteristics, leadership ability, a great leader, the top leader (FN) dan kolokasi: organization and team, the desires to innovate (FN); continually growing, traditionally thought of as a top-down activity, empower them to succeed, direct them in their work, pay a price, give up other opportunities, sacrifice some personal goals (FV). Dari kata kunci racism, ditemukan sinonim seperti segregation, humiliation, bigotry, hatred, degradation, lynching, race mixing, slavery (FN), demolished, despised, inveigh(-ed), brainwashed (V), racial (Adj), racist (N); antonim seperti: liberating, respect, integrate; dan hiponim seperti: aristocrat, black, black American, (Atlantic) slave trade, negro community, Negro Integrationists, Negro nationalism, white person, Negro opponents, (galaxy of) Negro writers and artists, white students, Arab league, black race, white folks, Ethiopians, a real Georgia Negro, Negroes of Lansing, nigger, nigger jokes, black neighborhoods, white television audience. Keempat, analisis selanjutnya adalah identifikasi fungsi frasa atau kalimat yang mengandung kata atau frasa tersebut dengan kata kunci. Perulangan penuh, misalnya, dapat menambah kosakata terutama ketika kata kunci muncul sebagai penjelas (modifier) dalam suatu frasa. Pada kata kunci leadership, misalnya, perulangan parsial umumnya mengacu kepada figur atau sosok pemimpin dan tindak kepemimpinan. Sinonim umumnya menambah kosakata tentang tindakan seorang pemimpin. Antonim berupa kosakata yang menunjuk kepada tantangan dan kesulitan yang dialami seorang pemimpin dan karakteristik pemimpin yang buruk. Hiponim berupa kosakata yang mengacu kepada bagian dari kepemimpinan itu sendiri. General words berupa kosakata umum tentang seorang pemimpin. Sementara kolokasi berupa kosakata yang mengacu kepada ciri-ciri kepemimpinan, kegiatan seorang pemimpin, tantangan dan kesulitan yang dihadapi seorang pemimpin. Dari analisis ini diketahui bahwa satu kata kunci (yaitu leadership) menghubungkan kepada sejumlah jenis relasi semantik dan ratusan butir kosakata yang menunjukkan relasi tersebut. Demikian juga dari kata kunci racism, misalnya, ditemukan bahwa kata-kata yang menunjukkan relasi makna hiponim mengacu kepada kelompok orang tertentu seperti black, white, American; relasi sinonim menunjuk kepada tindakan rasisme yang berhubungan dengan penghinaan, segregasi, ketidaktersediaan pekerjaan dan yang serupa; relasi antonim mengacu kepada makna lawan dari rasisme seperti independent, respect or liberate. Dari kata kunci survival, ditemukan sejumlah kata kerja yang menunjuk kepada tindakan untuk bertahan hidup baik dalam bentuk sinonim (sprint, run, struggle, defend, survived, hurdle, keep moving), antonim (deteriorate, die, suffer, suffocate, sends a searing pain, trembling, have not yet had the courage, can’t tolerate, destroyed, exhausted, fall, dying,

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banish), hiponim (grapple, attack, protect, hidden, fight, guarded, competing, hunting, shot, scramble, flee, extinguished, avoid, dodge, cover, face, treat, recovering, heal, escape) dan kolokasi (gasping for air, break, won the games, letting me go, had enough to eat). Dari analisis terhadap tokoh utama dalam cerpen, ditemukan bahwa tokoh bernama Mr. Warburton diacu dengan berbagai sebutan yang berbeda-beda seperti the Resident, George, the (good) master, the kind of jungle traveller, tuan, a colonial, a white man, a young man, a rich young man, a good fellow, old man, a gentleman, a young fool, a capable fellow, the devil, the old devil, yang menunjukkan berbagai peran dari tokoh tersebut dalam cerita. Sementara sebuah bungalow tempat kerja Mr. Warburton diacu dalam cerita dengan berbagai bentuk: bungalow, piles, a long living room, a broad verandah, two bedrooms, the fort, room, the dinning room, the sitting room, the office, sitting room, house, the place. Investigasi lanjutan terhadap makna masing-masing butir leksikal dan variasi pemakaiannya dalam konteks akan menambah keluasan pengetahuan pembelajar bahasa tentang makna dan pemakaian kata. Demikianlah investigasi dapat berlanjut terus hingga membentuk satu network kosakata pembelajar. 5. Simpulan Penelitian-penelitian tentang analisis medan makna dan tipe-tipe hubungan semantik antarkata dengan sumber data berupa naskah fiksi dan non-fiksi dapat membantu pembelajar bahasa dalam usaha pengayaan kosakata melalui pemerian tipe-tipe hubungan semantik antara satu kata kunci dengan sejumlah kata-kata yang ditemukan dalam teks. Dari satu kata kunci dapat ditemukan sejumlah besar kata atau frasa dengan hubungan semantik tertentu dalam konteks pemakaiannya. Pemerian tipe hubungan semantik juga menyatakan hubungan fungsional antara butir leksikal dengan kata kuncinya. Manfaat dari analisis ini adalah pengayaan kosakata bagi pembelajar bahasa melalui pembentukan satu jejaring atau network kosakata dengan pemahaman akan nuansa makna dan pemakaian dalam konteksnya. Pustaka acuan Ayu Citra Irnanda. 2014. A lexical cohesion analysis of the expressions of leadership used in John C. Maxwell’s The 3600 leader: Developing your influence from anywhere in the organization. Skripsi S1. Jurusan Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas 17 Agustus 1945 Surabaya. Beckwith, R., Miller, G.A., dan Tengi, R. 1993. Design and implementation of the WordNet lexical database and searching software. Diakses dari http://www.wordnetcode.princeton.edu/ 5papers.pdf (Tanggal akses: 18 Mei 2014). Danang Tri Hutomo, 2014. A lexical relation analysis of the expressions of racism in Alex Haley’s Malcolm X Autobiography. Skripsi S1. Jurusan Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas 17 Agustus 1945 Surabaya. Denning, K., Kessler, B., dan Leben, William R. 2007. English Vocabulary Elements. Edisi Kedua. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Fauzan D. Rahman, 2014.A Semantic field analysis of “verbs of survival” found in Suzanne Collins’s The Hunger Games. Skripsi S1. Jurusan Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas 17 Agustus 1945 Surabaya. Firdaus Ma’wa. 2011. An analysis of lexical cohesion in two short stories of W. Somerset Maugham entitled Mr. Know-All and The Outstation. Skripsi S1. Jurusan Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas 17 Agustus 1945 Surabaya. Fellbaum, C. 1993. English verbs as a semantic net. Diakses dari (http://www.wordnetcode. princeton.edu/5papers.pdf (Tanggal akses: 18 Mei 2014). _______, Gross, D., dan Katherine Miller, K. 1993. Adjectives in WordNet. Diakses dari http:// www.wordnetcode.princeton.edu/5papers.pdf (Tanggal akses: 18 Mei 2014) Framenet Data. Diakses dari https://framenet.icsi.berkeley.edu/fndrupal/index.php?q=frame_report &name =Reading_activity (Tanggall akses: 18 Mei 2014) Halliday, M.A.K. dan Hasan, R., 1976. Cohesion in English. Harlow, Essex: Longman.

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Hunter, C., Livingstone, I. L., Loeffelbein, B., Miller, P., Thurston, C.M., Zeinert, K., 2005. Games for English and Language Arts. Edisi Ketiga. Colorado: Cottonwood Press. Kreidler, M. 1998. Introducing English Semantics. London; Routledge. McCarthy, M. dan O’Dell, F., 1999. English Vocabulary in Use-Elementary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. _______1994. English Vocabulary in Use-Upper Intermediate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Miller, G.A. 1993. Nouns in WordNet: a lexical inheritance system. Diakses dari http://www. wordnetcode.princeton.edu/5papers.pdf (Tanggal akses: 18 Mei 2014). _______, Beckwith, R., Christiane Fellbaum, C., Gross, D., dan Miller, K. 1993. Introduction to WordNet: an on-line lexical database. Diakses dari (http://www.wordnetcode. princeton.edu/5papers.pdf (Tanggall akses: 18 Mei 2014) Molinsky, Steven J. dan Bliss, Bill. 1997. Handbook of Vocabulary Teaching Strategies. Englewood Cliff: Prentice Hall. (format pdf.) Synonym dictionary. Diakses dari http://www.visuword.com (Tanggal akses: 18 Mei 2014). Vinessa Ravinda, 2014. A semantic field analysis of “adjectives of health” used in cosmetic product advertisements. Skripsi S1. Jurusan Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas 17 Agustus 1945 Surabaya.

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The notion of ‘urban’ revisited: Investigating the contexts and connotations of some ‘urban’ related terms Masaaki Ogura, The University of Tokyo

Abstract Human history can be characterized by a struggle to lead better lives, which more or less has been connected with eagerness to develop cities. Some people enjoy the very urbanized life, while others do not. Some prefer to live in urban areas and others do not. There are many who suffer from impoverished lives though they want to live in prosperity. It is thus worth discussing what urban means. This study investigates how the words urban, city, and related terms are likely to be understood and defined and what connotations they have. The study is based on scrutinizing example sentences in dictionaries of English and attested examples from corpora and other resources. Keywords: city, connotation, definition, dictionary, suburb, urban

1. City in this century In this century, the world is undergoing drastic changes in many aspects, including commerce, transportation, culture, and economics. The development of these human activities has always been accompanied by the development of cities. Urbanization, which in Europe “gradually spread from Southeast Europe around 700 B.C. across the whole continent” (Antrop, 2004: 9), has given birth to another form of culture and life. There are diverse types of city in this world with different characteristics, different cultures and different languages. With regard to the relationship between culture and language, it is highly important to consider what cultural aspects are represented by language. Thus, when the nature of a city is discussed, it is worth examining what connotations the word city can have, since this word may reflect how the notion of a city is accepted in diverse communities. This paper briefly reviews how city is described in some English dictionaries and how it is used, referring to attested examples from corpora. Section Two goes over definitions of this word back to the 18th century. Section Three looks at definitions in some English dictionaries today and investigates this word in terms of what kind of adjectives this word collocates with. 2. City in the 18th-century dictionaries Before delving into the complex meaning of the word city, it is worth discussing how this word has been defined the past. Here, some 18th century dictionaries are consulted. Samuel Johnson, in his Dictionary of the English Language 8th (1786), defines this word as follows: 1. A large collection of houses and inhabitants. 2. [In the English law] A town corporate, that hath a bishop and a cathedral church. 3. The inhabitants of a certain city, as distinguished from other subjects. His definition gives us a view that the term was associated with its population and also with the central function of administration. The definition seems to have been provided from his experience in England, but this notion partly holds in our age, which is discussed later. John Walker (1791), possibly having referred to Johnson, gives the following definition as “A large collection of houses and inhabitants; a town corporate, that hath a bishop; the inhabitants of a city” (Walker 1791). Both Johnson and Walker mentioned the word bishop in their definitions, which reflects political aspects of the use of the word city at that time. This type of definition suggests that city served as central to politics. In what follows, some definitions in English dictionaries are overviewed.

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3. City with various meanings 3.1. Definitions of city in English dictionaries In the above section, we have observed the basic definition of city in 18th-century English dictionaries. Here, some differences in definitions between those dictionaries and ones in our age are examined. American Heritage English Dictionary (online) defines this word as “A center of population, commerce and culture; a town of significant size and importance,” while Macmillan Dictionary (online) describes it as “a large important town” in the same way as Oxford Dictionaries (online) does. These three dictionaries are more or less similar in that they incorporate importance into their definitions of city. But these definitions slightly differ from each other. While American Heritage English Dictionary refers to cultural aspects of this word, Macmillan and Oxford emphasize political aspects as Johnson and Walker did. In any case, these definitions do not seem to provide insight into how the notion of city can be interpreted. The next subsection investigates corpora and reveals various aspects of city which are not included in dictionaries as definitions. 3.2 Combination with adjectives in COCA corpus In this subsection, the combination of city with adjectives is addressed in order to describe what kinds connotations and contexts this word can bear. The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) reveals that the word city frequently collocates with adjectives such as big, inner, and new. Typical pairings of city with adjectives are as follows: I've even said to him,' OK, you want to live in a bigger city, great. Let's work through this,' " Martins said. "' During a course of a season, you're home, on average, 60 nights. So if you want to live in a bigger city, go buy a place in a big city and live there in the offseason.' (USA Today, 2012) He wanted to know how I knew Felicia, he wanted to know what I was doing. I told him I was an architect, working on a project to design a new city, on a small scale, on an island. (Kyra, 2008) He looked up from what he was doing, and with a low snort, he explained, " It's a project of theirs. A city. A new city built with all the new technologies. New magic. Whatever you want to call it. " (Baffalo Wolf, 2003) As these above examples show, the word city, collocating with big or new, seems to entail the notions of success, artificiality and opportunity, and thus to be used with success-oriented concepts. Plus, what is important here in considering the notion of a city is to see how the word suburb is used, because a city is not something that exists by itself, but something that should be considered in relation to its surroundings. Though the above examples, on the surface, show some relationship between potential happiness and living in cities, there has been much debate about the merits of living in the city versus in the suburbs (E. Adams, 1992: 353). In an investigation of the word city in terms of its connections with adjectives, the COCA shows some examples of suburb and the adjectives it often takes. A decade ago, Whitefield, a remote suburb of Bangalore, made headlines on those rare occasions when gangs of armed bandits burst into homes at night. (TIME, 2005) This usage of remote is well defined in Oxford Dictionaries (online) as “an area where people live that is outside the centre of a city.” AHD also defines suburb in terms of distance from a large city as in “A usually residential area or community outlying a city.” In addition, this word is often combined with the notion of middle-class as in

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The school is situated in a middle-class suburb of a major west coast Canadian city. (Physical Educator, 2006) She got out of the car, went up to her room, sat on the floor, filed her nails, screamed an obscenity, dialed David's number, hung up after two rings, screamed again, changed into shorts and sneakers, and jogged three miles to the teacher's house in a middle-class suburb of St. Paul. (Esquire, 2009) In addition, as suggested in the middle-class examples, this word can be modified by low-rent and other terms related to social class: In a sun-baked, low-rent suburb of the City of Angels, she was found on a Sunday morning. (CBS News, 1998) Then we're out of it, onto streets with bigger houses, then into a modest suburb. (For The Water, 2011) Looking at these examples can lead to the perception that suburb can take on some meaning related to not being rich. The word, however, sometimes can carry adjectives related to wealth before it. He claims to live in a posh suburb with a car and a job. (CS Monitor, 2011) I talked to a business-man in a rich suburb that spends much more money on education than the cities. (Essebce, 1992). From these examples alone, the notions of city, urbanization or suburbs are so intricate that they can have a variety of connotations and thus cannot be defined in a clear-cut way. 3.3 Examples in GloWbe So far, we have discussed some usages of the words city or suburb in COCA. Here in this subsection, we are going to see varieties of usages of city and suburbs in the Corpus of Global Web-Based English (GloWbe). Looking at the following examples from this corpus suggests that the word suburbs might be a notion which is defined in relation to some kind of big, central city. I Have lived 4 years here 1 year in Dumaguete and 3 years here in Tagaytay. Before I came here I lived in one of the suburbs of London. My wife comes from Romblon. I felt as safe in Romblon as in my home in the suburbs of London. (GlowBe, Philippines: General) There were reports of heavy fighting in several suburbs of Aleppo over the weekend, as well as battles between militants and the armed forces in the capital. On Saturday, the Syrian Army's elite Fourth Division, commanded by President Assad's brother, led a counterattack on the opposition fighters in the Damascus suburbs of Barzeh and Mezzeh. (GlowBe, India: General) From this, it can be said that just as the word city has various connotations, so do the meanings of the word suburbs which can vary since the meaning of this term seems to be determined in relation to the meaning that city has in a particular context. Of course, the basic meaning of suburb can be “an outlying district of a city, especially a residential one” as Oxford Dictionaries defines. The examples of city and suburb cited here tell us that the meanings of these words highly depend on contexts, and words in general are so much context-bound that they are sometimes too difficult to be accommodated in dictionaries.

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4. Conclusion This paper has discussed how the word city and one of the words related to cities, suburbs, are used and has demonstrated the connotations that these two words can have. It is concluded here that the notion of city is complex and can vary depending on the broader context. Thus, it should be noted that when we discuss city, it is necessary to keep various cultures and communities in mind rather than relying on the sole image that we intuitively and empirically have based only on the context that one has been familiar with.

References A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and the Expositor of the English Language, 1st edition. 1791. London. A Dictionary of the English Language, 8th edition. 1785. London. American Heritage Dictionary. Available at http://www.ahdictionary.com. (Accessed 4 July 2014). Antrop, M. 2004. Landscape Change and the Urbanization Process in Europe. Landscape and Urban Planning, 67 (1-4), 9-26. E. Adams, Richard. 1992. Is Hapiness a Home in the Suburbs?: The Influence of Urban Versus Suburbian Neighborhood on Psychological Health. Journal of Community Psychology, 20 (4), 353-372. Macmillan Dictionary. Available at http://www.macmillandictionary.com. (Accessed 4 July 2014). Oxford Dictionaries. Available at http://www.oxforddictionaries.com. (Accessed 4 July 2014).

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Reflection of Madurese Culture in a Writing Class of English Department In Trunojoyo University Madura Zakiyatul Mufidah, University of Trunojoyo Madura

Abstract The starting point of this present paper is the observation that the culture, values and way of thinking of people can be seen from the language they use both intentionally or unintentionally. The study of language and culture has shown that through language we can frequently reflect the cultural values of certain community as well as its social and economic background. This paper focuses on the way in which written expression in a writing class reflects the cultural values of Madurese university students in Madura. Being asked by certain questions as the guidelines, some students are instructed to narrate their answers by writing a narrative paragraph which describes their personal views and belief. From their writing paper, the researcher has found some finding such as the close relationship between religious values and their future plan as well as how they define and draw their life and other findings which reflect their cultural values as Madurese who take higher education. Keywords: Language, Madurese Culture, Religious Spirit, Writing Expression

1. Introduction One of effective ways to express our thinking and personality is through language. Language can communicate both implisit and explicit ideas. It has not only grammatical meaning but it also brings social meaning (Coupland, 2007). This social meaning then, becomes an interesting and challenging point to be analyzed since it probably reveals what beyond the language itself. Cultural values, norms, religious spirit, social background are those belong to the social meaning of a language. This paper is inspired by written expression of students in the writer’s writing class when they are being asked to write a paragraph about their future dreams. Some expressions such as “Amin”, “Ya Allah”, “InsyaAllah” are easily found in their writing regardless the formal and academic context they engage in. Such expression might seem common and is not really special, but it will be interesting to go deeper beyond the language and expression they use to see the cultural values they have and this will be discussed later. Analyzing Madurese culture cannot be a apart from the geographical aspect of its island. Although this island belongs to the East Java province but it is frequently called as “outside Java” since its culture, characteristics and values are obviously different from the Javaneses’. Clearly, Madurese has their own language which completely different from Javanese language, so it becomes one of the reason why Madurese is often excluded from Java. Madurese becomes a single ethnic which geographically bond with Java Island and has an apparent cultural identity. Rifai (2007) states that characteristics are not always seen, but it bases behaviour, attitude, speech, thought, determination that will somehow appear within social interaction. The strong characters of Madurese mostly identified by others as it can signify the identity of Madurese themselves. In a social life, Madurese is often underestimated and considered as a group from different class or stratification, this is proven by many humor or anecdote which ridicule Madurese. However, this paper aims to explore the cultural identity and values of Madurese University Students through the language they use. Language and culture are two inseparable entities as both of them play a special role in the society. One of the most common ways of identifying a person is by his or her language because language is inherently involved in socialization, the social group whose language you speak is an important identity group for you (Spolsky, 1998). Even though there are many identity marker such as food, fashion, physical

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appearance to identify the cultural background of someone, but language can easily communicate the thought in their mind which surely influenced by certain internalized norms and values in their life. The close relationship between language and culture is recognized by many linguists, some of them are Ronald Wardaugh. He claims that the structure of language determines the way in which the speaker of that language view the world (Wardaugh, 2006). Even though the language does nothing but it still influences the people to adopt the world view toward themselves. In line with Wardaugh, Malinowski in Stern (2009) views culture through a somewhat more interactive design, stating that it is a response to need, and believes that what constitutes a culture is its response to three sets of needs: the basic needs of the individual, the instrumental needs of the society and the symbolic and integrative needs of both the individual and society. The recent study by Elmes (2013) claims that the culture of a people finds reflection in the language they employ: because they value certain things and do them in certain way, they come to use their language in ways they reflect what they value and what they do. Therefore, through the use of language both spoken and written it possibly reflects the cultural values of the speaker or writer and how they express it. 2. Reflection of Madurese Culture The relationship between language and culture is shown in the students’ writing telling about their future dreams and their viewpoint in defining success. There are a lot of expressions and word choices used by students that explicitely express their cultural and religious background. This clearly reflects that cultural values determines the way the language users view the world (Wardaugh, 2006). Madurese students have a unique perspective when they narrate about their future dreams and explain the meaning of success. Instead of declaring their personal interest in the future, most of students demonstrate that taking their parents to go to Mecca for hajj become their most priority for their future plan. This might be not surprising since most of Madurese people are moslem and still hold religious values tightly (Rifai, 2007). However, there is a prominent point to be analyzed a bit deeper as they take higher education in which the learning process and socialization usually lead them to be more liberal in thinking; moreover they are taking English study program which aoutomatically introduce them with western culture. The writer presumes that that they will have a dream or future plan such as being an ambassador (eventhough some of them mention so), working in international company, taking higher education in master program, going abroad, or any dream that will related to their education background. But the writer is totally wrong, in this case they still consider the five obligation for moslem which one of them is go to hajj to Mecca. It is very interesting because they keep their religious values to be applied in the next future. Most of students almost mention it as their biggest determination, even when they mention they want to work as lecturer, teacher, ambassador and etc but those are only the ways to make their dream (taking their parents to go to hajj) come true. The data also tells the writer that parents are the one whom they respect to very much, as if parents are their everything. For this explanation, the writer assumes that there are two reasons explaing this fact. Firstly, it can be cultural reason, meaning that their culture has taught them to put parents above all, even when they are growing adult, respecting parents seems not enough untill they can do something for them. One of the strong characters of Madurese people is solidarity and respectability especially to the parents (Rifai, 2007). Parents become the person to be formost honoured. This is reflected in Madurese proverb bhuppa’, bhabhu’, ghuru, rato; that means mother, father, teacher and government. This cultural values have been internalized in the students way of thinking and how they behave towards themselves and their parents. Secondly, it can be religious reason which teach them to honoured parents as their obligation. The argumentation lies on the Islam doctrine stated from Al Quran and the sunnah prophet Muhammad that claim ridhallah fi ridhol walidain means God’s blessing is upon Parents’s blessing. The doctrine has been taught in every Islamic boarding school or in any Informal Islamic Based school. Getting blessing from God is the priciple in achieving

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happiness, that is why every individul considers paents as the key to achieve success. In addition, success does not always mean being rich, prosperous and wealthy; but most students think that success is more than that, it should be able to fulfill psychological and spiritual happiness, in Islamic term it is called berkah. The issue of building happy family is the next category which dominantly appear in students’ writing. Most female students mention that they want to be a great housewife and some male students also express that they want to get a beutiful and great wife. For this data the writer assumes that being married becomes very impotant for them to draw a future plan. In some cultures being married will dtermine the sosial dignity of someone, even it will determine the soacial status of the person. Implicitly, they are quiet afraid of being single because the society where they live in are still consider marriage status as the measurement to look at someone’s social status. My personal argumentation is that being married is one of the tools to be secured socially, it means that it can avoid any negative stereotype or minus perception from the society. Both male and female students seem agree with this since they almost mention “to have a happy family” in the last sentences in their future plan. They don’t want to be insecured socially when they are already estblished economically. Moreover, Rifai (2007) also stated that one of strong characteristics of madurese people is kinship. Madurese people have their own perspective about this. They believe that having as many family as possible is one of the successfulness in life. Therefore, there is also famous saying among madurese ala’-bhala’ which means searching, building, collecting, and enlarging kinship (generally) through marriage. The next major issue appears in students writing is that they want to give benefit for others. Extremely, some of them stated that being rich and prosperous are just useless if they cannot be usefull for their surroundings. From this data, it can be inferred that their perspective in defining success is influenced by cultural and religious values. Culturally, Madurese usually reckon kinship and brotherhood as the main thing. They might bet their everything for solidarity (Rifai, 2007). Meanwhile, it is also religous values which affect the students perspective. Islam teaches its people to be the best by giving benefit to others as stated in Sunnah which says the best people according to Allah are those who give benefit for others. This is obvious to conclude that what the students mostly write about their future plan comprises cultural and religious aspect they perform. The last interesting writing expression to be noticed is that there are some Arabic expression such as Insya’Allah, Amin Ya Allah, Bismillahirrohmanirrohim found in the students writing. This expression explains what kind of religious values they perform. It is not only reflected in an oral expression but it also clearly exposed in their writing expression. They are not reluctant to show their identity as a good Muslim who uses such symbols in any context. This data shows how most of Madurese students like to use such symbols not merely to show their identity but it is a habit, a culture that is already internalized in their mind. So, it will easily reflect when they express it through the writing expression. Although the writer found those issue as the dominant point in the students’s writing, but there are some minor category which also appears in student writing such as they want to be an ambassador, musicial, tour guide, teacher, lecturer, translator and so forth. Again, these future plan are mentioned in the beginning but in the last sentence they usually write that they want to make their parents proud and happy. Based on this data, it can be inferred that most of students are parent-centered. They take their parents as the reason in wahatever they want to do and to be in the next future. This fact explains that parent give a huge contribution to draw the students perspective in defining the success and in deciding their future plan. This situation is once again can be cultural or religious or even both. Obviously, parents are the center agent which influence their pespective and how they view the world. To sum up, some expression used by students which reflect their culture are listed below:

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Table 1: Expressions used by students reflecting their culture Category of Cultural values Category of religious values Minor category To have great husband and To take my parents to mecca To be an ambassador children To have a happy family Will go to Pilgrimage with my To be a tour guide parents To be smart and best mother for To give benefit for others To be a Musician my children To be a housewife To see other best creatures of Enterpreneur Allah To have wife who always cares of Can make an Islamic cartoon and International writer me it’s my way to “berjihad” I am so pity to look at my parents To make my parents happy and To be a Translator work hard proud of me Money is not really important I pray to God everytime asking To be a Journalist for the best, life with wealth and luxury is not important To make my parents happy and Go To Heaven To be a teacher proud of me Can get beautiful woman to be My parent is my everything To be a lecturer my wife Amin Ya Allah Bismillahirrohmanirrohim 3. Conclusion Language and culture have a strong relationship. Language can reflect the culture of people who use the language. And, culture can be identified by the language used by the users. Madurese culture is reflected through the students’ writing about their future plan and how they see the world. Some expressions used by the students explain that their culture is strongly influenced by religious values they hold. It can be seen from the expression they deliver in their writing such as using Arabic terms and symbols, considering life as dedication for parents and others and having obsession to build a happy family.

References Coupland, N. (2007). Style : Language Variation and Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Elmes, d. (2013). The Relationship between Language and Culture. National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya Iternational Exchange and Language Education Center , 11 - 12. Rifai, A. M. (2007). Manusia Madura. Yogyakarta: Pillar. Spolsky, B. (1998). Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stern, H. H. (2009). Fundamental Concepts of language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wardaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics; Fifth Edition. Malden, USA: Blackwell Publishing.

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Bilingual Essay and Its Impact on the Students’ Writing Performance Viqi Ardaniah, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Airlangga

Abstract The present study concerns students’ writing performance. Apart from the grammaticality, awareness of sentence elements is indicated to be the problem in writing a composition or an essay. This can be shown from the students’ essay in which some sentences do not have either subject or predicate or both. One way to improve the students’ writing performance is that the students write the essay in bilingual language, Indonesian and English. In the present study, two groups of writing class of twenty English Department students were treated differently in 6 weeks; one was asked to write bilingual essay whenever the lecturer asked the students to write particular essay and another group was asked to write English essay. The sentence elements written in the essay of both groups were compared. Then, the number of mistake relating to the sentence element was counted. The result of the study has found that writing bilingual essay encourages the students to be aware of the sentence elements, so that confusing sentences due to lack of subject or predicate are not found in the essay. Keywords: Awareness of sentence elements; bilingual essay; writing performance

1. Introduction Writing essay is considered difficult task for the English Department students because they have to write their idea or argument in Standard English language. This means that they must grammatically and systematically write the essay. Grammatically, the sentences must have correct tenses and represent complete thought which should not be incomplete (fragment) or run-on sentence. Systematically, the essay they write must meet the criteria of how to write an essay i.e. talking about one topic, and consisting of at least three paragraphs or five paragraphs commonly (Zemach & Rumisek, 2003). Due to the criteria of writing a good essay, some errors are found in the students’ writing. The errors include punctuation, capitalization, tenses, subject-verb agreement, and the sentence elements that they write. Of these common errors, the sentence element is the most serious problem that should be concerned because it can lead to confusion of the readers to understand the essay. Some sentences do not have verb, or subject or only fragment; some sentences can only be dependent clause; some can be phrases. This indicates that the students’ awareness of sentence elements is poor. The awareness of sentence elements refers to “sensitive and critical response to the use of language by oneself” (Crystal, 2008) which means that the students should be aware of the use of subjects, verbs, objects, complements, adverbials in the sentence. The students’ awareness of sentence element should be increased as early as possible, so that their writing is improved and understood. One way to increase the students’ awareness of sentence elements is write the essay in bilingual language; Indonesia and English. The present study is administered to answer a question, what are the differences of the sentence element in essay writing between those who write the essay in bilingual languages and those who write the essay only in English? 2. Theoretical Framework Teaching writing sentences appropriately is necessary in the class of essay writing because it gives positive effects on student writing for any level. Activities concerning sentence elements will add the student linguistic repertoire (Wolfe, Britt, & Alexander, 2011). Furthermore, the lecturers/teachers should teach sentence structure since writing is developmental process (Pardo, 2006). Knowing sentence elements is very important for the

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students, so that they will not write any confusing sentences which may have no subjects or verbs or both or may be just phrase. There are five functional categories that constitute a clause; Subject, Verb, Object, Complement, and Adverbial. No matter the sentences the students write either simple sentence or multiple sentence, any form of sentence (simple, complex, compound) must represent complete thought or have two categories i.e. Subject and Verb (Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, & Svartvik, 1985; Shertzer 1986). For the simple sentence construction, Quirk et.al. (1985) state that the choice of verb can determine such sentence structures as SVO, SVC, SVA, SVOO, SVOC, and SVOA. The A is for Adverbials; the double O (OO) is for Indirect Object and Direct Object; the C is for Complement. For the complex sentence construction, the sentence consists of only one main clause and has one or more SUBORDINATE clauses which function as the sentence element. For the compound sentence construction, the sentence consists of two or more coordinated main clauses which are commonly linked by the conjuction but, and, yet, or, and so (Meyers, 2005). The importance of teaching sentence element in the class should be facilitated by one good method that can be applied, so that the students’ awareness of sentence elements is increased. The method inlvolves the use of students’ native language i.e. Bahasa Indonesia. Brown (2002) proposed in the principle of language teaching known as “the native language effect”. The use of Bahasa Indonesia in the classroom forces the students to have comparison between Bahasa Indonesia (L1) and English language (L2) (Harmer, 2007). Bahasa Indonesia as the native language of the students will help them to understand the system of the English language. Interferring effects from Bahasa Indonesia to the English language will be noticeable when the students are asked to write the bilingual essay. Interferrence of Bahasa Indonesia does not always cause negative transfer due to the differences between Indonesian and the English language. When the students write Bahasa Indonesia sentence in the essay, they should be aware of the sentence elements. This awareness helps them to realize that one sentence must have clear element e.g. its subject, verb, object, complement, main clause or SUBORDINATE clause. Consequently, once they are asked to write the essay in English, they are aware of the English sentence elements. 3. Method Two classes of essay writing were involved. One class is control group, and another is experimental group. Every two weeks within six weeks the experimental group consisting of twenty students was asked to write essay in bilingual language. There were three types of essay that they had to write. From each essay they wrote, the sentences were analyzed for their elements. If one sentence does not have the main element either Subject or Verb, it will be counted as one mistake. If one sentence is only dependent clause or phrase or one sentence has two or more independent clauses without cordinatio, it will be counted as one mistake. All the mistakes would be counted for its percentage compared to the number of sentences in one essay. The average percentage can be taken after all mistakes in regular class are counted. Then, it was compared to the mistakes in the essay that the students wrote in final examination. Finally, all the results taken from the experimental group will be compared to the results of the control group in which twenty students were asked only to write the essay only in English language. In control group, even though the students did not write the bilingual essay, the lecturer kept reminding them to be aware of the sentences they wrote that the sentence must have complete element especially the subject and the verb. 4. Results and Discussion In the experimental group, the exercise of writing bilingual essay for six weeks has influenced the students’ writing performance. There are thirteen students who successfully reduce the number of sentence element errors. The number of sentence element errors significantly declines. From Table 1, five students did not make any errors in the sentence element of essay writing when they wrote the final exam essay. This result indicates that the

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exercise has made them aware of the sentence elements. They have avoided such mistakes as dependent clauses or phrases (fragment) in their writing. In other words, the sentences they wrote represent complete idea or complete thought all of which consist of Subject and Verb (Zemach & Rumisek, 2003). The sentences in their essay are simple sentences with the constructions of SVO, SVC, SVA, SVOO, SVOC, and SVOA, compound sentences and complex sentences (Quirk et.al.,1985). For the experimental group students, they still have sentence element error in final exam essay. Seven students did not show any progress in their sentence element. The number of error is increased in their essay writing. Most or the errors refer to the sentence construction where there are noun phrases without verbs, compound sentences without cordination or conjunction, and complex sentence in which there is only subordinate clause. It is known that a subordinate clause is incomplete and must be used with a main clause to express a related idea (Shertzer, 1986). Meanwhile, seven students have increased their awareness of sentence elements because they are able to reduce the number of sentence element error which can be seen in the final essay. The sentence element errors found in their essay relate to the sentence without subject and compound sentence without conjunction. That the sentence does not have subject is because the subject of the sentence is preceded by preposition. The presence of preposition before the subject makes the sentence incorrect. Besides, the compound sentences that they wrote do not have conjunction, so the sentences are run-on. However, compound sentences indicate that the students have written sentence elements such as the subject, the verb, the object or the adverbials properly, but they do not put appropriate punctuation where comma is preferred to separate the sentences rather than period. This shows that the students are critical and sensitive enough to sentence elements, but not to punctuations (Crystal,2008). From those errors, their awareness of sentence elements have been embedded to the linguistic repertoire of English language (Wolfe, Britt, & Alexander, 2011).

Experimental Group

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Table 1. The Percentage of Sentence Element Error in Experimental Group and Control Group Average Sentence Control Average Sentence Mistake of Element Group Mistake of Element Sentence Error in Sentence Error in element Final Exam element Final Exam (exp.group) (exp.group) (contr.group) (contr.group) 15,8 37,5 1. 5 4 22 6 2. 26,3 33 13 0 3. 6,3 0 24 4,3 4. 8,25 12 12,6 13,3 5. 7,7 16,7 27,15 0 6. 11,2 33 20 13,6 7. 17,3 33,3 7,75 4,3 8. 15,2 5,2 19 14 9. 4,7 30,7 17,65 10,5 10 7,2 0 17 12,5 11. 20,85 21,4 11 0 12. 7,8 0 20,1 6,25 13. 12,15 0 3 0 14. 16,7 20 2 3,2 15. 22 0 12,6 15 16. 30 26,7 46,2 61,5 17. 19,4 19 17,3 35,2 18. 15,65 27,8 22,5 10,3 19. 0 10 4,35 0 20. 17 0

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The results of experimental group show that bilingual essay which is given as the weekly exercise in the class of essay writing has increased the students’ awareness of sentence elements. The students do not regard the differences of the linguistic system between Bahasa Indonesia and English which possibly lead them to have negative transfer or mistakes. They notice that the sentence of English and Bahasa Indonesia in written or standard form must have subject and verb or represent complete thought. Apart from the fact that the interference of Bahasa Indonesia on English essay writing is salient, the same sentence element between two languages has facilitated them to write, so that the sentences they write have complete element. As Brown (2002) suggests, “the native system will exercise both facilitating and interferring (positive and negative transfer) effects on the production and comprehension of the new language”. In addition, the exercise of bilingual essay has formed good writing habit for the students since the students in any level must be able to write essay in clearly or systematicallyorganized way (Warburton, 2006). This writing habit can simultaneously increase the students’ awareness of sentence element. If the students write bilingual essay, they gain a lot by comparing L1 and L2. The translation that they have through bilingual essay will help the students make a virtue “out of the students’ natural language-processing behaviour”. How well the students understand the sentence elements can be seen from the translation (Harmer, 2007). If the sentence in L1 essay has complete elements, the students will translate the complete element to L2 essay. As a result, such mistakes as noun phrases without verbs, compound sentences without conjunction, and complex sentence in which there is only subordinate clause will not be found in their essay. In the control group, the number of sentence element error varies. Ten students wrote more element sentence errors in final exam essay than in weekly essay. In other words, the number of sentence element error is increased. Six students successfully wrote the final exam essay without sentence element errors and four students have reduced the number of errors that can be seen in their final exam. For the ten students, the errors are various including compound sentences without conjunction, complex sentence where there is only dependent or subrodinate clause, sentence without verbs or only noun phrases, sentence without subject or only prepositional phrase and verb phrase. Compared to the experimental group students who have reduced the number of sentence element error, the sentence element errors in the control group are more various. The students have more opportunities to write incorrect sentences due to lack of sentence elements. In this study, from the comparison between writing perfomance of experimental group students and control group, it is found generally the exercises that require the students to write bilingual esssay have helped the students increase their essay writing perfomance in terms of their awareness of sentence elements. Whenever they write the sentences in the essay, they are aware that they have to express the idea in a complete thought by writing the subject, verb, object and other elements in the sentence clearly. Their awareness of sentence element does not guarantee that all sentences are correct. Those who have some errors wrote complete elements in the compound sentences, but the compound sentences in their essay do not have conjunction. This makes their sentence run-on (Meyers, 2008). On contrary, the control group students are not requested to write bilingual essay whenever they write essay. Moreover, they are asked to concern the sentence elements; therefore, some students can decrease the number of sentence element errors in their essay The students’ sentence construction that is improved for both group is SVO. The number of error for this construction is gradually decreased. They are aware that the sentence needs clear subject either person, thing, or idea being described (Shertzer, 1986) and the subject should not be preceded by any preposition. Another finding in this study is concerned with the number of the students that improved their sentence. The number of students that improved the sentence element in the control group is much more than that in the control group. It indicates that their writing process develops within certain period (Pardo, 2006).

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5. Conclusion Writing bilingual essay has affected the students’ writing performance especially their awareness of sentence elements. Whenever the students write a sentence, they must be aware of the sentence element, so that their sentence can be easily understood by the readers of their essay. In addition, in the experimental group, the type of sentence construction error is more improved than that in the control group. In the other word, in the experimental group the sentence element errors are less various than in the control group. The experimental group has such errors of sentence construction as noun phrases without verbs, compound sentences without cordination or conjunction, and complex sentence in which there is only subordinate clause, while the control group has compound sentences without conjunction, complex sentence where there is only dependent or subrodinate clause, sentence without verbs or only noun phrases, sentence without subject or only prepositional phrase and verb phrase.

References Brown, H. (2002). English Language Teaching in "Post-Method" Era: Toward Better Diognosis, Treatment, and Assessment. In J. Richard, Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice (pp. 9-17). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crystal, D. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics; Sixth Edition. Blackwell. Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Teaching; Fourth Edition. PearsonLongman. Meyers, A. (2005). Gateways to Academic Writing; Effective Sentences, Paragraphs, and Essays. New York: Longman. Pardo, L. S. (2006). The Role of Context in Learning to Teach Writing: What Teacher Educators Need to Know to Suppott Beginning Urban Teachers. Journal of Teacher Education, 378-394. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., & Svartvik, J. (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. New York: Longman. Shertzer, M. D. (1986). The Elements of Grammar. New York: MacMillan. Warburton, N. (2006). The Basics of Essay Writing. London and New York: Routledge. Wolfe, J., Britt, C., & Alexander, K. P. (2011). Teaching the IMRad Genre: Sentence Combining and Pattern Practice Revisited. Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 119-158. Zemach, D., & Rumisek, L. (2003). College Writing from Paragraph to Essay. Macmillan.

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Resistensi Bahasa Jepang; Studi Kasus pada Penamaan Badan Usaha di Tokyo Mulyadi, FIB, UGM

Abstraksi Bahasa Jepang mengalami banyak kontak dengan bahasa asing. Akibat dari kontak tersebut terutama dari hasil kontak kebudayaan, mengakibatkan munculnya berbagai fenomena kebahasaan. Fenomena krbahasaan yang akan dibahas pada makalah ini adalah tentang fenomena kebahasaan sebagai akibat bentuk dominasi bahasa asing terhadap bahasa Jepang serta resistensinya yang tercermin pada penamaan badan usaha di Tokyo. Metode penelitiannya adalah metode deskriptif. Data yang digunakan adalah data kuantitatif, lalu diklasifikasikan menurut cara penulisannya (ortografi), komposisi morfem dilihat asal kategorinya, dan struktur sintaksisnya. Hasil penelitian ini adalah diketahuinya bentuk-bentuk ortografis dan fonologis nama-nama badan usaha dan komposisi atau susunan kata atau morfem pembentuk nama. Secara fonologis pada umumnya mengikuti konstruksi silabel CV, teapi ada beberapa yang mendapatkan afiksasi X di akhir kata (nama), selain itu bila dilihat dari asal kategorinya maka ada yang berasal dari verba, nomina, pronomina, ajektiva, dan bahkan bukan kata penuh yaitu partikel walaupum dalam bentuk yang dilesap. Kata kunci: Dominasi, resistensi, asal-usul

1.Latar Belakang Bahasa Jepang seperti bahasa-bahasa yang lain bukanlah merupakan bahasa yang bebas dari pengaruh bahasa lainnya. Bahasa dan pemakainaya adalah sesuatu yang sama, artinya bila bahasa itu seing mengalami kontak maka pemakainya pun demikian. Pernyataan bahwa masyarakat Jepang itu exclusive, maka kurang lebih sama dengan mengatakan bahwa bahasa Jepang itu tertutup dan banyak orang yang mengatakan bahwa orang Jepang adalah bangsa yang tertutup. Pernyataan itu mungkin ada benarnya, tapi bahasa Jepang bukanlah bahasa yang exclusive terutama bila dilhat dari sisi pembentukan kosakatanya. Hipotesis Sapir dan Whorf menyatakan bahwa bahasa mempengaruhi budaya, dan sebaliknya budaya juga mempengaruhi bahasa. Sehingga secaara budaya, banyak sekali produk budaya yang masuk kedalam negara Jepang yang diiringi dengan masuknya bahasanya juga. Misalnya, budaya Cina masuk ke Jepang, maka bahasanya juga masuk ke Jepang. Bahasa Inggris masuk ke Jepang, masuk pulalah budayanya. Dalam persentuhan budaya dan bahasa tersebut, satu sisi ada yang kuat dan sebaliknya, sehingga ada bahasa atau budaya yang terdominasi. Dan pendominasian ini akan memunculkan resistensinya sebagai akibatnya. Dominasi suatu bahasa akan muncul dalam berbagai sisi kehidupan tergantung budaya yang sering bersentuhan. Bahasa yang menjadi dominan adalah bahasa yang dianggap budayanya lebih tinggi. Fenomena kebahasaan yang mendominasi dan yang resisten terhadap bahasa lain bisa kita lihat dalam pemakaianna pada kehidupan sehari-hari. Dalam makalah ini akan dibahas mengenai resistensi bahasa Jepang terhadap bahasa asing. Karena resistensi tidak pernah ada tanpa dominasi, maka adalah sangat wajar bila dalam pembahasan ini didahului beberapa contoh pemakaian bahasa yang merupakan dominasi bahasa asing. ` Data mengenai dominasi dan resistensi bahasa penulis ambil dari pemakaiannya pada penamaan badan usaha di Tokyo. Alasan pemilihan Tokyo sebagai tempat diambilnya data adalah karena Tokyo merupakan kota besar yang sangat heterogen. Beraneka macam industri dan beraneka latar belakang konsumennya ada di Tokyo dan juga karena penduduknya yang mungkin bisa dikatakan merupakan masyarakat yang paling sering bersentuhan dengan budaya asing bila dibandingkan dengan kawasan lainnya. Walaupun ada kemungkinan pemilik atau pemberi nama badan usaha tersebut bukan orang Tokyo.

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Nama-nama badan usaha tersebut penulis ambil dari situs yang memuat asal usul namanama badan usaha di Jepang yaitu www.yurai.jp. Yang mengalami resistensi sebanyak 176 buah. Dalam makalah ini penulis akan mendeskripsikan dan mengklasifikasikan bentukbentuk serta asal usul kategori kata sebagai penyusun nama badan usaha yang cara pembentukannya penulis anggap diluar kaidah penulisan bahasa Jepang. Tujuanya adalah untuk mengetahui bagaimana gambaran resistensi bahasa Jepang yang terdapat pada penamaan badan usaha tersebut. 2. Landasan Teori Aturan penulisan nama badan usaha memang telah diatur oleh peraturan menteri kehakiman no. 51 Pasal 2 Ayat 1Tahun 1964 (www.moj.go.jp/MINJI/minji44.html) yang berisi bahwa penamaan badan usaha hanya boleh menggunakan karakter kanji, hiragana, katakana, huruf Latin, angka Arab, apostrof, & (ampersand), koma, hyphoon, titik dan titik tengah (・). Tetapi tidak mengatur bahasa dan cara pembentukannya. Adapun sistem penulisan dalam bahasa Jepang dipakai tiga huruf yaitu kanji dan hiragana, untuk bahasa Jepang bukan unsur serapan dan katakana untuk penulisan unsur serapan atau nama asing (Mulyadi, 2004). Dengan melihat sistem penulisan pada bahasa resmi tersebut maka penulis berpendapat bahwa bila ada unsur bukan serapan tetapi diperlakukan seperti bahasa asing maka ini adalah sebuah indikasi adanya resistensi terhadap bahasa asing. Sesuai dengan contoh resistensi bahasa Indonesia oleh Wijana (2014) misalnya nama- nama badan usaha yaitu benafix (maksudnya ben apik (agar bagus), Q-Loan Laundry (untuk mengungkapkan kiloan), Yoga Pancing dengan maksud Pancing Yoga dan lain sebagainya. Saussure berpendapat bahwa bila ada kata maka ada acuannya (signifie dan signifier). Demikian juga bahwa pemberian nama bukanlah sesuatu yang semena-mena pasti ada tujuannya. Nama badan usaha adalah sebagai parole sedangkan languenya bisa berupa maksud yang diinginkan oleh pembuat nama tersebut. Berkaitan dengan maksud penamaan badan usaha ini, Obata (via Ebara, 2009) menyatakan bahwa untuk membuat kesan pada kota atau jalan penulisan nama merupakan hal yang penting. Penulisan ini bisa berupa tulisan kanji atau sistem tulisan lainnya. Hal yang paling dekat dengan fenomena pemberian nama adalah pemberian nama anak. Pemberian nama terhadap bukan tanpa tujuan dan bahkan tujuannya adalah agar anak mendapatkan masa depan yang bagus. Agar mempunyai masa depan yang bagus orang tua memilih nama yang bagus pula. Selain itu ada juga contoh yang lain, misalnya di Singapura pemberian nama jalan dilakukan dengan cara menghindari racialisme, dengan cara pemberian nama yang dipilih tersebut diharapkan bisa menjadi semangat nation building. Selain itu, penamaan jalan diusahakan mengakomodasi bahasa yang dipakai oleh ras yang menjadi warga di negara itu yang resmi (Yeoh, 1996). Mengenai tujuan penamaan lebih lanjut Lowrey dkk (2003) menyatakan bahwa pemberian nama selain agar nama tersebut memberi manfaat, juga diharapkan nama tersebut mudah dihafal oleh pasar atau konsumen sasaran. Agar tidak mudah dilupakan maka nama tersebut harus khas dalam semantik dan fonetik. Semantik dan fonetik mempunyai pengaruh terhadap memory pendengarnya. Dalam beberapa kasus penamaan badan usaha di Jepang untuk mendapatkan bentuk fonologi yang khas maka diambil unsur bahasa asing. Mengenai pengambilan unsur asing ini secara umum, La Charite dkk (2005) menyatakan unsur serapan kebanyakan yang sangat banyak diserapnya adalah unsur fonologis sedangkan unsur fonetis mempunyai peran yang lebih sedikit. Tetapi, mungkin karena sistem ortografi yang berbeda dengan unsur asing yang dipakai dalam penulisan nama badan usaha di Jepang, maka sisi fonetislah yang lebih menonjol 3. Analisis Bahasa Jepang merupakan bahasa yang besar dan sangat berpengaruh apalagi ditunjang dengan kekuatan ekonomi negara yang sangat tinggi. Maka dari itu adalah berlebihan bila

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bahasa Jepang itu didominasi oleh bahasa asing. Tetapi, walaupun demikian terdapat fenomena dominasi bahasa asing terhadap bahasa Jepang. Dominasi ini terdapat pada penamaan badan usaha. Dengan adanya dominasi tersebut maka akhirnya muncul resistensinya yang nampak juga pada penamaan badan usaha di Jepang, khususnya di Tokyo. . Dominasi dalam penelitian ini adalah penguasaan atas suatu bahasa sehingga unsur bahasa asingnya lebih menonjol. Sedangkan resistensi yang dimaksud adalah bahasa yang nampak seperti bahasa asing. Nama perusahaan yang bukan dalam bentuk dominasi ataupun resistensi, yaitu nama yang memakai bahasa Jepang dan ditulis dengan cara Jepang juga sangat banyak. Misalnya seperti berikut: (1) Asahi Shinbunsha (2) Ajinomoto (3) Emori Shouji. dll Sedangkan wilayah kebahasaan tertentu yang didominasi oleh bahasa asing bisa kita lihat pada penamaan badan usaha seperti berikut: (4) Bridgestone, nama ini berasal dari bahasa Ingris yang merupakan terjemahan dari nama marga Ishibashi, yaitu ishi’batu’ dan bashi ‘jembatan’ (5) Raimuraito, merupakan kata bahasa Inggris limelite yang ditulis dengan hiragana (bukan katakana) (6) JALUX , berasal dari JAL (Japan Airline) dan bahasa Latin LUX ‘cahaya’ (7) ACCESS, berasal dari bahasa Inggris access (8) Edowin, berasal dari nama orang asing yaitu Edwin (9) Catena, berasal dari bahasa Latin catena ‘pertautan’, dan lain sebagainya Karena adanya dominasi ini maka muncullah resistensi. Resistensi kebahasaan penulis dapatkan pada penamaan badan usaha di Tokyo sebanyak 176 buah badan usaha. Bentuk-bentuk resistensi tersebut nampak pada cara penulisan yang menggunakan singkatan atau kata yang ditulis dengan huruf Latin. Misalnya: (1) SMBC, singkatan dari Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation (2) FDK, singkatan dari Fuji Denki Kagaku (3) TBK, singkatan dari Toukyo Buhin Kougyou (4) CSK, singkatan dari Computer Service Kabushikigaisha, dan lain sebagainya. Data mengenai nama badan usaha yang ditulis dengan huruf Latin tersebut yang penulis dapatkan sebanyak 14 buah. Kemudian dilihat dari asal kata yang dipakai pada penamaan ini ada yang berasal dari nama tempat, data yang terkumpul sebanyak 15 buah, nama orang ada 34 buah yang berisi beraneka cara pemakaian yang berbeda, misalnya ada yang menggunakan nama marga saja, ada yang menggunakan nama marga dan nama diri, ada yang gabungan dari beberapa marga dan ada pula yang menggunakan nama marga ditambah dengan kata lain. Badan usaha yang menggunakan nama tempat adalah sebagai berikut: (1) Chiyoda, berasal dari nama tempat di Tokyo yaitu Chiyoda (2) Ebara Shokuhin, nama ini berasal dari Ebara yang merupakan nama daerah di Tokyo sekarang bernama Shinagawa, dan shokuhin yang berarti ‘produk makanan’ (3) Hachiban, kata ini bila diterjemahkan kedalam bahasa Indonesia berarti nomor 8 dan berasal dari nama jalan raya kelas 8 (4) Bisukee Horudingu, berasal dari nama tempat Ebisu dan bahasa Inggris holdings (5) Musashi, berasal dari nama tempat di sekitar Tokyo yaitu Musashino Sedangkan yang menggunakan nama marga adalah sebagai berikut: (6) Takamura , berasal dari nama marga Takamura (7) Oonambaa, berasal dari nama Ono. Nama ini bila ditulis O No maka bisa dibaca menjadi O Number, dan cara baca katakananya menjadi oonambaa (8) Yonex berasal dari nama marga Yonezawa dan afix X (9) Takakyuu, berasal dari nama marga Takahisa, hisa dalam Takahisa bila ditulis dengan kanji bisa dibaca juga kyuu

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(10) Kosei, berasal dari nama marga Kobayashi Makoto, ko dari kobayashi dan sei merupakan cara baca makoto pada saat ditulis dengan kanji. Dari data yang penulis dapatkan bahwa nama badan usaha yang berasal dari kata bahasa Jepang terdapat sebanyak 29 buah badan usaha. Misalnya (1) Eizai, berasal dari kata eisei zairyou ‘produk kesehatan’ (2) Konami, berasal dari kata konami ‘gelombang kecil, riak’ (3) Sangi, berasal dari kata sangi ‘tiga ajaran’ (4) Sanwa, berasal dari kata san ‘tiga’ dan wa’ harmoni’, dan lain sebagainya Dalam penamaan badan usaha bukan hanya kategori nomina atau pronomina saja yang digunakan tetapi juga memasukan kategori lainnya, misalnya pada penamaan berikut: (1) Asukuru, berasal dari frasa “asu kuru” ‘akan datang besok’ (2) Daiei, berasal dari frasa “ookiku sakaeru “’memakmurkan secara besar-besaran’ (3) Maruha, berasal dari frasa ‘ha wo marukusuru’ ‘membundarka gelombang’ Nama badan usaha (28),(29) dan (30) mengandung unsur kategori nomina, verba dan ajektiva, serta partikel yang dilesapkan. Penamaan yang memakai unsur fonetis (karena bunyinya) adalah sebagai berikut: (1) Genkii, sebetulnya berasal dari kata genki, agar mirip dengan bunyi kata lucky maka bunyi/ ki/ nya dipanjangkan (2) Kokosu, karena bunyinya menarik (3) Merukusu, berasal dari Me(iji). L(eather). X (4) Nikon, dari nikkou dan bunyi/ n/ Yang tidak kalah menariknya dalam penamaan badan usaha di Tokyo adalah goroawase, suatu cara penyebutan salah satu allomorf angka dengan silabel pertamanya saja. (1) Ikuyo, berasal dari tahun pendirian 194-7, 1 dibaca /i/ dari ichi, 9 dibaca /ku/, 4 dibaca /yo/ dari yon (2) Misumi, nama ini merupakan gabungan nama Mitsui, Mitsubishi dan Sumitomo. Bunyi /mi/ yang pertama berasal angka 3 kanji yang terdapat pada penulisan Mitsui dan Mitsubishi. Sedangkan /sumi/ merupakan kependekan dari Sumitomo 4. Simpulan Masyarakat Jepang ternyata selain merupakan masyarakat yang terbuka dalam bahasa, dalam hal ini bisa dilihat pada terdapatnya dominasi nama badan usaha atas bahasa asing, tetapi juga ada unsur penolakan terhadap banjirnya nama-nama badan usaha berbau asing tersebut. Usaha masyarakat Jepang agar tidak begitu saja memakai kata asing maka dicarilah nama yang unik tetapi tidak memakai bahasa asing. Usahanya tidak sederhana tetapi cukup rumit dari meringkas frasa, menambahkan afik yang tidak ada dalam bahasa Jepang sendiri yaitu X dan i, penyingkatan-penyingkatan serta goroawase sehingga memunculkan bahasa yang seperti bahasa asing yang penulis anggap sebagai bentuk resistensi bahasa Jepang. Resistensi yang muncul pada penamaan badan usaha ini tidak bisa dianggap begitu saja sebagai suatu argumentasi bahwa masyarakat Jepang membenci bahasa asing, tapi paling tidak bisa diketahui bahwa sikap bahasa masyarakat Jepang adalah bahwa yang unik dan yang menarik tidak harus dari bahasa asing tetapi bisa dibuat dari bahasa sendiri.

Daftar Pustaka Obata, Lifemann. (2009)、Meikai Nihongo Dai 14 gou Edisi Februari. 2009｡ Lowrey, Tina M., Shrum. L.J., Dubitsky Tony M. 2003. Journal of Advertising Vol 32 No 3; The Relation Between Brand-Name Linguistic Characteristics And Brand-Name Memory. Taylor and Francis Ltd La Charite, Darlene and Paradis, Carole. 2005. Category Preservation and Proximity versus Phonetic Approximation in Loanword Adaptation Darlene. Linguistic Inquiry, MIT Press

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Mulyadi. 2004. Kajian Fonologis Unsur Serapan pada Bahasa Jepang.Universitas Gadjah Mada. Laporan Penelitian Yeoh, Brenda S. A. 1996. Street-naming and Nation-building: Toponymic Inscriptions of Nationhood in Singapore.Area Wijana, I Dewa Putu.2014. Bahasa, Kekuasaan, dan Resistensinya:Studi tentang Nama-nama Badan Usaha di Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta. Makalah www.yurai.jp www.moj.go.jp/MINJI/minji44.html

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Bahasa Jawa Di Yogyakarta Dan Usaha Pemertahanannya Latif Amrullah, IAIN Tulungagung

Abstrak Bahasa selalu berubah bersamaan dengan perkembangan manusia itu sendiri. Dikarenakan adanya kontak dengan budaya dari luar, sebuah bahasa dapat mengalami perubahan jumlah penutur. Namun terjadinya perubahan internal pada penutur juga dapat mengakibatkan terjadinya perubahan bahasa. Kasus-kasus tersebut akan mempengaruhi keberadaan bahasa beberapa waktu mendatang. Hal ini sebagaimana yang terjadi pada bahasa Jawa di kawasan Provinsi D.I Yogyakarta bagian timur. Berkaitan dengan alasan-alasan tersebut, maka dilakukanlah penelitian ini dengan tujuan untuk menggali lebih jauh faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi posisi bahasa Jawa dalam masyarakat multibahasa. Kata kunci: Bahasa Jawa, masyarakat multi bahasa, orang Jawa

1. Pendahuluan Berbicara tentang bahasa Jawa, pembahasan ini tidak dapat lepas dari keberadaan masyarakat Jawa itu sendiri, sebuah susunan kemasyarakatan terbesar di Indonesia dengan tingkat penutur bahasa terbesar, dimana mereka sebagian besar mendiami pulau Jawa. Masyarakat Jawa tersebar dari Jawa Barat hingga Jawa Timur, dengan beraneka ragam dialek kebahasaan. Penduduk asli Jakarta menggunakan dialek Melayu-Betawi karena sejarah kota yang panjang dimana dahulu kota ini merupakan pusat perdagangan dengan pengaruh bahasa Melayu yang kental. Lalu di Jawa Barat bagian tengah dan selatan, masyarakat menggunakan bahasa Sunda, dimana bahasa ini, pada beberapa leksikon, memiliki kesamaan dengan bahasa Jawa di Yogyakarta. Masyarakat yang tinggal di Jawa Timur bagian utara dan timur telah lama dihuni oleh orang-orang Madura yang tetap mempertahankan bahasa Madura. Akan tetapi yang disebut dengan bahasa Jawa yang sebenarnya merupakan bahasa yang digunakan masyarakat penutur yang berada di Jawa Tengah dan Jawa Timur bagian barat (Suseno, 1993: 11). Eksistensi budaya tidak dapat terlepas dari pengaruh politik geografis tersebut karena memang politik memegang peranan yang sangat kuat dalam pembentukan masyarakat. Pada jaman dahulu, pemerintah yang berkuasa terletak di kerajaan sehingga masih memungkinkan untuk menggunakan pola sentralisasi. Apapun yang dititahkan oleh sang raja, masyarakat pasti akan siap melaksanakannya. Begitu pula dengan kondisi pulau Jawa sekitar tahun 1700an dimana pusat pemerintahan berada di Kartasura dan Yogyakarta, hal tersebut mengakibatkan pusat kebudayaan juga berada di dua kerajaan ini. Bahasa yang juga merupakan bagian dari budaya, secara terpelihara dan terjaga digunakan oleh masyarakat hingga sekarang dengan mengacu kepada bahasa standar yang berasal dari kerajaan. Semakin masyarakat menjauhi pusat kebudayaan, maka penggunaan bahasa akan semakin menjauhi bahasa standar karena juga adanya pengaruh dari kebudayaan luar. Oleh karena itu, dalam tulisan ini bahasa yang digunakan sebagai obyek kajian adalah bahasa Jawa yang berada di sekitar pusat kerajaan Yogyakarta. Di dalam masyarakat Jawa terdapat suatu prinsip hidup yang menjadi ciri khas masyarakat yakni prinsip hormat. Prinsip ini menunjukkan bahwa setiap orang, dalam hal cara bicara dan pembawaan diri, harus selalu menunjukkan sikap terhadap orang lain berdasarkan derajat dan kedudukan sosial di masyarakat (Suseno, 1993: 60). Prinsip ini secara langsung menyiratkan bahwa bahasa sebagai bagian dari budaya dan cara hidup memang harus senantiasa memperhatikan derajat dan kedudukan, agar tidak terjadi kesalahan komunikasi antar penutur bahasa dan juga demi menjaga keselarasan dalam berhubungan. Adanya derajat sosial akan berimplikasi dengan adanya hierarki sosial, tetapi ini bukanlah suatu batas pergaulan, artinya bahwa masyarakat diharapkan bisa menempatkan diri pada situasi tertentu dengan berperilaku

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yang tertentu pula, sehingga akan terjalin tata krama masyarakat yang baik. Sebagai dampak dari adanya hierarki sosial dan penempatan diri yang berbeda dalam situasi yang berbeda, maka bahasa sebagai media bicara juga turut beragam, yang di dalam masyarakat Jawa dikenal dengan istilah unggah-ungguh atau sopan-santun kebahasaan. Unggah-ungguh adalah aturan bahasa berdasarkan letak tata krama. Dari pengertian ini terkandung makna bahwa ketika seseorang mampu menggunakan sopan santun berbahasa, apabila berbicara dengan orang lain, bahasa yang digunakan selalu tertata, sesuai dengan aturan kebahasaan, tata susila, selalu membuat hati menjadi senang. Ada beberapa faktor yang mempengaruhi sikap sopan-santun kebahasaan bahasa Jawa, antara lain faktor umur antar penutur, faktor kekerabatan, faktor derajat kepangkatan, faktor garis keturunan, faktor kualitas pribadi, serta faktor keintiman (Harjawiyana, 2005: 13). Sehingga dapat diamati bahwa unggahungguh merupakan suatu hal yang kompleks dalam sebuah sistem komunikasi yang dilakukan oleh masyarakat Jawa. Kesemuanya mempunyai implikasi terhadap eksistensi individu tertentu di dalam masyarakat. Menurut Poedjosoedarmo (1968 dalam Suseno, 1993: 62-63), bahasa Jawa terdiri dari 2 tingkat utama yang berbeda dalam kosakata dan tata bahasa. Tingkatan kromo berfungsi untuk mengungkapkan penghormatan, sedangkan tingkatan ngoko berguna untuk mengungkapkan keakraban. Untuk istilah sekitar 850 kata yang berkaitan dengan kehidupan sehari-hari, bahasa Jawa mempunyai bentuk ngoko dan kromo. Jumlah tersebut masih harus ditambah dengan sekitar 260 kata pada tingkat bahasa ketiga yakni kromo inggil, dimana tingkatan ini berisi mengenai pribadi, tindakan-tindakan, serta untuk pengungkapan rasa hormat yang amat tinggi. Selain itu, masih ada juga kombinasi tengahan yang merupakan percampuran antara ngoko dan kromo. Sehingga bahasa Jawa mempunyai sebelas tingkat bahasa dimana masing-masing sesuai dengan hubungan kepangkatan sosial tertentu. Oleh karena itu, penggunaan bahasa Jawa mengandalkan kesadaran akan kedudukan sosial masing-masing penutur dan lawan tutur. Dalam tulisan ini, peneliti mengambil sampel khusus yakni dusun Pundung, Desa Tirtomartani, Kecamatan Kalasan. Dusun ini merupakan daerah urban yang telah banyak bersentuhan dengan pengaruh kota, seperti pendidikan, pergaulan, pekerjaan, namun juga masih mempertahankan tradisi sosio-kultural masyarakat dengan memegang teguh falsafah budaya Jawa. Sehingga daerah ini layak untuk dijadikan obyek pengamatan. Berdasarkan informasi dari masyarakat bahwa dusun ini telah ada sejak jaman kemerdekaan sekitar tahun 1945. Meskipun tidak ada bukti tertulis, namun silsilah keturunan masih ada. Pada sekitar tahun 1998-2004 penulis secara aktif terlibat dalam interaksi sosial kemasyarakatan, mendapati bahwa bahasa Jawa dipergunakan oleh hampir semua golongan masyarakat, bahkan anak-anak pun dapat menggunakan bahasa Jawa dengan baik dan sedikit penggunaan bahasa Indonesia. Mereka mengetahui kapan harus menggunakan ngoko atau kromo. Saat itu bahasa Jawa digunakan dalam aktifitas formal masyarakat seperti rapat perkumpulan warga, arisan ibu-ibu PKK, peringatan HUT RI, atau gotong royong. Sedangkan remaja juga menggunakan bahasa Jawa ketika berkomunikasi informal, atau ketika berbicara dalam forum rapat kepemudaan. Di dalam tulisan ini, para remaja ini dianggap sebagai generasi pertama karena pengamatan dimulai dari titik ini. Selanjutnya, seiring dengan perjalanan waktu dan perubahan dinamika sosial di masyarakat, terjadi pergeseran bahasa yang digunakan di masyarakat. Generasi pertama masih menggunakan bahasa Jawa dalam sebagian besar situasi kemasyarakatan, sedangkan generasi kedua dan ketiga, atau remaja dan anak-anak saat ini, banyak yang tidak mampu menggunakan bahasa Jawa dengan baik. Mereka hanya mengetahui bahasa ngoko, namun dalam tingkat kosakata yang terbatas. Selebihnya mereka hanya menggunakan bahasa Indonesia. Sejak tahun 2005 hingga sekarang, kegiatan kepemudaan menggunakan bahasa Indonesia, bahkan dalam percakapan non-formal. Anak-anak usia sekolah dasar banyak yang tidak mampu menggunakan bahasa Jawa kromo. Padahal pada era generasi pertama, mereka mampu menggunakan kromo pada usia yang sama dengan anak-anak saat ini. Dari bukti-bukti yang ada di lingkungan masyarakat tersebut, terlihat bahwa terjadi pergeseran penggunaan bahasa pada masyarakat generasi kedua dan ketiga. Oleh karena itu,

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penelitian ini akan mengamati faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi pergeseran penggunaan bahasa Jawa oleh masyarakat. Selain itu, akan disampaikan solusi yang ditawarkan terkait dengan fenomena kebahasaan tersebut agar bahasa Jawa tidak mengalami kepunahan. Sebagai penutup, akan disampaikan kesimpulan hasil penelitian pada bagian akhir. 2. Metode Dusun Pundung merupakan salah satu perkampungan di wilayah kelurahan Tirtomartani, kecamatan Kalasan, kabupaten Sleman. Kampung ini dikategorikan kecil karena hanya memiliki sekitar 170 kepala keluarga. Sebagian besar pekerjaan warga adalah petani dan buruh, meskipun juga ada yang berprofesi sebagai karyawan pabrik, pedagang, karyawan swasta, wirausaha, PNS, dan TNI/Polri. Kampung ini terbelah oleh akses jalan kabupaten yang merupakan sarana lalu lintas penghubung dimana setiap jam berangkat dan pulang kerja selalu ramai, disamping itu akses menuju pusat kota juga tidak terlalu sulit karena cukup ditempuh dalam waktu 30 menit. Sehingga banyak anggota masyarakat yang bekerja atau belajar di pusat kota dan mereka bersentuhan dengan pola kehidupan perkotaan. Tentunya aspek bahasa, secara disadari atau tidak, pasti juga akan terlibat. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode pengamatan terlibat, dimana penulis secara pasif masuk ke dalam masyarakat. Perlu dicatat bahwa penulis juga merupakan anggota komunitas masyarakat tersebut, sehingga telah memiliki pemahaman terlebih dahulu mengenai wilayah ini. Obyek pengamatan terdiri dari warga dewasa sebagai generasi pertama, lalu remaja dan anakanak sebagai generasi kedua dan ketiga. Dengan adanya 3 generasi yang berbeda ini, diharapkan akan ada pembanding sebagai data yang akurat. 3. Masyarakat Multibahasa Dewasa ini masyarakat umumnya menguasai beberapa bahasa sekaligus, terutama bagi mereka yang mengalami kontak dengan budaya atau bahasa dari luar wilayahnya. Akan tetapi tidak menutup kemungkinan juga adanya individu di masyarakat yang hanya menguasai satu bahasa atau ekabahasawan. Kasus ini biasanya terdapat pada orang yang telah lanjut usia dimana mereka tidak mampu lagi untuk belajar bahasa pada usia tersebut atau bagi mereka yang tidak mengenyam pendidikan pada waktu dahulu. Otak mengalami kesulitan untuk merekam kosakata baru karena daya serap yang menurun. Selain itu, apabila berhasil menyerap kosakata yang ada, mereka akan mengalami interferensi bahasa pada tahap fonologis, sistem gramatikal, leksikal, dan semantik (Kridalaksana, 1985: 26) yang dikarenakan perbedaan cara ucap dengan bahasa pertama mereka. Dalam skala yang lebih luas di dalam masyarakat penutur suatu bahasa, terdapat pula suatu kelompok penutur yang menguasai bahasa lebih dari satu, maka inilah yang dimaksud dengan masyarakat multibahasa. Masyarakat seperti ini terjadi karena adanya beberapa etnik yang membentuk masyarakat tersebut sehingga menjadi masyarakat yang majemuk (Sumarsono, 2007: 76). Di beberapa tempat, hal ini dianggap wajar bahwa masyarakat berbicara dengan beberapa bahasa, seperti misalnya bahasa Jawa digunakan di lingkungan rumah, bahasa Indonesia pakai di lingkungan sekolah, dan bahasa Inggris diucapkan oleh penutur dalam kontak bisnis perdagangan dengan pebisnis dari luar negeri (Wardhaugh, 1988: 94-95). Pada tataran kebangsaan, sulit untuk menemukan suatu negara yang benar-benar ekabahasa. Ada sebuah pandangan yang salah mengenai ekabahasawan ini yakni anggapan bahwa bangsabangsa di Eropa hanya memiliki satu bahasa pada negara tersebut. Memang betul bahwa orang Perancis menggunakan bahasa Perancis, orang Jerman menggunakan bahasa Jerman, tetapi pada kenyataannya hal ini jauh berbeda karena hampir semua negara-negara di Eropa terdapat kelompok minoritas bahasa yang memilik bahasa ibu berbeda dengan bahasa nasional mereka (Trudgil, 1978: 129-130). Bilingualisme, atau bahkan multilingualisme, tampaknya sudah mulai menjadi hal yang wajar di Asia, terutama bagi negara-negara yang merdeka pada kurun waktu abad ke 20. Menurut pandangan Kridalaksana (1985: 22) ada dua pokok permasalahan yang menjadi kendala dalam permasalahan kebahasaan ini, yakni 1) Negara yang secara formal telah memiliki

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bahasa kebangsaan, tetapi bahasa kebangsaan itu belum merupakan kenyataan sosial, sehingga persoalan yang dihadapi adalah bagaimana menyebarluaskan bahasa itu ke seluruh negeri; dan 2) Negara yang secara formal sudah memiliki bahasa kebangsaan dan bahasa itu sudah merupakan kenyataan sosial masih juga mengalami persoalan, karena bahasa kebangsaan itu harus didewasakan dan dimodernisasikan sesuai dengan tuntutan kemajuan. Dari kedua permasalahan tersebut, negara Indonesia masih menghadapi tantangan yang ke 2 yakni mengenai pendewasaan bahasa. Dalam proses pendewasaan bahasa ini, bahasa Indonesia menyerap kosakata entah yang berasal dari bahasa daerah atau bahasa asing luar negeri. Tampaknya pengaruh bahasa daerah sangat kuat dalam proses pembentukan bahasa Indonesia karena memang budaya masyarakat Indonesia telah berakar denga kuat. Sedangkan adanya serapan dari bahasa asing terkesan merupakan suatu “keharusan” yang dikarenakan tidak adanya kosakata tersebut dalam bahasa Indonesia. Dalam satu sisi, bagi mereka yang mendukung penggunaan bahasa Indonesia secara menyeluruh, masyarakat sebaiknya menggunakan bahasa Indonesia karena ini merupakan bahasa yang telah diterima dan disepakati sebagai bahasa nasional, yang artinya masyarakat harus belajar tentang bahasa Indonesia. Akan tetapi, di sisi lain posisi bahasa daerah akan semakin terancam karena kehilangan penutur bahasa. Maka akan timbul segolongan masyarakat yang merasa perlu untuk tetap mempertahankan bahasa daerah dalam kehidupan dan masyarakat. Pada tataran ini seolah-olah terdapat suatu “persaingan” antara bahasa daerah dan bahasa nasional dalam kerangka aplikasi praktis (Kridalaksana, 1985: 22-23). 4. Fenomena Kebahasaan Dengan berdasar pada adanya bilingualisme dalam masyarakat dan juga perkembangan budaya, maka secara langsung mempengaruhi masyarakat dalam berbahasa. Fenomena yang ada di dusun Pundung adalah bahwa bahasa Jawa mulai mengalami reduksi secara perlahan-lahan sehingga hanya bahasa Jawa ngoko saja yang sering dipakai oleh masyarakat, sedangkan bahasa Jawa kromo mulai jarang dipakai. Berikut ini adalah beberapa hal yang berpengaruh terhadap pemakaian bahasa Jawa di dusun Pundung. 4.1. Pengasuhan di Keluarga Keluarga memegang peranan sangat penting dalam tumbuh kembang anak. Mereka akan melakukan imitasi terhadap orang-orang yang ada dalam keluarga dan lingkungan sekitar. Pengasuhan yang baik akan menjadikan anak berbahasa dengan baik, akan tetapi pengasuhan yang buruk akan berakibat pada hilangnya nilai-nilai budaya jawa. Seperti dalam kasus berikut: Ibu : “Nendra ora pareng nakal to!” (diucapkan dengan nada berteriak keras) Anak : “Yo ben tho mak!” (diucapkan dengan nada berteriak lebih keras) Si anak laki-laki yang berusia 3 tahun berkelahi dengan tetangga yang sama umurnya. Hal ini diketahui oleh si ibu yang kemudian memarahinya dengan suara berteriak keras. Apa yang dilakukan si ibu sebenarnya sangat berpengaruh terhadap kondisi psikologis anak karena anak mendapat tekanan dari orang tua. Selain itu, usia 3 tahun merupakan periode emas ketika anak melakukan penyerapan kosataka dari lingkungan sekitarnya. Dengan orang tua yang marah tersebut, maka anak akan berasumsi bahwa apa yang dilakukan oleh ibu adalah wajar dan bisa dicontoh. Perlu diingat bahwa anak belum dapat memilah mana yang benar dan mana yang salah. Bagi beberapa keluarga yang berpendidikan menengah dan berprofesi sebagai petani, buruh, atau karyawan, mereka berkomunikasi dengan anak menggunakan bahasa Jawa. Fakta ini bertahan hingga sekitar tahun 2002. Orang tua ketika mengasuh anak, menyuapi, ngudhang, menggunakan bahasa Jawa secara terus menerus dengan harapan bahwa si anak nantinya akan terbiasa mendengar bahasa Jawa. Akan tetapi kecenderungan yang ada saat ini sudah mulai berubah. Beberapa keluarga muda, entah ayah atau ibu di dalam mendidik anak cenderung menggunakan bahasa Indonesia. Akibatnya kakek atau nenek mereka juga turut menggunakan bahasa Indonesia karena si anak tidak memahami bahasa Jawa. Hal ini tentunya sangat berbahaya dalam kurun waktu beberapa tahun mendatang. Orang tua memang masih

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menggunakan bahasa Jawa, anak-anaknya sudah mulai mengajarkan bahasa Indonesia kepada cucu-cucunya dengan melupakan bahasa Jawa. Alangkah baiknya apabila pengasuhan di dalam keluarga menggunakan bahasa Jawa setiap harinya, sehingga selain belajar sopan-santun berbahasa, anak juga akan belajar sopansantun budaya Jawa sebagai identitasnya. Orang tua sebagai model percontohan bagi anak-anak sebaiknya tetap mempertahankan penggunaan bahasa Jawa ketika berbicara dengan anak-anak, terutama menggunakan bahasa Jawa kromo. Meski demikian, ada pihak yang beranggapan bahwa bahasa Indonesia harus diajarkan sejak dini karena khawatir apabila anak-anak tersebut tidak bisa berbahasa Indonesia kelak. Pandangan ini sebenarnya kurang tepat. Anak-anak sudah dapat belajar bahasa Indonesia di sekolah, televisi, atau majalah anak. Perlu diingat bahwa konstruksi dan kosakata bahasa Indonesia jauh lebih mudah dibanding bahasa Jawa. Justru yang lebih sulit adalah bagaimana mengajarkan bahasa Jawa kepada anak-anak. Dengan pengajaran bahasa Jawa yang baik di dalam keluarga, yakni menaikkan kedudukan si anak dengan cara orang tua berbicara kepada anak menggunakan bahasa Jawa kromo, maka si anak belajar bahwa berbicara kepada orang lain harus mempertimbangkan posisi dan kedudukan tertentu. Berbicara kromo dengan anak merupakan salah satu metode pembelajaran bahasa yang sangat tepat, artinya bahwa dengan meng-kromo-kan anak, orang tua memberi teladan bahwa bahasa ini sangat penting. Ketika anak bergaul dengan lingkungannya, harapannya mereka telah dibekali dengan kemampuan berbahasa yang halus, sehingga dengan sendirinya bahasa Jawa ngoko yang masuk ke dalam dirinya tidak mengganggu bahasa Jawa kromo yang telah ada. 4.2. Pendidikan Faktor berikutnya yang mempengaruhi pergeseran bahasa Jawa adalah proses belajar di sekolah. Proses pendidikan di semua jenjang pendidikan selalu menggunakan bahasa Indonesia sebagai bahasa pengantar. Mulai dari taman kanak-kanak, guru sudah mulai menggunakana bahasa Jawa meski dalam percakapan individu dengan murid terkadang guru menggunakan bahasa Jawa. Selanjutnya di jenjang sekolah dasar, selama 6 tahun pola pembelajaran sama seperti sebelumnya, ditambah lagi anak-anak mulai menggunakan bahasa Indonesia dan Jawa bersamaan ketika berbicara dengan teman. Di tingkat SMP dan SMA hingga perkuliahan bahasa Indonesia menjadi sangat dominan, bahkan dapat menggeser kemampuan berbahasa daerah. Masyarakat di dusun Pundung menyekolahkan anak-anak mereka di sekitar kampung yang tidak terlalu jauh: ada 2 taman kanak-kanak, 2 sekolah dasar, 2 SMP. Tidak ada SMA atau perguruan tinggi di sekitar kampung. Selain itu beberapa orang tua menyekolahkan anak-anak mereka di sekolah swasta seperti sekolah dasar Islam Terpadu. Bagi anak-anak yang bersekolah di sekitar kampung, mereka masih menggunakan bahasa Jawa dengan baik, meski generasi ketiga hanya mampu berbahasa Jawa ngoko. Para pemuda yang bersekolah di SMA atau perguruan tinggi di pusat kota, mereka dapat berbahasa Jawa dan Indonesia dengan cukup baik, meskipu penguasaan bahasa kromo sudah berkurang. Akan tetapi bagi generasi ketiga justru semakin menghilangkan kemampuan bahasa Jawa. Menghilangnya kemampuan berbahasa tersebut disebabkan oleh penggunaan bahasa Indonesia yang terlalu banyak, sehingga anak-anak mengalami kesulitan untuk menggunakan bahasa Jawa karena tidak adanya lawan tutur. Kasus ini semakin terlihat jelas di sekolah swasta dimana sebagian besar peserta didik berasal dari keluarga menengah ke atas dan berekonomi kuat sehingga pola berbahasa mereka praktis selalu menggunakan bahasa Indonesia. Untuk masalah penggunaan bahasa dalam ranah pendidikan, sebenarnya hal ini tidak terlepas dari peran politik pemerintah. Saat ini pemerintah, terutama di Yogyakarta, sudah mulai mengambil kebijakan dengan mewajibkan semua jenjang pendidikan untuk mengajarkan bahasa Jawa di sekolah. Pengajaran ini diwujudkan dalam mata pelajaran muatan lokal bahasa Jawa yang diberikan mulai tingkat sekolah dasar hingga SMA. Hal ini merupakan salah satu usaha pemertahanan bahasa yang efektif, karena semua siswa pada akhirnya akan belajar bahasa Jawa, bahkan bagi siswa yang belum pernah mendengar kosakata bahasa Jawa.

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Selain itu, guru sebagai pihak yang bersentuhan langsung dengan murid-murid alangkah baiknya apabila menggunakan bahasa Jawa layaknya di rumah sendiri. Hal ini selain sebagai usaha pemertahanan bahasa Jawa, juga dapat sebagai sarana untuk mengajarkan anak bagaimana menghormati orang yang lebih tua di luar lingkungan keluarga. Sesuai dengan Konferensi UNESCO tahun 1953 bahwa pendidikan sedapat-dapatnya diberikan lewat bahasa ibu berdasarkan asumsi pemajanan terhadap bahasa ibu selama mungkin menguntungkan bagi perkembangan kecendekiaan, keemosian, dan kemasyarakatan individu (Moeliono, 1981: 61). Tidak perlu malu untuk menggunakan bahasa Jawa di lingkungan sekolah, karena sekolah yang menggunakan lebih banyak bahasa Jawa, memiliki kecenderungan bahwa siswa yang ada menjadi lebih sopan dan hormat kepada orang lain jika dibandingkan dengan sekolah yang menggunakan bahasa Indonesia sepanjang waktu. 4.3. Pergaulan Memang rumit untuk menentukan di lingkungan pergaulan mana anak-anak dan remaja di dusun Pundung termasuk. Akan tetapi secara umum mereka bergaul dengan teman sekolah dan lingkungan rumah. Untuk siswa sekolah dasar negeri yang terletak di dekat dusun, mereka cenderung menggunakan bahasa Jawa dalam pergaulan, karena memang siswa yang bersekolah di tempat tersebut berasal dari ekonomi menengah ke bawah. Sehingga kontak bahasa yang terjadi adalah bahasa Indonesia dalam proses belajar dan bahasa Jawa dalam aktifitas pergaulan. Sedangkan bagi siswa SMP, karena mereka memiliki teman yang berasal dari berbagai latar belakang keluarga berbeda, beberapa menggunakan bahasa Indonesia dan juga bahasa Jawa. Sedangkan siswa SMA terlihat sangat jelas bahwa mereka cenderung menggunakan bahasa Indonesia, khususnya ragam bahasa yang sering digunakan oleh anak-anak muda saat ini. Dari fenomena ini terlihat bahwa semakin tinggi tingkat pendidikan seorang anak, maka dia semakin menjauhi bahasa Jawa. Hal ini dikarenakan perasaan malu menggunakan bahasa Jawa karena terkesan konvensional, atau mereka memang berusaha untuk beradaptasi masuk ke dalam sebuah sistem pergaulan yang terkesan lebih nyaman untuk menggunakan bahasa Indonesia. Di dalam pergaulan masyarakat, anak-anak masih menggunakan bahasa Jawa dengan teman sepermainan karena mereka juga teman satu sekolah sehingga mempunyai keintiman yang tinggi. Akan tetapi beberapa warga cenderung menggunakan bahasa Indonesia ketika berkomunikasi dengan anak-anak ini. Hal ini dikhawatirkan akan semakin menjauhkan anakanak dari penguasaan bahasa Jawa. Lalu bagi para remaja, mereka tetap menggunakan bahasa Jawa ngoko dalam percakapan dengan sesama remaja. Namun dalam kegiatan perkumpulan pemuda, terjadi alih kode yang dilakukan oleh para remaja. Untuk sekedar bercakap-cakap dengan sesama remaja dalam kondisi santai, mereka menggunakan bahasa Jawa ngoko. Beberapa remaja menggunakan bahasa Jawa kromo alus ketika berbicara dengan pemuda yang lebih senior dan tua. Akan tetapi ketika rapat perkumpulan telah dimulai, maka bahasa Indonesia digunakan sepanjang waktu karena mereka berusaha menyesuaikan dengan situasi formal rapat. Hal ini dianggap wajar karena situasi rapat menuntut pemakaian bahasa formal. Akan tetapi ada satu fenomena yang cukup menyedihkan di kalangan remaja. Saat mereka berbincang-bincang dengan tetangga yang lebih tua, justru bahasa Indonesia yang mereka gunakan padahal lawan bicara selalu menggunakan bahasa Jawa. Hal ini menyebabkan penilaian terhadap remaja semakin menurun karena ketidakmampuan untuk menggunakan bahasa Jawa kromo. Semakin para remaja ini jauh dari penguasaan bahasa Jawa, tanpa disadari sebenarnya mereka juga telah mulai kehilangan tata kesopanan dalam pergaulan. Para remaja terkesan individualis karena tidak menyapa ketika berpapasan dengan orang yang lebih tua atau acuh terhadap lingkungan sekitar. Pada tingkat ini, mereka telah jauh dari falsafah nilai luhur budaya Jawa. Oleh karena itu, dalam pergaulan hendaknya seluruh komponen masyarakat bekerja sama untuk menciptakan lingkungan yang kondusif untuk menunjang kemampuan anak berbahasa Jawa dengan baik. Para tokoh masyarakat dan para orang tua hendaknya tetap menggunakan bahasa Jawa ketika mereka berbicara dengan orang yang lebih muda, dan juga memberikan dorongan positif bahwa bahasa Jawa sangat penting dan berguna. Para pemuda

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harus tetap menjunjung tinggi bahasa Jawa, tidak perlu malu menggunakan bahasa Jawa karena bahasa ini banyak memuat kearifan lokal. 5. Kesimpulan Bahasa merupakan suatu sistem budaya yang komplek, dimana usaha untuk mempertahankannya tidak cukup hanya dilakukan oleh satu pihak saja, melainkan harus ada upaya kolaboratif dari berbagai pihak dalam rangka pelestarian bahasa. Dengan usaha pemertahanan bahasa Jawa ini, khususnya di lingkungan masyarakat, diharapkan keberadaan bahasa Jawa, terutama tingkat kromo, tidak tergerus oleh keberadaan bahasa nasional serta bahasa asing. Pengasuhan di keluarga menjadi faktor penentu kesuksesan usaha ini karena anakanak belajar pertama kali dari orang tua. Ketika anak telah mantap dengan bahasa Jawa yang dia miliki, maka pada tahapan selanjutnya bahasa Jawa akan semakin mudah untuk dikuasai dan diaplikasikan dalam pendidikan serta pergaulan.

Pustaka Acuan: Harjawiyana, Haryana dan Th. Supriya. 2005. Marsudi Unggah-Ungguh Basa Jawa. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Kanisius. Kridalaksana, Harimurti. 1985. Fungsi Bahasa dan Sikap Berbahasa. Flores: Nusa Indah. Moeliono, A.M. 1981. Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa. Jakarta: Djambatan. Sumarsono, 2007. Sosiolinguistik. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar. Suseno, Franz Magnis. 1993. Etika Jawa: Sebuah Analisa Falsafi Tentang Kebijaksanaan Hidup Jawa. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Trudgill, Peter. 1978. Sociolinguistics An Introduction. Middlesex: Penguin Books. Wardhaugh, Ronald. 1988. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. New York: Basil Blackwell.

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Tutur Bahasa Mario Teguh Pada Acara Golden Ways Metro Tv (Kajian Sosiolingustik: Alih Kode & Campur Kode) Wahyu Damayanti,S.Pd., Balai Bahasa Provinsi Kalimantan Barat

Abstrak Golden Ways Metro TV sebuah acara yang menampilkan seorang motivator terkenal Mario Teguh. Sebagai motivator Mario Teguh tentu saja berkomunikasi melalui bahasa yang mudah dipahami oleh semua kalangan baik tua maupun muda. Pemirsa yang heterogen menjadikan Mario Teguh menyelipkan bahasa selain bahasa Indonesia yaitu bahasa asing dan bahasa Jawa.Tujuan penelitian ini yaitu mendeskripsikan wujud variasi pemilihan alih kode dan campur kode dan faktor penyebab pemilihan alih kode dan campur kode pada tutur bahasa Matior Teguh di Metro TV. Metode penelitian ini metode deskripsi kualitatif. Data yang diperoleh adalah ungkapan bahasa MarioTeguh pada acara Golden Ways Metro TV, penulis mengambil data dari you tube sebagai rekaman dokumenter. Hasil penelitian, bahwa terdapat pengalihkodean dengan menyebutkan kalimat yang dialihkodekan dan pengalihkodean tanpa menyebutkan kalimat yang dialihkodekan baik itu dalam bahasa Inggris maupun bahasa Arab. Variasi campur kode yaitu adanya kata dan frasa dalam bahasa Inggris. Untuk bahasa Jawa dan bahasa Arab hanya terdapat wujud kata. Faktor pemilihan alih kode dan campur kode menciptakan suasana akrab dan santai, mengaitkan topik dengan konteks yang dibicarakan dalam pemakaian dua bahasa, ingin menciptakan suasana keakraban dari suasana formal di televisi menjadi informal. Kata kunci : Alih kode, Campur Kode, Mario Teguh, Metro TV

1. Pendahuluan Komunikasi dapat terjadi apabila komunikator dapat menyampaikan pesan secara sederhana sehingga pesan tersebut diterima dan dipahami oleh komunikan. Ada beberapa faktor yang dapat mempengaruh agar komunikasi dapat berlangsung dengan baik dan sesuai dengan keinginan para penuturnya, yaitu siapa penutur, siapa mitra tutur, kapan dan di mana tuturan itu terjadi. Peran bahasa sangatlah penting karena bahasa merupakan alat komunikasi yang sangat variatif,artinya untuk menyampaikan sebuah maksud seseorang bisa bermacam-macam makna. Sebagian besar informan berusaha semaksimal mungkin agar pesan yang akan disampaikan tidak membingungkan penerima berita, baik dari maksud dan tujuan maupun beberapa kosakata yang umum digunakan oleh informan. Rangkaian kata demi kata dapat merangsang pendengar untuk dapat melakukan apa yang disampaikan pembicara. Bahasa sederhana dan mudah dipahami menciptakan suasana komunikasi yang menyenangkan bagi semua orang. Hal ini banyak dilakukan oleh para motivator agar apa yang disampaikan dapat dipahami oleh seluruh kalangan tanpa mengenal kelas sosial. Bahasa motivasi merupakan sebuah bentuk dorongan. Sebagaimana pendapat Pamungkas (2012:131) bahwa: “Pada era global yang penuh dengan dinamika kehidupan ini tentu permasalahan yang dihadapi manusia semakin kompleks. Kekompleksan hidup yang harus dihadapi manusia terkadang menjadi suatu hal yang menurunkan semangat manusia, sehingga tidak sedikit manusia yang putus asa dalam menghadapi hidup. Dalam hal demikian, nasihat yang dapat membangkitkan semangat sangat diperlukan. Oleh karena itu, tatanan bahasa yang digunakan sebagai bahasa motivasi juga sangat spesifik dengan kandungan makna yang sangat dalam. Bahasa Indonesia dalam hal ini sangat berperan besar, apalagi untuk memberikan motivasi bagi masyarakat Indonesia. Bahasa yang dikenal masyarakat Indonesia, yaitu bahasa Indonesia, tentunya lebih dapat masuk ke dalam diri orang-orang Indonesia daripada motivasi yang diberikan dengan menggunakan bahasa yang lain”.

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Satu diantara motivator yang sangat terkenal di Indonesia adalah Mario Teguh1. Kata bijak Mario Teguh disampaikan dengan bahasa yang mudah dimengerti serta mudah dipahami sehingga banyak kata-kata motivasi hidup yang diungkapkan sering menjadi acuan banyak orang bagaimana seharusnya memandang hidup ini, baik untuk tampil sebagai pribadi lebih baik maupun cara yang harus dilakukan dalam menyikapi berbagai persoalan dalam hidup. Hal menarik dari beliau adalah setiap ungkapan kata-kata yang mengandung makna mendalam tidak pernah mengedepankan agama tertentu sebagai acuan dari kebenaran apa yang diungkapkan sehingga ia dikenal sebagai motivator yang bisa diterima semua kalangan. Dalam proses penyampaian pesan yang dikemukakan oleh Mario Teguh cukup banyak dan memiliki banyak tahapan, diantaranya meliputi : pengirim memiliki ide atau gagasan, ide diubah menjadi sebuah pesan, pemindahan pesan, penerima mendapat pesan, penerima memberi tanggapan dan mengirim umpan balik kepada pengirim. Acara Golden Ways Mario Teguh, merupakan ajang tatap muka serta cara mendekatkan diri seorang Mario Teguh kepada para fansnya. Acara yang disiarkan secara live tersebut tidak hanya menarik perhatian penonton yang bisa menyaksikan secara langsung di studio Metro TV, namun juga mengundang banyak perhatian pemirsa yang hanya bisa menyaksikan acara tersebut melalui televisi. Sebuah konsep acara yang mengusung tentang cara memotivasi diri untuk bisa hidup lebih maju dan lebih baik ini telah membuka banyak orang tentang arti pentingnya sebuah motivasi. Sebagai motivator dengan banyak pemirsa dengan latar belakang berbeda baik itu dalam status sosial maupun suku bangsa, tentunya Mario Teguh harus mampu menyampaikan sebuah pesan dengan bahasa yang mudah dipahami oleh semua kalangan. Hal ini yang dilakukan Mario Teguh dalam memberikan bahasa motivasi yang dapat diterima meski kadang muncul bahasa asing (bahasa Inggris) dan kadang terselip juga bahasa Jawa di sela-sela tutur bahasa beliau. Munculnya alih kode dan campur kode yang dilakukan Mario Teguh membawa variasi tersendiri pada acara Golden Ways di Metro TV. Variasi bahasa Mario Teguh menjadikan suasana pada acara tersebut menjadi hidup. Berdasarkan latar belakang yang disajikan, masalah yang dikaji dalam penelitian ini adalah: 1. bagaimana wujud variasi pemilihan alih kode dan campur kode pada tutur bahasa Mario Teguh? 2. apa faktor penyebab pemilihan alih kode dan campur kode pada tutur bahasa Mario Teguh? Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mendeskripsikan wujud variasi pemilihan alih kode dan campur kode dan faktor penyebab pemilihan alih kode dan campur kode pada tutur bahasa Matior Teguh di Metro TV. Manfaat penelitian ini diharapkan dapat menjadi barometer bahasa khusus untuk penutur bahasa pada media televisi sehingga dapat diterima secara luas bagi masyarakat, di samping itu dapat bermakna bagi upaya pembinaan dan pengembangan ilmu bahasa, baik bahasa Indonesia maupun bahasa-bahasa lainnya.

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Nama aslinya adalah Sis Maryono Teguh, namun saat tampil di depan publik, ia menggunakan nama Mario Teguh. Ia meraih gelar Sarjana Pendidikan dari Institut Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan (IKIP) Malang. Mario Teguh sempat bekerja di Citibank, kemudian mendirikan Bussiness Effectiveness Consultant, Exnal Corp. menjabat sebagai CEO (Chief Executive Officer) dan Senior Consultan. Beliau juga membentuk komunnitas Mario Teguh Super Club (MTSC). Pak Mario lahir di Makassar, 5 Maret 1956. Tahun 2010 kembali meraih penghargaan dari Museum

Rekor Indonesia, MURI, sebagai Motivator dengan Facebook Fans terbesar di dunia. Di awal tahun 2010, Beliau terpilih sebagai satu dari 8 Tokoh Perubahan 2009 versi Republika surat kabar yang terbit di Jakarta. Sebelumnya Beliau membawakan acara bertajuk Business Art di O’Channel. Kemudian namanya semakin dikenal luas oleh masyarakat ketika ia membawakan acara Mario Teguh Golden Ways di Metro TV. Pada saat ini Mario Teguh dikenal sebagai salah satu motivator termahal di Indonesia.

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2. Landasan Teori Teori Hymes (dalam Suhardi dan Sembiring, 2005) tentang fungsi sosial bahasa yaitu latar, peserta, hasil, amanat, cara, dan sarana. Unsur-unsur yang terdapat dalam setiap komunikasi bahasa disajikan dalam bentuk SPEAKING, uraian sebagai berikut. 1. Latar (Setting and Scene) : latar merujuk pada tempat dan waktu terjadinya percakapan. 2. Peserta (Participants) : peserta merujuk pada peserta percakapan penutur dan mitra tutur. 3. Hasil (Ends): hasil merujuk pada hasil percakapan (yang diperoleh secara sengaja atau tidak) dengan tujuan percakapan. 4. Amanat (Act Sequence) : amanat menunjuk pada bentuk dan isi amanat dalam bentuk katakata dan percakapan. 5. Cara (Key) : cara merujuk pada pelaksanaan percakapan . 6. Sarana (Instrumentalities) : sarana merujuk pada bentuk lisan atau tulisan. 7. Norma (Norms) : norma merujuk pada aturan-aturan perilaku percakapan. 8. Jenis (Genres) : jenis merujuk kepada kategori. Suatu peristiwa tutur memiliki tujuh faktor tersebut di atas sehingga ketika penekanan diberikan pada satu faktor tersebut, bahasa yang dipakai memiliki fungsi tertentu. Pada acara Golden Ways di Metro TV beberapa poin menurut Hymes merupakan acuan dasar terjadi komunikasi bahasa sebagaimana yang telah dijelaskan pada SPEAKING. Alih kode adalah istilah umum untuk menyebut pergantian atau peralihan pemakaian dua bahasa atau lebih, beberapa variasi dari satu bahasa, atau bahkan beberapa gaya dari suatu ragam (Rahardi, 2001:20). Alih kode (code switching) adalah peristiwa peralihan dari satu kode ke kode yang lain. Misalnya penutur menggunakan bahasa Indonesia beralih menggunakan bahasa Jawa atau bahasa lain. Alih kode merupakan salah satu aspek ketergantungan bahasa (language dependency) dalam masyarakat multilingual. Dalam masyarakat multilingual, seorang penutur sangat sulit mutlak hanya menggunakan satu bahasa. Dalam alih kode, masing-masing bahasa masih cenderung mendukung fungsi dan masing-masing fungsi sesuai dengan konteksnya. Suwito (1985) mengungkapkan beberapa faktor yang menyebabkan alih kode atau campur kode antara lain. 1. Penutur Pembicara kadang-kadang sengaja beralih kode terhadap mitra bahasa karena maksud dan tujuan tertentu. Dari pribadi pembicara, ada berbagai maksud dan tujuan beralih kode, antara lain pembicara ingin mengubah situasi pembicaraan, yakni dari situasi formal yang terikat ruang dan waktu ke situasi formal yang tidak terikat ruang dan waktu. Pembicara kadang-kadang melakukan campur kode bahasa satu ke dalam bahasa yang lain karena kebiasaan. 2. Mitra Tutur Mitra bicara dapat berupa individu atau kelompok. Dalam masyarakat atau kelompok bilingual, seorang pembicara yang mula-mula menggunakan satu bahasa dapt beralih kode menggunakan bahasa lain dengan mitra bicara yang mempunyai latar belakang bahasa daerah yang sama. 3. Hadirnya Penutur Ketiga Untuk menetralisasi situasi dan menghormati kehadiran mitra tutur ketiga, biasanya penutur dan mitra tutur beralih kode, apalagi bila latar belakang kebahasaan mereka berbeda. 4. Pokok Pembicaraan Pokok pembicaraan atau topik merupakan faktor yang dominan dalam menentukan terjadinya alih kode. Pokok pembicaraan yang bersifat formal biasanya diungkapkan dengan ragam baku, dengan gaya netral, dan serius. Pokok pembicaraan yang bersifat informal disampaikan dalam situasi “bebas”, “santai” dengan menggunakan ragam non-formal. Dalam ragam non-formal kadang terjadi “penyisipan” unsur bahasa lain. Di samping itu, topik pembicaraan non-ilmiah (percakapan sehari-hari) menciptakan pembicaraan yang santai. Pembicaraan yang santai juga dapat menimbulkan campur kode.

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5. Fungsi dan Tujuan Fungsi bahasa yang digunakan dalam pembicaraan didasarkan pada tujuan berkomunikasi. Fungsi bahasa merupakan ungkapan pada tujuan tertentu, seperti perintah, menawarkan, mengumumkan, memarahi, dan sebagainya. Pembicara menggunakan bahasa menurut fungsi yang dikehendakinya sesuai dengan konteks dan situasi komunikasi. Alih kode dapat terjadi karena situasi dipandang tidak seseuai atau tidak relevan. Dengan demikian, alih kode menunjukkan adanya saling ketergantungan antara fungsi kontekstual dan situasional yang relevan dalam pemakaian dua bahasa. 6. Ragam dan Tingkat Tutur Bahasa Pemilihan ragam dan tingkat tutur bahasa banyak didasarkan pada pertimbangan pada mitra bicara. Pertimbangan ini menunjukkan suatu pendirian terhadap topik tertentu atau relevansi dengan situasi tertentu. Alih kode dan campur kode lebih sering timbul pada penggunaan ragam non-formal dan tutur bahasa rendah dibandingkan dengan penggunaan ragam bahasa tinggi. Suwito (1985) menyatakan campur kode terjadi apabila seorang penutur menggunakan suatu bahasa secara dominan mendukung suatu tuturan disisipi dengan unsur bahasa lainnya. Hal ini biasanya berhubungan dengan karakteristik penutur, seperti latar belakang sosial, tingkat pendidikan, dan rasa keagamaan, Ciri yang menonjol biasanya berupa kesantaian atau situasi informal. Namun, campur kode juga bisa terjadi karena keterbatasan bahasa seperti ungkapan yang tidak ada padanannya, sehingga menyebabkan adanya keterpaksaan menggunakan bahasa lain, walaupun mendukung satu fungsi. Beberapa wujud campur kode antara lain; penyisipan kata, penyisipan frasa, penyisipan klausa, penyisipan ungkapan atau idiom, dan penyisipan bentuk dasar baster (gabungan bentuk asli dan asing). Alih kode berbeda dengan campur kode. Suwito (1985) menyebutkan jika penutur menggunakan satu klausa yang jelas-jelas memiliki struktur gramatika bahasa lain, penutur telah melakukan alih kode. Namun, jika penutur menggunakan satu kata atau frasa dari bahasa yang lain ke dalam bahasa yang digunakannya, yang telah terjadi adalah peristiwa campur kode. Pembahasan mengenai alih kode dan campur kode dalam penelitian ini mengacu pada pendapat yang dikemukakan oleh Suwito. 3. Metode Penelitian Metode penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskriptif, yaitu mendeskripsikan data atau fakta yang ada dalam pemakaian bahasa. Sumber data dalam penelitian ini adalah tutur bahasa Mario Teguh pada acara Golden Ways. Data diperoleh dari Youtube pada acara Golden Ways Metro TV sebanyak 24 kali siaran. Teknik pengumpulan data yang digunakan adalah teknik dokumentasi yaitu mengunduh dari Youtube antara bulan Januari – Juni 2014. Data yang diperoleh berupa tutur bahasa yang diucapkan Mario Teguh pada acara Golden Ways Metro TV yang disiarkan setiap hari Minggu pukul 19.30. Setelah data diunduh, langkah selanjutnya adalah analisis data. Analisis data dimulai dengan pentranskripsian data, identifikasi data, pengklasifikasian data, dan penginterpretasian data. 4. Pembahasan Tutur bahasa Mario Teguh dalam acara Golden Ways beberapa kali mengalihkodekan bahasa Jawa ke dalam bahasa Indonesia, mengalihkodekan bahasa Inggris ke dalam bahasa Indonesia. Ada 3 bentuk alih kode yang dilakukan oleh Mario Teguh yaitu (1) pengalihan kode dari bahasa Jawa dan bahasa Inggris yaitu dengan menyampaikan kembali kalimat yang dialihkodekan ke dalam bahasa Indonesia dan (2) pengalihan kode bahasa asing (bahasa Arab dan bahasa Inggris) dengan tidak menyebutkan kembali ke dalam bahasa Indonesia. Pengalihkodean dengan menyebutkan kalimat yang dialihkodekan Berikut alih kode yang dituturkan Mario Teguh dalam bahasa Jawa, bahasa Bali, dan bahasa Inggris, Mario Teguh berusaha untuk mengulang kembali kalimat yang telah disampaikan.

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1. Ada anak yang melihat saya dan bilang ,”Motor satusan ae digowo nang sekolah. Motor seratus ribuan saja dibawa ke sekolah,sakit hati tho.(16/5/2014) Kalimat sebelumnya menggunakan bahasa Jawa “Motor satusan ae digowo nang sekolah” selanjutnya oleh Mario Teguh diulang kembali dengan bahasa Indonesia Motor seratus ribuan saja dibawa ke sekolah. Pengalihan kode dari bahasa Inggris ke dalam bahasa Indonesia dengan menyebut kembali kalimat alih kode yang digunakan ke dalam bahasa Indonesia, 2.

Untuk gagal butuh waktu juga tidak?kalau anda sukses pada umur 45 tahun atau gagal waktu yang digunakan sama, good…it’s not how long your lives, tapi how important your lives. Hidup itu bukan panjangnya tapi pentingnya. Anda tidak bisa hidup kalau yang anda lakukan tidak penting.(16/5/2014) Kalimat bahasa Inggris berikut ini it’s not how long your lifes, tapi how important your lifes dialihkodekan ke dalam bahasa Indonesia oleh Mario Teguh sebagai berikut Hidup itu bukan panjangnya tapi pentingnya. Mario Teguh dengan sengaja melakukan alih kode karena pemirsa yang heterogen, tidak hanya bahasa Jawa meski kadang diselipkan bahasa Jawa tetap Mario Teguh melakukan alih kode ke dalam bahasa Indonesia. Begitu juga jika Mario Teguh menggunakan bahasa asing dalam hal ini bahasa Inggris, beliau mengalihkodekan ke dalam bahasa Indonesia. Di awal acara sebagai salam pembuka Mario Teguh juga melakukan pengalihkodean dengan menggunakan bahasa Bali Kuno yaitu pada data berikut. 3. Salam sejahtera bagi kita semua, om swasti astu (19/1/2014) Om swasti astu merupakan bahasa Bali Kuno yang artinya salam sejahtera untuk Anda sebagai salam pembuka. Ucapan salam sejahtera telah diucapkan sebelum kata Om swasti astu,berarti pengalihkodean dari bahasa Indonesia dengan mengulang kembali arti kalimat sebelumnya dengan menggunakan bahasa Bali Kuno. Pengalihkodean bahasa asing (bahasa Arab dan bahasa Inggris) tanpa menyebutkan kalimat yang dialihkodekan Berikut ini beberapa data pengalihkodean tanpa menyebutkan bahasa yang dialihkodekan oleh Mario Teguh. Untuk data-data dibawah ini pengalihkodean dalam bahasa Inggris. 4. Berarti kalau ada masalah, tugas pertama kita harus mengerti kenapa masalah datang pada Anda. Kalau iya, what’s define you? (19/1/2014) 5. Tahu ndak, saya punya kebiasaan kalau disakiti hati saya oleh orang saya bilang apa,I will remember this.(16/5/2014) 6. Laki-laki berharap wanita pilihannya wanita to be the mother his child.(12/1/2014) 7. Bagaimana cara melupakannya, give him time.(12/1/2014) Kalimat what’s define you, I will remember this, to be the mother his child, dan give him time, yang dituturkan Mario teguh pada acara Golden Ways merupakan bentuk alih kode ke dalam bahasa asing khususnya bahasa Inggris. Kalimat tersebut dalam bahasa Indonesia berarti apa kesimpulan Anda, saya akan mengingatnya, untuk menjadi ibu bagi anaknya, beri dia waktu. Mario Teguh sesekali menggunakan alih kode dengan bahasa Arab. Di bawah ini beberapa data pengalihkodean dalam bahasa Arab. 8. Sahabat-sahabat saya yang baik hatinya, selamat malam Assalamualaikum warahmatullahi wabarakatuh. 9. Laki-laki muda yang dihina oleh wanita akan menikah dengan wanita muda yang lebih cantik, insya Allah. (19/12014) Untuk data (9) alih kode yang digunakan pada salam pembuka dengan mengucap Assalamualaikum warahmatullahi wabarakatuh yang artinya semoga rahmat Allah tercurah untukmu. Alih kode bahasa Arab lainnya yang muncul kata insya Allah memiliki arti jika Allah mengijinkan.

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Campur Kode Pada acara Golden Ways di Metro TV tutur bahasa Mario Teguh sering menyisipkan kata bahasa Inggris, bahasa Jawa, dan bahasa Arab. Penyisipan kata non-Indonesia tersebut menyebabkan terjadinya campur kode. Dalam bahasa Inggris ada dua macam wujud pencampurkodean yang dilakukan Mario Teguh, yaitu wujud kata dan wujud frasa. Sedangkan Dalam bahasa Jawa dan bahasa Arab, penulis hanya menemukan satu wujud pencampurkodean yaitu wujud kata. Campur kode bahasa Inggris dalam wujud kata sebagai berikut. 10. Uang sedikit beli handphone mahal, padahal tidak ada yang ditelpon. (19/1/2014) Campur kode yang dilakukan Mario Teguh terdapat pada data 10 yaitu kata handphone yang berarti telepon gengam. Mario Teguh melakukan campur kode untuk mengakrabkan suasana yang lebih santai sehingga acara tersebut tidak monoton dan campur kode dalam kata handphone juga tidak asing di telinga pemirsa. Campur kode bahasa Inggris dalam wujud frasa berikut ini. 11. Sekarang kita yang harus move on ke Ibu Ulfa.(12/1/2014) Frasa move on merupakan campur kode yang dilakukan Mario Teguh yang berarti pindah ke Ibu Ulfa dengan menunjuk Ibu Ulfa sebagai peserta yang naik ke panggung. Campur kode dalam kata bahasa Jawa sebagaimana data di bawah ini. 12. Aku sih ndak bilang cinta, tapi rabi yuk. (8/6/2014) 13. Begitu putus langsung bikin status aku rapopo. (16/5/2014) Mario Teguh biasanya juga menyisipkan campur kode dalam bahasa Jawa sebagai contoh kata rabi dan ra popo yang berarti nikah dan tidak apa-apa, Sebagai latar belakang orang Jawa, kebetulan Mario Teguh asli Malang, Jawa Timur tentu saja bahasa ibu tidak akan lepas dari kehidupannya. Selain itu Mario Teguh ingin menciptakan suasana lebih akrab,santai serta sebagian besar pemirsa mempunyai latar belakang bahasa daerah yang sama yaitu daerah Jawa. Campur kode bahasa Arab ditemukan pada tutur bahasa Mario Teguh 14. Dia disuruh istikharah, kamu istikharah juga ya? (8/6/2014) 15. Mana orangnya tadi, sudah insyaf ya? (8/6/2014) Sebagaimana kita ketahui bahwa sebagian masyarakat Indonesia beragama Islam, sedikit banyak tahu arti dari kata tersebut. Mario Teguh menciptakan suasana yang relevan yaitu adanya saling ketergantungan antara fungsi kontekstual dan situasional yang relevan dalam pemakaian dua bahasa. 5. Penutup Penggunaan lebih dari satu bahasa sebagai komunikasi bahasa telah tercipta adanya alih kode dan campur kode. Mario Teguh telah melakukan alih kode dan campur kode dalam acara Golden Ways di Metro TV. Adapun hasil dari analisis penelitian ini sebagai berikut. 1. a. Variasi alih kode yaitu adanya pengalihkodean dengan menyebutkan kalimat yang dialihkodekan dan pengalihkodean tanpa menyebutkan kalimat yang dialihkodekan baik itu dalam bahasa Inggris maupun bahasa Arab. b. Variasi campur kode yaitu adanya kata dan frasa dalam bahasa Inggris. Untuk bahasa Jawa dan bahasa Arab hanya terdapat wujud kata. 2. Faktor yang menyebabkan Mario Teguh melakukan alih kode dan campur kode dari bahasa Indonesia ke bahasa Inggris, bahasa Arab, dan bahasa Jawa atau sebaliknya diantaranya; a. ingin menciptakan suasana akrab dan santai pada acara Golden Ways dengan berbagai kalangan. b. ingin menciptakan suasana yang relevan dengan konteks yang dibicarakan dalam pemakaian dua bahasa. c. ingin menciptakan suasana keakraban dari suasana formal di televisi menjadi informal dengan memunculkan bahasa daerah.

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Daftar Pustaka Nirmala, Vita. 2013. Tukul Arwana dalam Bukan Empat Mata: Analisis Alih Kode Campur Kode. Kandai Jurnal Bahasa dan Sastra. Volume 9, Halaman 302-313. Pamungkas, Sri. 2012. Bahasa Indonesia dalam Berbagai Perspektif dilengkapi dengan Teori, Aplikasi dan Analisis Penggunaan bahasa Indonesia Saat ini. Yogyakarta: Andi Yogyakarta. Rahardi, Kunjana. 2001. Sosiolinguistik, Kode, dan Alih Kode. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar Suhardi, Sembiring.2005. “Aspek Sosial Bahasa”dalam Pesona Bahasa Langkah Awal Memahami Linguistik. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Suwito, 1985. Sosiolinguistik: Teori dan Problema. Surakarta: Henary offset.

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Campur Kode dan Alih Kode dalam Komentar Facebook Syarifah Lubna, Balai Bahasa Provinsi Kalimantan Barat

Abstrak Sosialisasi manusia dapat memanfaatkan jaringan media sosial facebook. Facebook memungkinkan masing-masing orang dari segala tempat untuk tetap berhubungan satu sama lain. Oleh karena tidak berasal dari tempat yang sama, ada banyak varian bahasa yang muncul dalam komentar facebook. Setiap orang yang berasal dari tempat yang sama, cenderung menggunakan bahasa ibu untuk mengomentari hal yang dibagi oleh pemberi komentar. Yang berlainan suku dan berasal dari negara yang sama akan menggunakan bahasa persatuan yaitu bahasa Indonesia, bahkan yang berlainan negara, akan menggunakan bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa pergaulan internasional. Perbedaan-perbedaan bahasa ini akan dideskripsikan melalui campur kode dan alih kode yang terjadi dalam komentar-komentar facebook tersebut. Dari data yang ada, tampak bahwa sebagai penutur multibahasa, orang Indonesia yang diwakilkan oleh Data 1 dan 2 cenderung melakukan alih kode, minimal pada tataran dialek ketika berbicara pada mitra tutur yang diketahui mempunyai latar belakang kebahasaan yang sama. Alih kode yang dilakukan secara intern, misalnya bahasa Indonesia dalam dialek Melayu, Betawi, dan Jawa serta secara ekstern yaitu bahasa Inggris. Saat melakukan alih kode, terdapat campur kode pada tataran kata, ungkapan dan kalimat. Campur kode pada data yang berasal dari dalam negeri yaitu dari bahasa Melayu, Betawi, Jawa, Bali, dan bahasa gaul. Sedangkan campur kode yang berasal dari luar yaitu dari bahasa Inggris, Arab, dan Perancis. Kata kunci: alih kode, campur kode, komentar facebook.

1. Pendahuluan Sebagai makhluk sosial, walaupun disela rutinitas kesibukan bekerja, manusia tetap ingin berhubungan dan bersosialisasi dengan kenalan satu dan yang lainnya. Sosialisasi ini dapat memanfaatkan jaringan media sosial yang terhubung via internet dengan menghubungkan piranti komunikasi masing-masing individu. Ada banyak jejaring sosial yang ada di masyarakat sekarang, satu diantaranya adalah facebook. Facebook memungkinkan masing-masing orang dari segala tempat untuk tetap berhubungan satu sama lain. Saat berhubungan atau berkomunikasi melalui facebook. Penutur mempunyai dinding untuk menulis atau berbagi apa yang ada di pikirannya atau pengalaman apa yang hendak dibaginya kepada orang lain atau teman-teman yang terhubung melalui facebooknya. Status atau pengalaman yang dibagi ini disebut dengan status. Biasanya ia akan mengutarakan pendapatnya dengan bahasa yang dikuasainya. Setelah itu, temannya akan membaca dan mengomentari apa yang barusan ditulisnya. Setiap orang Indonesia yang umumnya multibahasa, akan memilih satu bahasa yang dikuasainya untuk menulis status di facebook yang dibagi di dindingnya. Kemudian pemberi komentar akan mengomentarinya. Pemberi komentar ini belum tentu berasal dan berada di tempat yang sama. Itu sebabnya, kadang ada banyak varian bahasa yang muncul dalam komentar facebook. Setiap orang yang berasal dari tempat yang sama, cenderung menggunakan bahasa ibu atau bahasa pergaulan yang sama untuk mengomentari hal yang dibagi oleh pemberi komentar atau penulis status. Yang berlainan suku dan berasal dari negara yang sama akan menggunakan bahasa persatuan yaitu bahasa Indonesia. Bahkan yang berlainan negara, akan menggunakan bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa pergaulan internasional. Tulisan ini akan mendeskripsikan campur kode dan alih kode yang terjadi dalam komentar-komentar facebook tersebut.

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2. Sumber data Data yang digunakan dalam tulisan ini bersumber dari facebook penulis. Data diambil secara acak dari teman yang menulis status di beranda facebook dengan memperhatikan ketersediaan unsur campur kode dan alih kode dalam komentar-komentar yang dikemukakan terhadap status dalam data 1 dan data 2. Data 1. Status: DN ingin tahu 20 Mei 2014 8:14 Ngomong politik dikit bolehkn?? Dipikiranku klo sampai Jokowi jadi capres dan JK jadi cawapres nya, rasanya gak cocok aja…. Jokowi mbok yo ngalah biarin JK yg jadi capres nya hehehehe…. Ngegosip sama tetangga sebelahpun tentang siapa capres jagoannya, punya pendapat yang sama…. “kasian amat ya JK dari dulu koq jadi wakil presiden aja” Komentar: 1.1. APM: ngompol juga ah pagi2… karena itu JK itu memang gak bisa jadi pemimpin krn dia selalu di nomor 2 kan… hihihi… spesialis wapres… 1.2. RI: takutnya ada pulau, dan satelit yang dijual lagi… laaa kalo2 sampai jadi 1.3. RI: saya takut kalau jokowi jd presiden mengulang kesalahan yang sama 1.4. DN: JKW gak takut kualat po yo sama JK, wong tuo koq dinomor duakan hehehee…. 1.5. DN: iya mungkin setelah ini JKW nyalon jadi presiden Amerika hahaha 1.6. RI: kepedean jadi presiden amerika 1.7. NA: sy pun mikir gt ga bu, kasian JK, harusnya dya capres jokowi wakil. tp 5 thn lalu JK kan capres bu wakilnya wiranto… 1.8. DN: cocok padahal tu JK same wiranto.. wah sayang sekali 5 taun lalu tak bisa diulang lagi…. :-)) 1.9. OIB: prabowo~Hatta aja..jkw g cucok jd presiden.. 1.10. FCQ: http…(link berita dengan judul: PDID Siapkan Sanksi Jika JK Suka ‘Over’ Kewenangan-Tribunnews.com) 1.11. DN: OIB: iye lah b… apelagi banyak didukung oleh partai2 Islam dahlah itulah die… sebenarnye sih suke same JK, eh jadi bawahan JKW pulak tak jd lah…. 1.12. DN: FCQ: haha… siap2 aja klo beneran jadi… 1.13. FCQ: aku RAPOPO Aku RApuh Porak POranda…. 1.14. KF: mau nye pa JK…… blum tentu menang.. bagosss Prabowo htta… 100% pasti menang… 1.15. H: hidup Jokowi-JK, xixixi lakum dinnukum waliadin aja 1.16. NKJ: aku setuju, HK seoarang negarawan hebat, dan pantasnya jd RI1, tp simple aja jawabannya Din.. krn elektabilitas Jkw sekarang yg diinginkan (sebagian besar) rkyat utk jd RI-1, dan dipilih JK utk bisa melengkapi kekurangan2 Jkw.. apalagi JK skrg tdk punya modal mesin politik, hal yg diharuskan konstitusi utk maju sbg capres..  1.17. DN: FCQ: jargonnya JUPE ;-)) 1.18. DN: KF: aok meh pak…. hehehhe :D 1.19. DN: H: menghargai pilihan rakyat xixixixix… 1.20. DN: NKJ: iya sih Bli… tapi rasanya lebih pantas JK yg jadi capres nya…  1.21. FCQ: yang terjadi sesungguhnya adalah de Javu Golkar 2004. dengan kata lain, pemenang sesungguhnya adalah Akbar Tanjung. 1.22. NS: Terbukti Jokowi mau nrima bekasnya SBY…. Data 2. Status YSR 22 Juni 2014 9:40 Maine = Lobsters :D Komentar: 2.1. WA: wah jd inget yg makan otak lobster…he..he.. 2.2. YSR: WA haha..saking semangatnya ya :D 2.3. WA: pas liat foto ini, dia akhirnya gugling otak lobster…langsung manyun pas baca di internet…ha..ha..ha..

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2.4. YSR: Hahaha! Pengalaman berharga, Will! :D 2.5. DSK: darah tinggi ma’am banyak banyak makan itu :p 2.6. YSR: DSK sekali2… :D 2.7. ZA: Kok jadi bingung? 2.8. YSR: p. ZA hehe..penasaran aja itu pak, rasanya gmn krn masaknya hanya direbus menggunakan air laut…ternyata maknyus! :D 2.9. MF: Really love this picture, Y 2.10. EL: ngilerrrrr 2.11. YL: itu lobster beneran ya bu? Hheheee… Gede banget ya…. 2.12. DL: belom makan dah kenyang duluan, y :D 2.13. YSR: Thanks a lot, MF! The lobsters were fresh and very tasty! :D 2.14. YSR: EL hehe… YL Alhamdulillah beneran, bukan replika :D 2.15. YSR: Mb DL hihi..iya tuh, makanya diliatin dulu :D 3. Campur kode dan alih kode Analisis Data 1 Latar belakang status adalah beranda facebook Syarifah Lubna dinding DN. Topik mengenai dunia perpolitikan Indonesia saat ini, tepatnya tentang calon presiden dan wakil presiden 2014-2019. Status pada data 1 berupa bahasa Indonesia dalam ragam santai. Kesantaian penutur ditunjukkan dengan melebihkan jumlah tanda baca dengan tujuan penegasan bertanya tetapi tetap dengan intonasi suara yang pelan. Selain itu penutur juga menyingkat penulisan huruf pada ketikan statusnya, yaitu kata “kan” menjadi “kn”, “kalau” menjadi “klo”, “mengalah” menjadi “ngalah”, “yang” menjadi “yg” dan “saja” menjadi “aja”. Terdapat campur kode dalam bahasa Betawi yaitu pada kata “Ngomong”, “dikit”, “gak”, “biarin”, “ngegosip”, “kasian amat” dan “koq”. Selain dalam bahasa Betawi, juga terdapat campur kode dalam bahasa Jawa yaitu “mbok yo ngalah”. Empat belas orang teman penutur menyukai statusnya dan terdapat 22 komentar di bawahnya. 1.1. Tidak terdapat alih kode dalam komentar ini. Komentar masih dalam bahasa Indonesia ragam santai. Campur kode terdapat dalam ungkapan “ngompol” dan kata “gak” yang berasal dari kata bahasa Betawi. 1.2. Tidak terdapat alih kode dalam komentar ini. Ragam bahasa yang digunakan masih dalam situasi non formal bahasa Indonesia yang ditunjukkan dengan melebihkan tanda baca titik diakhir kalimat. Campur kode terdapat pada kata “laaa kalo2” yang berasal dari bahasa Betawi. 1.3. Tidak terdapat alih kode dan campur kode dalam komentar ini. Ragam santai ditunjukkan dengan menyingkat penulisan kata “yang” menjadi “yg” dan penulisan nama tidak diawali dengan huruf kapital. 1.4. Alih kode terjadi secara intern atau ke dalam yaitu pada tataran dialek Jawa yang terdapat dalam komentar ini, meskipun kata “gak” juga turut mewarnai kalimat ini. Alih kode disertai dengan campur kode dalam bahasa Jawa yaitu “gak takut kualat po yo sama JK, wong tuo koq dinomor duakan hehehee….” Tujuan penutur melakukan itu untuk menegaskan pokok pembicaraannya. 1.5. Alih kode kembali pada bahasa Indonesia dalam ragam santai. Penggunaan kata “nyalon jadi” menegaskan ketidakformalan bahasa yang digunakan. 1.6. Tidak terdapat alih kode dalam komentar ini. Kesantaian dan ketidakformalan diperlihatkan dengan absennya huruf kapital pada nama Negara dan campur kode terdapat pada ungkapan “kepedean jadi presiden amerika”. 1.7. Terdapat alih kode ke dalam bahasa Melayu dalam komentar ini. Hal ini bertujuan untuk lebih mengakrabkan suasana. Ketidakformalan masih tampak pada penyingkatan tulisan “saya” menjadi “sy”, “kasihan” menjadi “kasian” “tapi” menjadi “tp”, dan “tahun” menjadi “thn” serta kata sapaan “bu” yang seharusnya diawali dengan huruf kapital. Campur kode dalam bahasa Melayu tampak pada kata “mikir”, “gt ga”, dan “dya”.

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1.8. Alih kode terjadi pada tataran dialek, dari gaya bahasa Indonesia menjadi bahasa Melayu disebabkan karena penutur mengetahui bahwa mitra tuturnya mempunyai latar belakang kebahasaan Melayu, ia menyahutnya dengan dialek yang sama. Ketidakformalan masih tampak pada penyingkatan kata “tu” dari “itu” dan “taun” dari “tahun” serta pelebihan tanda berhenti titik pada akhir kalimat. Campur kode ke dalam bahasa Melayu juga dilakukan dengan menggunakan kata “same”. 1.9. Komentar ini masih dalam ragam santai. Campur kode dalam bahasa gaul dengan menggunakan kata “aja”, “g” yang merupakan kependekan dari “gak” dan “cucok”. Ketidakformalan tampak pada penyingkatan kata “jadi” menjadi “jd” dan tanda titik yang berjumlah dua diakhir kalimat. 1.10. Penutur komentar ini menyatakan pikirannya dengan mengaitkan sebuah berita dari Koran portal. Tautan berita tidak dideskripsikan campur kode dan alih kodenya. 1.11. Alih kode kembali dilakukan dalam tataran dialek bahasa Melayu karena penutur mengetahui bahwa mitra tuturnya mempunyai latar belakang kebahasaan tersebut. Campur kode dalam bahasa yang sama juga memperkuat komentar ini “iye lah b… apelagi banyak didukung oleh partai2 Islam dahlah itulah die… sebenarnye sih suke same JK, eh jadi bawahan JKW pulak tak jd lah….” Ketidakformalan juga tampak pada penyingkatan penulisan kata ulang dengan angka “2” di belakang kata yang dimaksud untuk diulang, dan “jd” merupakan kependekan dari kata “jadi”. 1.12. Komentar ini beralih kode kembali pada bahasa Indonesia ragam santai dialek Betawi yang tampak pada campur kode pada tataran kata “aja”, “klo” yang merupakan singkat “kalo” dan “beneran”. Kesantaian juga diperlihatkan dengan penulisan kata ulang dengan angka “2” dibelakang kata yang dimaksud. 1.13. Tidak terdapat alih kode dalam komentar ini. Campur kode terdapat pada ungkapan “RAPOPO” yang merupakan bahasa Jawa dan ternyata merupakan kependekan dari kata dalam bahasa Indonesia “RApuh POrak POranda”. 1.14. Alih kode terjadi kedalam dialek bahasa Melayu dengan mengganti bunyi huruf vokal “a” menjadi “e” dalam kata “maunye” dan pergantian huruf “u” menjadi “o” dalam kata “bagosss”. Ketidakformalan tampak pada pengurangan huruf “k” pada kataan sapaan “pa” yang seharusnya juga diawali dengan huruf kapital. Pelebihan tanda titik diakhir kalimat dan pelebihan huruf “s” untuk penegasan pada kata “bagosss”. Selain itu penyingkatan penulisan juga terjadi pada kata “blum”, dan “htta”. Penulisan nama “Hatta”, selain disingkat menjadi “htta” juga tidak ditulis dengan huruf kapital untuk menegaskan ketidakresmian pembicaraan. 1.15. Tidak terdapat alih kode dalam komentar dan campur kode terdapat dalam ungkapan doa bahasa Arab yaitu “lakum dinnukum waliadin” dan “aja” yang berasal dari bahasa Betawi. 1.16. Tidak ada alih kode dalam komentar ini. Campur kode terdapat pada kata “simple” yang berasal dari bahasa Inggris. 1.17. Tidak terdapat alih kode dan campur kode dalam komentar ini. 1.18. Terdapat alih kode dan campur kode ke dalam bahasa Melayu Ketapang yaitu pernyataan “aok meh pak”. 1.19. Tidak terdapat campur kode dan alih kode dalam komentar ini. 1.20. Tidak terdapat alih kode dalam komentar ini dan campur kode terjadi pada kata sapaan “bli” yang berasal dari bahasa Bali. 1.21. Tidak terdapat alih kode dalam komentar ini. Campur kode terdapat pada ungkapan “de Javu” yang berasal dari Perancis. 1.22. Tidak terdapat campur kode dan alih kode dalam komentar ini. Analisis Data 2 Latar belakang status adalah beranda facebook Syarifah Lubna Dinding YSR. Topik mengenai dunia kuliner yaitu diunggahnya foto YSR sedang mengamati disertai pose menahan kepala dan memegang sungut satu diantara setumpuk lobster yang terdapat dalam nampah. Separuh nampah besar ini berisi lobster-lobster, dan separuhnya lagi digunakan untuk

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meletakkan piring-piring kertas, garpu-garpu plastik, dan tusuk makanan seukuran sumpit. Dalam statusnya ia menyebut “Maine = Lobsters”. Maine adalah sebuah negara bagian Amerika Serikat. Dengan menulis simbol = (sama dengan), ia mengidentikkan negara ini dengan udangudang besar tersebut. Bisa jadi hal ini disebabkan karena lobster tersebut berasal dari Maine yang posisinya berdekatan dengan samudera Altlantik. Status ini menggunakan bahasa Inggris karena kata lobster disertai huruf “s” yang bermakna plural atau jamak. Meskipun sejatinya ditulis dalam bahasa Inggris, tapi status ini sangat bisa dipahami dalam bahasa Indonesia karena penulisan lobster dengan s tidak berpengaruh dan memberikan kerancuan dalam arti. Terdapat 32 orang menyukai status ini dan ada 15 komentar di bawahnya. 2.1. Terdapat alih kode kebahasa Indonesia ragam santai dengan menyingkat penulisan, kata “jadi” menjadi “jd” dan “yang” menjadi “yg”, serta memberikan tiga tanda titik di akhir kalimat yang merujuk pada makna kalimat itu diucapkan secara perlahan dan pelan sambil tertawa kecil. Alih kode disebabkan oleh pengetahuan penutur tentang mitra tutur yang memiliki latar belakang kebahasaan yang sama. Terdapat campur kode dalam tataran kata berupa kata dalam bahasa Betawi yaitu “inget” dalam komentar ini. 2.2. Komentar kedua (2.2.) langsung menanggapi dengan simbol turut tertawa. Tidak terdapat aih kode maupun campur kode dalam kalimat ini. Komentar masih dalam bahasa Indonesia ragam santai. 2.3. Tidak terdapat alih kode dalam komentar ketiga, tetapi terdapat campur kode dalam bahasa Betawi pada kata “manyun” dan interferensi bahasa Inggris pada kata “gugling”. 2.4. Tidak terdapat alih kode dan campur kode dalam komentar ini. 2.5. Tidak terdapat alih kode pada komentar ini, komentar masih dalam ragam santai bahasa Indonesia. Campur kode terdapat pada kata “ma’am” yang berasal dari bahasa Inggris. 2.6. Tidak terdapat alih kode dan campur kode dalam komentar ini. 2.7. Tidak terdapat alih kode dan campur kode dalam komentar ini. 2.8. Tidak terdapat alih kode dalam komentar ini. Bahasa yang digunakan masih dalam ragam santai. Hal ini ditegaskan dengan penulisan kata yang disingkat “gmn”, “krn”, dan “dgn”. Campur kode terdapat pada kata “aja” dan “gmn” yang merupakan kependekan penulisan kata “gimana” yang merupakan bahasa Betawi dan “maknyus” yang berasal dari bahasa Jawa. 2.9. Komentar ini beralih kode keluar dalam bahasa asing yaitu bahasa Inggris tapi masih menggunakan ragam santai karena status sebenarnya tertulis juga dalam bahasa Inggris. Alih kode disebabkan karena penutur tahu bahwa mitra tuturnya mampu menggunakan bahasa yang sama, walaupun semua komentar lain dalam bahasa Indonesia. Tidak terdapat campur kode didalamnya. 2.10. Komentar beralih kembali ke dalam bahasa Betawi dengan kata “ngiler” yang ditegaskan dengan penambahan tiga huruf dibelakangnya. 2.11. Tidak terdapat alih kode dalam komentar ini. Campur kode terdapat dalam kata “beneran” dan kalimat “Gede banget ya….” yang berasal dari bahasa Betawi. 2.12. Tidak terdapat alih kode dalam komentar ini. Campur kode terdapat dalam kata “belom”, “dah”, dan “duluan”yang berasal dari kata dalam bahasa Betawi. 2.13. Komentar beralih kode dalam bahasa Inggris karena sutu tujuan yaitu menjawab komentar sebelumnya yang diajukan dalam bahasa yang sama dan tidak ada campur kode didalamnya. 2.14. Komentar beralih kembali ke dalam bahasa Indonesia karena mitra tutur mempunyai latar belakang kebahasaan yang sama. Terdapat campur kode dalam bahasa Betawi pada kata “beneran”. 2.15. Komentar tidak beralih kode dan terdapat campur kode dalam tataran kata dengan penggunaan kata sapaan bahasa Jawa yaitu “mbak” yang disingkat dengan huruf “mb” dan kata lain yaitu “tuh”, dan “diliatin”.

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4. Penutup Dari data yang tersaji di atas, tampak bahwa sebagai penutur multibahasa, orang Indonesia yang diwakilkan oleh Data 1 dan 2 cenderung melakukan alih kode, minimal pada tataran dialek ketika berbicara pada mitra tutur yang diketahui mempunyai latar belakang kebahasaan yang sama. Alih kode yang dilakukan secara intern, misalnya ke dalam bahasa Indonesia dialek Melayu, Betawi dan Jawa serta secara ekstern yaitu bahasa Inggris. Saat melakukan alih kode, juga terdapat campur kode pada tataran kata, ungkapan dan kalimat. Campur kode pada data yang berasal dari dalam negeri yaitu dari bahasa Melayu, Betawi, Jawa, Bali dan bahasa gaul. Sedangkan campur kode yang berasal dari luar yaitu dari bahasa Inggris, Arab dan Perancis.

Pustaka Acuan Chaer, Abdul dan Agustina, Leonie. 2010. Sosiolinguistik Perkenalan Awal. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta. Mahsun. 2005. Metode Penelitian Bahasa. Tahapan, Strategi, Metode dan Tehniknya. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers. Sumarsono. 2013. Sosiolinguistik. Yogyakarta: SABDA.

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Managing Students' Dynamic Learning in Speaking Class via Interactive Role-Plays (A Pre-Experimental Design) Muhamad Ahsanu, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Jenderal Soedirman University

Abstract This paper is concerned with the exploration of the effectiveness of Role-Plays in making a dynamic learning in speaking class whose main goal is to make students' speaking ability and confidence increase significantly. The underlying reasons of this mini research is, firstly, to prove as to whether this teaching technique is effective or not, and, secondly, is to help teachers seek out an interactive, dynamic, and effective teaching technique that can trigger students active participation and boost their learning confidence in speaking English for varied purposes and in a range of contexts. It is assumed that tools and processes determine ends. The pre-experimental design is chosen which has only one experimental class without any control class. The number of the subjects is twenty three students taking interpersonal speaking class. Hence, the treatment of the subject, taking place for seven weeks, is only given to that experimental class projected to see the mean difference of their performance before and after the treatment. The finding shows that the pre-test score is 77 whereas the post-test is 79 implying that the technique give a slight significance. To strengthen the test results, this paper also use questionnaires articulating and demonstrating the effectiveness of the technique. Keywords: Role-play, Interactive learning, speaking class, pre-experimental design

1. Introduction Of so many definitions of learning, there might be one kind that fits this research paper. Learning (Brown 2000: 7) involves some forms of practice, perhaps reinforced practice. Brown further clarifies that the concept of learning becomes every bit as complex as the concept of language. Teaching cannot be defined apart from learning. According to Brown (2000), teaching is guiding and facilitating learning, enabling the learner to learn, setting the conditions for learning. Brown highlights that our understanding of how the learner learns will determine our teaching style, our approach, methods, and classroom techniques. Learning a second language is a long and complex undertaking. For so many years, education was synonymous with textbooks, lecturers, blackboard and whiteboard, chalk and boardmaker. Yet a number of facets have united to change the faces of education and open the ways to novel notions and techniques. Inevitably, many of these have encouraged an expanding interest in the idea of interactive and dynamic learning. Parallel with this, the core queries related to teaching and learning are raised to address that issue: a) should learning be teacher-centered, or student-centered? and b) how can learning be made active rather than passive? The fruit of the intense debates among educationalists especially language teachers pertaining to both active learning and student-centered learning which have been in a state of flux is the concept of group learning as against individual learning. Group learning here particularly refers to dynamic learning in which the dynamics of a team or group enable its members to learn from one another (van Ments 1999: 2). This idea presumes that working as part of a group can heighten the individual's understanding of the subject and facilitate the transition from theory to practice. 2. Literature review 2.1 Classroom Learning management Teachers or lecturers might find in their classroom learning that there are often very few contexts where students learn English only for the aims of listening and reading, withou any

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need to interact with others in speech. Yet when it comes to giving students opportunities to talk, constraints such as large, multilevel classes, traditions of learning, an examination-oriented curriculum, and difficulties in accessing resources all seem to stand in the way of organizing talk (Lewis 2002). Another important aspect of classroom management is the role of the teacher or lecturer. Teachers or lecturers sometimes fear losing their central classroom role as practiced in the traditional classroom, where students asked questions that teachers could answer. Another typical situation is that a teacher is encouraging everyone to talk in pairs or in groups of three to four, and the talk is so successful that the teacher next door complains. Many great ideas run through language teaching like cooperative learning, authenticity, and task-based syllabuses, to name just a few. Underpinning them all becomes the essential ability of a teacher or lecturer to manage students and the environment to make the most of the opportunities for learning and practicing language. In tandem with this, Stevick (1996) in Lewis (2002: 47) articulates three hopes, which also become the writer's hopes, for both students and teachers. In classroom learning, he hopes the students to be involved, to feel comfortable while being involved in that classroom activity, and to be listening to one another as well as to the teacher. Teachers are hoped to be in general control, to allow and encourage originality in students and to look "relaxed and matter-of-fact giving information about appropriateness or correctness rather than criticizing or praising." 2.2 Dynamic Learning In the writer's simple analogy, dynamic learning is what people call cooperative learning. With cooperative learning, students work together in groups whose usual size is two to four members. Jacobs and Hall (2002) underline that cooperative learning is more than just putting students in groups and giving them something to do. Its principles and techniques are tools which teachers use to encourage mutual helpfulness in the groups and the active participation of all members. Other advantages resulted from cooperative learning for second or foreign language learning include increased student talk, more varied talk, a more relaxed atmosphere, greater motivation, and increased amount of comprehensible input (Liang, Mohan, and Early 1998; Olsen and Kagan 1992 in Jacobs and Hall 2002). Yet, in implementing cooperative learning is not like waving a magic wand and everything is done in a second. Teachers or lecturers need to explain to students why they are using it, to start it slowly, be patient and be persistent. 2.3 Speaking Class Of all the four skills, speaking seems intuitively the most important one: people who know a language are referred to as speakers of that language and therefore many foreign language learners are mainly intrigued in learning to speak. Thus, according to Ur (1996) classroom activities that develop learners' ability to express themselves through speech would be an important tenet of a language program. This can be realized through a role-play. This, in Ur's belief (1996), is a way for students to 'get the feel' of what communicating in the foreign language really feels like. To earn this, there should be good speaking activities. They should be highly motivating. Speaking tasks in role-plays are intrinsically enjoyable in themselves. How about teachers' (lecturers) involvement? In role-play activities, it is better for teachers or lecturers to stand back so that they can watch and listen to what is going on (Harmer 1998). Sometimes teachers or lecturers need to intervene in some way if the activity is not going smoothly, or if a student in a role-play cannot think of what to say. The key factor in L2 or foreign language development is the opportunity given to the learners to speak in the language-promoting interaction. Teachers or lecturers should arouse the learners' willingness, needs, and reasons to speak. In support of this notion, Shumin (2002: 208) views that the functions of spoken language are inherently interactional and transactional. The primary intention of the former is to maintain social relationships, whereas that of the latter is to convey information and ideas. Therefore, as suggested by Rivers (1987) in Shumin (2002),

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language instructors should provide learners with opportunities for meaningful communicative behavior about relevant topics by using learner-learner interaction as the key to teaching language for communication since communication derives essentially from interaction. 2.4 Interactive Role-Plays Amongst the frequently used interactive techniques, role-play plays a central role not only due to its practical procedures but more importantly because of its marked effectiveness in augmenting students' speaking skills. Role-play is used to refer to all sorts of activities where learners imagine themselves in a situation outside the classroom (Ur 1996: 131). Thus, role-play can be one of the ways to vary the kinds of spoken interaction that learners can experience in the classroom. The idea of role-play is that of asking someone to imagine that they are either themselves or another person in a particular situation (van Ments 1999: 4). In practice, they are required to behave exactly as they feel that person would. As Ladousses (in van Ments 1999: 9) puts it: the idea of 'role' is that of taking part in a specific situation, the idea of 'play' is associated with a safe environment and encouraging creativity. Role-players are not concerned with an audience, but only with themselves and other role-players. Their aim is to feel, react and behave as closely as possible to the way someone placed in that particular situation would do. 2.5 Running the role-play There are many ways of organizing a role-play depending on its purpose and the type of student involved. They are like Fish-bowl, Multiple, Role-rotation, Role-reversal, Doubling, Mirroring, etc. Yet, in this slot, the researcher solely describes of multiple technique for it is the technique that the researcher most frequently used in his teaching of Speaking class. Multiple techniques are just one alternative approach that teachers and lecturers can employ in their teaching. In this, the class is split up into a number of small groups of two or three students and each group enacts the role-play at the same time. In other words, a number of identical roleplays take place in parallel. The classic way of using this method is where the class wants to explore the interaction between two people in either formal or informal interviews. 2.6 Starting the role-play The kick-off of the actual role-play is usually fairly straightforward. It may be that the design of the warm-up is such that it leads smoothly into the role-play. In conventional roleplays, it will be necessary for a teacher or a lecturer to give some sort of starting signal. The participants/students should be clear as to when they are 'in' the role-play and when the rules governing it apply. The type of lead-in will vary with the teacher/lecturer and the particular scene to be acted out. In some cases, it is proper to provide a situational start; the teacher/lecturer may utter 'I'd like you to take over as chairperson and start the meeting. 3. Research method 3.1 Pre-Experimental Design The writer has measured a group of speaking class students on a dependent variable (O1), in this respect, their speaking abilities. They were introduced to the experimental manipulation (X), seven-week treatment of Role-play technique designed to increase their communicative competence (Hymes 1971). Following the experimental treatment, the researcher has again measured group speaking performance (O2) and proceeded to account for differences between pre-test and post-test scores by reference to the effects of X. Thus, this research used the one group pretest-posttest design or so-called pre-experimental design (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison 2007) represented below. Experimental O1 X O2 O1 = pretest O2 = posttest This design, as elucidated by Best and Kahn (2006), provides some improvement over the first, for the effects of the treatment are judged by the difference between the pretest and the posttest scores. Thus the writer means to find out a mean gain from pretest to posttest to see as

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to whether there is a significant improvement in speaking ability as a result of students' using role-play technique in their speaking class activities. However, the weakness of this design is that there are some relevant factors that are not controlled. In other words, if participants do significantly better on the posttest than on the pretest, it cannot be assumed that the improvement is merely due to the given treatment (Gay, Mills, and Airasian 2006: 251). Something may happen to the participants that make them perform better the second time, and the longer the study takes, the more likely it is that this something will threaten the validity. 4. Finding and discussion 4.1 Pretest results On the basis of the procedures outlined in the research design, the sample was given pretest to seek out their starting level of speaking performance used as the basis for determining the existence of the improvement of their speaking ability after the treatment was given. As shown in Table 1 below, the average of their speaking ability resulted from the pretest was 77. This obviously indicates that their speaking performance was relatively good in terms of scaled continuum of 10 to 100. In other words, their speaking ability is just above average. There might be many factors that can explain this, yet one very possible reason is that the students taken as the sample are in their second semester meaning that they have already had their speaking one class from which they learnt about basic to pre-intermediate levels of communication. Whatever the result does not influence the result of the research as the writer just intended to know their current level of their speaking ability. Table 1: Pretest score Average of Pretest scores 77 4.2 Posttest results Having given the treatment to the one-shot group, that is the sampled speaking class students, they were given the second test, namely posttest, meant to know the significant improvement of their speaking performance after learning their speaking class employing the role-play technique. Table 2 depicts that the average of the posttest scores was 79 which vividly shows a slight increase of their speaking performance. Phrased differently, the difference of both pretest and posttest is merely 2 points. From this figure, it can be inferred that the role-play does not give significant effect on the students speaking ability. Bluntly, it can be said that the technique is not effective as a device to improve students' speaking performance. However, the writer assumes that the pretest scores were in average quite high, so to upgrade their performance from that point seemed to be quite challenging for both teacher and students. In other words, whatever technique used in that circumstance the posttest score will remain around that pretest score. To verify this assumption, the writer went further with the questionnaire items to ensure that the increment of 2 points has another deep meaning. This is detailed in the discussion of the results of the questionnaires (see Table 3) related to the utilization of the roleplay technique used by their lecturer in the course of seven weeks in their second semester. Table 2: Posttest score Average of Posttest scores 79 4.3 Questionnaire results Table 3 displays the whole results of the questionnaires given to the sampled students aimed to strengthen the results of both pretest and posttest. The questionnaires were given right after the posttest was delivered to ensure that their mindset and perceptions on the use and effectiveness of the role-play technique. Principally, there are five items to be rated by the

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students including 1) effective technique, 2) equal opportunity, 3) interactive and collaborative, 4) confidence building, and 5) involvement and engagement. Each of these is presented successively below. Table 3: The tabulated questionnaire items Very agreeable = 5 Agreeable = 4 Undecided = 3 No Item 5 1 Role-play technique is an effective IIIII IIIII teaching technique for speaking III (13) class because it makes everybody speak and play a role that makes the class dynamic. 2 Role-play technique gives an equal IIIII III opportunity for all students to talk, (8) to debate, to exchange ideas, and to express opinions. 3 Roles-play technique makes the IIIII IIIII speaking class interactive and III (13) creates collaboration among students. 4 Role-Play technique can build my IIIII IIII confidence to speak with class(9) mates, to speak in front of the class and trigger me to use English inside and outside the class. 5 Role-play technique makes me IIIII IIIII engaged and involved in the class (10) discussion and makes me able to speak English more bravely, enthusiastically and fluently. Total 53

Disagreeable = 2 4 3 IIIII IIIII 0 (10)

Very Disagreeable = 1 2 1 Total 0 0 23

IIIII IIIII II (12)

II (2)

I (1)

0

23

IIIII III (8)

II (2)

0

0

23

IIIII IIIII I (11)

III (3)

0

0

23

IIIII IIIII (10)

II (2)

I (1)

0

23

51

9

2

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The first item in the questionnaires to be rated is regarding as to whether the role-play is an effective teaching technique or not. The students' opinionated responses are displayed in Chart 1 below. From the chart, it can be inferred that the majority of the students represented by 47% of the sample expressed their agreement that role-play is a very effective teaching technique for their speaking class. In quite the same tone, 30% of the respondents also indicate that they agreed with the proposition that role-play is just an effective method. Only 23% of them mentioned that they less agreed with the statement. From this, it can be finally concluded that the role-play in the eyes of most students is an effective teaching technique. Chart 1: Effective technique

Very agreeable

23% 0%

Agreeable 47%

30%

Less agreeable Disagreeable Very diasagreeable

The next item proposed was concerning with the fact whether the role-play can provide them with an equal opportunity to participate in the speaking activities or not. Somewhat similar to Chart 1, Chart 2 likewise indicates similar tendency of the respondents' opinions in which

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52% of them agreed that the technique give them an equal chance to express their ideas, feelings, objections, and the like. Based on the writer's observation, no single student was dominant the practice sessions since the role-play procedures prevented from doing it where the students were required to play their given roles only without intervening their partner's roles. So, it was very much like an exchanging activity. This choice is even supported by 35% of the respondents showing a very strong agreement of the truth of that equal opportunity sharing. Chart 2: Equal opportunity 9% 4%0%

Very agreeable 35%

Agreeable Less agreeable Disagreeable Very diasagreeable

52%

Chart 3, too, demonstrates more or less related results where 56% which is more than a half of the respondents uttered that this technique is very interactive and brings up the sense of collaboration among the students. This is no longer surprising as many reserachers, partly lamented in the theoritical framework, have found similar findings in their scientific projects. As elaborated in the framework, this technique by nature was designed in such a way that learners could perform interactive communication, making meaning potential, negotiating meanings, without being inhibited by other students' participation. Since in a role-play students have to cooperate one another if they wish to perform properly in their speaking acitivies, collaboration is a necessity. This is evidenced by the percentage of 35% of the sample agreeing that the role-play really promotes such cooperation. Chart 3: Interactive and collaborative

9% 0%

Very agreeable Agreeable

35%

56%

Less agreeable Disagreeable Very diasagreeable

Having a good self-confidence is vital in augmenting productive skills like speaking. Therefore, this item was considered important to be included in the questionnaires. It was surprising that nearly the entire respondents gave a shared opinion on the potential of the roleplay in building their confidence in their interactive speaking activities. Virtually no student seemed to be lack of confidence when they were engaged in conversation or discussions. They seemed not to care with their unstructured or ‘broken’ English as long as they were understood by their speaking partners. They even asked their friends when they stumbled with certain words, phrases or expressions they had not learnt yet. They just kept talking on and on as if they wanted to play their maximum roles. This is of course validated by the fact that 39% and 48%

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of the respondents exposed their agreement and high agreement respectively. Only few, which is 13%, did they reject the claim. This automatically denotes that this technique can enliven the respondents' self confidence in their reciprocal interaction. Chart 4: Confidence building

13% 0%

Very agreeable 39%

Agreeable Less agreeable Disagreeable

48%

Very diasagreeable

The last item to consider is concerning with the driven engagement and involvement undergone by the respondents during their intensive talk in the speaking class. Apparantly, this figures come to support the foregoing facts in which the role-play technique non-consciously ignited the students' involvement and engagement in the class discussion. Having monitored from corner to corner, the writer learnt that no student was reluctant to participate in the tasks given during the speaking class. Once their roles were clearly set and defined they reacted hastily to commence the speaking activities. Probably, they had a sense of freedom in their group discussions without being watched and monitored by the whole class since everybody was busy executing their own roles. So, what was mostly heard was a series of English 'noises', a chained of pure fun, and an endless questions, answers, comments, and suggestions since many of the role-plays were about problem solving. These elaborations are reflected in the figures in Chart 5 where 44% of the respondents were very agreeable with the proposition, 43% also just agreed with it and only 9% and 4% seemed to less agree and disagree with the statement. Chart 5: Involvement and engagement

0% 9% 4%

Very agreeable 44%

Agreeable Less agreeable Disagreeable

43%

Very diasagreeable

In brief, it can be summed up that despite the fact that the difference of pretest and posttest average scores was very slight showing little significance of the effectiveness of the role-play technique in developing students' speaking performance, the scaled opinions of the respondents on the meaningfulness of the role-play represented in the five items above clearly demonstrate that students' speaking ability can be potentially propelled by this technique on condition that it is properly administered by the teacher or lecturer.

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5. Conclusion As a technique, role-play has proved to be very powerful. It is highly motivating and enables students to put themselves in situations they have never experienced before; in particular it opens the way for them to put themselves in others' shoes. Much of our behavior in interpersonal interactions is governed by our assumptions about our own role, other people's roles, and the way we perceive these roles. Therefore, it is natural that when we want to teach subjects like Speaking which involve interpersonal behavior we should turn to role-playing as a potent teaching technique. This technique can be used at different levels to teach simple skills of communication to show how people interact and their stereotyping of others, and to explore deep personal blocks and emotions. Role-play is best used in teaching where the tutor wants students to experience and become involved in the situation they are studying and to formulate their attitudes towards it. It is an excellent way of developing interpersonal and communication skills and provides highly motivating and memorable lessons. It is part of the duty of a teacher / lecturer to point out stages and difficulties. The fact remains that using role-play is basically both simple and enjoyable. The only requirement is that it is to be done in a thoughtful way.

References Best, J. W. And Kahn, J. V. 2006. Research in Education. (10th Edition). Boston: Pearson Education Inc. Brown, H. D. 2000. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. (4th Edition). New York: Longman. Cohen, Manion, and Morrison. 2007. Research Methods in Education. (6th Edition). London: Routlege. Gay, L. R., Mills, G. E., and Airasian, P. 2006. Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Applications. (8th Edition). Ohio: Pearson Prentice Hall. Harmer, J. 1998. How to Teach English: An Introduction to the Practice of English Language Teaching. Essex: Longman Hymes, D. 1971. On Communicative Competence. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Jacobs, G. M. And Hall, S. 2002. Implementing Cooperative Learning. In Richards, J. C. And Renandya, W. A. (Eds.). Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 52-53. Lewis, M. 2002. Classroom Management. In Richards, J. C. And Renandya, W. A. (Eds.). Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 41-48. Shumin, K. 2002. Factors to Consider: Developing Adult EFL Students' Speaking Abilities. In Richards, J. C. And Renandya, W. A. (Eds.). Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 208-210. Van Ments, M. 1999. The effective Use of Role-play: Practical Techniques for Improving Learning. (2nd Edition). London: Kogan Page Limited. Ur, P. 1996. A course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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The Need for a New and Modern Polish Pronouncing Dictionary Przemysław Wiatrowski, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poland

Abstract Poland lacks an up-to-date, modern pronunciation dictionary. So far, there have only been two dictionaries of this type published – one in 1977, the other in 1990. Both lexicons contain entries which were controversial even at the time of publication. Moreover, they were compiled dozens of years ago. This makes much information contained in them obsolete as it does not take account either of the most recent changes in Polish pronunciation or recommendations codified in the standards of correct Polish pronunciation from 2006. Hence, it is of paramount importance to compile a new dictionary with correct data. The aim of the article is to present a preliminary project of a lexicon of this type (in the traditional, hard-copy version as well as online). The article discusses the assumptions behind the dictionary, problems arising when selecting entires, pronunciation variants (standard and colloquial pronunciation) and the level of detail in the information provided (pronunciation, stress, division into syllables, intonation contour in the case of selected phonetic phrases). Keywords: lexicography; Polish pronunciation dictionary; principles of correct Polish pronunciation

1. Polish spelling versus pronunciation Maria Steffen-Batóg (1997: 145), an eminent Polish scholar, writes: Rozbieżności pomiędzy wymową a pisownią są zjawiskiem powszechnym, występującym w różnych językach w różnym nasileniu. Są one związane z zachowawczym charakterem pisowni, która nie nadąża za rozwojowymi procesami fonetycznymi i fonologicznymi języka. [Discrepancies between pronunciation and spelling are a common phenomenon occurring in different languages with various intensity. They are related to the conservative nature of spelling which does not keep pace with phonetic and phonological developments in language]. Significant differences between spelling and pronunciation can be noticed in such languages as English and Polish. The spelling systems in these languages are not perfect, i.e. one grapheme rarely corresponds to one phone. The language which comes close to the ideal here is Indonesian, even though it too contains lexemes whose spelling does not reflect their phonetic rendering (Chaer 2007: 186). Pronunciation uncertainties focus most of all on words containing grapheme <e> which can denote phonemes /ə/ or /e/ depending on the context (Chaer 2007: 202, Chaer 2013: 109, Muslich 2008: 105). In Polish, full graphical equivalence of speech is rare. Examples of words where spelling and pronunciation are perfectly aligned include los [lͻs] – 3 letters and 3 phones, mama [mama] – 4 letters and 4 phones and rower [rͻvɛr] – 5 letters and 5 phones. In most cases, however, there are quantitative or qualitative differences between how a word (phrase, text) is pronounced and how it is written. Identical orthographic phones are noted in different ways. For instance, the phone [u] may be represented by letters (ul [ul]) or <ó> (sól [sul]), phone [x] by letter (huk [xuk]) or digraph (chór [xur]), phone [f] by letter (foka [fͻka] or <w> (lew [lɛf]). Also, the same graphical sign can be rendered as two separate sounds. This is the case of letter which can signify phones [b] (bas [bas] , [bʲ] (bis [bʲis]), [p] (chleb [xlɛp]) or – as pronounced by Poles in north-eastern Poland – [pʲ] in liaisons like [xlɛpʲ i sͻk].

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It is worth reminding the reader of the most important rules governing the distribution of phones in standard, general Polish (Wierzchowska 1967, 1971, 1980, Steffen-Batogowa 1975) which need to be reflected in the dictionary being developed. Polish is characteristic for the so-called nasal vowels (apart from Polish, these occur in two other national languages only – Portuguese and French). In the initial and mid position, they are pronounced only before fricative consonants (spirants). At the end of words, the orthographic letter <ą> is pronounced as the nasal vowel [ͻw] (vowels in Polish are pronounced asynchronously and are polysegmental in structure) whereas the orthographic letter <ę> is pronounced either as the nasal vowel [ɛw] or as the oral vowel [ɛ]. Letter combinations , , , , , , , , , , <en>, <em> occurring in foreign words before a spirant (such as awans, konspekt, kunszt, inżynier, rynsztok, enzym) can also have alternative pronunciations. They may be pronounced letter by letter or with the nasal vowel replacing them. All of the renderings mentioned above conform to the orthophonic standard of Polish. What is incorrect, however, are renderings where the nasal vowel is left out in the middle of Polish words before a spirant (e.g. [vͻns] instead of [vͻws] or the final orthographic letter <ą> is pronounced as [ͻm] (e.g. [sͻm] instead of [sͻw] , [ͻw] (e.g. [sͻw] instead of [sͻw] or [ͻ] (e.g. [sͻ] instead of [sͻw] . There are no nasal vowels before affricates, plosive consonants as well as phones [lʲ] and [w] (e.g. ręce [rɛnʦɛ], ciąć [ʨoɲʨ], dąb [dͻmp], wzięli [vʑelʲi], wziął [vʑͻw]). We must also take stock of questionable phenomena which are described by phoneticians and lexicographers in different ways. For example, it is still held as generally evident that it is mainly in the region of Wielkopolska (western part of Poland) that the grapheme <w> is pronounced as the voiced consonant [v] or – before [e] or [j] vowels – [vʲ] after letters denoting voiceless consonants (such as

, , , <s>, <sz>, ) (elsewhere in Poland this is pronounced as voiceless [f] or [fʲ]). Both renderings – voiceless [f]/[[fʲ] and voiced [v]/[vʲ] – are correct, but the first one (with [f]/[fʲ] is given primacy (Dunaj 2006). Importantly, the Wielkopolska variant with [v]/[vʲ] is now a pronunciation relic (Nowakowski, Wiatrowski 2008: 94–95). Particular attention needs to be given to the pronunciation of the letter <ń> after vowels but before affricates and plosives. In such phonetic positions, the letter is rendered by a group of two phones made up of [j] and – depending on the right-hand phonetic environment – the semiopen sonorant in its predorsal-dental [n] or predorsal-alveolar [n] version. Some phoneticians extend the group of sonorants occurring after [j] to include the bilabial [m] and velar [ŋ]. However, no detailed studies have been conducted in this respect. What also needs to be discussed is the distribution of soft nasal resonance (sometimes referred to as the nasal [j]). From the articulatory point of view, it is a voiced, high, frontal, nonsyllabic, flat (due to the shape of the lips) nasal vowel. It occurs as a rendering of the orthographic letter <ń> after a vowel but before a spirant (e.g. in words such as pański, koński, hiszpański, chiński). Some scholars believe that it also occurs at the end of words as the rendering of the letter <ń> (e.g. in lexemes such as koń, broń, słoń, dłoń). The feature is not a Polish standard, however, but a variety in the southern region of Małopolska. 2. Polish pronunciation dictionaries published so far In the history of Polish lexicography, so far there have only been two dictionaries devoted solely to the phonetic transcription of Polish pronunciation. Słownik wymowy polskiej PWN (Dictionary of Polish Pronunciation, Polish Scientific Publishers edited by Mieczysław Karaś and Maria Madejowa was published in 1977. At the time, it was a pioneering publication in Poland containing over 36000 entries. Lexical items were taken from Mały słownik języka polskiego (Concise Dictionary of the Polish Language) of 1968 edited by Halina Auderska, Zofia Łempicka and Stanisław Skorupka. Consequently, the entries only covered common Polish names to the detriment of proper names and foreign, unassimilated words. What is more, the authors used international phonetic notation (the system is not commonly known in Poland, especially among Polonists) which limited the readership to the community of specialists who knew the international phonetic alphabet and foreigners learning Polish. The dictionary is

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descriptive and normative as it registers different variants of Polish pronunciation which the authors assess and valuate accordingly. The other publication is Podręczny słownik poprwnej wymowy polskiej (Concise Dictionary of Correct Polish Pronunciation compiled in 1990 by Stanisław Urbańczyk and Władysław Lubaś. It contains over 6600 entries, 1500 of which are Polish and foreign proper names and acronyms. In line with the authors declared intention, the dictionary registered words which are often used and raise doubts as to their pronunciation. We do not know, however, what was the method of establishing usage frequency. The authors used orthographic-phonetic notation which means that signs from the Slavic phonetic alphabet were employed only when indispensable. The decision to use this form of notation was motivated by the need to reach a wide readership which would not only cover specialists and foreigners, but also anyone interested in the standards of correct pronunciation. It was also for this reason that the information supplied in the dictionary is basic and simplified (short explanatory notes). It is important to note that, contrary to the intention of the authors, the use of orthographic-phonetic notation prevents foreigners learning Polish from using the dictionary. As in the case of the 1977 publication, the Concise Dictionary of Correct Polish Pronunciation is descriptive and normative. In many places, the two dictionaries recommend different pronunciation standards. There are, for example, different recommendations on how to pronounce the singular genitive of nous like kwestia, partia, kopia. The 1977 dictionary gives preference to forms following the pattern of [kfɛstʲji], allowing [kfɛstʲi] as a variant. In the 1990 publication, forms without [j] are not allowed (Osowicka 2000: 149). Another drawback is that there are no clear recommendations on how to pronounce nasal vowels, recommendations which would be backed by research carried out before the dictionaries were published. The authors of the Dictionary of Polish Pronunciation write about synchronous pronunciation of nasal vowels in several places in the text, considering asynchronous forms to be incorrect. Such views are in stark contrast to the findings made by phoneticians who proved that the so-called nasal vowels are polysegmental in Polish and are pronounced asynchronously (e.g. Koneczna 1934, Dukiewicz 1967, Wierzchowska 1966, Steffen-Batogowa 1975). The authors of the Concise Dictionary of Correct Polish Pronunciation do not take any position on this issue, but their notations in relevant entries suggest to the uninitiated reader that nasals should be pronounced synchronously. They also propagate pronunciation mistakes recommending that nasals be pronounced before the [lʲ], [w] phones. The 1990 publication furthers the incorrect information according to which the combination of voiceless consonant + the orthographic letter <w> is pronounced with heterogeneous voicing by the inhabitants of the region of Wielkopolska. In fact, such nonhomogeneous pronunciations of [kv]//[kvʲ] combinations (a phenomenon which is untypical for Polish phonetics of obstruent groups) disappeared over thirty years ago. Małgorzata WitaszekSamborska (1985: 94) showed clearly that this feature dies out together with the old generation of intelligentsia living in Poznań (the capital city of the Wielkopolska region . The orthographic letter <ń> positioned after a vowel but before hard affricates and plosives (except for [k] and [g]) relatively often encodes the so-called articulatory dilation. The phenomenon had not been identified in detail neither when it comes to the timbre of phones producing the dilation nor from the perspective of its distribution and intensity of occurrence. Decisions made in this context by the authors of the two dictionaries were based only on their intuition instead of relevant research. It is a glaring mistake to inform readers that soft nasal resonance (nasal [j]) occurs, among others, in the final position to render the orthographic letter <ń> as in koń. The feature is not a Polish standard, but a variety in the southern region of Małopolska. It is worth noting that the dictionaries leave out the problem of division into syllables. Neither do they provide any detailed guidelines on intonation. As for supra-segmental phonetics, the only recommendations concern independent word stress while there is no information on secondary stress or phonological phrases.

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It would be difficult to take stock of all the gaps, inconsistencies and defects which are present in the two analysed dictionaries. More comprehensive lists of problems have been included in other publications (Kurzowa 1979, Saloni 1982, Madejowa 1992, Osowicka 2000). 3. What should a new and modern dictionary of Polish pronunciation look like? Beyond any doubt, Poland lacks a pronunciation dictionary which would be free of mistakes made in previously published lexicons. Such a dictionary should contain recommendations taking account of the reality of present day Polish pronunciation. In the case of a large portion of orthophonic information, linguists follow their intuition which is not buttressed by sound experimental research. This most important postulate is still valid today. It is only regrettable that, so far, Polish phonetics has not seen wide-ranging studies on a representative group of speakers from the entire territory of Poland who would differ in terms of their gender, age, geographic and social origin and education (profession). After all, it is not possible to recommend correct usage solely on the basis of random recordings or heard or overheard phonetic features. Properly planned observation must take into consideration the degree to which a phenomenon is widespread. The criterion of frequency is very important in the case of orthophonic standards and yet quantifiers such as common, frequent, rare etc. so readily used by orthophoneticians are not backed by any numerical data which would confirm the quantitative scope of the phonetic phenomena described. The actual work on the dictionary must be preceded by studies based on a large body of research material. Their aim will be to verify current views on the phenomena mentioned in the first and second part of the article. The list of detailed problems to be identified and described is in fact much longer. For example, it is important to investigate depalatalisation of labial vowels which may result from asynchronous pronunciation (as in [pjaɲinͻ] . Neither are there any convincing studies on the pronunciation of postpalatal consonants before different vowels. It is generally believed that these are pronounced synchronously before vowel [i] (e.g. kilof, gimnazjum) and asynchronously when positioned before vowels [a], [ͻ], [u] (e.g. kiosk, magia, kiur), but there is no clear indication on how they are pronounced before vowel [ɛ] (e.g. kiedy, cegielnia). Another task is to establish the rules governing the distribution of all voiceless sonorants (Steffen-Batóg 1996). The issue is poorly researched not only when it comes to standard Polish, but also with respect to its varieties. What is much more complex, though, is the problem of clusters where component obstruents are separated by a sonorant (or nonsyllabic back vowel [w]) as in plwać, krwawy (but also płciowy, jabłko). It is also necessary to investigate the patterns of inter-word voicing in prepositional phrases. It is not clear whether the final consonant in the preposition is always voiced when it comes before a voiced phone with which the following word begins (e.g. od Anny, nad lasem) and whether the current rule covers only simple prepositions or can be extended to complex ones, e.g. popod, spopod, ponad, znad etc. (Nowakowski, Wiatrowski 2008: 93–96). With the results of such studies, it will be possible to determine the incidence of different pronunciation patterns (how much rooted they are in common usage). This will open the way to introducing potential changes to pronunciation rules formulated by Bogusław Dunaj (2006) which, being the most up-to-date, should be the basis for normative recommendations included in the new dictionary addressed to a wide group of readers interested in correct pronunciation. The issue of readership raises the question of the method whereby pronunciation entries should be written down. Undoubtedly, notation should be both in Slavic and international (IPA) alphabets. The former is very well known and has been used on many occasions by Slavic philologists (including Polonists). As for the international alphabet, it is obvious that it is more accessible to readers without philological background and foreigners studying aspects of Polish pronunciation. Also, it seems that the dictionary will have to resort to semi-phonetic notation. After all, average users of Polish are not familiar with any phonetic alphabet and the information they look for must be provided in a legible format. This will ensure that the dictionary will reach beyond specialists (philologists) and foreigners learning Polish – the

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authors of previous publications did not offer such solutions, which left them open to allegations that the dictionaries they compiled were only accessible to a limited group of readers. However, we must bear in mind that the suggested format of notation will increase the volume of the dictionary in its hard-copy version. The same does not apply to the electronic version. The proposed dictionary should contain as complete a representation of Polish vocabulary as possible. Mere selection of entries would not be enough given that, for non-native users, each Polish word sounds foreign (Kurzowa 1979: 267). For example, native speakers have no problems pronouncing nouns such as szal, chata, rzeka or czapka. Foreigners, on the other hand, struggle with digraphs <sz>, , , , which, in the words above, are not rendered as two separate phones but as one consonant. Hence, the dictionary should be based on Wielki słownik ortograficzny PWN z zasadami pisowni i interpunkcji (Great PWN Spelling Dictionary with Rules of Spelling and Punctuation) of 2011 (Third Edition, revised and expanded edited by Edward Polański. The dictionary is a comprehensive publication containing about 140,000 entries. It takes account both of common and proper names (Polish and foreign), colloquial lexical items, terms, borrowed words and acronyms. Given its scope, it is not only a dictionary of spelling, but also of words used in contemporary Polish. Based on such material, the proposed publication would be the biggest dictionary of Polish pronunciation to ever have been created. Each entry should include the orthographically written word (highlighted typographically) and its equivalent(s) provided fist in semi-phonetic notation (with the use of orthographic characters), then transcribed to the Slavic alphabet and finally to the international phonetic system. Practical to use, the dictionary should be descriptive and normative, i.e. it should register different pronunciation variants and evaluate them for correctness. Where there are pronunciation variants, these should be marked by an appropriate system of labels based on the work of Bogusław Dunaj (2009 . Taking stock of different factors (social, situational, stylistic) determining pronunciation, he identified the following phonetic variants:  geographical (territorial , including variants which are more or less equivalent in terms of scope (e.g. [paɲɛnka]/[paɲɛŋka] as well as those which are dominant (e.g pronunciations like [tfͻjɛ]) and peripheral (e.g. pronunciations like [tvͻjɛ]);  chronological including variants which are regressive (e.g. pronunciations like [ɟɛnɛraw] compared to the more common [gɛnɛraw] and innovative ones (e.g. asynchronous pronunciation of consonants [c], [ɟ] before vowel [ɛ], penultimate stress in forms like osiemset, czytaliśmy, gotowalibyście);  situational variants related to the type of communication situation including variants which are accurate (e.g. pronunciation of past tense forms [jatw], [mukw] and colloquial (e.g. pronunciation of past tense forms [jat], [muk]  stylistic variants related to pace (lento, moderato, allegro) and non-standard delivery, e.g. [jɛst]/[jɛs]);  hypercorrect variants (as an attempt to avoid dialect forms or the influence of writing on pronunciation e.g. [pʲjɛtnaɕʨɛ] instead of [pʲjɛtnaɕʨɛ]). In the group of correct phonetic renditions there are only few geographical variants (e.g. [ŋ] in Polish words before phones [k], [g] in the pronunciation of the inhabitants of western and southern Poland). Regressive variants (the ones less and less often used) are allowed as a second-best option. Situational and hypercorrect variants are easier to assess if we introduce two levels of language standard when making normative decisions: received standard (to be used in official contacts) and functional standard (appropriate for everyday, unofficial contacts) (Markowski 2007: 32–34). The former covers accurate situational variants, the latter colloquial situational variants as well as some innovative and chronological (more and more widespread) and hypercorrect variants. As for stylistic variants, only accurate lento pronunciation is codified (Dunaj 2009: 30–31).

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In line with lexicographic convention, basic entries are singular nouns, singular nominative of masculine adjectives, verbs in the infinitive, positive degree adverbs, etc. (Żmigrodzki 2005: 64 . However, the dictionary should also account for pronunciation variants of different grammatical forms. For example, in the case of verbs, these are most often singular and plural forms of past tense as well as imperative and conditional forms in both numbers. There may also be problems with pronouncing certain cases of declined parts of speech (e.g. singular genitive, dative or locative and plural genitive or nouns). It is to be decided, however, whether each entry should include all variant forms such as past tense forms of verbs (which run into long lists in Polish), or whether these should be described in detail in the introduction to the dictionary. There are certain drawbacks to both solutions. The former would expand the volume out of proportion whereas the latter would have to be considered from the perspective of average users who rarely study introductory chapters preceding the dictionary proper. Dictionaries are usually consulted because people have a question to which they want to find a quick and precise answer. This is why we need to ensure that all the information making up an entry is presented in a clear manner. In the electronic version, it will be definitely possible to attach recordings of all grammatical forms to individual entries (even though the work will be very time-consuming). The entries must also include information of the stressed syllable (especially in the case of words where the stress falls on a different syllable than the penultimate one). Also, standards should be set for basic and complex phonological words with secondary and subordinate stress. The available dictionaries do not address this issue. Basic phonological words comprising a host and a clitic which may create pronunciation problems should be registered in entries referring to the relevant host (in a correctly sampled phonetic phrase), e.g. czytał na głos (stress fall on na) – czekał na głos (stress fall on głos). Readers must also be informed about the division into syllables. There is no pronunciation dictionary that either discusses the issue or highlights the division. Yet the problem is important as the division of the orthographic word does not always go hand in had with how the phonetic word is broken down. For example, let us look at foreign words such as mozaika, autobus, Europa which are orthographically divided into: mo-za-i-ka, a-u-to-bus, E-uro-pa. Their phonetic break-up, however, is different: [mͻ-zaj-ka], [aw-tͻ-bus], [ɛw-rͻ-pa]. Finally, there is the question of intonation, a language phenomenon which is especially difficult to study for lack of sufficiently good and objective research tools and theoretical categories. In the case of pronunciation dictionaries, the main problem is technical and has to do with the method of transcribing the melody of speech. Traditional intonation graphs are meaningless to non-specialists. The problem could be solved – only in the electronic version – by providing recorded examples including declarative, imperative and interrogatory utterances. Numerous, properly selected examples should also demonstrate different combinations of sentence stress (Ladefoged 2001: 98–103). 4. Conclusion The need to create a descriptive and normative dictionary of Polish pronunciation is clear and uncontested but still unfulfilled. The lack of such a publication which would conform to modern standards related to content and technical requirements is evident when we look to the radio, television or schools where literal pronunciation is rife and mistakes are propagated through the teaching process. The question of compiling a new pronunciation dictionary which would reflect current language practice remains open (Osowicka 2000: 156). The comments made in this article are a first step on a long way towards creating such a lexicon. Undoubtedly, the proposed dictionary (in the traditional and electronic format) needs to be the result of multi-faceted work involving a large group of experts (including phoneticians, text readers and IT specialists) and considerable financial resources.

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References Chaer, A. 2007. Leksikologi & Leksikografi Indonesia. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta. Chaer, A. 2013. Fonologi Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta. Dukiewicz, L. 1967. Polskie głoski nosowe. Analiza akustyczna. Warszawa: PWN. Dunaj, B. 2006. Zasady poprawnej wymowy polskiej. Język Polski, 3, 161–172. Dunaj, B. 2009. Warianty fonetyczne a norma wymawianiowa. In Ożóg, K (ed. . Język żyje. Rzecz o współczesnej polszczyźnie. Rzeszów: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 27–31. Koneczna, H. 1934. Studjum eksperymentalne artykulacji głosek polskich. Prace Filologiczne, 16, 33–174. Kurzowa, Z. 1979. Problemy wymowy w ujęciu leksykograficznym. (Uwagi i postulaty na marginesie Słownika wymowy polskiej). Polonica, 5, 264–283. Ladefoged, P. 2001. A Course in Phonetics. Boston: Thomson Learning. Madejowa, M. 1992. Kilka uwag o współczesnej wymowie polskiej. Język Polski, 4–5, 327– 336. Mały słownik języka polskiego. 1968. Warszawa: PWN. Markowski, A. 2007. Kultura języka polskiego. Teoria. Zagadnienia leksykalne. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Muslich, M. 2008. Fonologi Bahasa Indonesia. Tinjauan Deskriptif Sistem Bunyi Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Bumi Aksara. Nowakowski, P., Wiatrowski, P. 2008. Fonetyka polszczyzny miejskiej Poznania – perspektywy badawcze. In Święcicka, M (ed. . Miasto – przestrzeń zróżnicowana językowo, kulturowo i społecznie 2. Bydgoszcz: UKW, 85–106. Osowicka, M. 2000. Analiza jakości informacji fonetycznych zawartych w głównych wydawnictwach ortofonicznych Słowniku wymowy polskiej PWN oraz Podręcznym słowniku poprawnej wymowy polskiej. Acta Universitatis Nicolai Copernici. Studia Slavica, 4(337), 143–158. Podręczny słownik poprawnej wymowy polskiej. 1990. Warszawa: Spółka WydawniczoKsięgarska. Saloni, Z. 1982. Uwagi o słowniku wymowy polskiej. In Maciejewski, J (ed. . Z zagadnień fonetyki i fonologii współczesnego języka polskiego. Toruń: UMK, 30–43. Słownik wymowy polskiej PWN. 1977. Warszawa: PWN. Steffen-Batogowa, M. 1975. Automatyzacja transkrypcji fonematycznej tekstów polskich. Warszawa: PWN. Steffen-Batóg, M. 1996. On the pronunciation of some Polish consonant clusters containing sonorants. Studia Phonetica Posnaniensia, 5, 61–85. Steffen-Batóg, M. 1997. Studies in Phonetic Algorithms. Poznań: Sorus. Wielki słownik ortograficzny PWN z zasadami pisowni i interpunkcji, 3rd ed. 2011. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Wierzchowska, B. 1966. Analiza eksperymentalno-fonetyczna polskich dźwięków nosowych. Lublin: UMCS. Wierzchowska, B. 1967. Opis fonetyczny języka polskiego. Warszawa: PWN. Wierzchowska, B. 1971. Wymowa polska. Warszawa: Państwowe Zakłady Wydawnictw Szkolnych. Wierzchowska, B. 1980. Fonetyka i fonologia języka polskiego. Wrocław: Ossolineum. Witaszek-Samborska, M. 1985. Regionalizmy fonetyczne w mowie inteligencji poznańskiej. Slavia Occidentalis, 42, 91–104. Żmigrodzki, P. 2005. Wprowadzenie do leksykografii polskiej. Katowice: Wydawnictwo UŚ.

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Linguistic Loss of Li Niha in Its Contacts with Other Languages Ingatan Gulö, STBA Teknokrat, Lampung

Abstract As a language spoken mainly by those who live in Nias Island, Li Niha is facing its big challenge as its native speakers start to speak other languages such as Indonesian and English, and in particular cases, as other people with different linguistic backgrounds start to learn the language. This study is a result of observations done on the language interactions with other languages in different places such as Gunungsitoli, Sibolga, and Pekanbaru. While in one hand certain foreigners eventually try to speak the language and in the other hand many native speakers begin to master other languages, Li Niha appears in a new form as it loses its special characteristics. The linguistic loss found and reported in this paper covers phonological aspects, orthographic varieties, and grammatical issues. These impacts of language interaction in urban life are considered dangerous to the existence of the language. Keywords: Grammar, Li Niha, linguistic loss, Nias, pronunciation

1. Introduction Li Niha is the vernacular of the people who live in the island located in the west part of Sumatera. It is nationally and internationally known as Nias (language) or Bahasa Nias and is native to less than one million speakers (Brown, 2001: xi) whose attitude is generally not supportive toward the language (Brown, 2001: 7; Duha, 2010: 171). In recent pieces of research, it is mentioned that the language consists of five dialects namely South, West, North, Gunungsitoli, and Middle dialects (Marulafau, 2004: 2; Ndruru, 2007: 3). As Gunungsitoli dialect is widely used in daily communications, books, and songs, the analysis here focuses on the dialect. The features discussed, however, are applicable to the other dialects because differences between them are mostly related to the vocabulary items and intonation. Nias is a unique language. It is unique not only in comparison to languages in Indonesia but also in comparison to languages worldwide. In addition to the fact that Nias is an open syllable language, it also has some unusually found features such as voiced bilabial fricative sound, non-nasal trilled sounds, mutation system, and peculiar type of ergativity (Brown, 2001; Gulö, 2014a). As the speakers move to other cities such as Medan, Pekanbaru, or Jakarta and by then they or their children become fluent at other languages, their ability to speak Li Niha decreases. Losing its special features is not the only phenomenon happening as a result of this language contact. As the speakers learn other languages, they also influence the new languages as a result of their first system of language and by so doing ‘create’ another dialect of the new languages. This is clearly seen in the dialect of Indonesian spoken in Medan, Sibolga, or Nias itself (Gulö, 2014b). In both cases, this two-direction influence depends on how good the speakers are at both first and second languages. There are facts in which they are good at both. There are many cases, however, which show that Nias is losing its particular features as it comes to contact with other languages. These facts have underlain the need and the emergence of this research. 2. Method This is a descriptive-analytical and qualitative research that makes use of available facts or information to analyze and to make a critical evaluation (Kothari, 2004: 110; Stake, 2010: 19, 20). Main objective of this synchronic study is to find what features of Li Niha dissappear as it comes to contact with other languages. The data were gathered in places such as Gunungsitoli,

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Sibolga, Medan, Pekanbaru, and Lampung as the researcher traveled to those places. In addition to those direct interactions with the native speakers, the data were also taken from wider sources such as books, song lyrics, and social media. This was possible to do as this topic covers a wide range of linguistic issues and usages. Above all, as a native speaker of the language, the researcher had chances to conduct personal observations on the language. The data were processed by directly studying the formal grammar and features of the language in books and observing the real pronunciations of phonemes from the native speakers, especially those who speak Nias as their only language. The next step was to observe the actual usages and pronunciations of those features in urban societies. In this process, lots of actual sources such as song lyrics and social media texts were involved. 3. Discussion 3.1 Loss of Orthographic Features Among four orthographic features presented here, the group of letters ndr is often used inappropriately when writing in Li Niha. Considerable number of proofs in which these letters are used correctly is found in Nias old literatures. Nias linguistic items such as sindruhu ‘true’ (Harefa, 1970: 9), ndraono ‘children’ (La’ija, 1971: 35), and andre ‘this, here’ (Halawa et al., 1983: 119) are examples of how these letters are used together. The data taken from postings and comments in Nias Facebook group of humors show that these three letters has reduced into two letters only; r is omitted from the cluster. In those data, sindruhu, ndraono, and andre are written as *sinduhu, *ndaono, and *ande respectively. This is mostly influenced by letters nd found in Indonesian as the major language used in Indonesia. As a matter of fact, Indonesian does not have ndr cluster of letters. Using ndr or nd is not merely a matter of choice as nd in Indonesian is pronounced differently from ndr in Nias. See point 3.2 for further explanation on the phonological importance of these letters. Another linguistic feature that Li Niha loses is the right letter for open-mid central unrounded /ɜ/ sound. In the language, this phoneme is represented by letter o with an umlaut over it. In Nias latest and well-known dictionary entitled Kamus Li Niha: Nias - Indonesia, for example, words containing this sound are always written correctly as in böi ‘don’t’, möi ‘go’, and tödö ‘heart’ (Lase, 2011: 68, 206, 300). In contrary, these words are respectively written as boi, todo, and moi in many Nias song lyrics. Other cases in which letter ö are typed as plain o can be found in books (Zalukhu, 1992) and social media. In addition to the fact that this letter is unique and thus should be maintained, substituted it by o is also confusing as the language also has a lot of words with plain o but pronounced as open-mid back rounded sound. This underlies the need of typing ö correctly. Due to difficulty in typing the right letter, sometimes ö is also incorrectly substituted by o with tilde (Zalukhu, 2012), circumflex (Zebua, 1996), or numeral 6. Those instant solutions make Li Niha lose its original feature. The third orthographic loss of Li Niha in its contact to other languages is related to letter w with a circumflex over it. Nias has both this letter ŵ and the plain w in its vocabulary items. Letter ŵ carries voiced bilabial fricative sound // present in the language. See point 3.2 for its phonological significance. One of problems about this letter is that it is often left unmarked (Duha, 2012; Zalukhu, 2012), treating it the same as plain w. The other problem is that there has been conventional marking in which the letter w pronounced as /w/, like that in Indonesian and English, is marked but the letter w which carries the voiced bilabial fricative sound is left unmarked (Hämmerle, 1999 and 2012). In Nias dictionary mentioned above (2011: xv), Lase accepts the suggestion of Halawa in Nias Portal website to re-visited the use of these letters by leaving the one that sounds like Indonesian or English w unmarked and marking the one that sounds differently by a circumflex. This, however, is ignored in Nias song lyrics, books, and writings in social media. The last orthographic feature often ignored in Li Niha is the use of apostrophe which indicates intervocalic stops between certain letters or syllables. As Indonesian and most other languages such as Bataknese and Minangese known by Nias native speakers do not use

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apostrophe with the same functions, it is not uncommon to find words in which the apostrophe is substituted by a full stop. The data gathered for the purpose of carrying out the objective of this research provide many examples in which the right use of the apostrophe is ignored. In sentence Fahuo-huo mao khö de’u iada’a; da ufondrondrongo ‘A cat is talking to a rat right now; let me listen to it’, for example, is written Fahuo-huo mao kh6 de.u ia da.a, da.ufondrondrongo. Other incorrect usages would write de’u ‘rat’ as *de,u with a comma, *deu without a mark at all, or *de u leaving a space between the syllables. 3.2 Loss of Phonological Features While the ones explored above are overtly seen in writings or printed materials, the issues brought up here are seen in spoken Nias. Three of those four features above are discussed partially to avoid overlapping explanation providing in this part. It is quite complex to separate orthographic features from their phonological issues. The consonant cluster ndr, for example, is not pronounced like nd in Indonesian anda ‘you’ or English splendid. Just like in English, letter n in Indonesian cluster nd is always grouped with the preceding vowel and d with the one that follows. Anda is divided into an-da and splendid into splen-did in their syllabifications. In contrary to this, Nias letter n in the cluster ndr is not grouped with the preceding vowel. The three letters are treated as one phoneme with non-nasalized voiced alveolar plosive trill sound. This sound is rarely found in languages generally (Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996: 230; Blust, 2013: 201). Thus, incorrectly writing andre ‘here, this’ as *ande is identical to incorrect pronunciation of the word. Another phonological issue similar to ndr is Nias cluster of m and b. This mb carries voiced bilabial trill // sound. In writing system, there is no problem about this group of letters because many languages allow these letters to occur in sequence, but there is a problem about it related to Nias phonology. Just like ndr is treated as a phoneme, mb is also considered as one sound in Li Niha. Thus, unlike Indonesian sem-bah ‘worship’ or English word im-bal-ance, Nias words such as ambö ‘less’ and umbu ‘wellspring’ are divided into a-mbö and u-mbu respectively (not *am-bö and *um-bu) because Nias mb is non nasal. Accordingly, the syllabification of the word andre above is a-ndre, not *an-dre. Quoting from Blust, trilled sounds are rarely found in world languages (2013: 672). These letters, however, are often treated the same as those in Indonesian or other languages such as Bataknese, making Nias lose its phonological feature. That those Nias groups of letters are divided into such a way of syllabification is based on the fact that Nias is an open syllabic language. All syllables of Nias words end in vowels, not in consonants. This stands out as another feature being lost as borrowing words from other languages into Nias increases from time to time. Related to voiced bilabial fricative sound // whose orthographic feature explained above in 2.1, formally being represented by letter ŵ, it is surprisingly found that many people are unable to pronounce it correctly. The word baŵa // ‘mouth’, for instance, is mostly pronounced as /w/, // or /v/. In addition to inaccurately writing it as *yaahowu or *ya.ahowu, for further instance, Nias greeting ya’ahoŵu is often pronounced // or /v/ by nonnatives because this is another Nias unusual sound (Brown, 2001: 12) and is rarely found in the world languages. The problem is that native speakers who have been speaking other languages which absolutely do not have this sound, are also unable to pronounce Nias words with this sound correctly. Some Nias singers, for example, miss this pronunciation. Other phonological features but less influenced ones are voiced dental fricative // represented by letter d and voiceless velar fricative sound // represented by letters kh. There are Nias dialects that treat d as voiced alveolar plosive as in other languages surrounding the island but there are dialects, such as Gunungsitoli dialect, that treat it like those letters th in English mother or they. When it comes to contact with other languages, this voiced dental fricative phoneme is easily affected by voiced alveolar plosive represented by the same letter in the other

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languages. While languages such as Indonesian and Bataknese do not have (or ocurring less often, as in Indonesian akhir ‘end’) velar fricative sound, Nias is full of it. In Nias contact with other languages, however, this phoneme is mistakenly treated as // or // alone. 3.3 Loss of Grammatical Features As an ergative language, Nias maintains the same grammatical case for the object of a transitive verb and the single core argument of an intransitive verb while treating the agent of a transitive verb differently (Brown, 2001: xi; Crysmann, 2009). This morphological ergativity is carried out by mutation system. The examples below illustrate ergativity in Li Niha. (1) Tohare zikhö (Ants come). (2) I’a zikhö (He eats ants). (3) I’a sikhö (Ants eat [it]). Focusing on the second part of the first sentence, zikhö is in mutated form of sikhö ‘ant’ as it is the single argument of the intransitive verb Tohare ‘come, arrive’. In the second, it is also in mutated form as it is the object of the transitive verb -a ‘eat’. In the third, in contrary, the word is in its unmutated form as it is now the agent of the verb -a. This can be seen easily from the English translations provided. It needs to be underlined that the pronominal prefix I- in the second sentence refers to an indefinite agent while in the third, it refers to the noun sikhö. As this system is not known in most languages with which Li Niha is being in contact, Nias natives who are very fluent at those other languages, and thus less knowledgeable about Li Niha, often incorrectly put words in ergative and asbolutive cases. Among the data found, sentences below exemplify how Nias loses this unique grammatical feature. (4) Mofökhö *ya’ugö (You are sick). (5) Olifu ia *fahö (He forgot the chisel). Sentence (1) is exemplified by incorrect sentence (4) and sentence (2) by that in (5). While there were many similar data about the ergative, no datum was found about the incorrect use of the asbolutive form as in sentence (3). This can be understood as the forms of the whole sentences in (2) and (3) are easily distinguished. As a language that allows adjectives and nouns to be the predicates of sentences, the adjective Mofökhö ‘sick’ in sentence (4) is considered in the same syntactic function as Tohare in (1). In other words, as Nias personal pronoun for you in (4) is the single core argument of the predicate Mofökhö, it has to be in mutated form ndra’ugö ‘you’, not ya’ugö. In (5), the personal pronoun ia ‘s/he’ is the agent of the verb olifu ‘forget’. According to the right construction discussed above, the word for chisel thus should be in mutated form ŵahö ‘chisel’ (not fahö) because it is the object of the transitive verb that begins the sentence. Other related examples are those in (6) and (7) below. (6) Mate *ya’odo (I die). (7) *Ya’aga mofanö (We go). That in (6) re-emphasizes the ungrammatical sentence provided in (4). Here, the predicate is the verb Mate ‘die’. According to Brown (2001: 197), this intransitive verb should be followed by mutated personal pronoun ndra’odo ‘I’ (in this case, mutated form of unmutated ya’odo ‘I’) as the subject of the sentence. Besides this mutated form, it is also acceptable to use pronominal suffix -do to replace the free form ndra’odo without any difference in meaning. Seen from the datum, however, personal pronoun *ya’odo is used instead of the right form ndra’odo or -do. In sentence (7), the personal pronoun *Ya’aga ‘we’ is incorrectly used. Looking at the verb mofanö ‘go, leave’, the only conclusion possible to draw is that it is the predicate and thus needs a subject in mutated form. In other words, the right structural order and case of the sentence is like that in (1) or like the grammatical versions of (4) and (6). To make this sentence grammatical, the unmutated personal pronoun *Ya’aga should be changed into mutated ndra’aga and moved to the end to have Mofanö ndra’aga (We go) or into pronominal suffix -ga to have Mofanöga with the same meaning. This construction is influenced by English or

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Indonesian structure which tends to put the subject in front of the sentence like in We go or Kami berangkat ‘We leave’. That in (7) is only acceptable in fronting, where the subject is moved to the beginning of the sentence, but the context where this data is used does not support this possibility. 4. Conclusion Linguistic loss of Li Niha in its contact with other languages covers areas such as appropriate characters, phonology, morphology, and syntax of the language. The ones easily lost are features that become its special characteristics; features that make Nias different from other languages. In other words, this linguistic loss is dangerous to the existence of the language. It is suggested that Nias native speakers try not to ignore the language special futures in their effort to study other languages and that nonnatives who study Li Niha respect the language by trying to write and pronounce the words appropriately.

References Blust, Robert. 2013. The Austronesian Languages. Canberra: Asia-Pacific Linguistics. Brown, Lea. 2001. A Grammar of Nias Selatan. Sydney: University of Sydney. Crysmann, Berthold. 2009. Deriving superficial ergativity in Nias, Proceding of the HPSG09 Conference. Germany: CSLI Publications. Duha, Nata’alui. 2010. Li Niha - Bahasa Kita. In Tim Penyusun. Pusaka Nias dalam Media Warisan. Gunungsitoli: Pusaka Nias. Duha, Nata’alui. 2012. Omo Niha: Perahu Darat di Pulau Bergoyang. Gunungsitoli: Yayasan Pusaka Nias. Gulö, Ingatan. 2014a. Unique characteristics of Nias language. International Journal of English and Education, 3(3), 26-32. Gulö, Ingatan. 2014b. The influence of Nias language to bahasa Indonesia. Konferensi Linguistik Tahunan Atma Jaya. Jakarta: Pusat Kajian Bahasa dan Budaya Universitas Katolik Indonesia Atma Jaya. Halawa, T. et al. 1983. Struktur Bahasa Nias. Jakarta: Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. Hämmerle, P. Johannes M. (ed.). 1999. Nidunö-dunö ba Nöri Onolalu. Gunungsitoli: Yayasan Pusaka Nias. Hämmerle, P. Johannes M. (ed.). 2012. Ulu Noyo: Cerita Rakyat di Hulu Sungai Oyo. Gunungsitoli: Yayasan Pusaka Nias. Harefa, Fg. 1970. Erönu. Gunungsitoli: Gloria Onoŵaembo. Kamus Li Niha: Nias - Indonesia. 2011. Jakarta: Penerbit Buku Kompas. Kothari, C.R. 2004. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Delhi: New Age International Publishers. La’ija, B. 1971. Kumpulan Peribahasa Nias. Gunungsitoli: BNKP Tohia. Ladefoged, Peter and Maddieson, Ian. 1996. The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Marulafau, Siamir. 2004. Morfologi Verba Bahasa Nias Dialek Gunungsitoli. Medan: Universitas Sumatera Utara. Ndruru, Sopani. 2007. Klitika Bahasa Nias Dialek Tengah. Medan: Universitas Sumatera Utara. Stake, Robert E. 2010. Qualitative Research: Studying How Things Work. New York: The Guilford Press. Zalukhu, Stefanus Sukawati. 1992. Börö Hoya. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Zalukhu, Sukawati. 2012. Tabalonga Liu II: Manömanö Nono Niha. Medan: Percetakan Clarist. Zebua, HS. 1996. Manömanö Nono Niha Auli Tetunö. Gunungsitoli: U.D. Harapan.

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Exploring Meta-Pragmatic Awareness of Indonesian Learners of Japanese: Focusing on Speech Act of Refusal by Intermediate Proficiency Students Lisda Nurjaleka, Semarang State University

Abstract Kompetensi pragmatik diperlukan para pembelajar bahasa untuk dapat berpartisipasi dalam komunitas bahasa sasaran. Menyediakan pendidikan yang efisien dan efektif mengembangkan kemampuan pragmatik sangatlah penting dalam pendidikan bahasa Jepang. “Meta-pragmatic awareness” didefinisikan sebagai pengetahuan mengenai arti sosial dalam bentuk variabel bahasa kedua dan kesadaran dimana bentuk-bentuk ini menandai aspek-aspek yang berbeda dalam konteks sosial dan oleh karena itu “tekanan yang sangat penting dibalik arti dapat menimbulkan kapasitas pada pemakaian bahasa” (Verschueren, 2000: 439). Penelitian ini akan menyelidiki tentang kesadaran akan meta-pragmatik pembelajar bahasa Jepang orang Indonesia berkemampuan menengah. Penelitian akan dilakukan dengan memberikan pertanyaan sesuai kemampuan bahasa mereka dan membuat penolakan dalam situasi tertentu pada angket DCT yang diberikan. Terdapat dua situasi yang dihadirkan bagi mereka dalam memberikan pernyataan penolakan terhadap permintaan untuk memfotokopikan dokumen dari seseorang dan permintaan untuk memandu mahasiswa asing keliling kota, dalam angket tersebut diberikan batasan-batasan. Para responden diuji untuk dapat menggunakan pengetahuan pragmatik mereka. Kami juga akan melakukan interview menanyakan alasan dibalik pemilihan ungkapan tersebut untuk memahami kemampuan meta-pragmatik mereka. Diasumsikan bahwa pengetahuan meta-pragmatik mengandung banyak kesalahpahaman. Selain itu responden tidak menyadari kekurangan pengetahuan mereka pada tindak tutur bahasa Jepang dan bagaimana memberikan ungkapan penolakan. Kami memberikan kesempatan pada para responden untuk meningkatkan kemampuan pragmatic melalui instruksi secara eksplisit dan terorganisir. Kata kunci: Meta-pragmatic, Tindak tutur penolakan, Strategi penolakan

1.

Introduction Communicative, or pragmatic, competence is the ability to use language forms in a wide range of environments, factoring in the relationships between the speakers involved and the social and cultural context of the situation (Lightbown and Spada, 1999; Gass and Selinker, 2001). Speakers who may be considered “fluent” in a second language due to their mastery of the grammar and vocabulary of that language may still lack pragmatic competence; in other words, they may still be unable to produce language that is socially and culturally appropriate. On learning foreign language, how the learners choose and use discourse on daily communication might be different, depend on their knowledge of the social and cultural background of the second language. This is the background of the metapragmatic research. Smooth social interaction requires that individuals engage in continuous negotiations with other individuals, in order to avoid or minimize social predicaments of various sorts. Refusals are common, and yet need a high understanding between the speaker and interlocutors. Refusals are categorized as a face-threatening act, and the possibility of offending someone is inherent in the act itself (Beebe & Takahashi, 1985). For this reason, refusals are often regarded as strategies. More direct the refusal, the more the threat to the person's face. Because of this risk, some degree of indirectness usually exists (Brown & Levinson, 1978:132); the person who refuses may need to soften the force of the refusal. To this end, making reasons to refuse are also important for reducing face threatening. On this paper we wanted to make a connection on language use of refusal and the pragmatic process by the Japanese language learners of Indonesian.

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Pragmatic competence can be seen to be the understanding of that aspect of meaning ‘which is derived, not from the formal properties of words and constructions, but from the way in which utterances are used and how they relate to the context in which they are uttered’ (Leech and Short, 1981:291). This knowledge is seen to be what is ‘required to use language learner then in cultural situations’ (Levinson, 1979:393). The second language learner then is now widely seen as not only requiring a target language grammar that produces target language sentences, but as gradually ‘learning a complex network of interdependent social and linguistic conventions concerning who may say what to whom, when, and under what circumstances’ (Rintell, 1990:75) This paper investigates the learners ‘meta-pragmatic awareness in refusal strategies. “Meta-pragmatic awareness” is defines as “knowledge of the social meaning of variable second language forms and awareness of the ways which these forms mark different aspect of social contexts. (Kinginger and Farel, 2004). This paper aims to illustrate this point by looking at the use of a refusal formula in Japanese by learners, which includes meta-pragmatic and evaluative comments. To the extent that such meta-pragmatic comments presuppose the speaker’s awareness of the effects of language use and refer to canons of appropriateness (Lucy 1993: 17), They are fundamentally meta-pragmatic (Verschueren 2004: 55,58), and this is how I will refer these expressions throughout. Such refusal meta-pragmatic comments exemplify one way in which speakers routinely deal with problematic talk. By asking them to make different kinds of refusals sentences for a situation and restriction set of opponent to measure and know their pragmatic knowledge. Then we asked the reasons for each choice to understand their meta-pragmatic knowledge. In order to understand their awareness of pragmatic aspects in Japanese, we also asked them to compare their own refusal strategies in Japanese and Indonesian, and to make comments on the differences and to analyze the reasons for them. 2.

Background of the study The development of L2 pragmatic competence entails the ability to use a wide range of conversational routines and discourse strategies to manage one’s communicative interactions with others. Over the past two decades, researchers have established that a foreign language learner’s development of various aspects of pragmatic competence may be facilitated by the instruction of pragmatic routines and strategies in the language classroom (House, 1986, 1996; Tateyama et al., 1997; Wildner-Basset, 1984, 1994; see also Kasper, 1997 for a review of this literature). When such instruction is explicit, it appears to be particularly beneficial since it enables learners to develop an awareness and understanding of the differences between L1 and L2 pragmatic preferences, and thereby “counteract negative L1 transfer through ‘noticing’ (Schmidt, 1993) and through making attempts to use alternative, more L2 norm-oriented expressions” ( House, 1996, p.247). Speakers employ a variety of communicative acts, or speech acts, to achieve their communicative goals, including Searle’s seminal broad categories – classification, commissives, declarations, directives, expressive, and representatives – as well as more specific acts such as apologies, requests, complaints, and refusals (Kasper and Rose, 2001). A great deal of research has been done on the speech acts of apologies and requests, including studies by Olshtain and Blum-Kulka (1985), Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1986) House and Kasper (1987), Trosborg (1987), Tanaka (1988), and Faerch and Kasper (1989) (as cited in Kasper and Dahl, 1991), as well as those by Brown and Levinson (1987), Blum-Kulka and House (1989), BlumKulka, House and Kasper (1989), Barlund and Yoshioka (1990), and Bergman and Kasper (1993) (as cited in Kasper and Rose, 2001). Fewer studies on complaints and refusals have appeared in the literature; Olshtain and Weinbach (1987), Beebe, Takahashi and Uliss-Weltz (1990), Chen (1996), and Murphy and Neu (1996) represent some of this research. Meta-pragmatics is the ability to make explicit judgments about the effectiveness, conciseness and the relevance of social verbal and non-verbal interactions (Karmiloff-Smith, 1987)“Metapragmatic awarness is “ the ability to talk about a whole speech act or the

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coordinates of a given speech act [and] develops later and separately from pragmatic competence.” (Savich, 1983). “Metapragmatic awareness includes that ability to reflect on appropriate [ ] behaviors, to judge them, and to modify and produce them in hypothetical situations.” (Wilkinson & Milosky, 1987). However, it is not easy to improve the skills of talking appropriately depending on the situation. According to the previous studies, learners’ language ability in pragmatic aspects does not necessarily improve as other aspects such as grammar, listening, or reading skills improve. Olshtain & Blum-Kulka (1985) pointed out that pragmatic competence sometimes lags behind grammatical competence. This study aimed 1. to explore a meta-pragmatic awareness of Indonesian learners of Japanese. 2. to use this instrument to investigate the acquisition of metapragmatic skills in student. Above study initiate a problem on Japanese learners with a different socio-cultural background from its language. How they understand the concept of Japanese refusals and its level of politeness with the limitation input and output of Japanese if it’s compare in daily Japan situation. The Japanese learners in Indonesia are assumes that they will hard to understand that. Furthermore, a study regarding meta-pragmatic on refusal expression that targeting Japanese learners of Indonesian are a few. So, in this study, we will discuss further on exploring metapragmatic of Japanese learners of Indonesian, and investigating the acquisition of the expression their use on the questionnaire. 3.

Methods The subjects are Japanese language learners focusing Indonesian learners in Semarang State University. We targeted the experiment to 50 students. And we have 42 students that have been collected and filled the questionnaire. We also limited the characteristic of the student into intermediate proficiency. The subjects are asked to fill the DCT questionnaire about refusal, and then they will ask some question regarding the questionnaire orally. The follow-up interview will be recorded. In this way, we hoped to get more answers than writing them down since the subjects can response as they think and writing does not slow them down. However, because they need to talk about their own answer later, we asked the subjects to write down the recorded answers before moving on to the next section. There are two steps to find the meta-pragmatic awareness among Indonesian learners. The students were given a DCT questionnaire to measure how they react for a request and the respond it by declining the request. There are two requests on the questionnaire. (1) You are at the university, and then suddenly someone come to you and asks a favor to copy some documents for him/her. You could not copy for him, because you have something to do. What would you say in Japanese, when you wanted to refuse the favor? (2) You are at the university, then someone come to you and ask a favor to accompany an internship from Kanazawa University for a city tour. You could not accompany the internship, because you have something to do. What would you say in Japanese, when you wanted to refuse the favor? First, please read the following two conditions carefully. < Condition 1 > There are six settled interlocutors on the questionnaire, which are he/she is your lecturer in Japanese department or other department lecturer’s such as general courses. He/she is your best friend/ a friend or an acquaintance from a class, a junior from Japanese department. the reasons for the refusal can be anything. But you have to be noted that you do not want to hurt the interlocutors feeling. Now, please record your answers about the following questions. ① Imagine the situations and then record what you would say in Japanese in each situation. ② After recording what you would say, please prepare the reason why you answered by those statement. We will have follow up the answer for a questionnaire by an interview. The follow up interview will conduct in Indonesian. This part can be Indonesian

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(1)

Why did you use the expression in each situation? Please tell me what knowledge or rules you used when answering the questionnaire. If you used different expressions in different situation, why did you change the expression? If you used the same expression, why did you choose to use the same one? Please make sure to include all the expressions and situations. (2) Please look again to the recording of your answers for the questionnaire. What would you say in Indonesian in the same situations? (3) Why did you use the expression in each situation? Please tell me what knowledge or rules you used when answering the questionnaire. If you used different expressions in different situation, why did you change the expression? If you used the same expression, why did you choose to use the same one? Please make sure to include all the expressions and situations. (4) Please compare the answers you made both in Japanese and in Indonesia. Do you think the ways to give refusal differ in Indonesia and in Japanese? What do you think are the differences? The DCT questionnaire 1 is to investigate the extent of the subject’s knowledge about expressions to use when giving refusal in Japanese. The follow up interview, we asked them to give reason for their choices, and what they think the differences in each expression, that is, their meta-pragmatic knowledge. In question 2 and 3, the subjects are to give refusal in Indonesian and explain the reasons for their choices. Then in question 4, they are asked to compare the differences in their answers and make comments. By comparing their own answers, the subjects seem to realize the characteristics of their responses better. We hoped to understand what the subjects think of their own knowledge and skill of giving refusals in Japanese. 4.

Data and Analysis First, all the sentences of request were transcribed and then categorized according to the linguistic form into a scale that has been described below. The number in each category was counted by each strategy and subcategory (linguistic form: variation). The scale used in this study was adapted from CCSARP, a study by Blum-Kulka, House, & Kasper. (1986b), and has been adjusted. The form of semantic formula was developed by Ikeda (2009) from Beebe Takahashi’s semantic formula. They categorized refusal strategies into two types, ‘direct strategies’ and ‘indirect strategies’. Semantic formula that categorized are apologize part (Gomen nasai, Sumimasen, moushwiake arimasen), refusal imply part (chotto, ~desuga, ~kedo), reason part (yoji/ yotei ga aru node), feelings part ( ~shitain desuga, go sasoi arigatou gozaimasu), alternative part (hontou ni sumimasen, ~san ni doudeshouka) are included in this order of refusal expression as its subcategories. The categories for direct and indirect will be determined on conclusion part, for example for direct categories (ikemasen, dame desu) and indirect categories will be determine such as ( ie ni kaeritai desu. Jikan ga nai desu. etc). Several changes were made to this semantic formula so that it fits better to this study. Some parts on its original were omitted from the chart because there were no hit strategies found in this experiment. The ‘gratitude’ part and ‘expectation on the next occasion’ were excluded as the same reason. (1)

The total numbers and the proportion Chart 1 shows the total numbers and the proportion of the expressions in each category, and the used expressions and the numbers categorized into the scale. As we can see on situation one, on the semantic formula that shows above, we can see that mostly student gives apologize to the opponent regardless opponent their facing, and student tend to make a variation of apologizing such as gomen nasai, sumimasen or moushiwake arimasen. But the common way of expression on using apologize is gomen nasai and sumimasen. Gomen nasai use are rather high up to 37 student used it.

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Chart 1: Linguistic forms for the refusal used in the expressions Strategy

Semantic Formula (situation 2)

Semantic Formula (situation 1)

Apologize

Refusal imply Reason Conclusion Feelings

Linguistic form (variation) Gomen nasai Sumimasen Moushiwake arimasen Chotto ~desuga, ~kedo Direct Indirect ~shitain desuga

used

% to total

Answers by learners

19-37 2-35 1-10 4-16 11-26 34-41 1-10 32-41 1-14

45%-88% 5%-83% 2%-24% 10%-38% 26%-62% 81%-98% 2%-24% 76%-98% 2%-33%

Variation depends on the opponent Lower to average student use refusal imply Mostly student gives reason Most of student use indirect refusal Less student gives an feelings

Alternative

Hontou ni sumimasen ~san ni doudeshouka

1-7

2%-17%

Less student gives alternative

Apologize

Gomen nasai Sumimasen Moushiwake arimasen Chotto Shouryaku

19-31 2-35 5-6 5-16 11-17 34-40 4-10 32-38 4-14

45%-74% 5%-83% 12%-14% 12%-38% 26%-40% 81%-95% 10%-24% 76%-91% 10%-33%

Variation depends on the opponent

2-7

5%-17%

Refusal imply Reason Conclusion Feelings Alternative

Direct Indirect ~shitain desuga Hontou ni sumimasen ~san ni doudeshouka

Students tend to use an ellipsis expression such as chotto and ~desuga, but not mostly student used it. As to the reason, almost 98% student has an obligation to add a reason on their refusal expression. And on the subcategories of conclusion for the expression whether it is a direct refusal or indirect refusal, student mostly gives an indirect refusal regardless who is the opponent their facing. As to the variation and feelings, student much less uses the function. Less than 14 people gives feeling regret to refuse the request on situation one. On the situation two, is not much too different with situation one, both are the request expression to do something. Most of the subjects us indirect refusal and mostly adding the reason to make the opponent understand the situation why there are refusing the request. In spite if the amount in query preparatory in total, no one used ‘gratitude’ and ‘expectation for another opportunity’ categories that has been omitted because there were no categories found in this experiment. We can see that, the reason for the student do not gives feeling gratitude because it is assume that this is a request expression and not oblige to gives gratitude towards the opponent. No one used an ‘expectation for another opportunity’ categories is because on the given situation, they were requested to do something not offering something or an invitation expression. (2)

Reasons for using the forms Chart two shows the reasons for the choices that are the subject’s meta-pragmatic knowledge. On this experiment don’t specifically asked to explain the differences between all the variations. We examine answered from the representatives of the opponent. Some explained the reason, saying that they don’t know the exact difference between the expressions. Sometimes, student explained the reasons for the choice as they know the expression from the ‘kaiwa’ or ‘speaking’ class but don’t’ know the specific reason why choosing the answer.

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Oohashi (2006) stated that “Japanese likes to make an ambiguity statement such as” chotto kyou wa…”, because it much less familiar in Japanese society rather than stated the specific reason. On the contrary in English society it was a polite act to give an explanation of a reason when refusing. “(p.60) Here we can see that there are miss interpreted that the student knows that a statement of ‘chotto’ is a part as a Japanese culture but student seems to not know how to use it, because many student use both ambiguous statement an also explain the reason. Chart 2: Reasons for the choice: meta-pragmatic knowledge Strategy

Semantic Formula (situation 1)

Apologize

Linguistic form (variation) Gomen nasai

expressions

Situation, reasons, rules

Gomen,

Sumimasen

Hontou ni sumimasen

To friends, close friends, to juniors, to close juniors To JPN teachers, to MKU teachers, to friends, to close friends, to juniors, to close juniors To JPN teachers, to MKU teachers Students thinks ellipsis such as chotto and ~desuga, is a part of refusal expression The use of ‘reason’ are high to all the opponent

Refusal imply

Moushiwake arimasen Chotto ~desuga, ~kedo

Reason

~node

Conclusion

Direct Indirect

Feelings

~shitain desuga Go sasoi Hontou ni sumimasen ~san ni doudeshouka

Alternative

Apologize

Refusal imply

Gomen nasai Sumimasen Moushiwake arimasen Chotto Shouryaku

Semantic Formula (situation 2)

Reason

Conclusion

Direct Indirect

Feelings

~shitain desuga, Go sasoi arigatougozaimasu Hontou ni sumimasen ~san ni doudeshouka

Alternative

Ima wa chotto, ikitain desuga etc. Yoji ga aru node, jugyou ga aru node etc Dekinai ~san to yakusoku ga arimasu kara Copy shitain desuga ~san nara dou deshouka?

Student makes indirect refusal because they think that Japanese does too 6 student gives feelings regret to the Japanese teacher and MKU teacher Less than 4 student gives an alternate to help the opponent

Gomen, Hontouni sumimasen

Up to 31 student use gomen nasai regardless their opponent and up to 35 student use sumimasen

Ima wa chotto, ikitain desuga etc.

Students thinks ellipsis such as chotto and ~desuga, is a part of refusal expression The use of ‘reason’ are high to all the opponent

Yoji ga aru node, jugyou ga aru node etc Dekinai ~san to yakusoku ga arimasu kara Ikitain desuga desuga ~san nara dou deshouka?

Student makes indirect refusal because they think that Japanese does too Up to 14 student gives feeling regret, because the chances in reality really hard to refuse Up to 7 students gives an alternate, and recommend other people.

As a whole, we can see from the chart that in most cases, student do not know many rules about how, when and why they use the expressions. However, as student can answer “I am

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not sure” when they think they don’t know the reason, we believe student have some confidence when they do tell the reasons. While a few of the students understand the politeness levels of each expression and the differences between the expressions, the data show that most of them had rather confused understanding of them. As we can see from the chart, there are many misunderstandings, and some of them could lead to pragmatic failures. For instance, fewer students give variation on apologizing with ‘moushiwake arimasen’ ‘sumimasen’ ‘hontou ni sumimasen’ and ‘gomen nasai’ to the opponent their facing. As it mentioned earlier, most of the students gives an indirect refusal and making reason is one of the use of politer expression, however, in Japanese society not all the expression has to make a conclusion as an indirect regards to the interlocutors their facing. We can directly refuse to close friends or close juniors and make a politer by adding some alternatives or giving feeling regret. We can see that as a whole, their metapragmatic knowledge is very limited, and even they have been exposed to and somewhat learned about polite expressions, they have no acquired the skills or knowledge to produce them. (3)

The differences in refusal expression between Japanese and Indonesia Finally, we asked the students what they think are the differences between refusal expressions in Japanese and those in Indonesian. We asked the question to know more about the student’s understanding on refusal variations and the difference in refusal making. We categorized the answers according to the topics the students mentioned. Many student comments that “Japanese has more variations” more indirect” or “more polite” were made. Less student answers there is no difference between the refusals strategies in the two languages. Far more people believe that Japanese language system itself is polite than that of Indonesian. Many made comments that in Japanese they can make an indirect refusal by adding “chotto” or “~desuga” and it feels they can express the feeling by not hurting opponent’s feeling. Many agreed that rather than Indonesian, Japanese has polite expressions which can be used. But they still confused which expression should be used to which opponent. Regarding the directness level, many answered “Indonesian is more direct than Japanese”, and another said “Japanese has more roundabout way of expressing politeness,” and yet another subject said “Japanese is more ambiguous.” They believe that in Indonesian, refusal strategies can be more direct, and the language does not have many variations. Students adding facial expression, prosody, voice tone etc to makes regret in a refusal expression they made. Students seem to think that the difference in the amount in their own answers in Japanese came from the difference of the language systems between Japanese and Indonesia, rather than their lack of knowledge. This stereotyping can be very dangerous because not only they may be perceived as rude persons but it may be an obstacle to acquire more metapragmatic knowledge. 5.

Limitation of the study The subjects were given a limited opponent so they can express the answers accordingly. This sometimes makes the subject confused due the variations of the opponent and how they expressed it differently. On this study, we have limited the situations by only made a refusal for a request situation, but it seems it is still too wide and need to be focused. And that made it difficult to conclude because of many variations. Although the subjects were being asked about the difference of the languages, it is still need to further deepen the question in the next study. Another point to mention is that the subjects answered only the refusal sentences they acknowledge within class, so it is still need further investigation, whether the refusal they made is the knowledge pragmatic they have or is there any influenced by their first language. So to do that this study must further investigate by comparing them.

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6.

Conclusion The aim of this paper is to answer the question of how the learners ‘meta-pragmatic awareness” in refusal strategies and what is the background of their answers of refusals expressions. The results show that the meta-pragmatic awareness of the subjects in making refusal is generally very limited. Even without time limitation, they cannot produce many variations, and their knowledge about the differences and how and when to use them is not often accurate. Obviously, they do not have enough knowledge even though they have had some exposure to the information through classes. And it still needs more knowledge to give them in the classes for this pragmatic knowledge of Japanese. There are some interesting results from this study. First, pragmatic knowledge they have in classes were not balanced by the explanation of the teachers for those situations. This lead subjects to miss interpret the knowledge for that situation. Although the middle proficiency learners can produce appropriate refusal sentences, the subjects in this study had trouble producing them. Through the comments on the reasons and the differences about the expressions, we can see that they simply lack the necessary knowledge to produce accurate refusals. Second, many subjects seem to believe that the misinformation to be correct. Some of the subjects said that they “learned” the misinformation at classes, and at least they believe they did. The problem is that they do not have enough chances to correct their misunderstandings: they do not use Japanese in their daily lives and in addition, the teachers may not correct their mistakes in pragmatic aspects often. Considering the fact that most of them are intermediate students and has learn Japanese for three or more years in Japanese classes and still they lack the pragmatic knowledge because most of classes focus on grammar etc. I feel that Japanese curriculum should do something about the situation. We need to offer more information on pragmatic knowledge explicitly in Japanese classes. Even Though they do know about some expressions of refusals, they cannot produce them at all, or in appropriate ways. We should offer classes for them to organized and explicit instruction focusing pragmatic aspects will be indispensable in order to realize the goal.

References Akutsu, Yuka. (2012). Exploring Meta-Pragmatic Awareness of Japanese Learners of English. The Economic Journal of Takasaki City University of Economic Vol. 54 No. 4 pp. 121134. Blum-Kulka, S. & Olshtain, E. (1986). Too many words: Length of utterance and pragmatic failure. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 8, 165-179. Blum-Kulka, S., House, J., & Kasper, G. (eds). (1989b). Investigating cross-cultural Crosscultural Pragmatics: Requests an Pragmatics: An introductory overview. In S. BlumKulka,J. House & G. Kasper (eds). D Apologies (pp. 1-34) Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Brown, P. & Levinson, S. (1987). Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Collins, Anna., Adams, Catherine & Clarke, Elaine. (2009) Assessing meta-pragmatic awareness in school age children with pragmatic language impairment and children with typical language development . the university of Manchester. Gass, S. & Selinker, L. (2001). Second language acquisition: An introductory course. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. House, J. & Kasper, G. (1987). Interlanguage pragmatics: Requesting in a foreign language. In W. Loerscher, & R. Scheulze (eds.), Perspectives on language in performance (pp. 1250-1288). Tubingen: Narr.

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Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1987). From meta-processes to conscious access: evidence from children’s metalinguistic and repair data. Cognition, 23, 95-147. Kasper, G. (1997). Beyond reference. In G. Kasper & E. Kellerman (Eds.), Communication strategies: Psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic perspectives (pp. 345-360). New York: Addison Wesley Longman. Kasper, G. (1997). Can pragmatic competence be taught? (NetWork #6) [HTML document]. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i, Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Cener. Retrieved September 29, 2007, from http://www.nflrc.hawaii.edu/NetWorks/NW06/ Kasper, G. & Rose, K. (2001). Pragmatics in language teaching. In K.R. Rose & G. Kasper (Eds.), Pragmatics in language teaching (pp. 1-12). New York: Cambridge University Press. Kasper, G., & Rose, K.R. (2002). Pragmatic development in a second language. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Kinginger,C., & Farrel, K. (2004). Assesing Development of Meta-pragmatic awareness in study abroad. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad. pp 19-42. Law, J., Campbell, C., Roulstone, S., Adams, C., & Boyle, J. (2008). Mapping practice onto theory: the speech and language practitioner’s construction of receptive language impairment.. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 43(3), 245-263. Leech, G. & Short, M., (1981). ‘Conversation in the novel.’ In Style in fiction. London: Longman. Levinson, S. (1979). “Activity types and language.’ Linguistics 17, 365-399. Roberts, C. (1996) ‘A social perspective on understanding: some issues of theory and method’ in Bremer, K. & Roberts, C. (Eds.) Achieving Understanding: Discourse in intercultural encounters. London & New York: Longman 9-36. Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. (1999). How languages are learned. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Olshtain, E. & Weinbach, L. (1987). Complaints: A study of speech act behavior among native and non-native speakers of Hebrew. In J. Verschueren & M. Bertucelli-Papi (Eds.), The Pragmatic Perspective (pp. 195-208). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Rintell, E., & Mitchell, C. J. (1989). Studying requests and apologies: An inquiry into method. In S. Blum-Kulka, J. House, & G. Kasper (Eds.), Cross cultural pragmatics: Requests and apologies (pp. 248-272). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Savich, P. A. (1983). Improving communicative competence: The role of metapragmatic awareness. Topics in language disorders, 4(1), 38-48. Verschueren, J. (2000). Notes on the role of metapragmatic awareness in language use. Pragmatics, 10, 439-456. Wilkinson, L. C. & Milosky, L. M. (1987). School-aged children’s metapragmatic knowledge of requests and responses in the classroom. Topics in language disorders, 7(2), 61-70. 池田優子 .(2009)「中級の口頭発表能力を伸ばす指導を考える―学習者の断り表現にお ける「理由」をめぐって」 . 慶應義塾大学日本語・日本文化教育センター『日 本語と日本語教育』第 37 号, pp.166－175.

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Now Japanese or English? Code-switching used by the intercultural couples in Tokyo Sachie Banks, Bunkyo University

Abstract This study investigated how intercultural couples in Tokyo use their native languages, Japanese and English, in their communication. It aimed to understand the functions and meanings of code-switiching in intimate relationships. Two research questions were explored: How do couples use Japanese and English in daily communication? And how was this manifested in their perception of each other? Participant observations were conducted at a birthday party and a house party where multiple intercultural couples were socializing. During the fieldwork, three married couples participated in semi-structured interviews. Triangulating the data for analysis revealed three significant functions of code-switching: eliciting emotions, creating a “unique code” shared only by the two and maintaining a power and identity balance, which contributes to their intimacy. Although the couples used code-switching almost subconciously, it seemed important that they gradually developed their own communication styles over the years. Further investigation into the couple’s language use in a wider context should be illuminating. Keywords: code-switching, Japanese and English, intercultural relationships 1. Introduction This study was initiated from my personal experience and curiosity. As a Japanese native speaker married to American husband working in Tokyo, I often socialize with intercultural couples and always wondered how and why we employ two languages in our interactions. Examining how languages are used and shared in intercultural couples may bring a clue to the complexity of intercultural relationships. It is pivotal to communicate and form successful relationships across boarders amid globalization. Ample studies, however, suggest there are many challenges to forming close relationships beyond language and cultural barriers (Kumamoto-Healey & Nanri 2009). Duck (1991) maintained that carefully adjusting and adopting an appropriate communication style is critical in a close personal relationship. It is worthwhile to pay close attention to the communication styles shared by intercultural couples, who might have once experienced barriers, yet developed strong ties. 2. Functions of code-switching Code-switching, ‘bilingual speakers alternating between languages in interaction with other bilinguals’ (Molinsky 2007: 622), has attracted great attention from researchers with various interests. According to Nishimura (1997), linguists have examined diverse aspects of code-switching, while syntacticians have aimed to identify rules manifested within various framework. Sociolinguists have analyzed factors provoking code-switching and its functions and meanings. Conversational analysts have searched for correlations between code-switching and conversational strategies (Nishimura 1997). Blom & Gumperz (1972), for instance, identified two types of code-switching in their ethnographic study: ‘situational switching and metaphorical switching’. The former indicates that bilinguals switch codes according to the given context and the latter occurs when people employ unexpected language in order to convey special meanings. Gumperz (1982) further proposed ‘conversational switching’, through which bilinguals constantly switch languages to expand a flow of conversation. As for Japanese and English speakers, Nishimura (1997) conducted in-depth analysis into a community of second generation Japanese (Niseis) in Canada. She discovered that depending on the base language, Japanese, English or mixed, individuals employ different types of code-switching, such as borrowing of nouns or applying symbolic functions. Similar analysis

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was conducted by Azuma (1997) who studied how a group of bilingual college students in Japan employed Japanese and English. While a number of studies examined code-switching from assorted perspectives within the communities, little research analyzed the dynamic of code-switching used by Japanese and English speaking couples. Parr (2013) who examined code-switching used by romantic couples of English and Spanish speakers revealed that code-switching played a role of expanding or limiting their intimacy. Some couples employed code-switching to express identity, add humor and convey ‘natural’ feelings. Investigating the language use of Japanese and English speaking couples should contribute to a deeper understanding of roles of code-switching in intimate relationships. 3. Design of Study: Ethnographic approach This small-scale study employed ethnographic perspectives and strategies. Participant observations were conducted at a birthday party (about 2.5 hours) and a home party (5 hours) in Tokyo where both Japanese and non-Japanese people were socializing. One couple at the birthday party and two couples at the home party participated in the semi-structured interviews. Interviews explored two research questions: How do couples use Japanese and English in daily communication? And how was this manifested in their perception of each other? All the couples were working and living in Tokyo (Table 1) and are fluent in Japanese and English. Observations were centered on the interviewed couples, particularly when they were naturally talking and answering the interview questions. Due to the ethical considerations in festive environments, the interviews were not recorded. However, field notes were taken during and right after the fieldwork. The names of the couples are pseudonyms.

Couple A Couple B Couple C

Table 1: Backgrounds of the Participants Names Nationality Years of Dates of marriage Fieldwork Aya Japan 6.5 years May 24, 2014 Andy Australia Birthday party Junko Japan 9 years May 31, 2014 John Ireland Home party Kana Japan 4 years May 31, 2014 Kevin U.S. Home party

4. Findings from observations and interviews 4.1 Couple A: Aya and Andy When I met the couple at the party, Aya said to me, ‘Hi, I’m Aya, nice to meet you’ in English. Then she quickly asked, ‘Why am I talking in English? Nihongo de iindayone?’ (in Japanese is OK, right?) and Andy replied ‘Yeah’. I therefore assumed that their main language would be English. When we sat and talked, however, they said they would usually use only Japanese to each other. There are two reasons for this. First, Aya, who works for a Spanish organization, feels that her Spanish is stronger than English. Unless it is a special occasion, such as meeting her in-laws, English does not come out naturally. Second, Andy learned Japanese from middle school to university in Australia. He also studied at a graduate school in Tokyo. After fifteen years of living in Japan, he is accustomed to talking in Japanese everyday. Here are their ideas of how they share Japanese and English:  We may have a high expectation towards learning and using foreign languages. When we use a foreign language, we want to do well and we want to be perfect. So there is no need of mixing languages or using the two at the same time.  At an early stage of relationship, however, we did use simple Japanese and English. We were talking in the ways (in Japanese and English), which we would both understand. For

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

example, in Andy’s Australian accent, it was difficult for Aya to distinguish ‘bought’ and ‘brought’ and he gradually adjusted. Over the years, we have developed an idea ‘using one language properly’ is the way we are most comfortable with. Aya thinks they are unique because she switches and mixes Spanish and Japanese at her work and knows many other couples who constantly use two languages. She said that it is important to maintain this sort of ‘unspoken shared understandings of our own’ in a relationship.

Examples of code-switching witnessed in the field. Although they emphasized that they do not use English to each other, there were some occasions in which Aya switched Japanese to English and Andy corresponded.  Whenever they spoke to another English speaker, such as Andy’s colleague, both of them quickly switched to English, including the moments when they addressed to each other.  When Aya was going to get her drink, she asked Andy ‘Do you want another one?’, although we were talking in Japanese.  When we were joking about Andy thinking about a woman in Kimono, Aya quickly switched to English and made fun of Andy.  I pointed out that they actually use English while talking in Japanese. Aya figured she was using English probably due to the international atmosphere in the party. Then she asked Andy ‘Do we talk in English?’ and Andy jokingly looked at Aya and said ‘Why are you talking in English?’ Later on, Aya realized that they almost subconsciously use English when they make fun of each other or they joke about something. For instance, she may say ‘Oh Andy’ with exaggerating gesture of having a headache. Although she did not know why she does so, she thought that English was good for making fun of something without being too serious. 4.2 Couple B: Junko and John Junko first met John in his English class in her hometown in Hiroshima. Therefore, it was natural for them to talk to each other only in English at the beginning. ‘But now we talk in Japanese most of the time’, they noted. After nine years of marriage and John living in Japan almost eleven years, Japanese has become the main language, although they also use English for fun. Where they lived and how others reacted to them seemed to have a significant impact on their communication style. They first lived in her hometown, where ‘a foreigner extremely stood out because all the residents were Japanese’ as she described. They spoke English outside the house because everyone would stare at John if he spoke Japanese. Meanwhile, they spoke Japanese at home as he gradually started understanding it. When they moved to China, Junko spoke English to hide her Japanese identity and John used Japanese to avoid someone understanding their conversation. After returning to Japan when John started working for a Japanese company, his Japanese dramatically improved. Now they are both comfortable with Japanese and would talk in English only when they do not want Japanese people to know what they say. They described their long journey of using Japanese and English as follows:  It was always ‘fun’ using one language to another. Even though when we made severe mistakes in English or Japanese and created misunderstandings, those were recognized as funny episodes of our relationship experience.  In the beginning, Junko tried to use Japanese and English depending on situation. When the topic was easy to understand, she used Japanese for John who was interested in learning Japanese. When she had to explain something complicated, she used English to avoid misunderstanding and frustration. Later when John became fluent, she started talking, just like she would do to other Japanese native speakers. In this way, our communication style has adjusted quite a lot over the years.  Although we usually use Japanese, we would talk in English when Junko’s brain is in an ‘English mode’. For instance, when we watch movies in English, we talk about the movie in

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 

  

English and also say ‘Oh my God’, ‘No way’ and many others while watching the movie. But right after that, we may switch to Japanese ‘Onaka suitane, nani tabeyoo ka’ (I’m hungry. What shall we eat?) when the ‘English mode’ is over. John speaks Japanese to her, even though he is extremely tired or falling asleep. But he switches to English when he is passionate about something, such as watching football or playing video games. We play with languages a lot. For instance, we saw a big balloon with a Japanese sign, which probably meant ‘blue impulse’. Since then we started saying ‘Ah tsukaretane, impulsive sleeping shiyo (Oh I am so tired, I will sleep impulsively)’ or ‘I’m so hungry, I want impulsive eating’. We talk in English with Japanese accent (flat tone with emphasized vowels) for fun. We often add Japanese ending word to our English in Japanese accent. We say, ‘We go back home soon yo’ (yo emphasizes the statement) or ‘It’s raining soon yo’. We switch to English when avoiding cultural misunderstanding. For instance characters in Mario Kart are different in Japanese and English. So, we just stay with English.

Examples of code-switching witnessed in the field  Ten people at the party played an iPhone application game. Junko explained the rules to everyone in English for about twenty minutes. While so doing, she stopped and asked John ‘Uranaishi tte eigo de nandakke?’ (What’s uranaishi in English?). John responded in English ‘Ah that’s fortuneteller’ and Junko said ‘Oh yeah, fortuneteller’.  In the game, John got killed and had to leave the game. Junko was talking in Japanese to the Japanese participant of the game, but switched to English to John ‘Do you wanna know who the killer is?’ Then she explained what she meant by ‘knowing the killer’ in English to everyone. It was evident that she asked John a question in Japanese when she was thinking in Japanese to search for a vocabulary. But she quickly switched to English, when expecting wider audience may also want to know their conversation, as she was responsible for explain the complex rules of the game. 4.3 Couple C: Kana and Kevin As soon as they were asked about their communication style, they immediately said ‘98% Japanese’. Even when they first met in Osaka, Kana’s hometown, they were already talking in Japanese. Kevin started learning Japanese in 2001 at his American university. After living in Japan for ten years, Kevin has no problem communicating in Japanese. He even described his personality has already become almost Japanese. So, when do they use English? They were able to give many examples as follows:  When we are upset, angry, tired or want other one to shut up, we use English. It is easier to express feelings in English somehow. When we want to say something passionately, we use English. English is a better way to say things straightforward than Japanese. It is good to express our feelings to each other like this.  When we are tired, we also write messages in English because it is easier.  We talk in English in Italian accent (with an exaggerating accent of tones) for fun.  We always talk to our cats only in English, although we do not know why.  We often make a joke in English by citing something from American TV shows, such as South Park or comedies.  We create our original words by mixing Japanese and English. For instance, we call our cats ‘Nekozu’, meaning neko (cat) and English plural ‘s’. We also say ‘Suuing’, su (nest) and ‘ing’. So we say, ‘Acchi de nekozu suuing shitenne’ (Cats are nesting over there), but no Japanese and English speakers would probably understand what we say.

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 

Kana eats two sunny side eggs every morning and we call it ‘bundoru’ (bundle). Kevin may ask ‘Kyoo, bundoru taberu’ (Are you going to eat bundle today?), although probably nobody would understand us. Maybe we did not have our original words in the beginning, but it has expanded gradually as relationship had grown.

Examples of code-switching witnessed in the field When we played the iPhone application game, code-switching frequently occurred between Kana and Kevin. Likewise, even though the interview was in Japanese, Kevin answered in English, when he tried to make his point.  Kevin did not understand how to play the game at the beginning. He was saying ‘E, chotto matte, doo yuu koto? Nikai namae o erabu tte koto?’ (Hold on, what does this mean? Shall I choose names twice?), although he was not supposed to tell anyone what he sees on the screen. Kana tried to explain the rules in Japanese, but got frustrated because he was still talking loudly. Eventually, she told him ‘Shut up!’ and ‘Stop talking!’ Kevin continuously asked further questions in Japanese. When he finally understood, he said ‘Thank you, that’s what I was all asking!’  During the game, when everyone passionately discussed who the killer was, Kevin told Kana in Japanese why he was not the killer. She seemed very concentrated and asked ‘What do you mean?’ or ‘How can I trust you?’ while talking in Japanese. The ratio of English gradually exceeded Japanese between the two during the discussion.  When Kevin was asked when he would use English to Kana, he answered ‘when I am upset, angry, tired’ and ‘because English is good for expressing feelings’ in English. Other part of the interview, such as talking about his experience of learning Japanese, he used Japanese. Likewise, when he agreed with Kana strongly, he said ‘Oh yeah, yeah’. 5. Data Analysis Listening to the couples and observing their communication in the fields were extremely helpful to gain insights into their language use. In particular, it was enlightening to witness how the code-switching described (or not described) in the interviews occurred in social situations as situational and metaphorical switching (Blom&Gumperz 1972). It happened that all the couples were using Japanese as a main language1. When they switched to English, they were expecting to create the following impact: eliciting emotions, creating a ‘unique code’ shared only by the two and maintaining a power and identity balance. Interestingly, all of them mentioned that jokes or passions are easier to be conveyed in English, not Japanese. Aya, for instance, pointed out English can make jokes without being too seriously and Kevin and Kana mentioned English is good for expressing feelings. They considered it was the characteristics of the languages, rather than their personalities. According to Dewaele (2009), the preference of using a particular language to express emotions is related to various independent variables, most importantly, frequency and proficiency in the languages. My participants who used Japanese much more frequently than English, however, chose English to express feelings because of the easiness, lightness or straightforwardness of the language. Likewise, how to use English or not created a ‘unique code’ between the two. In the case of Couple A, who said they would not usually code-switch, being persistent in Japanese itself seemed to be their unique code. As Aya described, shared unspoken understanding was an important part of their relationship. Similarly, Couple C also had shared communication style, in which they would use only English when talking to cats. Couple B and C employed English to “play with the language”, which can be comprehensible only for the couples. It involved changes of the accent, combining the lexical and grammatical essence of the two languages and 1

Originally, it was planned to collect data from couples who use English as a main language as well. Due to the schedule conflicts, data was not be able to obtained from this fieldwork.

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borrowing from one language to another. Couple B also utilized English and Japanese according to the situations, to avoid others understanding what they say. Creating original words and communication style unique to them might have contributed towards their intimacy. Another finding suggests that couples’ communication styles have been adjusted and developed through several stages. Couple A and B used to talk in the ways, which non-native partners would understand. It was aimed to avoid misunderstandings and language burdens as well as showing respect and consideration for the partner who is willing to communicate in the other’s language. Couple B also modified their language use depending on how they relate to others, which is a key concept of identity negotiation (Menard-Warwick 2008). Couple C was mainly using Japanese from the beginning, but they developed their own communication style through expanding their unique codes. During this process, the power and identity balance between the two seemed maintained. One helped the other to understand his/her language and it led them to find the most comfortable way to communicate. Overall, the direct correlation between employing code-switching and its effect on developing intimate relationships were not clearly identified. They sometimes switched languages almost subconsciously and struggled to explain why or how it happens. However, the information obtained from this study revealed that the couples have adjusted and developed their own communication styles over the years. Shared understanding developed as a result of such negotiation seemed to play a pivotal role in their relationship experience. 6. Conclusions and future practice With ethnographic perspectives and tools, this study revealed that the couples, who use Japanese as a main language, switched to English to express emotions, create ‘unique code’ shared only by the two and maintain a power and identity balance. The study was able to reveal an aspect of communication styles, which were uniquely developed by the intercultural couples over the years. While successful communication style should be one of the variables that contribute to the relationship, the significance of code-switching in the intimacy building process remained unclear. Further data collection in wider context with detailed syntactic, lexical and phonological descriptions and comparative analysis into the couples whose main language is English should be illuminating. References Azuma, S. 1997. Lexical categories and code-switching: a study of Japanese/English codeswitching in Japan. Journal of the association of teacher of Japanese, 31 (2), 1-24. Blom, J. & Gumperz, J. 1972. Social meaning in linguistic structures: code-switching in Norway. In Gumperz, J. & Hymes, D (eds.). The ethnography of communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc, 407-434. Dewaele, J. 2009. Becoming bi- or multilingual later in life. In Auer, P & Wei, L (eds.). Handbook of multilingualism and multilingual communication. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 101-130. Duck, S. 1991. Friends, for life. Hertfordshire: Harvester Wheatsheaf. Gumperz, J. 1982. Conversational code-switching. Gumperz, J (ed.). Discourse strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge university press, 59-99. Kumamoto-Healey, J. & Nanri, K. 2009. Cross-cultural contacts between international students and their Japanese tutors on a multi-cultural campus. In Yorozu, M & Murakami, F (eds.). Japanese language education and Japanese culture in a globalised society. Tokyo: Hitsuji Shobo, 228-249. Menard-Warwick, J. 2008. The cultural and intercultural identities of transnational English teachers: Two case studies from the Americans. TESOL quarterly, 42 (4), 617-640. Molinsky, A. 2007. Cross-cultural code-switching: the psychological challenge of adapting behavior in foreign cultural interactions. The academy of management review, 32 (2), 622-640.

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Nishimura, M. 1997. Japanese/English code switching: syntax and pragmatics. New York: Peter Lang. Parr, B. H. 2013. ‘Baby, te amo’: code switching as a way to develop and limit intimacy in multicultural, romantic relationships. The journal of undergraduate ethnography, 3 (2), 12-22.