PROCEEDING 2010 NATIONAL CONFERENCE PROMOTING GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES IN LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE TEACHING ON LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE TEACHING

PROCEEDING 2010 NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE TEACHING

PROMOTING GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES IN LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE TEACHING

MA CHUNG PRESS MALANG, INDONESIA 2010

Proceeding 2010 National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching

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Dr. Patrisius Djiwandono : Sugeng Riadi, S.T. Ni Putu Ayu Pramanasari, S.S. Wike Asteria Lucas, S.S., S.P. Ma Chung Press Jl. Villa Puncak Tidar N-01 Malang-Indonesia

Perpustakaan Nasional: Katalog dalam Terbitan

Universitas Ma Chung Malang Proceeding 2010 National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching X

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang

KATA PENGANTAR

Promoting global perspectives in literature and language teaching merupakan tema yang diusung untuk prosiding ini yang memuat tulisan-tulisan ilmiah para pemakalah dalam kegiatan Konferensi Nasional Pengajaran Sastra dan Bahasa (NACOLLIT) ke 1 pada bulan Juni 2010 yang diselenggarakan oleh program studi Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung. Tema ini merupakan refleksi dari pengalaman empiris bahwa pembangunan karakter sebuah bangsa khususnya melalui bidang pendidikan tidak akan berlangsung secara optimal bila dilakukan secara sepenggal-sepenggal dan tersegmentasi dalam sebuah pola pikir yang bernuansa lokalitas. Sebaliknya, perkembangan di era teknologi informasi ini dengan segala kompleksitasnya mau tidak mau menuntut dunia pendidikan untuk terbuka terhadap paradigma global yang bercirikan keberagaman atau multi pendekatan dalam menyelesaikan persoalan-persoalan kehidupan bangsa. Prosiding ini merupakan perwakilan bagaimana wajah multi perspektif itu dilukiskan oleh para pemikir, praktisi, dan peneliti dalam dua kanvas besar yaitu sastra dan bahasa. Untuk itu, sudah sepatutnyalah apresiasi yang besar kami sampaikan kepada mereka yang telah menyumbangkan pemikiran dan gagasannya melalui karya-karyanya yang bermutu. Akhir kata, besar harapan kami prosiding ini akan bermanfaat bagi semua pihak.

Malang,12 Juni 2010

Leenawaty Limantara, M.Sc., Ph.D Rektor Universitas Ma Chung

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SUSUNAN ACARA PELAKSANAAN : SABTU, 12 JUNI 2010 WAKTU

KEGIATAN

RUANG Theater Room

07.00 08.00

Konfirmasi Pendaftaran (Panitia)

08.0008.15

Pembukaan Penyambutan& teknis acara (MC)

Theater Room

08.1508.30

Pidato Pembukaan / Peresmian (Rektor Universitas Ma Chung Leenawaty Limantara, Ph.D.)

Theater Room

Gedung Bhakti Persada Lantai 1 Gedung Bhakti Persada Lantai 1 Gedung Bhakti Persada Lantai 1

PLENARY SESSION A Judul 08.3009.20

09.2009.30

Presenter

“Literary Perfomance: Unravelling Hidden Potentials of Poetic Language”

A. Effendi Kadarisman, Ph.D

Lilis Lestari Wiludjeng., SS., M.Hum

Ruang

Theater Room Gedung Persada Lantai 1

Bhakti

Theater Room

Penyerahan Cinderamata ke Pembicara Utama MC

Gedung Bhakti Persada Lantai 1

Coffee Break

09.3009.45

Lobby Theater Room Gedung Bhakti Persada Lantai 1

Parallel Session 1 Judul Improving the Quality of Teaching English by Improving the Qualification of Teachers Translating the Main Points of Newspaper Opinions and Editorials in Indonesian into English Literary Works in English Language Teaching: An Effort to Boost Young Learners’ Linguistic Skills and Cultural Knowledge

Gedung Bhakti Persada Lantai 2 Presenter

Moderator

Ruang

Abdul Muth'im

Kartika Nuswantara

Carotenoid

Barli Bram

Lis Setiawati

Phycocyanin

Condro Nur Alim

Meinarni Susilowati

Chlorophyll

D

Portfolio and Self-assessment in Translation Class

1. Harris Hermansyah Setiajid 2. Winda Adeputri D. 3. Simon Arsa M.

Rainerius Hendro Prasetianto

Anthocyanin

E

The development of Teaching Materials for The Students of The Faculty of Engineering Universitas Brawijaya

1. Indah Winarni 2. Rita Darmayanti 3. Moch. Aminullah 4. Afif Ikhwanul M.

Reimundus Raymond Fatubun

Curcuminoid

A

B

09.4510.25

Moderator

C

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PELAKSANAAN : SABTU, 12 JUNI 2010 Parallel Session 2 A

B

10.3011.10

C

D

E


Judul New Words Encountered as The Results of Unpredictable Word Formation Processes Peran dan Kepedulian Media Massa terhadap Penggunaan Bahasa Indonesia yang Baik dan Benar The Students' Perspective on Teacher's Identity Representation in EFL Classroom Interactions Engagement Strategy for Teaching Reading to Students of English A Marxist Feminist Reading of Nawal’s Women at Point Zero and Dewi Linggasari‘s Sali: Two Women from Vastly Different Civilizations at Vastly Different Point Zeros

Presenter

B 11.1511.55

C

D

E 11.5513.00

Ruang

Kartika Nuswantara

Rohmani Nur Indah

Carotenoid

Lis Setiawati

Sudartomo Macaryus

Phycocyanin

Meinarni Susilowati

Sugeng Hariyanto

Chlorophyll


Susi Harliani

Anthocyanin


Indra Charismiadji

Curcuminoid

Parallel Session 3

A

Moderator


Judul Discovering Student’s Expertise to Augment Claim Quality in Writing Classes at UIN Maliki Malang Memfungsikan Bahasa Inggris dalam Kehidupan Teknologi Informasi dan Profesi Penerjemahan Pengajaran Apresiasi Drama dengan Pendekatan Konstruktivis Menggunakan Media Film Blended Learning: Best Practice in ICT-Based ELT Implementation

Presenter

Moderator

Ruang

Rohmani Nur Indah

Yohanes Hartadi

Carotenoid

Sudartomo Macaryus

Agnes Herawati

Phycocyanin

Sugeng Hariyanto

Winarto

Chlorophyll

1. Susi Harliani 2. Endro Sutrisno

Pikir Wisnu Wijayanto

Anthocyanin

Indra Charismiadji

Esra Nelvi Manutur Siagian

Curcuminoid

Lunch & Prayer Break Lobby Theater Room & Prayer Room Gedung Bhakti Persada Lantai 1

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PELAKSANAAN : SABTU, 12 JUNI 2010 Parallel Session 4 A

B 13.0013.40

C D

E

Judul The Destruction of The Tasmanian Aborigines in Mudrooroo’s Doctor Wooreddy The Use of Multimedia in Developing Interesting English Syntax Material Peran Strategis Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi dalam Pembelajaran Bahasa English Competence Needed by Nursing Department Students Strategi Pembelajaran dalam Program Pengajaran Bahasa Indonesia sebagai Bahasa Asing di Universitas di Australia


A B 13.4514.20

C D

E

Gracia Sudargo

Carotenoid

Agnes Herawati

Joni Alfino

Phycocyanin

Winarto

Like Raskova Octaberlina

Chlorophyll


Masnidar Tanjung

Anthocyanin


Mierza Miranti

Curcuminoid


A 14.2515.05

B

C

D

Moderator

Ruang

Gracia Sudargo

Indra Charismiadji

Carotenoid

Joni Alfino

Suko Winarsih

Phycocyanin


Tri Budhi Sastrio R. A. Noer Doddy Irmawati

Masnidar Tanjung

Mierza Miranti

Parallel Session 6 Judul Language Assessment Using Technology Pengembangan Bahan Ajar BIPA Berdasarkan “Authentic Materials” Teaching English in Indonesian Environment. A Case Study: Developing Indonesian English The Improvement of Academic Reading Achievement by Using Task-based Learning

Ruang

Yohanes Hartadi

Parallel Session 5 Judul Postcolonialism Ideology in Avatar’s Plot: A Literary Analysis on Movie Teaching Writing at Senior High School: A Challenge To Be Global is Good, But to Be Glocal is Perfect Developing KTSP in the Teaching of English Grammatical Structure Promoting Environmental Sustainability Awareness in the Classroom: Integrating Renewable Energy Issues in English Lessons based on KTSP

Moderator

Indah Winarni

Chlorophyll Anthocyanin

Curcuminoid


Moderator

Ruang

Indra Charismiadji

Abdul Muth'im

Carotenoid

Suko Winarsih

Barli Bram

Phycocyanin

1. Tri Budhi Sastrio 2. Irina Floretta Tunjung Sari

Condro Nur Alim

Chlorophyll

R. A. Noer Doddy Irmawati

Harris Hermansyah Setiajid

Anthocyanin

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PELAKSANAAN : SABTU, 12 JUNI 2010 PLENARY SESSION B Judul 15.0516.00

16.0016.10 16.1016.15 16.15Selesai

“The Sufferings of A Non-native Speaker: Vocabulary”

Presenter

Moderator

Ruang

Theater Room Prof. E. Sadtono

Dr. Patrisius Djiwandono

Gedung Persada Lantai 1

Theater Room

Penyerahan Kenang kenangan (MC)


Pidato Penutupan (Ketua Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris Prof. Drs. Handiyo Kartawinata, M.A., Ph.D.) Penutup Pembagian Sertifikat Coffee Break (Panitia)

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Theater Room Gedung Bhakti Persada Lantai 1

Lobby Theater Room Gedung Bhakti Persada Lantai 1

Bhakti


DAFTAR ISI HALAMAN JUDUL .................................................................................................................................................................i KATA PENGANTAR .............................................................................................................................................................. ii SUSUNAN ACARA ............................................................................................................................................................... iii DAFTAR ISI......................................................................................................................................................................... vii DAFTAR PENYAJI ............................................................................................................................................................... vii

PLENARY SESSIONS A. LITERARY PERFORMANCE: UNRAVELING HIDDEN POTENTIALS OF POETIC LANGUAGE ........... 1 A. Effendi Kadarisman B. THE SUFFERINGS OF A NON-NATIVE SPEAKER: VOCABULARY ............................................................. 2 Eugenius Sadtono

PARALLEL SESSIONS IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF TEACHING ENGLISH BY IMPROVING THE QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS .................................................................................................................................................................... 13 Abdul Muthim THE USE OF MULTIMEDIA IN DEVELOPING INTERESTING ENGLISH SYNTAX MATERIAL .................................................................................................................................................................... 18 Agnes Herawati TRANSLATING THE MAIN POINTS OF NEWSPAPER OPINIONS AND EDITORIALS IN INDONESIAN INTO ENGLISH............................................................................................................................................................. 21 Barli Bram LITERARY WORKS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING: AN EFFORT TO BOOST YOUNG LEARNERS‟ LINGUISTIC SKILLS AND CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE............................................................... 25 Condro Nur Alim THE STUDY OF SPEECH ACTS IN 419 NIGERIAN ADVANCE FEE FRAUDS SPAM EMAILS ................... 29 Daniel Ginting STRATEGI PEMBELAJARAN DALAM PROGRAM PENGAJARAN BAHASA INDONESIA SEBAGAI BAHASA ASING DI UNIVERSITAS DI AUSTRALIA ............................................................................................. 34 Esra Nelvi Manutur Siagian POSTCOLONIALISM IDEOLOGY IN AVATAR‟S PLOT: A LITERARY ANALYSIS ON MOVIE ............... 41 Gracia Mary Sudargo PORTFOLIO AND SELF-ASSESSMENT IN TRANSLATION CLASS ................................................................ 45 Harris Hermansyah Setiajid, Winda Adeputri Djohar, Simon Arsa Manggala THE DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHING MATERIALS FOR THE STUDENTS OF THE FACULTY OF ENGINEERING UNIVERSITAS BRAWIJAYA .................................................................... 49 Indah Winarni, Rita Darmayanti, Moch. Aminullah, Afif Ikhwanul M BLENDED LEARNING: BEST PRACTICE IN ICT-BASED ELT IMPLEMENTATION ................................... 55 Indra Charismiadji LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT USING TECHNOLOGY............................................................................................. 56

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Indra Charismiadji TEACHING WRITING AT SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL: A CHALLENGE ............................................................. 57 Joni Alfino NEW WORDS ENCOUNTERED AS THE RESULTS OF UNPREDICTABLE WORD FORMATION PROCESSES................................................................................................................................................................... 59 Kartika Nuswantara TO BE GLOBAL IS GOOD, BUT TO BE GLOCAL IS PERFECT......................................................................... 64 Like Raskova Octaberlina PERAN DAN KEPEDULIAN MEDIA MASSA TERHADAP PENGGUNAAN BAHASA INDONESIA YANG BAIK DAN BENAR ....................................................................................................................................................... 68 Lis Setiawati DEVELOPING KTSP IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE ............................ 72 Masnidar Tanjung THE STUDENTS‟ PERSPECTIVE ON TEACHER‟S IDENTITY REPRESENTATION IN EFL CLASSROOM INTERACTIONS ........................................................................................................................................................... 77 Meinarni Susilowati PROMOTING ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AWARENESS IN THE CLASSROOM: INTEGRATING RENEWABLE ENERGY ISSUES IN ENGLISH LESSONS BASED ON KTSP....................... 81 Mierza Miranti ENGLISH COMPETENCE NEEDED BY NURSING DEPARTMENT STUDENTS ............................................ 90 Pikir Wisnu Wijayanto THE IMPROVEMENT OF ACADEMIC READING ACHIEVEMENT BY USING TASK-BASED LEARNING .................................................................................................................................................................... 94 R.A. Noer Doddy Irmawati ENGAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR TEACHING READING TO STUDENTS OF ENGLISH............................. 95 Rainerius Hendro Prasetianto A MARXIST FEMINIST READING OF NAWAL‟S WOMEN AT POINT ZERO AND DEWI LINGGASARI„S SALI: TWO WOMEN FROM VASTLY DIFFERENT CIVILIZATIONS AT VASTLY DIFFERENT POINT ZEROS .......................................................................................................................................................................... 100 Reimundus Raymond Fatubun DISCOVERING STUDENT‟S EXPERTISE TO AUGMENT CLAIM QUALITY IN WRITING CLASSES AT UIN MALIKI MALANG ............................................................................................................................................. 104 Rohmani Nur Indah MEMFUNGSIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS DALAM KEHIDUPAN ......................................................................... 110 Sudartomo Macaryus TEKNOLOGI INFORMASI DAN PROFESI PENERJEMAHAN ......................................................................... 111 Sugeng Hariyanto PENGEMBANGAN BAHAN AJAR BIPA BERDASARKAN “AUTHENTIC MATERIALS” .......................... 116 Suko Winarsih PENGAJARAN APRESIASI DRAMA DENGAN PENDEKATAN KONSTRUKTIVIS MENGGUNAKAN MEDIA FILM ............................................................................................................................................................... 123 Susi Harliani, Endro Sutrisno

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TEACHING ENGLISH IN INDONESIAN ENVIRONMENT. A CASE STUDY: DEVELOPING INDONESIAN ENGLISH ...................................................................................................................................................................... 131 Tri Budhi Sastrio, Irina Floretta Tunjung Sari PERAN STRATEGIS TEKNOLOGI INFORMASI DAN KOMUNIKASI DALAM PEMBELAJARAN BAHASA ....................................................................................................................................................................... 135 Winarto THE DESTRUCTION OF THE TASMANIAN ABORIGINES IN MUDROOROO'S DOCTOR WOOREDDY ................................................................................................................................................ 140 Yohanes Hartadi

DATA PENYAJI .................................................................................................................................................................... x SUSUNAN PANITIA .......................................................................................................................................................... xiii

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Literary Performance: Unraveling Hidden Potentials of Poetic Language A. Effendi Kadarisman Universitas Negeri Malang

poetic effects on the audience. In traditional literature, as revealed by Ethnopoetics, texts of high literary quality may be performed through declaimed narration, chant, or singing. In fact, the term tembang in Javanese poetics, best translated into ―sung-poetry‖ in English, suggests that poetry and song always go hand in hand. In Islamic tradition, oral performance of religious texts is meant to accomplish both solemnity and aesthetic purposes. Overall, literary performance which brings to light countless hidden potentials of poetic texts shows that human language, besides its primary function as a means of social communication, also contains a huge range of additional ―meanings‖— aesthetic, symbolic, cultural, and religious meanings.

Abstract – Unlike everyday speech which primarily conveys literal messages, poetic texts may contain hidden energy waiting to be revealed through oral performance. Along this line of reasoning, this paper argues that various types of literay performance may each accomplish different purposes. Poetry reading brings out the hidden meaning of a poem, and occasionally gives a different interpretation to it. When it is done by a prominent poet, poetry reading gives greater literary significance to his/her poems. Poetry singing—rather unusual in a modern literary sense—may multiply the

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The Sufferings of A Non-native Speaker: Vocabulary E. Sadtono Ma Chung University Malang, Indonesia

the word in question, and the notionalists are those whose judgment on correctness is based on the concept of logicality. Einsohn (2001, 335-338) revealed that ―In some cases, however, the rules are unclear or disputed, and the experts offer conflicting analyses.‖ She further commented that ―The perplexities are compounded when an author and a copyeditor have different positions about what constitutes correct English.‖ On grammar she said ―…that even the experts sometimes disagree.‖ And ―… the battle is between the descriptivists, who seek to document how language is used, and the prescriptivists, who championed an edenic vision of how the language should be used.‖

Abstract – Learning and remembering English vocabulary is one of the most difficult tasks for the nonnative speaker of English, especially now that English has become the global lingua franca. The paper will discuss briefly the major problems the non-native speaker has to face in learning vocabulary which the native speaker may not realize. The word ‗sufferings‘ refers to the burden of non-native learners in overcoming the never-ending problems in mastering vocabulary. Nonnative learners of English do not only suffer from lexical problems, but also from spelling, pronunciation, and grammar and the four skills, but due to space and time constraints, the paper is focused only on vocabulary, even then the treatment is far from exhaustive. The sufferings are based on the more than 25 years of learning English as a foreign language. Suggestions as to how to cope with the problems will conclude the paper.

The problem for NNSs is compounded by the fact that correctness is sometimes based on ―which one sounds better.‖ (Einsohn, 2004: 341). The following is an example of the use of ―as well as‖: ―Prescriptive grammar handbooks treat a pair of singular nouns joined by as well as as singular, but descriptive analyses show that usage is mixed. The best advice comes from DEU (Dictionary of English Usage?) (s.v. ―as well as‖): When a singular verb sounds better, use commas to set off the as well as phrase. When the plural verb sounds better, do not set off the as well as phrase. - For copyeditor, a style manual, as well as a dictionary, is useful. - A style manual as well as a dictionary are always on his desk.‖ For NNSs such a problem is extremely difficult as they do not know which one sounds better.

Keywords: non-native speaker, sufferings, English vocabulary, confusion

Introduction The first twenty five years is the most difficult time to learn a foreign language – said a sage. I have learned English for more than twenty five years and I still have to struggle hard to master vocabulary, perhaps because my language aptitude is low.

Speaking about correctness, there are sentence constructions, for example, which are prescriptively incorrect, but now correct based on corpus linguistics. For example ―Everybody has to go and they have to take their own belongings.‖ In this sentence ‗everybody‘ is single, thus the use of ‗has‘, but it changes into ‗they‘ and the verb ‗have‘ – a NNS would be confused as there is no ‗consistency.‘ According to prescriptive grammar, it should be ―Everybody has to go, and he or she has to take his or her own belongings.‖ The question for the NNS is ―Who should we follow?‖

As English has become the global language and the number of non-native speakers (hereafter NNS) exceeds the number of native speakers (hereafter NS), the reference for correctness and appropriacy has practically been lost. Now we do not really know who the authorities are, especially with the emergence of corpus linguistics that suggests that the authority is the majority of users. But a question immediately arises: if the majority of users is the authority on correctness, would corpus linguists take data from non-native speakers‘ English? They are now the majority of English speakers.

Thus ‗correctness‘ now depends on whose viewpoint we are dealing with and for the NNS it is simply mindboggling.

The problems are confounded by the fact that since 1998 , there has been an evolution (or revolution?) in English as a result of corpus linguistics. The authorities in English are practically divided into three camps: the prescriptivists, the descriptivists, and the notionalists. The prescriptivists are followers of the Latin-based grammar, the descriptivists are followers of corpus linguistics whose pronouncements of correctness are based on the number of native speakers of English using

As a NNS, I find it hard to follow the development in EFL and sometimes I get confused because of the differences in dialects; to make it simple let us take the differences between British English (BE) and American English (AE). The popular illustration is when we stay at a hotel, for example, we will come across with the term first floor: in AE it means the first storey in real term; but

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang not in another. For example ‗diaper‘ is used in modern AE, but it is old fashioned in BE which uses ‗nappy‘ instead, ‗sidewalk‘ (AE) is replaced by ‗pavement‘ in modern BE. ‗Chook‘ used in Australia is old-fashioned in BE, replaced by ‗chicken.‘ ‗Bioscope‘ in South Africa is replaced by ‗cinema‘ in BE.

in BE it is the second floor, the first floor being the ground floor. Frequently the NNSs fail to know whether a vocabulary item is still used or not used anymore in BE or AE. For example ‗to hail from‘ – to have been born in a particular place id old-fashioned (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English , hereafter LDCE, 2004:726). As a result, if an Indonesian writes a textbook for learning English, sometimes there are vocabulary items which are not used anymore or rarely used in BE or AE, for example the word ‗Rather!‘ – (BE) is used to agree with someone – was used in old-fashioned spoken English. As there are roughly double standards of correctness, the NNS learners get frequently confused, thus their sufferings.

Summary of Suffering 1: NNS learners of English suffer from the fact that language changes and they may not know whether or not a vocabulary item is already old-fashioned, and when they use it unknowingly, it would be unacceptable.

Suffering 2: Nuances Nuances here refer to the fact that there are slight differences in meaning of synonyms which constitute a headache for NNS. The simple example is the difference between ‗possible‘ and ‗probable‘, the latter being stronger than the former. A more complicated example is the following: ‗rather,‘ ‗fairly,‘ ‘quite,‘ and ‗pretty.‘ LDCE (2004:1359) explains: ―Rather, fairly, quite, and pretty are all used to say that something is true to some degree, but not completely or extremely: She‘s rather shy. | You should find the test rather easy.| It took quite a long time (NOT a quite long time). | His English is pretty good. Rather is fairly formal but can be used in spoken English, especially in British English. In American English it is more usual to use pretty. In both American and British English, pretty is more usual in speech than in writing. Quite can also be used in front of an adjective or adverb, and in British English a verb, to mean ‗completely‘. This is a fairly formal use: You are quite wrong. | I quite understand your feelings.‖

There are so many factors affecting the learning of vocabulary of a foreign language. The discussion in this paper is concerned with the major problems only due to limited time and space, though other problems are not discussed, they are no less important than the topics currently dealt with.

Suffering 1: The Dynamic Character of Language Virtually all living languages change: new words are always born and some old words die, meaning not used anymore, and some others change their meaning or pronunciation. English, being used all over the world, changes fast, especially because science develops very fast and scientists need to communicate their discovery worldwide using English, they need to label their inventions using words. As a result, they have to create or coin new words, borrow words from other languages, or give a new meaning to old words to name their new inventions. For example the computer science creates new meaning for old words such as ‗to burn.‘

A NNS would get confused by the fact that it also depends on whether it is British or American English and whether it is in speech or writing; and the statement ‗Rather is fairly formal but can be used in spoken English‘ – so it is half formal and half informal spoken English; and the statement ‗.. is fairly formal..‘ – meaning not very formal and not very informal either.

In addition, society also creates new words, especially the young people, so they invent new words (slang) or create their own language variety. Even the older generation of native speakers cannot cope with the new lexical items the younger generation has created, let alone the non-native speakers. Some illustrations for the points above: the word ‗cool‘, for example, formerly it means ‗not hot‘ but nowadays it also means ‗good.‘ In Indonesian, the pronunciation of the word ‗pasca‘ (post) is [pascha], but now most people would pronounce it as [paska] and write it as as ‗paska‘. It is wrong actually, but when the majority of people say [paska] and write it as ‗paska,‘ it will be acceptable and become ‗right.‘ Actually the mass media is the culprit, once they take up a word, spell it wrongly, and print it, people will follow it blindly, and then it becomes a misnomer (salah kaprah, Ind.).

As a NNS I expect to have some clarification of a related word ‗somewhat‘ in comparison with ‗rather‘, but probably for the NS it is not a problem and so it is not discussed in the dictionary. Summary of Suffering 2: NNSs can send a message to a NS, but it could be misinterpreted because the NNS was ignorant of the accurate word he/she wanted to convey.

Another problem is the so-called ‗old-fashioned words.‘ The issue is that a word is old-fashioned in one place but

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang CALD) for example, has a collocation following many of the verb entry.

Suffering 3: Collocation Collocation is pairing of vocabulary items or ‗the way in which some words are often used together‘ ( LDCE, 2004: 294). CALD (2002:597) for example gives the following collocations of the word ‗help‘: ―Words that go with help: ask for/need/seek/want help; give/offer/provide help; enlist the help of somebody; refuse help; extra/financial/professional help; a big/enormous/great/real help; help from sb/sth; help with sth; with/without help

Summary of Suffering 3: The NNS may send a message to a NS and the NS would chuckle because of the funny or strange combination of words.

Suffering 4: Idioms Phelps (1948: 173) explained that ―In the old-fashioned English courses ―idiom‖ was often treated as an ―additional luxury‖, relegated to an appendix at the back of the primer, to be tackled by the most ambitious or advanced students.‖ However, as far as NNSs are concerned, idioms are extremely important as they are found practically in all fiction materials though less in non-fiction materials.

Here is an example in Indonesian. The concept of ‗death‘ in Indonesian can be expressed using the words ‗gugur,‘ ‗wafat,‘ ‗meninggal,‘ ‗mati,‘ and ‗mampus.‘ But they are not mutually interchangeable. For example ‗tentara gugur,‘- a soldier died, ‗nabi wafat,‘- a prophet died, ‗tukang becak meninggal,‘- a becak driver died, ‗ayamku mati,‘ – my chicken died, ‗musuhku mampus‘ – my enemy died. (In English of course we can use ‗pass away,‘ or ‗kick the bucket,‘ depending on the context) In Indonesian we do not say for example ‗pengemis itu wafat,‘- the beggar wafat (died) or ‗tukang becak itu gugur‘- the becak driver gugur (died). Using a metaphor, each word has its own ‗spouse,‘ some words are ‗monogamous,‘ and some others ‗polygamous.‘ The word ‗meninggal‘ is ‗polygamous,‘ meaning that it can be paired with many other different words, whereas ‗gugur‘ is ‗monogamous,‘ as it has only one spouse, that is ‗tentara.‘ As an illustration of the importance of collocation and appropriacy, the following is an example of a mixture of wrong collocation and appropriacy: ―Pak Gub (Gubernur), apa dikau kasih ijin sama aku buat menghadiri persemayaman kucingku yang wafat tadi malam?‖ In this example, there is nothing wrong with the grammar as well as vocabulary, but there is something wrong with collocation and appropriacy; such a language could be made by a foreigner learning Indonesian. The same thing could be produced by a NNS speaking in English, and the NNS did not realize the mistake.

English idioms can be divided into seven categories (Wilson, 2010.), they are as follows: 1. Informal idioms – used with friends and family in relaxed situations 2. Formal idioms – serious and polite – used in conversation and formal writing 3. Very informal – very informal or not very polite forms, and they are used between members of social groups 4. Old-fashioned idioms – still used but they sound oldfashioned 5. Taboo – those idioms are likely to cause offence and never used in formal situations 6. Humorous – idioms intended to make people laugh 7. Literary idioms – more used in literature rather than everyday speech Unfortunately, Wilson did not provide examples of those different categories of idioms. Idioms are another pain in the neck for the NNSs as they simply have to be memorized because there is no rule governing them. Another problem idioms create is that some of them are archaic and some NS writers of composition dissuade NNSs from using them. Again the problem is that the NNSs do not know whether or not an idiom is archaic. For example ‗rechargeable battery‘ is archaic in BE, now it is called ‗accumulator‘ (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/lis_of_words_having_differentmeaning_in_British_and_American_English).

In learning English, however, the NNSs would find it hard to master collocation as there is virtually no practical rule governing its use. Only with a great deal of exposure to different written and oral texts can the NNSs master collocation. The problem usually arises when a NNS writes something which is grammatically correct, but collocationally incorrect; he or she will naturally be bewildered. The NS who reads it may only say that he or she does not say or write it that way. Fortunately now, with the help of a thick monolingual dictionary (EnglishEnglish) with examples or a dictionary of collocation, be it printed or electronic (the internet included), the NNSs can overcome this kind of obstacle somewhat easily with the principle ―When in doubt, consult the dictionary.‖ Cambridge Advanced Leaner‘s Dictionary (hereafter

In relation to global English, it is suggested that idiomatic expressions should be avoided as much as possible when we speak with another NNS using English as he or she may not be familiar with the idiom we use. Another problem is that different idioms are used in different English speaking countries, such as the UK, the US and Australia. As a result, idioms may not be mutually understandable even among native speakers of English.

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang sentences, while the descriptivists suggest otherwise. Winston Churchill was against the prescriptivist as evidenced in his famous sarcastic comment: ―This is the sort of English up with which I will not put ‖ and ―This is a form of pedantry up with which I will not put.‖ (Peter, 2007:644).

Summary of Suffering 4: NNSs think that idioms are a real burden because they have to be memorized as units, otherwise they could be trapped into thinking that they are just a ‗normal‘ expression which can be analyzed grammatically and lexically. In addition, the same idiomatic expression in one English country may have a different meaning or not used in another English speaking country.     

Australian/British Agreed on the price Cater for a party Protest against the war Provide us with a plan Wrote to his MP

    

Another problem for NNSs is differences in meaning for the same form due to dialect differences, for example ‗look out‘ in BE means ‗look outside‘ whereas in AE it means ‗watch out.‘ ‗Root on‘ in AE means something positive, i.e. ‗to cheer up and give support‘, but in Australian English (slang) it means something negative, i.e. ‗to have sexual relations with someone.‘ (Potter, 2001:205).

American Agreed the price Cater a party Protest the war Provide us a plan Wrote his MP

Another confusion for the NNSs is the fact that different dialects of English may use verbs with or without prepositions. Peter (2007:643) provided the following example:

Suffering 5: Prepositions Prepositions look trivial as they are just ‗small stuff‘ and in Indonesian they are not ‗a big deal.‘ In English, however, they can be confusing for NNSs as prepositions can be divided into several categories: (1) one-word prepositions, such as ‗look for,‘ ‗come across,‘ ‗run into,‘ and the like, (2) two-word prepositions, such as ‗look forward to,‘ ‗ substitute x for by,‘ ‗look down upon,‘ etc., (3) prepositions separated from their verbs, such as ‗prevent someone from verb + ing‘ and (4) prepositional phrase, such as ‗in bed,‘ ‗at war,‘ etc.

Rules for preposition are also upsetting, for example we can separate the preposition from the verb such as ‗Take your coat off‘ or ‗Take off your coat; but we cannot say *‗Look yourself after‘ instead we should say ‗Look after yourself.‘ (CALD, centre 26) How in the world can a NNS ever learn and master prepositions? Summary of Suffering 5: As well as idioms, prepositions have to be memorized as units. Another difficulty is the following confusion: (a) some verbs have more than one preposition; (b) some verbs have more than one preposition and the meaning remains the same whichever preposition is used; (c) and some verbs and their prepositions can be separated by a word and the meaning remains the same, whereas some other verbs cannot be separated from their prepositions, and (d) some English dialects use some verbs with preposition, whereas some others without preposition.

In addition, just replacing a preposition can change the meaning, for example: ‗look for,‘ ‗look out,‘ ‗look into,‘ ‗look at‘. It is also difficult to remember the following: (a) ‗agree with a person, opinion, or policy,‘ (b) agree about a subject of discussion, (c) agree on a matter for decision,‘ (Swan, 1996: 445) when in Indonesian there is practically only one preposition ‗setuju dengan‘ or ‗menyetujui .. (without preposition). However, there are also verbs with different prepositions, and yet the meaning is the same, for example ‗disappointed with/at/about something.‘

Suffering 6: Informal and Formal Vocabulary

‗Inconsistencies‘ in prepositions are also a problem for NNSs such as ‗to discuss something,‘ but ‗a discussion about something‘; another example is ‗to emphasize something,‘ but ‗emphasis on something.‘ Recently, however, I saw in an article ‗emphasize on something.‘

In terms of formal language, it is suggested that there are informal, medium formal and formal language. At school, NNSs usually learn the medium formal language. One of the problems NNSs face is to identify formal and informal vocabulary items. The rule of thumb is formal vocabulary items consist of single, relatively long, words; whereas informal vocabulary may consist of two or more words. For example, ‗to put off‘ (informal, two words) is the same as the formal words ‗to postpone,‘ ‗to procrastinate,‘ and ‗to delay‘ (one word); ‗to step down‘ – ‗to alight,‘ etc. Short forms for informal vocabulary and long ones for formal vocabulary, for example ‗fire‘ (short) – ‗conflagration‘ (long). However, there are short words

A confusing vocabulary item for Indonesians is the word ‗lack,‘ because there are (a) lack of: ‗Lack of money prevented him from marrying his girl-friend,‘ (b) ‗to lack‘ (no preposition): ‗she lacked courage to borrow money from her boss,‘ and (c) ‗to be lacking in‘: ‗he was lacking in wisdom‘ (Swan, 1996:447) In terms of the place of preposition, the prescriptivists suggest that we should not use a preposition at the end of

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang which are formal, for example ‗to handle,‘ ‗to rise,‘ etc. NNS learners of English usually fail to distinguish between formal and informal vocabulary items.

Standards

General language In all

Specific language Total

Technical language Sum

The language of language arts

Person

Character

Protagonist

The language of science

Knee

Kneecap

Patella

The language of social studies

People

Population

Demograph ics

The language of math

In relation to this, when it comes to formal writing NNSs face the problem of inconsistency as in reality, NS writers are divided into two categories: (1) writers who like to use formal language, and (2) writers who do not like to use formal language, they are proponents of Plain English. Most of the authors writing textbook on writing tend to suggest that learners use Plain English, so instead of low-frequency high sounding words learners should use high-frequency words. But NNS learners frequently come across textbooks and journal articles using formal or outlandish vocabulary. For example the phrase ‗a lot of‘ which is supposedly informal, is used in many formal articles. So what should they follow? In fact, I personally find it easier to remember and use the formal vocabulary because mostly they consist of single words, therefore easy to remember, whereas informal words mostly consist of two or more words and more difficult to remember, for example it is easier for me to remember the word ‗to investigate‘ than the words ‗look into‘ (because there are other ‗looks‘ with different prepositions making it confusing, such as ‗look after,‘ ‗look up,‘ ‗ look out,‘ etc. (See discussion on prepositions above). There are, however, formal phrases which are also long, for example ‗to take into consideration.‘

Phrasal verbs are supposedly informal, e.g. ‗put up with‘ for ‗tolerate,‘ ‗make up for‘ for ‗ compensate for‘; there are, however, many situations – even in quite formal texts – when a phrasal verb is the most natural-sounding way of expressing an idea, for example ‗put on‘ is much more natural than the formal ‗don‘ (Park, D. 2010:2). The NNSs in this case become virtually hopeless in overcoming the problems of formal and informal vocabulary. They would never know ‗the most naturalsounding way of expressing an idea‘ should they are confronted with the challenge to select two or more synonymous words and to choose the one that is more natural-sounding. NNS ears are simply not tuned to distinguish between natural-sounding and non-naturalsounding words.

Another factor is that to me the formal vocabulary looks ‗fancier‘ and ‗more sophisticated‘ than the informal one; in addition writers also want to vary their language and no wonder that they invent or coin new words. Journal articles and bureaucratese are ‗notorious‘ for exploiting formal and low-frequency words. The issue of formal and informal vocabulary is compounded by the fact that there are degrees of formality and natural versus formal vocabulary. For example some informal words are more formal than other informal words, for example the verb ‗understand‘ is more formal than ‗get‘. However, both are less formal than the formal verb ‗comprehend‘.

Summary of Suffering 6 Most NNSs do not understand the distinction between formal and informal vocabulary (not discourse) as in L1 (Indonesian) there are only a few of them, such as ‗dikuburkan‘, ‗dimakamkan,‘ and ‗disemayamkan.‘ The NNSs suffering is to know what they are, where and when to use the formal vocabulary. They also encounter the contradiction between what they are supposed to write and the realities.

In addition to formal and informal vocabulary, there are also general language, specific language, and technical language, for example the following:

Suffering 7: Register As register has something to do with formal and informal use of language, it is included in the discussion of NNS sufferings. ―The appropriate language registers depend on the audience (who), the topic (what), purpose (why), and location (where)‖ (Montano-Harmon. 2010:1). Here is an overview of registers with specific examples for specific occasions (Beare, 2010). Beare divided register into

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang vertical register and horizontal register. The following are his definitions: Register: Type of language used when speaking to others Vertical register: Language used varying in degrees of formality Horizontal register: Jargon, slang, etc. used in communicating with your friends, colleagues, etc. The vertical language registers are as follows (MontanoHarmon. 2010; Beare. 2010)  Frozen Register or Static Register is language that does not change, such as The Lord‘s Prayer, the Preamble to the US Constitution, the Pledge of Allegiance (US), "set" speech which is often scripted.  Formal Register has the following characteristics: o usually comprises complete sentences o uses specific word usage o used in formal setting o is one-way in nature o is impersonal and formal o is used to show respect o is used in places such as work, school and public offices. o The common formats: speeches, sermons, pronouncements made by judges, announcements.  Consultative Formal Register is a standard form of communications. The characteristics are: o users are engaged in a mutually accepted structure of communications o it is formal o societal expectations accompany the users of this speech o it is professional discourse o Examples: when strangers meet, communications between a superior and a subordinate, doctor and patient, lawyer and client, lawyer and judge, teacher and student, counselor and client, conversation among colleagues, etc.  Casual Register is used in conversations with friends and peers. The characteristics of casual register are as follows: o it is colloquial, idiomatic and often full of slang and vulgarities o it is used to signal belonging to a given group, so this is an in-group language. One must be a member to engage in this register (in-group members), e.g. buddies, teammates, chat, emails, blogs, and letter to friends.  Intimate Register is used for private communications. It is reserved for close family members or intimate people, e.g. between husband and wife, parent and children, siblings, and lovers (and twins). It is "private" language, sometimes it is full of codewords only known to the two.

However, skipping one or more levels is usually considered inappropriate and even offensive.‖ Beare (2010) suggesed that the language used becomes more formal as the relationship becomes less personal. In the table below, in the first relationship, a married couple, the wife uses the imperative form which would be inappropriate with a superior at work. In the last conversation, the man asks using an indirect question as a means of making his question more polite. The following is a comparison between correct and incorrect register: Correct Register

Incorrect Register

(Wife to Husband) - Hi honey, how was your day? - Great. We got a lot done. And yours? - Fine, but stressful. Pass me that magazine, please. - Here you go.

(Wife to Husband) - Hello, how are you today? - I'm fine. Would you mind passing me the bread? - Certainly. Would you like some butter with your bread? - Yes, please. Thank you very much (Friend to Friend) - Hello Mr. Jones. May I ask you a question? - Certainly. How may I help you? - Do you think you could help me with this? - I'd be happy to help you. (Superior to Subordinate - at work) - Hey Jack, what are you doing?! Get to work! - Hey, I'll take as much time as I need.

(Friend to Friend) - Hi Charlie, can you give me a hand? - Sure Peter. What's up? - I can't get this to work. - Why don't you try to use a screwdriver?

(Superior to Subordinate at work) - Excuse me Peter, we seem to be having a problem with the Smith account. We'd better get together to discuss the situation. - That's a good idea Ms Amons, would 4 o'clock suit you? (Subordinate to Superior at work) - Good Morning, Mr. Jones, may I ask you a question? - Certainly, how can I help you? (Man Speaking to Stranger) - Pardon me. Do you think you could give me the time? - Certainly, it's twelve

Montano-Harmon (2010) gave the rule of language use: ―One can usually transition from one language register to an adjacent one without encountering repercussions.

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(Subordinate to Superior - at work) - Good Morning, Frank. I need a raise. - Do you really? Well, forget about it! (Man Speaking to Stranger) - You! Tell me where supermarket is. - There.

National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang thirty. -Thank - Not at all.

you.

Summary of Suffering 7: For NNSs the distinctions may not be clear because both the grammar and the diction of the texts are correct. Another aspect which they should learn is appropriacy.

(d)

Suffering 8: Way of Thinking A number of pundits in TEFL suggest that if we want to learn a foreign language successfully we should also learn the way of thinking of the NS. This of course is extremely difficult as the NNS learners do not know the way of thinking of the NS; and so far as I know I have not seen a textbook teaching the way of thinking or the patterns of thinking of the NS as a guideline for NNSs. Most of research on this topic deals with a comparative study of works written by NS writers and NNS writers.

(e)

Most English composition textbook writers suggest that we should use more active than passive sentences and that some verbs are stronger than others, that is the way English NSs think. This is what Indonesian learners of English should know as Indonesian basically uses more passive than active construction. The translation of the Indonesian sentence ‗Buku itu mudah dibaca‘ is mostly ‗The book is easy to be read‘ (passive) whereas the correct rendition is ‗the book is easy to read‘ (active).

(f)

Way of thinking is inseparable from culture and for this reason lexical comparison is necessary. If we compare Indonesian and English we will find for example the following: (a) Words which have exactly the same meaning in both languages, such as ‗radio‘, ‗TV‘ – etc. most of these words are actually borrowed from Dutch or English and they are usually concerned with mechanical and electronic gadgets. (b) Words which have the same ‗form‘ but different mental pictures, such as ‗house‘ and ‗rumah‘ – where the picture in the mind would be different. For example a Torajanese mental picture of house would be different from an Apache‘s mental picture of house. If the meaning is extended, the difference is more salient; for example ‗to house X‘ (The labourers are housed in an apartment) would be different from ‗karyawannya dirumahkan‘ (the labourers are discharged‘), both use the concept of ‗house‘ but the implication is different. In relation to ‗house‘, English differentiates ‗house‘ from ‗home‘ where ‗home‘ is abstract and has a positive connotation and ‗house‘ is concrete, whereas Indonesian does not have such a distinction. (c) Words which have no equivalents in another language, for example ‗sarung,‘ ‗keris‘, and ‗batik‘ are not available in English so they are adopted in

(g)

(h)

(i)

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English as ‗sarong,‘ ‗kris,‘, and ‗batik‘ respectively. The following English words, for example, have no single word equivalents in Indonesian: ‗scatological‘ – too interested in or related to human waste (LDCE, 2003: 1464), ‗obscurantism‘ – the practice of deliberately stopping ideas and facts from being known (LDCE, 2003: 1116); The majority of words have multiple meanings, and both L1 and L2 may share only one meaning, for example ‗chair‘ and ‗kursi‘ share the same meaning. In Indonesian, the meanings of ‗kursi‘ are (a) a piece of furniture, and (b) figurative meaning (‗position‘), whereas in English it can mean: (a) a piece of furniture (noun, the same as in Indonesian), (b) ‗to chair‘ – to preside a meeting, (c) the position of a being a university professor, (d) ‗The chair‘ (informal, AE) – the electric chair (LDCE, 2004: 241). In discourse, the way peoples think differ, for example Americans would prefer straightforward thinking, ‗first thing first,‘ whereas the Javanese love using circumlocution. The problem is that way of thinking itself is subjective and it depends on the situation when the writer was writing his or her composition. (See Kaplan for further information on this topic). English reflexive verbs are verbs which describe words that show that the person who does the action is also the person who is also affected by it (CALD 2nd ed. 2005, p. 1064) such as ‗he broke his arm,‘ if it is literally translated it would be ‗dia mematahkan lengannya.‘ For beginners, it is simply strange or unthinkable that some one would be willing to break his own arm (unless he is crazy of course). Confusion would arise if the sentence is ‗dia mematahkan lengannya (lengan musuhnya dalam kungfu)‘, should it be translated into ‗he broke his arm‘? But whose arm then? Another example is ―I enjoyed myself,‖ – literally translated ―Saya menikmati diri saya sendiri‖ – such an expression would evoke different kinds of imagination. Different mental pictures. The verbal phrase ‗to shake hands‘ to the Chinese is shaking hands with two hands, whereas in Western imagination when people shake hands, there must be two persons doing the handshaking. (Anon. 2010. On Developing English thinking way in Middle School Teaching. 29/3/2010). Word order. In English, people say ―Ladies and gentlemen,‖ whereas in Indonesian ―Bapak-bapak, ibu-ibu, dan saudara-saudara sekalian..‖ In English people say ‗You and I..‘ in Indonesian ‗Saya dan saudara‘ (mostly). ‗Garden flower‘ and ‗flower garden‘ can be confusing to Indonesian learners of English as they have to reverse the way of thinking. Indonesians would have to learn this kind of word order. ‗One of ..(plural).‘ In English, the usual expression to say something is very good or very bad (superlative adjective) is ‗X is one of the best/worst Xs‘ English

National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang rarely uses the only one best/worst something, mostly it is one of the plural objects. If it is the really numero uno, the word ‗the‘ is stressed and pronounced [thi:].

physicality of words. I should say that only very few NNSs would achieve the level of possessing the feeling of language (‗Sprächgefuhl‘-German) Summary of Suffering 10: The majority of NNSs would never ever reach the ability to perceive the rollercoastering of vocabulary. Does it matter?

Summary of Suffering 8: Different ways of thinking between English and Indonesian can become an obstacle when Indonesians learn English, the obstacle may be manifested in different mental pictures, non-existence of tangible and intangible objects in one or the other language; in the repertoire of meaning of both languages, usually there is only meaning in L1 that matches the meaning of the L2 repertoire of meaning; straightforward versus circumlocution expression; reflexive verbs; word order; and ‗one of the superlative adjectives + plural noun‘.

Suffering 11: Pet Peeves Pet peeves (AE) or pet hate (BE) is ‗something that you strongly dislike because it always annoys you‘ (LDCD, 2004:1227). For some NSs, words such as ‗to impact,‘ ‗to liaise,‘ ‗to interface,‘ and word ending ‗-wise‘ (‗stepwise,‘ ‗businesswise,‘ etc.) are simply unacceptable, they are pet peeves. To NNSs, they are just as good as any English words. The problem is when the NNSs write an essay using some pet peeves, for example, and send it for publication but those words are crossed out by the editor whose pet peeves are those words, the NNSs will simply get flustered because they do not know what is wrong.

Suffering 9: Malapropism Sometimes NS writers make mistakes which NNS (readers) do not realize that they are mistakes due to the assumption that NS writers ‗never‘ make mistakes. The fact is that even NS writers do make mistakes. The following words are some examples of words confused by NS writers (Einsohn, 2006: 392): ‗disinterested‘ does not mean ‗uninterested‘ ‗inflammable‘ does not mean ‗not flammable‘ ‗impracticable‘ does not mean ‗impractical‘ ‗noisome‘ does not mean ‗noisy‘ ‗regretfully‘ does not mean ‗regrettably‘ ‗respectively‘ does not mean ‗respectfully‘ Those words are called ‗malapropism.‘ Malapropism is ―an amusing mistake that you make when you use a word that sounds similar to the word you intended to say but means something completely different‖ (LDCE, 2004:996). When NSs themselves get confused about such words, what do we expect from NNSs?

Summary of Suffering 11: The fact that there are pet peeves is unfortunate for NNSs of English, especially if the NNS writers send their manuscript to NS editors who happen to have some pet peeves which are found in the manuscript.

Suffering 12: Strong and Weak Expressions The use of finite verbs in English expresses strength, but the use of noun phrase is weak (Einsohn, 2004:394) . The following are some examples of strong and weak expressions (boldface is mine):  Weak: The primary focus of this workshop is recent developments in computer training.  Strong: This workshop focuses on recent development in computer training  Weak: This is a difficult problem that is going to require months of research  Strong: This difficult problem will require months of research  Weak: This house is old and is in danger of collapsing during an earthquake  Strong: This old house could collapse during an earthquake

Summary of Suffering 9: When the stem of two words is the same, NNSs would hastily conclude that they are the same in meaning, in fact they may be not and the learners should not be fooled by appearances as appearances can be deceptive in language.

Suffering 10: Rollercoastering Rollercoastering is concerned with ‗the sense of physicality of words‘ (Einsohn, 2006:393). The NNSs are assumed to hear or feel the ―under‘ in ―underlie‖ or the ―over‘‖ in ―overcome‖ so they would be able to perceive the rollercoaster movement in a phrase such as ―the underlying problem in overcoming poverty‖ or ―over the long run, these short-term problems can be solved.‖ The NNSs are assumed to perceive the rollercoastering from ‗under‘ to ‗over,‘ or from ‗the long run‘ to ‗short-term.‘ The NNSs would virtually never notice such rollercoastering, nor would they ever hear or feel the

For NNSs, the idea of strong and weak expressions by using verbs as against phrasal verbs is 'strange', as there is no such thing as strong and weak expressions in Indonesian. When an Indonesian has to write an essay in English, and he or she is supposed to use strong instead of weak expressions, the Indonesian would be perplexed.

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Summary of Suffering 12: This is another burden for NNSs to bear in learning English as a foreign language because they should be able to distinguish between strong and weak expressions, a phenomenon which does not exist in Bahasa Indonesia.

- For copyeditors, a style manual, as well as a dictionary, is useful. - A style manual as well as a dictionary are always on his desk.‖ ―Sounds unnatural‖ is exemplified below: Einsohn (2004: 342) suggested when the plural sounds unnatural, the sentences should be revised. Awkward: The orchestra are tuning their instruments Preferable: The members of the orchestra are tuning their instruments. If the singular sounds awkward, the sentence should be revised - The recent divestiture and rising costs are expected to affect profits. - The recent divestiture as well as rising costs are expected to affect profits.

Suffering 13: Strange and Unusual Words for Indonesians There are some English words of low-frequency which are ‗strange‘ or ‗unusual‘ which Indonesian does not have, indicating that English is much richer and older than Indonesian and that English has words which Indonesians may never think of. The following words are some examples of the many words which have no single-word equivalents in Indonesian: Satyriasis –abnormal sexual needs Uxoricide – wife-killing Nymphomania – compulsive sexual needs on the part of a female Callypegian – possessed of a shapely posterior (Lewis, 1978: 527) Mastophobia – the fear of breasts (Lewis, 1978: 527)

Summary of Suffering 14: No way can a NNS perceive whether a phrase sounds better, right, unnatural, or awkward.

Last Suffering: How to Learn and Remember Vocabulary

Summary of Suffering 13: This is a blessing in disguise of suffering. The suffering is that the NNSs have to learn outlandish vocabulary, but on the other hand they also learn new things or concepts not available in Bahasa Indonesia which Indonesian people never think of.

In terms of remembering vocabulary, there are actually four kinds of vocabulary: (a) easy-to- remember vocabulary, (b) fairly-easy-to remember vocabulary, and (c) fairly-difficult-to-remember vocabulary, and (d) extremely-difficult-to-remember or slippery vocabulary. Vocabulary acquisition is inseparable from cultural understanding, and there are concepts in L2 which the culture of L1 does not have, as a result the L2 vocabulary item concerned is difficult to remember, for example the word ‗facetious,‘ ‗manumit,‘ etc. In fact, it is not the learning of vocabulary that is difficult, it is the retaining of vocabulary we have learned that is most difficult. In other words, to make the vocabulary items we have learned stuck in our memory is the issue. We will lose them easily if we do not use them frequently, receptively (such as in listening and reading) or productively (such as in speaking and writing). The failure of learners of English as a foreign language is mostly attributable to the absence of frequent exposures to English and frequent opportunities to use it.

Suffering 14: Sounds Better; Sounds Right; Sounds Unnatural; Sounds Awkward In English the correct use of words in an expression is sometimes determined by the fact that they ‗sound better,‘ ‗sound right,‘ ‗sound unnatural,‘ or ‗sound awkward.‘ (Einsohn, 2004: 340-342). How a NNS can ever judge the correctness of diction by sounding whether the expression sounds right, better, unnatural, or awkward is anybody‘s guess. The following are some examples (boldface is mine):  For those who attended the second day of the annual meeting, there was an early morning panel and afternoon workshops. Einsohn suggested that ―Grammarians have also observed that certain constructions ―sound right‖ to educated native speakers of English, even though the constructions defy formal or notional agreement. Such constructions exemplify the principle of attraction (or proximity), under which the verb tends to take the form of the closest subject.‖ In using ―as well as‖: ―When a singular verb sounds better, use comma to set off the as well as phrase. When the plural verb sounds better, do not set off the as well as phrase. For example:

The easy-to-remember vocabulary items are the ones that have similarity in form and meaning, such as ‗lamp‘, ‗book‘, ‗school‘, etc. which share similar forms with the Indonesian equivalents, because the equivalents are originated from English (Dutch). The-fairly-easy ones are nouns which we can perceive and which are frequently used, such as furniture around the house, and our emotions such as ‗love‘, ‗hate‘, etc. (c) fairly-difficult-toremember words are low-frequency words, but they can still be associated with something (a peg) so that we can remember them, such as ‗panicky‘ – because we have the word ‗panik‘ in Indonesian, and the last one (d) the most difficult to remember words are those with which we can

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang have no association whatsoever, and we have no similar concepts such as ‗ubiquitous‘ (seeming to be everywhere), ‗cantankerous‘ (bad-tempered and complaining a lot), etc. There are a number of ways of learning and remembering vocabulary. My own laws of memorization are as follows:  There must be something (anything at all) we can associate the word with, that ‗something‘ serves as a hook (BE) or a peg (AE). Many times we have to create our own pegs.  The peg must be humorous, ridiculous, stupid, or dirty. It is a fact that we can remember better things which are humorous, ridiculous, stupid, or dirty; and we easily forget things which are mundane, common and have no salient features.  We must spend some time to manipulate the explanation about the meaning of the word being learned, not short-cut instant explanation such as translation. Our brain somehow needs time to crunch the meaning of the word and put it in our long-term memory. Instant explanation such as translation does not stay long in our memory.  To reinforce our retentive memory, we should review the word from time to time, there is simply no substitute for review. The review may involve the four skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing.  Using TPR will also help to remember the meaning of new words better.

The most difficult kind of words to remember is when a word deals with a concept we are not familiar with and so there is no single equivalent in L1. The word ‗facetious‘ for example, means ‗saying things that are intended to be clever and funny but really silly and annoying‘ (LDCE, p. 560); there is no one-word equivalent in Indonesian and such a word is extremely difficult to remember as there is no peg we can hang it on, no associative scaffolding. However, I happen to have a friend who fulfills the description and his name is Pranoto, he likes to say something supposedly funny, for example when he visits me with his wife, he would say ‗Oh, saya datang dengan isteri orang.‘ (‗I come with someone‘s/someone else‘s wife) ‗Isteri orang‘ ordinarily means somebody else‘s wife, but the real meaning is ‗isteri manusia‘ (human‘s wife, not orang utan‘s), so I use the phrase ‗facetious Pranoto‘ to remember the meaning of ‗facetious.‘ In this case I use my friend as a peg for association. In brief, the peg for remembering vocabulary items can be anything at all. There are still, however, hundreds of slippery words which defy association with anything, these words should be put in a context, noted down, and reviewed many times. There are a number of techniques of remembering vocabulary such as analyzing stem and its prefixes (derived from Latin or Greek), using acrostic, rhymekeys, loci method, keyword method, image-name technique, chaining and some others which are not discussed here for technical reasons.

If a word shares similar sounds or spelling, it will be easy to remember and be kept in the long-term memory, for example ‗embellishment‘ will be easily remembered if we use the Indonesian word ‗èmbèl-èmbèl‘ as a peg as both words share the same sounds (albeit partially) and meaning. The peg here is the sound and it is also humorous. Another word is ‗opaque.‘ We can use similar sounding Indonesian word ‗opak‘, a big round cracker the size of a plate. If we hold an opak in front of our eyes, we cannot see through it; so if something is opaque it means we cannot see through it, e.g. ‗a shower with an opaque glass door‘, the opposite of ‗transparent.‘

Conclusion Many people do not realize that learning a foreign language seriously aiming at mastering it well takes a long time and needs perseverance, because there are so many elements in language that are so overwhelming for the learners to incorporate. Unfortunately language is slippery and the absorbing capacity of our brain is limited, so learners have to be patient to learn and to review what has been learned so that they are not easily lost. In fact, language learners should make a ‗pledge of allegiance‘ to the effect that they are willing to go slow, spend time regularly to learn, and review what they have learned from time to time. Without such a commitment, foreign language learning is definitely doomed to failure.

Another example is if we have to teach the word ‗reciprocal‘ which is a ‗slippery‘ word difficult to remember especially because there is no peg associated with the word. Now take the morpheme ‗proc‘, next draw a picture of two boxers hitting each other. Whenever a boxer hits an opponent, the sound of the hit is ‗prok‘, and boxing is a mutual act of hitting, so the meaning of ‗reciprocal‘ is ‗mutual‘ which is implicit in boxing. A more interesting explanation is asking two students to come in front of the class and perform simulated boxing. The underlying principles of the example are: (a) an association is created (‗proc‘ > boxing > mutual action > meaning of ‗reciprocal‘); (b) interesting and humorous; (c) if it involves students it will be more interesting; and (d) the explanation takes time. All of these fulfill the laws above.

When I was in the final year of my senior high school, the school principal asked me ―What would you like to study after graduating from this school?‖ I replied, ―I‘d like to study English at B-1 Course.‘ (B-1 Course was a two-year teacher-training course). He then said, ―D‘you think you can do it? It‘s extremely difficult, as you have to memorize a lot of idiomatic expressions, etc.‖ I did not pay much attention to his words then, but now I realize that he was right, and I do not know whether ―I can do it‖ as I am still learning it.

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang The problems discussed above are only the tip of an iceberg and the cliché ‗the more I learn English the less I know it,‘ is true and indeed it is a lifetime study.

Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English 2004. Harlow: Pearson Education Park, D. 2010. Identifying & using formal & informal vocabulary. Http://www.englishonline.org.cn/en/examswork/ielts-preparation-articles/article eleven. 3/29/2010

References Anon. 2010. Is old-fashioned English still spoken anywhere in the world? http://www.askoxford.com/globalenglish/questions/oldfas hion/?view=print 3/29/2010

Peter, P. 2007. The Cambridge Guide to Australian English Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Phelps, G.H. 1948. English idioms and English character. ELT Journal 1948 II(J):173-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Cambridge Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary. Second Edition. 2005. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Anon. 2010. On Developing English Thinking Way in Middle School Teaching (written by a Chinese teacher)

Potter, A. 2001. The Positive Thinker‘s Ten Commandments. New York: Berkley Books. p.205.

Beare, K. 2010. Introduction to Vertical Usage. About.com. Guide. http://esl.about.com/od/advanced speakingskills/a/v_register.htm. Accessed 14/4/2010

Swan, M. 1996. Practical English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press. P.445

Einsohn, A. 2001. The Copyeditor‘s Handbook. Denver: The Denver Publishing Institute

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/list_of_words_having_differe nt_meanings_in_British_and_American_English. 3/29/2010

Montano-Harmon, M.R. 2010. ―Developing English for Academic Purposes,‖ California State University, Fullerton . http://www.genconnection.com/English/ap/LanguageRegi sters.htm . Accessed 4/14/2010

Wilson, M.P. Mar. 10, 2010. Cambridge Idioms Dictionary, English as spoken. http://languagebooks_suite 101.com/article.cfm/Cambridge-idioms-dictionaryenglish-as-spoken. 29/3/10

Lewis, 1978. Word Power Made Easy. NY: Pocket Book

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Improving the Quality of Teaching English by Improving the Qualification of Teachers states that ―high school graduates who have studied English for six years can scarcely read reference books written in English.‖ Similar claim is expressed by Priyono (1997:17) that ―In Indonesia, the unsatisfactory results of the teaching EFL have been widely recognized.‖ The claims and the complaints stated above are not groundless. The results of some research conducted to investigate students‘ competence in the four language skills, i.e. listening, speaking, reading, and writing may become the proves. In reading area, for instance, Susilawati (2008) in her research on the ability of the 7 th semester students academic year 2008/2009 in finding meaning inferred from a reading text revealed that the highest percentage of students ability was at moderate level (46,15%) or 18 students of the total number of students, i.e. 39 persons. There was no student who had very good ability level, 5 students (12,83%) were in the category of having good ability, 14 students (35,90%) were in the category of having bad ability, and 2 students (5,21%) were categorized as having very bad ability. In the area of writing the unsatisfactory result is also found. For example, Roni (2006) who conducted a study on the students‘ competency in writing descriptive paragraph uncovered: 40% of the students had problems in terms of topic sentence, 35% of them had problems in diction, and 25% of the subjects had problems in description. If more research reports are read and studied, it is believed that lists can become longer. In the area of the components of language, the results of some studies show quite similar findings. For example, a study carried out by Astasari (2009) in her study on grammatical errors found in students‘ narrative writing found out that the highest frequency of errors was omission (41,51%), the second highest frequency was malformation (35,50%), the next highest frequency was addition (21,74%), and the lowest frequency of error was disordering (1,3%). Agustini (2007) in her study on the ability of the second year students in using simple past tense academic year 2007/2008 found out that 61% of the students had very bad ability. Other study conducted by Fitri (2009) found out that there were many problems faced the English Department students in using conditional sentence. From the findings illustrated above, it seems that Sadtono (1997:14) has strong reason to claim that:

Abdul Muth’im Lecturer of English Department, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Lambung Mangkurat University Banjarmasin

Abstract – Though English is taught in all levels of educations starting from Junior High School up to Tertiary Education and in all kinds of educations, general education as well as vocational one, the result is still considered unsatisfactory. Even after English is permitted to be introduced earlier at Elementary School as local content school subject, the result has not become better yet. Research conducted to investigate students‘ competence in the four language skills, that is, listening, speaking, reading, and writing in English may become proves of this unsatisfying results. Other research carried out to study the mastery of the learners in language components: phonology, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary also indicate the same results. Still other research that study other linguistic aspects of English revealed quite similar conclusion. The question that is worth of asking: is there something wrong with English teaching and learning practices in our country, Indonesia? It is based on this question this paper is written. Keywords: improving, quality, teaching, qualification

Introduction English is taught as compulsory subject in all levels and in all kinds of education from Junior High School (SMP/MTs/SMP-LB), Senior High School (SMA/MA/SMK/ SMA-LB) up to College or University. In JHS students learn English for three years. Other three years should be spent by the students in SHS. One or two more semesters to study English are obliged for nonEnglish department students, and around four years are demanded for English department students to deepen and broaden their knowledge and skills in English. So, totally, an Indonesian student will spend at least six and half years to learn English. This is not included the time if they start learning English from Elementary School. The total number of years spent for learning English can be eight, night, or ten years, depending on how much time and at what grade they start learning English. It is reasonable to hope that the result of learning English in such a long time is good. However, the hope is not always hand in hand with reality. Complaints on the result of learning English in Indonesia is still heard. Suyanto (1997:166), for instance,

In my opinion, teaching English in formal schooling in Indonesia is like flogging a dead horse. There are simply too many obstacles to overcome by the classroom teacher, and many of the obstacles are beyond the teacher‘s capability to surmount, such as limited number of hours, class size, the price of supplementary reading

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang materials, etc. The social situation is not particularly conducive learning English, as English is not spoken in society. It is true a number of TV programs are in English, but the subtitle makes the listener read it instead of listening to the dialogues.

more convenient, not in English. If they come from the same area of Indonesia, communicating in their vernacular or local language is psychologically felt more intimate and more effective. This situation is of course not conducive for the attainment of English language competencies. In language learning, the role of a teacher is to help his students to be able to communicate in the language. In other words, a language teacher has the obligation to facilitate his students to understand spoken and/or written language when other people talk or write to him and to be understood when he/she speaks or writes to someone – in this case in English. In facilitating the students to acquire English some principles must be born in mind by the teachers. According to Krashen and Terrel (1984) these principles are (1) comprehension precedes production, (2) production is allowed to emerge in stages, (3) the students are not forced to speak before they are ready, (4) speech errors which do not interfere with communication are not corrected, (5) syllabus consists of communicative goals, and (6) lowering the affective filter of the students. The first principle, i.e. comprehension precedes production implies that before a teacher asks his/her students to produce language utterance the first thing he/she is supposed to do is helping the students to understand the utterance. In other words, a teacher should make his/her learners comprehend the piece of language he/she utters. This is likely to happen if the teacher uses English language in the classroom. Some research conducted by Carrol (1975) and others (e.g. Burstall, 1968, 1970; Burstall, Jamieson, Cohen & Hargreaves, 1974; Carroll, Clark, Edwards, & Handrick, 1967; Wolf, 1977) as exposed by Turnbull and Arnett (2002) in Annual Review of Applied Linguistics found a direct correlation between FL achievement and teacher use of the TL. The second principle - production is allowed to emerge in stages, and the third principle - the students are not forced to speak before they are ready, should be understood as a warning for the teacher who is not patient enough to expect his/her students to produce English without waiting for a situation which is coined by linguists as ‗silent-period.‘ The stages that should be taken and are assumed to be able to help students‘ understanding better are the ones proposed by Krashen and Terrel above. In their book, they suggest the following production stages: (1) yes/no, (2) single word, (3) single phrase, (4) sentence, (5) and longer discourse. The fourth, the fifth and sixth principles, in my opinion, have the purpose to raise the students‘ feeling of success in learning. Raising the feeling of success is important in learning language because once a student feels that he/she succeeds in it, his/her motivation will also increase. Many studies show the significant results. For example, Turnbull and Arnett (2002) discovered that there is relationship between motivation and learning achievement. In the long run, the feeling of success can raise the learners‘ self-confidence and motivation – two positive affective aspects of learning.

The Role of Teacher in Classroom It is true that the problem of limitation of class hours is out of English teachers control: it has already been determined by the Government in which it is represented by the Department of National Education. It is also true that the size of English classes is beyond the capacity of English teacher to control: it is related with the school policy. It is also true that the price of supplementary reading (and also listening) materials are beyond the capacity of English teachers to cope: it depends on the market. However, for the last problem, that is, the social situation which is not conducive for teaching and learning English is not completely true. In my mind, this problem can still be controlled by the teachers if they are willing to strive hard by creating ―English situation‖ in their class maximally. The teachers should provide situation that their class represents the picture of English usage outside there. They should. Otherwise, outside classroom, the learners will not come across with that situation. Unfortunately, what is going on in most of our English classes does not seem to reflect this situation. English teachers do not optimally provide enough comprehension inputs for the learners to acquire the language. There are still many English teachers – this is especially true in my region, South Kalimantan – who do not use English in their teaching activities in classroom. They treat English like other school subjects, so what they mostly do is primarily explaining about English. Yet, the objectives of teaching and learning English are different from those subjects. The focus of teaching and learning English is helping the learners use the language, not know about the language. In other words, teaching and learning English means developing the ability to communicate. It is through the exposures to the language that the skills may be developed. In our education policy, English is not used as medium of instruction. In teaching other school subjects such as mathematics, physics, biology, civics, and religion, for instance, the teachers do not use English as medium of instruction. The impact of this condition causes the quantity and also the quality of exposure to English experienced by the learners become minimum. Only in certain schools such as RSBI or SBI and some ‗independent schools‘ English is claimed to be implemented as medium of instruction in the process of teaching and learning, especially school subjects categorized as science in their schools. Moreover, English is very rare to be used as means of communication between and among Indonesian people. For Indonesians coming from different areas of Indonesia, talking in Indonesian is felt more communicative and

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang In relation to the way of increasing students‘ selfconfidence, Donyei (2001) in Patil (2008) suggests the following strategies: 1. Teachers need to foster the view that competence is not static condition but ongoing process. Thus learners come to think that growth is gradual but sure. 2. They need to provide regular experiences of success in the classroom. 3. They need to give opportunities to the learners to contribute meaningfully. When students feel that they contribute, they will feel more interested. 4. They need to praise the learners for their contribution and progress. An occasional word of encouragement will elevate their spirits and level of motivation. 5. They need to make the classroom climate less stressful. Learning gains momentum when the classroom situation is relaxed, friendly and homely.

4.

Good language Teachers

3. 4.

monitors lessons as they unfold and makes effective mid-lesson alterations 5. effectively perceives students‘ linguistic needs 6. gives optimal feedback to students 7. stimulates interaction, cooperation, and teamwork in the classroom 8. uses appropriate principles of classroom management 9. uses effective, clear presentation skills 10. creatively adapts textbook material and other audio, visual, and mechanical aids 11. innovatively creates brand-new materials when needed 12. uses interactive, intrinsically motivating techniques to create effective tests

Interpersonal Skills 1. 2.

To be able to accomplish the above requirements so that all the complaints as discussed in the previous part of this paper can be minimized if it is not possible to completely discard them, the availability of qualified English teachers is a must. Without the availability of the qualified teachers the effort to improve the quality of teaching is quite impossible to do, and in turn, if the quality of teaching is not good, hoping to improve the quality of learning seems to be day dream. What are the characteristics of a good language teacher? According to Brown (2001:430) a good English teacher should be in good in four areas: (1) technical knowledge, (2) pedagogical skills, (3) interpersonal skills, and (4) personal qualities. He then elaborates these four characteristics as the following.

5. 6. 7.

Personal Qualities 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Technical Knowledge 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

is aware of cross-cultural differences and is sensitive to students‘ cultural traditions enjoys people; shows enthusiasm, warmth, rapport, and appropriate humor values the opinions and abilities of students is patient in working with students of lesser ability offers challenges to students of exceptionally high ability cooperates harmoniously and candidly with colleagues (fellow teachers) seeks opportunities to share thoughts, ideas, and techniques with colleagues

understanding the linguistic systems of English phonology, grammar, and discourse comprehensively grasps basic principles of language learning and teaching has fluent competence in speaking, writing, listening to, and reading English knows through experience what it is like to learn a foreign language understands the close connection between language and culture keeps up with the field through regular reading and conference/workshop attendance

is well organized, conscientious in meeting commitment, and dependable is flexible when things go awry maintains an inquisitive mind in trying out new ways of teaching sets short-term and long-term goals for continued professional growth maintains and exemplifies high ethical and moral standards.

How qualified our teachers are Up to the academic year 2006/2007, what is meant by qualified teachers are those who hold Diploma III/Bachelor of Art (BA) certificate or higher (S1) from teacher training and education institutions such as IKIP or FKIP. Teachers who are lower than those qualifications such as SPG, DI or/and DII are not considered as qualified. This means that they actually do not have the right to teach and are supposed not to. However, based on the data released by the Department of National Education, it can be inferred that unqualified teachers were still teaching in SMP and SMA. Nationally, based on the data, there were 624.726 teachers teach in SMP. Among those teachers, those who were considered qualified were 487.512 (78.04%), and there were 137.214 or around (12.94%) who were still considered as not qualified. These teachers were

Pedagogical Skills 1. has a well-thought-out, informed approach to language reading 2. understands and uses a wide variety of techniques 3. efficiently designs and executes lesson plans

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang distributed in public schools and private schools. In public school there were 414.503 teachers. As many as 332.276 teachers (80.16%) were categorized as qualified teachers and 82.227 teachers (19.84%) were categorized as un qualified. In private schools, the qualified teachers were 155.236 persons (73.84%) and unqualified teachers were 54.987 persons or 29.16?%. In SMA, the lack of qualified teachers also occurred. Nationally, the total number of SMA teachers was 285.818 persons. As many as 215.722 teachers (75.48%) were categorized as qualified teachers. The rests, as many 70.096 teachers (24.52%) were categorized as unqualified teachers. In public schools, out of 157.995 SMA teachers, as many as 127.651 persons or 80.79% were categorized into qualified teachers and as many as 30.344 teachers or 19.21% were categorized as unqualified teachers. In private schools, the number of SMA teachers was 127.823. As many as 88.071 teachers or 68.90% were categorized as qualified teachers. Whereas as many as 39.752 teachers or 31.10% were categorized as unqualified teachers. (More detail, see Appendix 1 and Appendix 2). Though the data only revealed the lack teacher in SMP and SMA, I believe that other levels of education such as Kindergarten or/and Elementary School (SD/MI) and other kinds of education such as MTs/MA, SMP-LB, SMA-LB and SMK suffer the same problem. Further conclusion that can be inferred from the data is that all school-subjects are assumed to have the same problem: the problem of lacking teachers and the problems of lacking qualified teachers. Based on Education Act No. 19 on National Education Standard of the year 2005, Chapter VI about Educators Standard and Standard of the Officials of Education Affairs, Article 29, point (1) the qualification of kindergarten teachers (PAUD), (2) the qualification of SD/MI teachers, (3) the qualification of SMP/MTs teachers, (4) the qualification of SMA/MA teachers, (5) the qualification of SDLB/SMPLB/SMALB, and (6) the qualification of SMK/MAK, it is stipulated that the minimum qualification for the teacher is Diploma IV or Sarjana degree (S1). This implies that those who formerly hold DIII or/and BA do not belong to the category of qualified teachers anymore. The consequence of this stipulation is that the number of qualified teacher may decrease from the data shown.

situation. We may not loose the hope in helping our students to be able to attain good competence in English which in turn to be able to use the language in real communication. There are two things that should be done so that we can improve the quality of teaching English. First, for the teachers who do not have DIV or S1 degree qualification, continuing their study to relevant college or university is highly recommended. Second, for those who have already had the required qualification, from now on, bear in mind that teaching English means teaching to use the language, not teaching about the language. In other words, as English teachers, we have the obligation to help, encourage, and facilitate our students to be able to communicate in English.

Reference Agustini. The Ability of the Second Semester Students of SMPN 15 Banjarmasin Academic Year 2007-2008 in Using Simple Past Tense. S1 Thesis. Unpublished.English Department, FKIP Lambung Mangkurat University Banjarmasin. 2007. Astasari, Isanti. Grammatical Error in Students‘ Narrative Writing. Thesis.Unpublished. English Department, Faculty of Letters, State University of Malang. 2009. Brown, H. Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles: An Integrated Approach to Language Pedagogy. Second Addition. White Plains, NY: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. Fitri, Zainal. 2009. The Problems Faced by the Students of English Department FKIP Lambung Mangkurat University Academic Year 2008-2009 in Using Conditional Sentences. S1 Thesis. Unpublished. English Department, FKIP Lambung Mangkurat University Banjarmasin. Krashen, Stephen D and Terrel, Tracy D. 1984. The Natural Approach Language Acquisition in the Classroom. Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd. Patil, Z.N. 2008.Rethinking the Objectives of Teaching English in Asia. Asian EFL Journal. 10(4):227-… Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 19 Tahun 2005 tentang Standar Nasional Pendidikan.

Closure Teaching is teacher‘s job, and teaching English is English teacher‘s job. In doing his job, he/she is equipped with various kinds of aids: education, curriculum, syllabus, lesson-plan, text-books, and other learning resources. It is based on these aids a teacher does his work, day by day, week by week, month by month and year by year. However, the result is not satisfying yet either for the students, for parents, for the government, and for other stake-holders, and especially for the teachers themselves. However bad the condition of teaching and learning is, as English teachers, we may not give up to the

Priyono. 1997. Logical Problems of Teaching English as a Foreign Language in Indonesia. In The Tapestry of English Language Teaching and Learning in Indonesia. Cahyono, Bambang Yudi and Widiati, Utami (Eds). Malang: State University of Malang Press. Roni, Rusman. 2006. The Students‘ Competency in Writing Descriptive Paragraph at Electrical and Mechanical Department, Faculty of Engineering,

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Tridinanti University Palembang. TEFLIN Journal. 17(1):28-36.

English Department, FKIP University Banjarmasin.

Sadtono, E. (Ed). 1997. ELT Development in Indonesia. In The Development of TEFL in Indonesia. Sadtono, E. (Ed). Malang: Penerbit IKIP Malang.

Suyanto, Kasihani K.E. 1997. Teaching English to Young Learners in Indonesia. In The Development of TEFL in Indonesia. Sadtono, E (Ed.). Malang: Penerbit IKIP Malang.

Susilawati. 2008. The Ability of the Seventh Semester Students of English Department FKIP Lambung Mangkurat University Academic Year 2008-2009 in Reading Comprehension. S1 Thesis. Unpublished.

Lambung

Mangkurat

Turnbull, Miles and Arnett, Katy. 2002. Teachers‘ Uses of the Target and First Languages in Second and Foreign Language Classrooms. In Annual Review of Applied Linguistics. (22):204-218. Cambridge University Press.

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The Use of Multimedia in Developing Interesting English Syntax Material Agnes Herawati Bina Nusantara University Jakarta

multimedia allows to take a more active role in learning. One of the advantages of using multimedia is to convey information quickly and effectively to all students and keep them interested in learning (Savage and Vogel, 2008) How about language class? Can we use multimedia? The answer is absolutely yes. Any kind of subjects and lesson can be taught through multimedia, even the English Syntax that is considered boring by the English Department students. The effectiveness of the use of multimedia is teaching English syntax will be discussed in this paper.

Abstract - As computer technology becomes more accessible, we encounter a new IT product that is called multimedia. Multimedia can include text, sound, graphics, animation, video, color, and interaction with the user. Multimedia provides a means of communication and storing information. In addition, multimedia can also be designed to receive information from the reader and process it to provide individually responses. This interactivity provides a new dimension to the teaching learning process of English Syntax class and to the process of acquiring knowledge. Moreover, the use of multimedia in English Syntax class can become ways to encounter the classical problems such as boring and difficult material and unparticipated students.

What is Multimedia? There are many definitions of multimedia, however, for this paper we will define multimedia as the integration of text, graphics, animation and/or video (Sharma and Barrett, 2007). This broad definition might mean that multimedia include power point presentations that created by teachers, commercial software (such as multimedia encyclopedia) that is used for reference or instruction, or activities that directly engage the students in using multimedia to construct and convey knowledge (Sharma and Barrett, 2007). So, the focus of the use of multimedia is engaging students in the use of multimedia to construct and convey knowledge.

Introduction Nowadays condition, whether we like it or not, we cannot avoid the existence of internet in our life. Even the today cell phones are completed with the internet application, of course this is in order to give easier internet connection to human life and emphasis more that internet is our part of life nowadays. How about internet in the classroom? Most universities in Indonesia are not connected with the internet connection in each classroom. The use of computer is limited for the presentation and some lecturers are lack of technology knowledge that results in the gap between the students and their lecturers. I still find the classroom where the lecturer only explains the material day to day while her students just listen unattentively or even get sleepy. I am sure this is the unwanted condition and we, as teachers are hoped to give a better solution in how to gain students‘ interest. One of the solutions is by using multimedia. Why multimedia? Students respond to information differently. Thus, it is often to our advantage as teachers to use many different formats and modes to teach the subject matter of a lesson, especially the subject that is considered boring by the students. This is why teachers normally use some combination of lecture, text and hands-on laboratory for conveying information. With the advent of internet, and the multiple formats that can be communicated over the web, we now have several new and exciting ways to present information. The web allows the incorporation of animation, pictures and sounds into lessons, which extends our abilities to present materials that encourage student interaction with the subject matter. Pictures and animation help bring to life important principles, and

Using multimedia in teaching English syntax Pictures and photographs have many uses in the classroom. We can use them to teach grammar, vocabularies and even English Syntax that is considered boring by some students. Not only that, picture and photographs can be used to support activities such as presentation that will result in the interesting presentation material. How about online audio and video? The benefit of online audio and video is in terms of accent of the speaker and length. Learners who require exposure to native-speakers accents can listen online. Any forms of audio and video, whether you need pop videos, news report or press conference, are available in Web. We can choose the appropriate and interesting one. However, this does not mean that audio and video are only appropriate for the listening class. We can integrate these materials to our syntax presentation to provide a more appropriate, interesting and attractive one and this can be done either by teacher or students (Swan, 1999). What we have to do is just have searching for and selecting an online material we intend to use, then we are able to prepare the lesson in advance and form the lesson

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang based on what is needed and what we intend to deliver. The current information can be taken easily from the web, this condition can provide a more attractive material for this students, and our creativity in designing multimedia material can lead the class to move the emphasize from teacher centered into students centered activity and engage the students to be more proactive and independent (Sandholtz, Ringstaff and Dwyer,1997).

Designing multimedia presentation for teaching English syntax The multimedia presentation can be designed by ourselves or by downloaded the free and suitable one from the website. If we want to create by ourselves, the simple one is by using power point. In addition, we are able to make a more interesting presentation by adding photographs, diagrams, audio and video, or if we are capable enough, we can add some animation in our presentation. However, many multimedia materials can be downloaded from the website. Texts are the most common things on the web, with pictures coming second and audio and video following. This means that it is easier to find a text that exactly matches our needs, but finding audio or video clips that fit closely needs some more effort. For English Syntax itself, of course we have to relate our multimedia with the topic. Picture about syntactic structure, for example, can be downloaded freely from Google or video about English syntax and adjective can be found in Youtube. Another ways to design our multimedia presentation by the helping of blogs. Blogs are defined mostly as online diaries. The authors, known as bloggers, contribute written posting which can be included pictures or even audio and video clips. Moreover, many bloggers pursue their areas of interest and then include hyperlinks to the things that interest them in their posting. Many blogs focus on very specific topics. Finding suitable blogs can save a lot of searching. In syntax class, it is recommended for the teachers to have a special syntax blog, that include presentation, cases, pictures or anything related. Blog enable the readers to add comments to the posting and this condition makes blog become an effective way for the teachers and students to develop a discussion (Sharma and Barret, 2007).

The effectiveness of using multimedia in English Syntax class Provide a more interesting, attractive and complete material is the main effect of the use of multimedia in English Syntax class. However, in students side, it is needed a research to prove the effectiveness of it. In this research, I compared the effectiveness of traditional teaching methodology and the use of multimedia and it was conducted in two groups of fifth semester students of English Literature Department of Bina Nusantara University. On the first comparison, I

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compared two groups that learned about one-word adverbial and word-group adverbial. However, in the first group, the material was presented by using the traditional teaching methodology which consists of one way lecturing for 40 minutes, doing exercise for 30 minutes and discuss the exercise in class for 15 minutes. While in another group of students, I used multimedia in my syntax class. The same topic was delivered though multimedia presentation in which I delivered the presentation using power point completed with explanation about the points of the topic, comic strips to be analyzed and a related video clip. This presentation was conducted in 40 minutes. After presentation, the students were assigned to do the written exercise for 30 minutes. The results showed that the average mark in the traditional teaching method group was 6.8 while the average mark in the other method was 7.9. It means that there is an increasing mark of 1.1. For the topic of noun phrase and verb phrase, the first group was taught by using multimedia presentation, while the other group was taught traditionally. In the first group, I delivered the material in the form of soft copy and asked them to learn by themselves. The softcopy material consists of power point presentation and 20 numbers of exercises, completed with hyperlink, in which the students were able to check the correctness of their answers. The same material and exercise were delivered to the students in the second group. However, this group learned the material directly from the book and did the exercise in writing. In term of time, the first group finished the activity in 45 minutes, while the other group finished it in 80 minutes. It means, the second group needed 35 more minutes than the first one. A classroom discussion, in which most of students participate, is sometimes hard to conduct. Many students tend to just keep silent and only some of them contribute in the discussion. This condition triggered me to conduct an online discussion in which the students are free to give comment to the case I present as well as to their friend‘s opinion. The discussion forum was opened for 1 day. I started with a case about Part of Speech : Positional classes and I asked the students to share their opinion about that case, completed with arguments. During one day, I found that 65 out of 78 students (83%) participated in the discussion forum. All of them completed their comment with an argument, however only 47 students (72%) completed their argument with quotations from text books or website. To support this research, 78 students were also given some questions regarding the use of traditional teaching methodology and multimedia. The following table shows the result I obtained from the students‘ answers.

5

6

7

8

Which one is more interesting? Which one is more understandable

what is your constraints in designing presentation

Percentage of multimedia

78

100%

72 0

3 78

4% 100%

20

58

74%

Final Remark 24

54

69%

0

78

100%

12

56

72%

I realize that the research I conducted has some limitation, especially in term of the numbers of respondents. However, it is hoped that that research and this paper can give an insight that the use of multimedia is hard to avoid. It becomes an excellent vehicle to improve education. The web contains extensive resources for teachers and students to get and download into an interesting, attractive and understandable presentation. Through multimedia usage, the autonomous and creative learners are closer to reach.

0

23 (29%)

43 (55%)

12 (15%)

15 (19%)

46 (59%)

17 (22%)

0

Finding suitable material (text, picture, audio video) 69 (88%)

References video clip

4

0

Power point completed with picture and audio

3

Use multimedia in class

2

Which one do you choose? What do you think of English syntax material presented? a. Boring b. interesting c. understandable How about discussion activity? a. encourage students participation How about doing English syntax exercise? Are you encouraged to learn independently?

Power point completed with picture, diagram or animation

1

Questions

is considered hard to understand. In discussion activity, most of the students prefer to have online discussion. That also happens in doing exercise in which most students prefer to have online exercise. However, most of them are difficult in finding the suitable materials, it means that they need a guidance in how to find suitable materials for presentation. On the teachers‘ side, the result of the research, especially in term of time, the use of multimedia can overcome the problem of time limitation in delivering materials. However, since multimedia needs an extra creativity in designing, it is a must to upgrade the knowledge related to multimedia and be more creative to create more interesting presentations.

Basic power point presentation

N o

Traditional teaching methodology


Baber, E. and Hampel, R. 2003. Using Internet–Based Audio-Graphic and Video Conferencing for Language Teaching and Learning. Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger B.V. Pete Sharma, and Barney Barret. 2007. Blended Learning: Using Technology In and Beyond the Language Classroom. Oxford: Macmillan Sandholtz, J., Ringstaff, C., and Dwyer, D.1997. Teaching with Technology: Creating Student-Centered Classroom. New York: Teacher college, Columbia University.

Internet connection

11 (14%)

Savage, T.M., and Vogel, K.E. 2008. An Introduction to Digital Multimedia. Jones & Bartlett Publishers Swan, K. 1999. Nonprint Literacy Standards (Online). Available: http://cela.albany.edu/newslet/fall99/standards.htm.

Conclusion

Albany, NY: Achievement.

The table above shows us that 100% students prefer multimedia in English syntax class. The material presented is more interesting, if it is completed with picture and audio, while presentation that is without audio is more understandable. However, the video clip material

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Center

on

English

Learning

and


Translating the Main Points of Newspaper Opinions and Editorials in Indonesian into English Barli Bram Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta

translation of the main points of newspaper opinions and editorials in Indonesian into English.

2. Newspaper Opinions and Editorials Abstract – This opinion paper examines issues and strategies related to the translation of the main points of newspaper opinions and editorials in Indonesian into English in the context of a translation class at university level. In general, tackling successfully differences between two cultures is one of the most challenging tasks for a (student) translator. It is obvious that linguistic or language aspects, for instance, the mastery of English grammar and the size of vocabulary (including bloc language namely language used in a newspaper in English), play a crucial role in the translation process. It is also essential to know how to obtain the main points or summary of an editorial and of an opinion piece.

In general, Indonesian newspapers have a column called Opini which often consists of one or two editorial(s) and several opinion pieces. The Kompas daily, for example, always carries two editorials and some opinion pieces in every edition, from Monday to Saturday. Note that the term editorial is equivalent to tajuk (rencana), wacana and jati diri. Theoretically, there are two types of editorials, namely, institutional and personal ones. The former is anonymous, unsigned whereas the latter signed (the author is identified). Only the institutional editorials appear to be common in Indonesian newspapers. The other type of Opini, that is, an opinion (piece), is normally signed, meaning that some information about the writer is included. One obvious similarity between an editorial and opinion (piece) is that they both show a stance or express a view. Thus far, editorials have been an interesting topic for researchers to study from various angles. For instance, Westin (2002: 7) says that "an editorial, in British journalism also referred to as 'leading article' or a 'leader', is a newspaper article expressing the opinion of the editor or publishers of the newspaper on some topical issue". Further, Ryan (2004: 378) concludes that "editorial writers reflect the official views of their newspapers, and newspapers certainly are free to voice whatever opinions they choose". Editorials follow a schematic structure, typically consisting of a ―summary of the event, an evaluation, and a pragmatic conclusion‖ (van Dijk, 1996), but in a certain context, this typical pattern ―might vary, mix or omit these components" (Achugar, 2004: 294). Interestingly, in its editorial published on Thursday, 25 March 2010, entitled Uneasiness at NU Congress Arena, the daily Jawa Pos clarifies the functions of an editorial as follows. ''Theoretically, there are at least three functions of an editorial which we call 'Jati Diri' (Self Identity) in Jawa Pos. First, it criticises government's policy which harms the public. [Second], it can also give a solution or insight in response to problems faced by the public. Third, it conveys support for a policy or (critical) view which we are convinced to be right. So, this time we will take a position to support a view which we regard as on the track. …''

Keywords: editorial, opinion, newspaper, source text, target text

1. Introduction Undeniably, in this era of information, newspapers play a crucial role in society. They certainly do not only deliver news, but also views or opinions to influence readers. As a result, there has emerged the term viewpaper. In this paper, however, the former, namely, the term newspaper, is used. As a plural noun, "newspapers are ephemeral texts, that is, they are intended only for the day they are delivering the news. They cater for a wide range of readers with a wide range of needs" (Reah, 2002: 13). It should be noted that this definition is specific, narrow in scope, focusing on the keyword news. But, as mentioned earlier, a newspaper also carries opinions. The writer believes that newspapers (which are published in Indonesian) can be a useful and easily accessible source for an Indonesian-English translation class, particularly at university level (especially for English department students who are in semester five or above considering that these students are expected to have equipped themselves with good English grammar and rich vocabulary). Selected main points or summaries of editorials and opinions which are translated into English from Indonesian can be marketed as press quotes and used to share with those who do not read Indonesian regarding the reaction of the Indonesian press to a particular issue or event, either a local or global one, such as corruption and nuclear weapons. Accordingly, in the following, the writer would like to attempt to examine translation issues and strategies, more specifically the

"Secara teori, setidaknya ada tiga fungsi tajuk rencana yang di Jawa Pos kami namakan Jati Diri. Pertama, mengkritik

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang kebijakan pemerintah yang merugikan publik. Bisa juga memberi solusi atau pencerahan dalam menyikapi masalah yang dihadapi publik. Yang ketiga, memberi dukungan terhadap kebijakan atau pandangan (kritik) yang kami yakini benar. Nah, kali ini kami akan mengambil posisi untuk mendukung pandangan yang kami anggap on the track. ..." (Jawa Pos, Jati Diri: Kerisauan di Arena Muktamar NU, Kamis, 25 Maret 2010)

4. Data and Comments Now, a relevant question to ask is: what strategy can be used to obtain the main points of a newspaper editorial and opinion? Well, Indonesian (student) translators might want to assist themselves to get the main points (a good summary) by identifying the special features of the language commonly used in a newspaper editorial and opinion. For example, the (student) translators can try to locate evaluative words and phrases such as kejam (ruthless), tidak masuk akal (illogical) and dengan brutal (brutally), and authoritative statements such as ... harus dihukum (... must be punished) and ... akan menjamin (... will guarantee) (cf Fowler, 1991: 210-1). Note that the elements evaluative and authoritative are important here. In this respect, the writer supports Newsom's (2007: 62) opinion: "The power of words is in their ability to frame our thinking". What newspapers in Indonesian should be used and how can they be accessed? If possible, access the online versions of the dailies which can be copied and pasted into a word processor (eg OpenOffice or Microsoft Word), for instance, Kompas, Seputar Indonesia, Media Indonesia, Republika, Suara Karya, Suara Pembaruan, Sinar Harapan, Jawa Pos, Suara Merdeka, Solo Pos, Kedaulatan Rakyat, Pikiran Rakyat, Waspada, Sinar Indonesia Baru, Bali Post, and Fajar (See the appendix for more detail about daily newspapers in Indonesian accessible online). Certainly, it is also possible but impractical to use pdf versions and hardcopies of those papers. Below are three suggested steps to summarize the main points of an editorial and of opinion piece. First, read through the editorial or opinion, which may consist of 300 up to 500 words and in 10 paragraphs. Second, select the main points consisting of about 30 up to 120 words in three up to 10 sentences. Remember the key features: evaluative words like mencurigakan (suspicious) and authoritative statements like … akan menangkap (… will arrest). The summary is arranged in a single paragraph and three omission dots (…) can be used to show deletion. Third, make sure to understand the source text (Indonesian version) and then translate it into the target text (English version). Here are five pairs of examples (1-5).

3. Cultural and Linguistic Aspects As mentioned above, two important factors in translation are cultural and linguistic aspects. In the following, both aspects will be commented concisely. First, "translation all too often involves having to mediate between two cultures. The wider apart the two cultures involved, the greater will be the problems to be encountered in translating from one to the other" (Baker, 2006: 41). Compare, for example, a generally direct style of Western/English culture and a more indirect approach of Eastern/Indonesian culture in expressing an opinion. Thus, it is essential for Indonesian (student) translators to anticipate translation challenges concerning cultural aspects and equip themselves with strategies when translating from Indonesian, the source language (SL), into English, the target language (TL). Perhaps, that is why it is unwise to rely on a translation machine or programme because such equipment recognizes no human culture and thus will very likely translate inaccurately. "Translation is also creative and not just an automatic process" (Samuelsson-Brown, 2004: xi). It should be stressed that a non-human translator, for instance, Google's online translation facility might yield a rough translation which can quickly help us to get the basic idea of a text. Second, it is also obvious that linguistic or language aspects, for instance, the mastery of English grammar and the size of vocabulary (including bloc language namely language used in a newspaper in English), play a crucial role in the translation process. Some examples of bloc language vocabulary items, which are often shorter and which sound more 'dramatic' than ordinary vocabulary items, are: probe (investigation), poll (general election) and envoy (ambassador). Thus, a strong command of written English, including mastering advanced structure (eg ellipsis) and having a vocabulary size ranging from 9,000 to 14,000 words, for example, is clearly an advantage. What should a translator do if she or he needs a certain English word but cannot remember or does not know it? A good answer is to consult a dictionary, which can be a hard copy, electronic or online one. Nowadays, many good, comprehensive dictionaries, for example, Longman and Cambridge dictionaries, are available online and free of charge.

(1.a) Suu Kyi Tolak Pemilu Kompas (Jakarta): "... Keputusan junta militer Myanmar, awal bulan ini, menerbitkan undang-undang baru tentang pemilu, sekali lagi, menjadi bukti bahwa masalah hak asasi manusia masih menjadi persoalan besar di negeri itu. Memang, undangundang menjelaskan, pemilu multipartai akan dilaksanakan tahun ini. Akan tetapi, undang-undang itu juga melarang para tokoh oposisi—termasuk Aung San Suu Kyi—ikut serta dalam pemilu. ... Banyak kalangan menilai bahwa penerbitan undang-undang baru itu

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang merupakan kemunduran; sebuah kemunduran dalam kebebasan berpolitik. ... Masuk akal kalau kemudian tokoh oposisi dan penerima Hadiah Nobel Perdamaian, Aung San Suu Kyi, menentang partainya, Liga Nasional untuk Demokrasi (NLD), mendaftarkan diri untuk ikut pemilu. ..." (Tajuk Rencana, 25 Maret 2010)

the country to do better for nation."(Editorial, 24 March 2010)

this

(3.a) Mengerem Potensi Terorisme Jawa Pos (Surabaya): "PERANG melawan terorisme masih jauh dari selesai. Kesan itulah yang mungkin muncul di benak sebagian orang ketika mendengar aparat keamanan kembali menangkap enam teroris DPO di Medan pada Ahad (11/4). Sebab, penangkapan serupa beberapa kali terjadi sebelumnya. Ternyata, itu belum menghabiskan stok para teroris. Namun, kita tetap harus memelihara dan mengembangkan optimisme. ... Semua komponen di negeri ini harus bahumembahu dan mewajibkan diri sendiri untuk terlibat dalam mengerem potensi tumbuh dan berkembangnya terorisme. ..." (Jati Diri, 13 April 2010)

(1.b) Suu Kyi Rejects Poll Kompas (Jakarta): "... The decision of Myanmar's military junta early this month to impose a new law on general elections has once again proven that human rights still remain the biggest problem in the country. Indeed, this new law explains that a multiparty general election will be held this year, but this law also bans opposition figures, including Aung San Suu Kyi, from participating in the poll. ... Many sides think that the passing of the new law is a setback, the setback in political freedom. ... It is logical then if the opposition figure and Nobel Peace Prize winner, Aung San Suu Kyi, has opposed her party, the National League for Democracy (NLD), to register to take part in the upcoming general election. ..." (Editorial, 25 March 2010)

(3.b) Containing Terrorism Potential Jawa Pos (Surabaya): "The war on terrorism is still far from over. Perhaps that is the impression emerging in the minds of some people when hearing the security apparatuses arrested another six wanted terrorists in Medan on Sunday (11 April). The reason is, similar arrests have taken place several time previously. It turns out that those arrests have yet to eradicate the stocks of terrorists. But, we must continue to maintain and develop optimism. ... All components in this country must cooperate and oblige themselves to get involved in containing the potential of the growth and development of terrorism. ..." (Editorial, 13 April 2010 )

(2.a) Pesan untuk Muktamar NU Sinar Indonesia Baru (Medan): "... Tidak dapat dipungkiri bahwa NU dengan kekuatan umat sekitar 40 jutaan adalah organisasi sosial yang terbesar. Dengan kebesaran kekuatan seperti itu, maka wajar kemudian NU menjadi rebutan secara khusus bagi mereka yang ingin menjadikan NU sebagai basis sosial-politiknya. ... Mereka yang menginginkan kekuasaan jelas melihat bahwa NU adalah sebuah kekuatan yang tidak dapat diabaikan begitu saja. ... Semoga hasil muktamar ini memberikan kesempatan kepada warga NU di seantero negeri untuk berbuat yang lebih baik bagi negeri ini." (Tajuk Rencana, 24 March 2010)

(4.a) Perdamaian Palestina Republika (Jakarta): ―Sikap keras kepala Israel membangun permukiman Yahudi di Tepi Barat menuai reaksi keras dari banyak pihak. ... Perdamaian Palestina-Israel adalah sebuah mimpi yang sulit diwujudkan meski bukan sebuah hal yang tidak mungkin sama sekali. Kerja keras dan keseriusan semua pihak adalah satu-satunya jalan untuk mendamaikanya. Jika tidak, kedamaian di Timur Tengah hanya sebuah mimpi kosong di siang bolong dan Palestina-Israel terus menjadi simbol konflik di Timur Tengah.‖ (Budi Prasetyo, Direktur Eksekutif The Hasyim Asy'ari Institute, 3 April 2010)

(2.b) Message for NU Congress Sinar Indonesia Baru (Medan): "... Undeniably, Nahdlatul Ulama (NU), which has approximately 40 million members, is the biggest social organization. With such might, it is natural then if NU becomes an object of the struggle, particularly for those who want to use NU as their social and political base. ... Clearly, those who want to gain authority understand that NU is a power which cannot be ignored just like that. ... May the results of this year's congress will give an opportunity to NU members across

(4.b) Palestine Peace Republika (Jakarta): "The stubbornness of Israel to build Jewish residences in the West Bank has received strong reaction from various sides. ... Peace between Palestine

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang and Israel is a dream which is difficult to fulfill even though it is not something impossible at all. Hard work and seriousness from all sides are the only way to create peace between Palestine and Israel. Otherwise, peace in the Middle East is merely a daydream, and Palestine and Israel continue to remain a symbol of the Middle East conflict." (Budi Prasetyo, executive directors of The Hasyim Asy'ari Institute, 3 April 2010)

The English versions above (1.b, 2.b, 3.b, 4.b and 5.b) are also referred to as camera-ready translations because they have been checked thoroughly and every detected mistake has been corrected.

5. Closing Remarks To produce a quality, camera-ready translation of the main points of an editorial and opinion piece in English, Indonesian (student) translators need, among other things, to familiarize themselves with the key characteristics of editorial and opinion language and to tackle cultural and linguistic aspects of both the source language (SL) and target language (TL). In terms of results, a human still translates better than a machine, doesn't it?

(5.a) Menyimak Krisis Politik Thailand Suara Pembaruan (Jakarta): "Krisis politik Thailand sejak pertengahan Maret 2010 terus berlanjut. Penyebabnya, konflik kepentingan antara kalangan oposisi (Front Bersatu Menuju Demokrasi dan AntiDiktator) berhadapan dengan Pemerintah pimpinan Perdana Menteri Abhisit Vejjajiwa. ... Bila tidak tercapai kompromi antara kedua pihak, terutama kalangan oposisi untuk menghentikan aksi demonstrasi menentang kebijakan PM Abhisit, maka negeri gajah putih tersebut akan rugi besar. Masalahnya, aksi demonstrasi mengakibatkan keamanan dan kenyamanan Bangkok sebagai tujuan utama wisata dan pusat ekonomi-politik Thailand menjadi tidak stabil atau terganggu. Bangkok sebagai tujuan utama wisatawan, dan investor asing perlu mempertahankan kondisi keamanan dan ketertibannya. ..." (Wim Tangkilisan, Pemimpin Umum Suara Pembaruan, 9 April 2010)

(5.b) Observing Crisis

Thai

References Achugar, Mariana, 2004. ―The Events and Actors of 11 September 2001 As Seen from Uruguay: Analysis of Daily Newspaper Editorials‖. Discourse Society. 15, 2-3: 291-320. http://das.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/15/2-3/291. Accessed on 7 April 2010. Baker, Mona. 2006. Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account. London: Routledge. Fowler, Roger. 1991. Language in the News: Discourse and Ideology in the Press. London: Routledge. http://promusica.se/Library/Electronic%20texts/Ryan20 04.pdf. Accessed on 7 April 2010. Newsom, Doug. 2007. Bridging the Gaps in Global Communication. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Reah, Danuta. 2002. The Language of Newspapers. 2nd ed. London: Routledge.

Political

Ryan, Michael. 2004. ―Framing the War Against Terrorism: US Newspaper Editorials and Military Action in Afghanistan‖. The International Communication Gazette. 66, 5: 363-382. Leiden: Kluwer Academic Publishers

Suara Pembaruan (Jakarta): "The Thai political crisis since mid March 2010 continues. The cause is the conflict of interests between the opposition camp (United Front towards Democracy and AntiDictator) and the government led by Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiwa. ... If there is no compromise reached between the two sides, particularly regarding the opposition to end protests against PM Abhisit's policy, the Land of the White Elephant will suffer a big loss. The problem is, the protests have caused the security and convenience in Bangkok as Thailand's major tourism destination and economic-political centre to become unstable or disrupted. Bangkok as the main destination of tourists and of foreign investors needs to maintain its security and order. ..." (Wim Tangkilisan, general manager of Suara Pembaruan, 9 April 2010)

Samuelsson-Brown, Geoffrey. 2004. A Practical Guide for Translators. Revised ed. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. van Dijk, Teun. 1996. ―Opinions and Ideologies in Editorials‖. Paper for the International Symposium of Critical Discourse Analysis. Language, Social Life and Critical Thought, Athens 14–16 December 1995 (second draft 1996). http://www.discourses.org/ UnpublishedArticles/Opinions%20and%20ideologies%20 in%20editorials.htm. Accessed on 7 April 2010. Westin, Ingrid. 2002. Language Change in English Newspaper Editorials. Amsterdam: Rodopi. http://books.google.com/bookid=k23fX9d2AlgC&pg=PR 3&dq=language+of+editorials&lr=&source=gbs_selected _pages&cad=5#. Accessed on 16 March 2010.

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Literary Works in English Language Teaching: An Effort to Boost Young Learners‟ Linguistic Skills and Cultural Knowledge Condro Nur Alim Faculty of Letters, Muhammadiyah University, Purwokerto [email protected]

least can help students in vocabulary building and sentence structure mastery. Memorizing new vocabularies from an entertaining activity will be more fruitful compared to the conventional way. Meanwhile, understanding complicated structure of English sentences can be simplified by using utterances taken from any interesting literary works. Therefore, using literary works in language teaching has some benefits for the learners. Further, Instead of above reasons, using literary work in language teaching can create a joyful atmosphere. In such condition, language teaching is no more seen as a ‗technical‘ matter. Complicated process and procedure in language teaching can be simplified by using literary works as the real example of how language works. In this way, it is believed that language teaching by using literary works as the media will be more profitable compare to the conventional way. Literary works can serve as the catalyst that boosts a learner‘s motivation in comprehending complicated rules and structures of English. Dealing with above description, taking a closer look at the trend of teaching English through literary works and some aspects related to it will be the main discussion in this paper.

Abstract – The success of teaching English for young learners mainly depends on the method of the teaching. It is due to the nature of young learners who tend to easily get bored with the ‗conventional way of teaching‘. Therefore those who teach English for young learners needs to be more creative in finding any new ways to boost students‘ English mastery. Incorporating literary works in teaching English for young learners is believed to be an alternative to cope with this difficulty. Language and literary works are like two sides of a coin. Both of them create a mutualism and complementary relation. In such relation, language is the content, meanwhile literary work is its form. Following this analogy, teaching the content (language) can be done through its form (literary work). In English language teaching for young learners, literary works can helps students to expand their ‗linguistic and cognitive skills, cultural knowledge and sensitivity. This opinion shares the importance of literary works in its multifunctional level. Linguistics and cognitive skills which are considered as the core of language learning actually can be enhanced through literature. In this sense, the use of literary works treats the students as the social creatures who are studying others‘ social patterns, norms and values. It is more ‗humanistic‘ way of language teaching rather than treating students as the robot that should do so complicated technical activities in their effort to learn English. Considering the importance of literary works in teaching English for young learners, this paper is aimed at exploring the possible literary works which can be incorporated in teaching English for young learners. It also focuses on the practical steps and considerations on how to get the maximum benefits of using certain literary works.

Literary Works in Language Teaching Language and literary works are like two sides of a coin. Both of them create a mutualism and complementary relation. In such relation, language is the content, meanwhile literary work is its form. Following this analogy, teaching the content (language) can be done through its form (literary work). Povey (1972: 187) said that literature will increase all language skills because it can extend linguistics knowledge by giving evidence of extensive and subtle vocabulary usage and complex and exact syntax. Similar to Povey, Stern (1983) also stated that the benefit of using literature in language learning can be fully realized through an integrative approach to language teaching by integrating literature into the curriculum. Gilroy and Parkinsons (1993: 221) promoted that literature should be integrated into language teaching curriculum and not segregated from it. Although language can be taught by quite a good number of methods but considering the great role of literary works in language teaching can be the real evidence that literature is one of the best tools of language teaching. According to Langer (1997: 607) literature can open horizons of possibility, allowing students to question, interpret, connect and explore. Meanwhile

Keywords: literary work, English, language, teachin, young learners

Introduction The trend of using literary works in language teaching has become a common practice recently. Literary works at

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang with students‘ comprehension, a bias and low performance may be unexpected results. The third is cultural content of a literary work. The existence of this cultural content can give double advantages for the learners if it is appropriate to students‘ cultural background. Therefore Duff and Maley (2007) recommend assessing whether a literary text is culturally offensive or not. It means that learners should not be offended by textual content of the text. The last is text size. The size of text also plays an important role both in enhancing students‘ motivation and in exploring students ‗hidden capability‘. Time allocation in the class activity should be the consideration in choosing the length of the text. A shorter text may be easier to use because it is more flexible to the class time available and it gives more time and chance for the students to pay more attention to the content of the text to develop their understanding.

Collie and Slater (1987) claimed that literary works give positive contributions as it exposes the learners to different registers types of language. Shanahan (1997: 165) stated that literature indeed helps students to expand their ‗linguistic and cognitive skills, cultural knowledge and sensitivity. This opinion shares the importance of literary works in its multifunctional level. Linguistics and cognitive skills which are considered as the core of language learning actually can be enhanced through literature. In this sense, the use of literary works treats the students as the social creatures who are studying others‘ social patterns, norms and values. It is more ‗humanistic‘ way of language teaching rather than treating students as the robot that should do so complicated technical activities in their effort to learn English. Those are some reasons underlying the use of literary works in English language teaching. In order to gain the maximum advantages from this effort, first it is important to decide what literary works will be used based on the class need. Practically, using literary works in English language teaching can be a rich source of linguistic input as well as be a media that helps learners to practice four skills of language, such as speaking, listening, reading and writing (www.teachingenglish.org.uk, accessed in November 1, 2008). Fortunately, the literature used in English language teaching nowadays is no longer restricted to certain canonical text, but includes the work of writers from many countries and cultures using different forms of English. It is also possible using local literary works written in English. Both the original forms and simplified version can be used in English language teaching. Actually there is no limitation about what kind of literary works are best in English language teaching. Some of them can be short stories, poems, novels, plays or song lyrics. The availability of those literary works gives more options both to the teacher and the students to select which work that they think can represent and accommodate their need in language teaching and learning. The selection of a certain literary work in language teaching then, should also consider the learners‘ condition. The first is what language skill is needed by the learners. It means that in English language teaching there will be certain focus on language skill that should be mastered by the learners. Since a literary work offers a wide range of possible language skills, a right selection of a literary work will be the first influential factor. For example, when the skill is focused on tense, the text should reflect both the form and the use of that tense. The second is the level of students‘ comprehension. It means that the level of difficulty of a text should be matched with the level of students‘ comprehension. This ‗match‘ between the level of difficulty and the level of students‘ comprehension later will encourage students to learn more or to up date their knowledge and skills since they feel that it is still in their reach. On the contrary, if a literary text doesn‘t ‗match‘

The Advantages of Using Literary Works It is hoped that above description about the roles of literary works in language teaching can change the perspective of language teaching method. As the focus of this paper, the next discussion will take account on some benefits of using literary works as media for English language teaching for Indonesian students. In a wider scope it can be said that a literary works can do its function in language teaching from up to toe. In this sense, literary works helps motivating, giving the real context, and enriching students‘ cultural knowledge. In my opinion, literary works help the process of language teaching, at least in some levels, they are: 1) level of vocabulary enrichment; 2) structure mastery; 3) contextual understanding, and 4) cross cultural understanding.

Vocabulary Level Vocabulary mastery will be a common problem for most of Indonesian students, especially for those who are at elementary or basic level of studying English. This problem is even worse due to the difference between the letters (written) and the way how to pronounce that word (spoken). Memorizing as many vocabularies as possible is the key to succeed in studying English for beginners. As a matter of fact, students have a very limited number of vocabularies. Asking them to memorize dictionary vocabularies is almost impossible. In this case, establishing context that support students‘ effort to memorize vocabulary should be managed well. Actually the problem is not whether the students are capable to memorize or not, once again, it is merely about their motivation. If they do not have curiosity about the studied material, they do not have a great intention to master the vocabulary. At the first step, using literary works functions as the context where vocabularies are studied. An interesting topic of a literary work will draw students‘ attention to involve themselves in the text. Understanding the main

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang of students‘ knowledge about the social setting functions as the context of the sentence. Reducing English structure complexity as well as giving the real social context will be obvious contribution of literary work in English language teaching.

idea or the topic of that literary works means the students have conducted a brain storming activity that prepares their mind to have a close linkage with the topic matter. Once students feel the sense of involvement in the text, they will show a great intention to find out the meaning of difficult words. Enriching students‘ vocabulary is very significant to support their performance in English. In this case, students have more freedom to interpret the meaning of a certain vocabulary within a suitable context. This understanding later will increase students‘ ability to guess the meaning of difficult word from its context. Later, to increase word power of the students, teacher may help giving the meaning of certain word from the text and encourage students to do the following tasks, e.g: finding the synonym and the antonym of that word. In a more advanced class, students may use those words to make sentences. This exercise encourages students‘ interpretation about the contextual meaning of the word as well as gives students with actual experience or language cultural contact. This contextual and cultural understanding can ease the students in understanding the use of language on its richness and variety. If it is managed well, it can grab students‘ attention, and at the same time it can increase their command over language. This strategy is believed to turn the class into more lively and interactive.

Context/Cultural level Learning a language involves both textual and contextual meaning. The first refers to all aspect related to language system, meanwhile the later refers to all environment where the language used. In this case, context means all aspects that surround the text. Understanding the context is actually as important as understanding the text itself. Contextual understanding can broaden students‘ perspective and knowledge about all issues related to the topic which is being studied. This wider horizon can give a direct impact in the form of cultural knowledge. Since language has a close relationship to its culture, cultural understanding is important in shaping more comprehensive meaning. The meaning itself may help students in comprehending its structure as the basic of literal meaning. In a wider scope cultural understanding will protect students from monotonous point of view in language use. Later it can give the students more freedom to develop the textual understanding by finding put its correspondence under certain culture corridors. The use of literature develops cultural awareness in students, because literary text contains copious examples of practices, attitudes and beliefs of people across the culture of the world. Since literature is seen as a discourse, Fowler (1981) articulates the interpersonal nature of literature, which serves to illustrate how a particular way of language use is intrinsic to the social, economic, technological and theoretical needs of the culture concerned. Literary text can illustrate cultural pattern that represent a plurality of attitudes, beliefs, ideas and ways of life. This ‗cultural side‘ is often neglected in language teaching. That is why students sometimes learn language in the absence of context. If it happens continuously, language learning is merely rhetoric without implementation in the real social and cultural context.

Structure level Structure or English grammar sometimes becomes the real barrier for the students. Therefore, teaching aspects of grammar or structure rule of English can be a terrible experience both for the teacher and for the students. Using literary works at least can reduce that ‗complicated sense‘ since they give the real example of how to apply English grammar in sentences. Take the teaching of preposition as an example. Explaining it theoretically may lead to students‘ confusion. By using literary works, preposition and its application can be more extensive and powerful if it can be shown how prepositions are used in a particular story. By giving the real example of using preposition in a sentence, this practice becomes more useful and it leaves s strong imprint on the students‘ mind. The same way can also be applied in teaching other grammatical aspects, such as article, tense, agreement, direct-indirect speech etc. Dealing with this grammatical aspect, usually students find that tense is the most confusing one. They often find difficulties to differentiate tense as well as how to use them in a sentence. Applying many sentences with different tense in a story, for example will give students real experience and real language context. Therefore, their understanding about tense is not merely theoretical but it becomes a technical knowledge. It is commonly noted that the failure of grammar teaching is due to the dense of complicated theory. In practice, students‘ mastery about the theory of grammar does not correspond positively to their ability in applying that theory in a real language context. It is due to the lack

An Example of Application As one of literary works, short story (or shortshort story) also plays an important role in language teaching. Due to its characteritics, a shot story provides a clear context for all utterances used. This context is significant to help the readers in understading the whole story as well as in understanding certain tense and aspec used in a given circumstances. Therefore, using short story in understanding tense and aspect of English can give more benefits based on two main reasons. Firstly, short story provides the context in which a certain tense is used. Secondly, short story provides time indicators. The combination of context and time indicator represented by the

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang chronological order in a shot story will be influencing circumstances that boost students‘ understanding about tense and aspect of English. In order to get the great advantages from using short story in understanding tense and aspect of English, therefore the teachers should take some considerations as follow: 1. The selection of certain tense and aspect to be discussed/taught Selecting the type of tense and aspect to be discussed is an important initial step to be conducted. It is aimed at limiting a broad discussion of tense and aspect that may lead to confusion. A single tense and some aspects or a single aspect and some tenses can be the combination in this selection process. 2. The level of Students‘ comprehension It means that the teachers should accurately measure the level of students‘ comprehensions toward the text. Simply, it can be indicated by the percentage of words from the text that can be understood by the students. Understanding the text well will be a prerequisite to understand the use of tense and aspect of English. Therefore, by assessing the level of students‘ comprehension, teachers can select a proper text. 3. The ‗level of difficulty‘ of the story The level of difficulty in this sense refers to the complicatedness of word and the type of sentences. It is based on the reason that understanding tense and aspect will be better done from simple or compound sentences. 4. The size of the text The length of text will be the last influencing consideration. It is better for teacher to select a text which can be finished in an allocated time in order to keep the unity of the story. Therefore, teachers can select either short-short story or long-short story as long as it meets time allocation.

References Alim, Condro Nur. 2008. English Language Teaching through Literary Works. Fifth Conference on English Studies (Conest 5). Pusat Kajian Bahasa dan Budaya Unika Atmajaya Jakarta. Alim, Condro Nur. 2009. Some Benefits of Using Literary Works in English Language Teaching for Indonesian Learners. The 2nd RAFIL Conference. Universitas Sanata Dharma Yogyakarta. Bache, Carl. 1997: The Study of Aspect, Tense and Action. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Comrie, Bernard. 1985. Tense. Cambridge University Press. ______________. 1976. Aspect. Cambridge University Press. Hoed, Benny H. 1992. Kala dalam Novel, Fungsi dan Penerjemahannya. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press Holman, C. Hugh. 1981. A Handbook to Literature. Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc. Jufrizal. 2008. Minimizing Problems Faced by Indonesian Students in Learning and Understanding Tense and Aspect of English. The First Conference on Teaching English as A Foreign Language. Muhammadiyah University of Purwokerto. Lyons, John. 1968. Introduction to Linguistics. Cambridge University Press.

Theoretical

Povey, John. 1972. Literature in TESL Programs: The Language and the Culture. TESOL quarterly 1. In Harold B. Allen and Russel Campbell. Teaching English as Second Language New York: McGraw-Hill.

Finding a short story that meets above considerations sometimes is not an easy matter. Therefore, if it is necessary, the teachers can compose their own story to fulfill above requirements.

Quirk, Randolph. 1985. A Comprehensive Grammar on the English Language. New York: Longman.

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The Study of Speech Acts in 419 Nigerian Advance Fee Frauds Spam Emails Daniel Ginting Lecturer of English Study Program Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Abstrak – Email AFF (Nigerian Advance Free Fraud) sudah menjadi trademark bagi email-email tertentu yang bertujuan untuk mendapatkan keuntungan finansial dengan cara memberikan informasi palsu kepada korban sebagai penerima email. Banyaknya korban yang telah mengalami kerugian finasial atau kerugian fisik lainnya menunjukkan bahwa email ini telah menjadi media yang efektif bagi pelaku tindak kejahatan dalam menjalankan aksinya. Email AFF, seperti halnya bentuk karya tulis lainnya, adalah representasi komunikasi seseorang dalam menyampaikan pesan dan maksud secara tertulis. Belajar dari fakta empiris dengan banyaknya korban dan kerugian yang ditimbulkan, tentu ada ciri-ciri keunikan yang sekaligus menjadi kelebihan-kelebihan dari email ini. Dalam upaya untuk mencari jawaban mengenai sisi kelebihan email AFFinilah, maka penelitian ini dijalankan dengan memberikan dua titik penekanan yang sekaligus menjadi masalah penelitian yaitu, pertama strategi-strategi komunikasi apakah yang digunakan pada kepala email AFF dan makna-makna apakah yang ditimbulkan dengan stategistrategi komunikasi yang baru di atas? Penelitian ini dijalankan dari bulan September 2009 sampai bulan Januari 2010. Selama periode itu terkumpul email AFF sebanyak 36 yang kemudian dijadikan sumber data penelitian.

One of the spam emails that have drawn the attention of the people around the world is 419 Nigerian Advance Fee Fraud (shortened to AFF). The number "419" refers to the article of the Nigerian Criminal Code (part of Chapter 38: "Obtaining Property by false pretences; Cheating") dealing with fraud. This is named under Nigeria because it originated in that country in the early 1980s. AFF has become a widely spoken topic all over the world. At least there are some reasons that explain that phenomenon. Firstly, in terms of monetary losses, fraudsters of 419 spam emails have been able to collect a lot of money. Victims' monetary losses can range from the low thousands into multi-millions. True figures are often impossible to ascertain, because many embarrassed victims do not report the crime to the authorities. Profits obtained in AFF are often used to support other more violent crimes such as narcotics trafficking (Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs: 1997). Secondly, spammers conduct physical violence when necessary. Though basically a nonviolent crime, AFF has resulted in the kidnapping or death of foreign victims. Over the past 3 years, 15 foreign businessmen (one American) have been murdered in Nigeria in AFF scams (United States Department of State Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs; 1997). Thirdly, it becomes an international or global phenomenon. Formerly it is originated from Nigeria. But then, today there are advance fee fraudsters operating in many countries although most of the advance fee fraud still seems to be concentrated in a number of countries in West Africa, especially Nigeria. The criminal gangs who are involved in this 419 fraud often have international connections. An unsuspecting victim might receive an email from a scammer located in an internet café in Nigeria which might then be transferred to his accomplice

Introduction Email has revolutionized communication and in some cases even supplanted the traditional ways of connecting. For businesses, email serves as an expedient way of connecting both internally with colleagues and externally with clients and constituents. Personally, people use email for various purposes but primarily to stay in touch with family, friends, and colleagues. In fact, people as the email account owners often receive unsolicited (not asked for) emails from outsiders, the content of which is to some extent quite irrelevant with the users‘ interests starting from the newly released electronic products or food to kitchen utensils or home services. People often get annoyed with these emails since they often distract their attention and hence keep their work undone. These kinds of emails are classified to spam emails. These unsolicited commercial bulk emails or spam emails advertise for many reasons. AT&T Researcher Lorrie Faith and Microsoft Corporation‘s Brian A. LaMacchia (1998) analyzed 400 pieces of email classified as spam sent to an AT&T domain during the months of March, April, and May 1997. They then grouped them and produced the following diagram which charts the types of products and services advertised in their samples:

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang in Holland or Spain (Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs: 1997). The empirical experiences above show that Nigerian Advance Fee Fraud must have powerful rhetorical devices. With these strengths, people who receive the AFF spam emails are not only interested in reading the information but also conducting further acts as expected by the spammers. Receiving big amount of money and other types of promises are among common themes that scammers use in the spam emails. However, those promising themes may mean nothing unless communicative devices are available in AFF spam emails. Based on these rationales, this research is further conducted. There are two research problems to elaborate; a) what communicative strategies are there used in AFF spam emails and b) what new possible meanings are there due to those kinds of communicative strategies?

419 Nigerian Advance Fee Fraud The number "419" refers to the article of the Nigerian Criminal Code (part of Chapter 38: "Obtaining Property by false pretences; Cheating") dealing with fraud. This is named under Nigeria because it originated in that country in the early 1980s, especially during the time when the oil-based Nigerian economy declined. Nigeria was known as the country with vast oil wealth and natural gas reserves and ranked 13th in the world at that time. During those days several unemployed university students first used this scam as a means of manipulating business visitors interested in shady deals in the Nigerian oil sector before targeting businessmen in the west, and later the wider population. Scammers in the early-to-mid 1990s targeted companies, sending scam messages via letter, fax, or Telex. The spread of e-mail and easy access to e-mail-harvesting software significantly lowered the cost of sending scam letters by using the Internet. In general, 419 (Nigerian Four-One-Nine) scammers often demand upfront payments for dubious reasons like processing fees, legal expenses or to bribe certain officials. A 419 scam starts with an unsolicited e-mail from a scammer promising a huge sum of money, but the scammer will create the impression that you need to make a couple of upfront payments before you can lay your hands on this non-existent fund. These upfront payments are normally a drop in the bucket, compared to the huge sum of money you will receive in the end. This makes the

Theoretical Framework Speech Acts In his famous work, "How to do Things with Words," J. L. Austin (1976) outlined his theory of speech acts and the concept of performative language, in which to say something is to do something. To make the statement ―I promise that p‖ is to perform the act of promising as opposed to making a statement that may be judged true or false. That is, the speaker is nearly always doing something by saying something. Austin described three characteristics, or acts, of statements that begin with the building blocks of words and end with the effects those words have on an audience. Locutionary acts: ―roughly equivalent to uttering a certain sentence with a certain ‗meaning´ in the traditional sense.‖ Illocutionary acts: ―such as informing, ordering, warning, undertaking, &c., i.e. utterances which have a certain (conventional) force.‖ Perlocutionary acts: ―what we bring about or achieve by saying something, such as convincing, persuading, deterring, and even, say, surprising or misleading‖. Austin focused on illocutionary acts, maintaining that here we might find the ―force‖ of a statement and demonstrate its performative nature. Searle (1987) posits five illocutionary points: 1) Assertives: statements that may be judged true or false because they purport to describe a state of affairs in the world; 2) Directives: statements that attempt to make the auditor´s actions fit the propositional content; 3) Commissives: statements which commit the speaker to a course of action as described by the propositional content; 4) Expressives: statements that express the ―sincerity condition of the speech act‖; and 5) Declaratives: statements that attempt to change the world by ―representing it as having been changed‖ That is, when we speak (or write) we are doing one or more of the following: asserting, directing, commiserating, expressing, or declaring.

Subject: Date: From: To: Salutation Body (Text)

Complimentary Closing Name scam very attractive to unwary and uninformed people, who are desperate for some extra cash.

Research Methods Data collection starts from September 09, 2009 to January 08, 2010. From this time period, there are as many as 36 Advance Fee Fraud Spam Emails.

Finding and Discussion According to Pike dan Pike (1977), the text structure has some elements such as pre margin, nucleus, and post margin. In line with this theory, the pre-margin of 419 emails includes the header, consisting of subject line,

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang sender, date and time, and reply to. Meanwhile, the nucleus segment includes the body text of the email, and the last is post-margin that includes the name of the sender, sometimes accompanied with signature.

will be this email must be from someone who is honorable, respectful and more importantly important. As such, the illocutionary acts related to the highly frequent used of the titles is constantive claiming that what the addressor says in the email is true and important since it is sent by honorable person. In Searle‘s theory this is also called assertive/representative speech act. The potential perlocutionary acts will be to make the addressee regard the email as important and hence they continue reading. Locutionary Acts  @ Mr Lee Kim-Chung, From Mrs Alice Benson, From Madam Sara Jacobs Illocutionary Acts  @ assertive to claim that the email is from someone important. The level of importance is in accordance with the intentional use of the honorific titles such Ms, Mrs, Mr., and hence increasing the level of formality. Perlocutionary Acts  At the deep level (intangible) Possible Psychological Impacts  @ the addresses feel admired since they are addressed by important addressors @ the addresses regard that the email is not anything but a very important one. At the surface Level (tangible) @ the addresses possibly continue reading

Based on the analysis of the AFF structure, it is found out that:

Ambiguities hidden in the subject line: The subject line of AFF are composed of 6 common themes, namely, a. from someone, b. related to religion, c. award, d. ordinary greetings, e. urgent, and others. Out of 6, it is the email subject from someone that has the highest percentage (24%). No 1 2 3 4 5 6

Name of Subject From someone Related to Religion Award Ordinary Greeting Urgent Others

Number of email 9

Percentage

7

19%

6 5

16% 14%

5 4

14% 11%

24%

Surprisingly enough, there is no single email which subject is related to its content. On the contrary the content of the email is mostly related to the request for personal information of the readers and sometimes for financial aid in order to arrange official letters from the local institutions. The addressee cannot directly guess what the email really means until they read the whole things. Because of this irrelevancy, the subjects indeed reflect obscurity where the intended meaning is both unclear and unpredictable. There must be more than it is explicitly stated. They are ambiguous, leading to different interpretations. If they are ambiguous, then there must be something hidden behinds the letters or words. Indeed, it is the strength of 419 spam emails. Furthermore, the ambiguities are elaborated in terms of locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts.

b. Using the declarative speech act strategy by means of religious symbols Spammers are bold as grass to reach their goals even if they have to use sacred religious symbols. This can be found in the following examples: DIVINE MISSION TO GOD BE THE GLORY, APOSTOLIC GREETINGS IN JESUS NAME, GREETINGS IN THE NAME OF OUR LORD JESUS CHRIST, GOD BLESS YOU AS YOU READ. In order to enhance the level of importance, they type the letters in upper case. This certainly carries out particular intention not only to inform the readers about something but more importantly to declare that the email contains religious mission more precisely religious calls. The illocutionary acts is declarative announcing (declaring): The email contains a religious call or which means the addressor intends to create new status or condition. Religious call has been proved to be a stiff motivating factor that exerts human behavior. The call is highly valued by people and hence they will do anything they can to pursue the goal of the call. The perlocutionary acts will be normative in nature in that the addressor should be committed to do the things as requested (continue reading). Otherwise, he might be called sinners. Locutionary Acts  @ DIVINE MISSION TO GOD BE THE GLORY, APOSTOLIC GREETINGS IN JESUS NAME, GREETINGS IN THE NAME OF OUR LORD JESUS CHRIST, GOD BLESS Illocutionary Acts  @ declarative  announcing (declaring) that the email contains religious missions. Perlocutionary Acts (

a. Using the assertive speech act strategy by means of formal titles Unlike greeting subject, the from someone subject is used to obscure the real intention of the email. The level of ambiguity can be increased as the addressor uses locution of formality symbols like the use of formal titles as for example Mr Lee Kim-Chung From Mrs Alice Benson From Madam Sara Jacobs. To some extent those titles is supposedly to refer to particular social status. Ms, Mr and Mrs are honorific titles. They are used selectively only for certain persons. An honorific (Sometimes Honorable) is a word or expression that conveys esteem or respect when used in addressing or referring to a person. By using these terms, the possible interpretation

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang At the deep level (intangible) Possible Psychological Impacts ( @ challenged to commit it because it is highly valued as a religious act. At the surface Level (tangible) @ continue reading

Anxiety: A vague unpleasant emotion that is experienced in anticipation of some (usually illdefined) misfortune At the surface Level (tangible) @ continue reading e. Using declarative speech act strategy by means of award Another illocutionary acts that spammer use for speech strategy is acknowledgement acts. With acknowledgment, the spammers want to praise and congratulate the addressees. Among common subjects they use are CONGRATULATIONS!!! YOU HAVE WON THE 2010 CATEGORY A PRIZE!!!, Upper case typed letters and big amount of money are sometimes used to emphasize the message. . Perlocution acts will be to make the addresses excited, respond positively and later Locutionary Acts  @ CONGRATULATIONS!!! YOU HAVE WON THE 2010 CATEGORY A PRIZE!!!, Illocutionary Acts  @ declarative to praise and congratulate the addressees Perlocutionary Acts  At the deep level (intangible) @ Possible Psychological Impacts the addressees feel excited with the reward announcement At the surface Level (tangible) @ continue reading

c. Using the expressive speech act strategy by creating friendly circumstances AFF emails use a lot of greetings subjects starting to ordinary greeting (Hi, hello) to very intimate (my dearest one, Dearest Beloved, hello dear). The illocutionary of those subjects are called acknowledgment where the addressor greets the addressee in such a way that it gives rise to a friendly circumstance. Greeting functions to open communication with the addressee so that the communication mood becomes fluid. The more informal greeting they use the more friendly circumstance they may create. Such informal greetings such as hello, hi, and even dearest one, are likely to be used in order to decrease social distance with the unknown addressee. As such, this illocution causes further perlocutionary acts, namely, sympathetic psychological effects of addresses who regards the email as nice, friendly message and hence keep reading the email further. Locutionary Acts  @ my dearest one, @ Dearest Beloved, hello dear Illocutionary Acts  @ expressive is to greet the addressee through greeting. These expressions possible create warmth and friendly circumstances. Perlocutionary Acts  At the deep level (intangible) Possible Psychological Impacts  @ the addresses feel praised since his or existence is recognized by somebody else @ the addresses feel sympathetic At the surface Level (tangible) @ the addresses possibly continue reading

Building New Meanings The ambiguity in the themes of AFF spam emails is mitigated by applying the co-text of the emails. The cotext is derived from its content. It is found out that the content of all AFF spam emails refer to the request. Furthermore, to deepen the possible meanings of the themes, the analysis of speech acts are used involving locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts. The following is the new meanings for the themes.  From someone: a request through which the sender states that the email is from someone with authority. With this, the receiver regards it important and hence cooperates by providing information needed.  Religious Call: a request through which the sender declares that the email contains religious missions. With this, the receiver emotionally feels challenged and later will cooperate by providing information needed  Greetings: a request through which the senders express warm greetings. With this, the latter feels sympathetic, and hence he is likely to corporate with the sender by providing information needed .  Urgent Labels: a request through which the senders express via urgent labels. With this, the readers regard it important and reply the request as soon as possible  Award: a request through which the senders express via award. With this, the readers feel excited and hence reply the request as soon as possible.

d. Using the directive speech act strategy by means of urgent labels Another subject, urgent, has different illocutionary acts. The examples of this subject are Reply Urgent Required, URGENT ATTENTION! As it sounds, the urgent subject has a directive speech act that is to order the addressees to reply the emails. The perloctuionary acts is to get the addressees to carry out immediate actions (reading the email). Locutionary Acts  @ Reply Urgent Required, URGENT ATTENTION! Illocutionary Acts @ directive (to order the addressees to reply the emails Perlocutionary Acts At the deep level (intangible) @ Possible Psychological Impacts (feels anxious (Causing or fraught with or showing anxiety)

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Veiling the destination of the email to Out of 37 emails there are as many as 32 (65%) email that do not have sent to item. Meanwhile, 17 (35%) of the total emails have that information.

Veiled practices by sending the email during unofficial hours (Indonesia time-7 hours) (Nigeria time + 7 hours) The data collection was started from September 09, 2009 3:59 AM to January 08, 2010 8:35 AM. Regarding the time, Indonesia is 7 hours ahead than Nigeria. For example, when it is 3 PM in Indonesia, that will be 8 AM in Nigeria (3-7). Based on the date analysis, it is found that about 90% of the emails were sent during unofficial work hours of the Nigeria time. Unofficial work hours mean the period of time when people no longer work in the office. In fact Nigeria unofficial hours are pretty much the same with those in Indonesia, starting from 5 P.M to 8 AM. In the perspective of Indonesia‘s time, Nigeria‘s unofficial hours will be from 10 AM to 1 AM. The emails collected are mostly received from 5 AM to 2 PM within Indonesia‘s period or 10 PM to 7 AM within Nigeria time period. The date of the emails sent during the unofficial hours indicates that spam activities are hidden in nature. According to the report from FBI officials, the spam e-mails perpetrating these scams are often sent from Internet cafés equipped with satellite Internet. Many areas of Lagos, such as Festac, contain many cyber cafés that serve scammers; many cyber cafés seal their doors during afterhours, such as from 10:30 PM to 7:00 AM (5.30 pagi sampai jam 2 siang), so that scammers inside may work without fear of discovery.

Conclusion 1. Communicative strategies are obviously seen in the themes of Nigerian AFF spam emails. They are used in such a way that readers may not be aware of the real intention of the scammers. In fact, there are some communicative strategies that scammers uses in Nigerian AFF spam emails such as a) assertive speech acts in the from someone important themes, b) the declarative speech act strategy by means of religious symbols, c) the expressive speech act strategy by means of friendly greetings, d) the directive speech act strategy by means of urgent labels, and e) declarative speech act strategy by means of award. 2. Regarding to the ambiguous themes, it is found out that they all refer to the same purpose, namely, requesting the readers to send their personal identity. 3. Receiving huge sum of money as promised in scam emails sounds to be good to hear. In fact, it is not true since the scammer will never keep that promise. Ambiguous phenomena as noticed in AFF-s clearly show the way the scammers hide their real intention. Their real intention is that they hide their crimes. Crimes exist in the darkness and hence their appearance is obscure, unclear or ambiguous. So when it sounds to be good to be true then it is not true.

Veiling behind the From: From 37 email investigated, about 33 (89%) emails use personal identification such as Mrs Rose Benson, MR. LEE KIM-CHUNG. Meanwhile the other 4 (11%) use institution name such as LOTTO.NL, ASIA COMPUTER BALLOT EMAIL AWARD, ASIA COMPUTER BALLOT EMAIL AWARD. Regarding email addresses, about more than 90% email users use free service email such as Yahoo, GMail, Hotmail/Live, or a free ISP e-mail account. Sometimes they want to look official by making up an email pretending to be an official from the FBI will use a silly e-mail address like [email protected]. The FBI have their own domain and e-mail servers, so there is no valid reason for using an e-mail account from another domain, or a free email service like Yahoo! or GMail.

References Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs,1997. Nigerian Advance Fee Fraud. United DEPARTMENT OF STATE PUBLICATION 10465. Internet address: www.http://travel.state.gov J.L. Austin. 1976. How To Do Things With Words. Second Edition. Oxford University Press Lorrie Faith Cranor and Brian A. LaMacchia. ―Spam!,‖ Communications of the ACM, Vol. 41,No. 8 (Aug. 1998), 74-83.

Searle. J.R.1987. Speech Acts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Strategi Pembelajaran dalam Program Pengajaran Bahasa Indonesia Sebagai Bahasa Asing di Universitas di Australia Esra Nelvi Manutur Siagian Pusat Bahasa Jakarta

besar masyarakat yang tinggal di daerah perkotaan menggunakan bahasa Indonesia sebagai bahasa ibu atau bahasa pertama mereka.

Latar Belakang

Bahasa Indonesia sebagai Bahasa Asing

Menurut Nevile Saunders dalam ceramahnya pada konfrensi Australian Sociaty for Indonesian Language Educators (ASILE) pada bulan Juli 2003, bahasa Indonesia mulai diajarkan di tingkat universitas pada tahun 1959 di Sydney University dan di tingkat SMU pada tahun 1964 di St Mary‘s High, Sydney. James Seldon (2000:810) mengatakan, saat ini bahasa Indonesia merupakan salah satu bahasa asing utama yang diajarkan di Australia baik di tingkat sekolah maupun di tingkat universitas. K.A. (Sander) Adelar berpendapat, Australia merupakan pusat pengajaran Bahasa Indonesia untuk Penutur Asing (BIPA) yang paling besar di dunia. Hal ini terbukti dari jumlah penyelenggara BIPA termasuk jumlah guru/pengajar dan pembelajar BIPA di Australia jauh lebih tinggi daripada negara-negara lain. Pada saat ini Australia satu-satunya negara di luar Indonesia yang mengajarkan bahasa Indonesia di sekolahsekolah, di samping di universitas. Pemerintah Australia menganggap bahwa bahasa Indonesia merupakan satu bahasa yang dianggap penting. Bahasa Indonesia termasuk salah satu bahasa asing yang diberi dana untuk pengembangannya.

BIPA adalah singkat dari bahasa Indonesia untuk penutur asing alias bahasa Indonesia yang diajarkan kepada orang asing, baik di dalam maupun di luar negeri. BIPA bukanlah fenomena baru. Lahirnya BIPA tidak dapat dipisahkan dengan lahirnya bahasa Indonesia. Hanya saja istilah BIPA belum dikenal pada saat itu. Bahasa Indonesia pada saat ini mulai dipandang penting oleh dunia seiring dengan peranan Indonesia dalam kancah pergaulan antarbangsa. Hal itu juga ditunjang oleh posisi Indonesia dalam percaturan dunia yang semakin hari semakin penting, terutama melalui peranannya, baik dalam turut serta menyelesaikan konflik-konflik politik di berbagai kawasan maupun karena posisi geografis Indonesia yang terletak dalam lintas laut yang sangat strategis. Kenyataan seperti itu telah menyebabkan banyak orang asing yang tertarik dan berminat untuk mempelajari bahasa Indonesia sebagai alat untuk mencapai berbagai tujuan, baik tujuan politik, ekonomi atau perdagangan, seni-budaya, maupun wisata. Dewasa ini tercatat tidak kurang dari 36 negara yang telah mengajarkan bahasa Indonesia kepada para penutur asing. Di negara-negara yang dimaksud, bahasa Indonesia selain diajarkan di KBRI dan beberapa tempat kursus, juga diajarkan di sejumlah universitas.

Bahasa Indonesia

Strategi Pembelajaran Bahasa Indonesia sebagai Bahasa Ibu

Cukup banyak metode baru pengajaran bahasa Indonesia yang disusun oleh berbagai kalangan di tanah air, dari tingkat dasar hingga tingkat SMA maupun bukubuku yang disusun untuk kebutuhan praktis yang ditujukan bagi kalangan yang memiliki minat terhadap bahasa Indonesia. Dari sekian banyak metode yang muncul hanya terdapat beberapa metode pengajaran bahasa Indonesia bagi orang asing. Banyak metode, cara, atau strategi yang dapat digunakan untuk mempelajari bahasa kedua atau bahasa asing. Dalam memilih dan menentukan strategi pembelajaran diperlukan pendekatan tertentu. Pendekatan merupakan sudut pandang atau titik tolak untuk memahami seluruh persoalan daam proses pembelajaran. Sudut pandang menggambarkan cara berpikir dan sikap seorang pengajar dalam menjalankan atau melaksanakan profesinya. Menurut Gulo (2002), Seorang pengajar tidak hanya berpikir tentang apa yag akan diajarkan dan

Bahasa ibu atau bahasa pertama adalah bahasa yang digunakan untuk berkomunikasi sehari-hari oleh seseorang dalam lingkungan masyarakat yang diperoleh secara alamiah dan wajar sejak lahir. Indonesia yang terdiri dari ribuan pulau dan juga memiliki aneka ragam budaya dan bahasa yang berbeda-beda memiliki masyarakat yang menggunakan bahasa yang beragam pula. Ada masyarakat yang menggunakan bahasa daerah sebagai alat komunikasi dan ada yang menggunakan bahasa Indonesia. Di Indonesia pada umumnya bahasa Indonesia adalah bahasa kedua yang secara politis juga berstatus sebagai bahasa nasional dan bahasa resmi kenegaraan. Bahasa Indonesia yang berfungsi sebagai bahasa nasional yang digunakan di seluruh Indonesia secara perlahan menggeser posisi bahasa daerah sebagai bahasa ibu bagi anak-anak sekarang ini. Hal ini mengakibatkan sebagian

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang bagaimana diajarkan, tetapi juga tentang siapa yang menerima pelajaran, apa makna belajar bagi peserta didik dalam mengikuti kegiatan pembelajaran.‖ Hal itu berimplikasi bahwa seorang pengajar harus mengetahui dan menguasai berbagai strategi pembelajaran dalam proses pembelajarannya. Pengajar harus memilih strategi pembelajaran yang tepat agar peserta didik dapat belajar secara efektif dan efesien serta mencapai tujuan yang diharapkan.

Pengertian Strategi Pembelajaran Strategi pembelajaran menurut Mujiono (1992) adalah kegiatan pengajar untuk memikirkan dan mengupayakan terjadinya konsistensi antara aspek-aspek dan komponen pembentuk sistem intruksional, di mana untuk itu pengajar menggunakan siasat tertentu. Karena sistem intruksional merupakan suatu kegiatan, maka pemikiran dan pengupayaan pengkonsistenan aspek-aspek komponennya tidak hanya sebelum dilaksanakan, tetapi juga pada saat dilaksanakan. Pengertian strategi pembelajaran menurut Zaini dan Bahri (2003) berbeda dengan pendapat Mujiono. ―Strategi pembelajaran mempunyai pengertian suatu garis-garis besar haluan untuk bertindak dalam usaha mencapai sasaran yang telah ditentukan. Dihubungkan dengan pembelajar, strategi bisa diartikan sebagai polapola umum kegiatan pembelajar untuk mencapai tujuan yang telah digariskan. Ada empat strategi dasar dalam pembelajaran yaitu mengidentifikasi apa yang diharapkan, memilih sistem pendekatan, memilih dan menetapkan prosedur, metode, dan teknik pembelajaran, menetapkan norma-norma dan batas minimal keberhasilan.‖ Berdasarkan pendapat para ahli di atas dapat disimpulkan bahwa strategi pembelajaran meliputi kegiatan atau pemakaian teknik yang dilakukan oleh pengajar mulai dari perencanaan, pelaksanaan kegiatan sampai ke tahap evaluasi, serta program tindak lanjut yang berlagsung dalam situasi edukatif untuk mencapai tujuan tertentu, yaitu pengajaran. Menurut Prof. Dr. Iskandar, M.Pd. strategi pembelajaran merupakan kegiatan yang dipilih oleh pengajar dalam proses pembelajaran yang dapat membantu dan memudahkan peserta didik ke arah tercapainya tujuan pengajaran tertentu. Ada tiga macam strategi pembelajaran berdasarkan penekanan komponen dalam pengajaran, yaitu (1) strategi pembelajaran yang berpusat pada pengajar, (2) strategi pembelajaran yang berpusat pada peserta didik, dan (3) strategi pembelajaran yang bersifat pada materi pengajaran.

Pengertian Strategi Strategi berasal dari kata Yunani strategia yang berarti ilmu perang atau panglima perang. Berdasarkan pengertian ini, maka strategi adalah suatu seni merancang operasi di dalam peperangan seperti cara-cara mengatur posisi atau siasat berperang, angkatan darat atau laut. Pada KBBI edisi kekempat (2008), kata strategi mempunyai beberapa makna: (1) ilmu dan seni menggunakan semua sumber daya bangsa untuk melaksanakan kebijaksanaan tertentu dalam perang dan damai; (2) ilmu dan seni memimpin bala tentara untuk menghadapi musuh dalam perang, dalam kondisi menguntungkan; (3) rencana yang cermat mengenai kegiatan untuk mencapai sasaran khusus; (4) tempat yang baik menurut siasat perang. Yang dapat dianggap berkaitan langsung dengan pengertian strategi pengajaran bahasa ialah bahwa strategi merupakan rencana yang cermat mengenai kegiatan untuk mencapai sasaran khusus.

Pengertian Belajar Kata belajar berarti berusaha memperoleh kepandaian atau ilmu (KBBI, 2008). Dalam bahasa sederhana kata belajar dimaknai sebagai menuju ke arah yang lebih baik dengan cara sistematis. Bruner mengemukakan proses belajar terdiri atas tiga tahapan, yaitu tahap informasi, transformasi, dan evaluasi. Tahap informasi maksudnya adalah tahap proses penjelasan, penguraian, atau pengarahan mengenai prinsip-prinsip sruktur pengetahuan, keterampilan, dan sikap. Tahap trasformasi maksudnya adalah tahap peralihan atau pemindahan prinsip-prinsip struktur tadi ke dalam diri peserta didik. Tahap transformasi dilakukan melalui informasi. Informasi tersebut dianalisis, diubah, atau ditransformasikan ke dalam bentuk yang lebih abstrak atau konseptual agar dapat digunakan dalam konteks yang lebih luas. Dalam hal ini, peranan dan bantuan pengajar sangat diperlukan. Kata belajar berarti proses perubahan tingkah laku pada peserta didik akibat adanya interaksi antara individu dan lingkungannya melalui pengalaman dan latihan. Perubahan ini terjadi secara menyeluruh, menyangkut aspek kognitif, afektif, dan psikomotor.

1.

Strategi Pembelajaran yang Berpusat pada Pengajar Strategi pembelajaran yang berpusat pada pengajar merupakan strategi yang paling tua, disebut juga strategi pembelajaran tradisional. Ada yang berpendapat bahwa mengajar adalah menyampaikan informasi kepada peserta didik. Dalam pengertian demikian, tekanan strategi pembelajaran berada pada pengajar itu sendiri. Pengajar berlaku sebagai sumber informasi yang mempunyai posisi yang sangat dominan. Pengajar harus berusaha mengalihkan pengetahuannya kepada peserta didik dan menyampaikan keterangan atau informasi sebanyakbanyakntya kepada peserta didik. Belajar dalam pendekatan ini adalah usaha untuk menerima informasi dari pengajar sehingga dalam aktivitas pembelajaran peserta didik cenderung menjadi pasif. Strategi pembelajaran yang berpusat pada pengajar ini disebut teacher centre strategies. Teknik penyajian pelajaran yang paralel dengan strategi pembelajaran ini adalah

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang teknik ceramah, teknik team teaching, teknik sumbang saran, teknik demonstrasi, dan teknik antardisiplin.

strategi pembelajaran terdiri atas semua komponen materi atau paket pengajaran dan prosedur yang akan digunakan untuk membantu peserta didik dalam mencapai tujuan pengajaran tertentu.‖ Strategi pembelajaran yang berpusat pada materi pengajaran atau yang disebut dengan material centre strategies bertitik tolak dari pendapat yang mengemukakan bahwa belajar adalah usaha untuk memperoleh dan menguasai informasi. Dalam hal ini strategi pembelajaran dipusatkan pada materi pembelajaran. Menurut Gulo (2002) dalam strategi ini perlu diperhatiakan dua hal. Pertama, kecenderungan pada dominasi kognitif di mana pendidikan afektif dan keterampilan kurang mendapat perhatian yang memadai dalam kerangka peningkatan kualiatas manusia seutuhnya. Kedua, materi pelajaran yang disampaikan di kelas, dan yang dimuat dalam buku teks, akan makin usang dengan pesatnya perkembangan dalam bidang ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi. Materi pelajaran lebih berfungsi sebagai masukan yang akan berbaur dalam proses pembelajaran. Proses pembelajaran yang berpusat pada materi berkembang seiring dengan pesatnya perkembangan teknologi dan ilmu pengetahuan yang disertai arus globalisasi yang berakibat pengajar tidak lagi menjadi sumber informasi. Sekolah tidak mungkin lagi menjadi satu-satunya sumber informasi, karena banyak media yang dapat digunakan untuk mendapatkan informasi, seperti melalui media masa cetak dan elektronik. Teknik penyajian yang paralel dengan strategi pembelajaran yang berpusat pada materi pengajaran adalah tutorial, teknik modular, dan teknik pengajaran terpadu (antardisiplin), teknik secara kasuistis, teknik kerja lapangan, teknik eksperimen, dan teknik demonstrasi.

2.

Strategi Pembelajaran yang Berpusat pada Peserta Didik Tujuan mengajar adalah membelajarkan peserta didik. Membelajarkan berarti meningkatkan kemampuan peserta didik untuk memproses, menemukan, dan menggunakan informasi bagi pengembangan diri peserta didik dalam konteks lingkungannya. Strategi pembelajaran yang berpusat pada peserta didik atau disebut student centre strategies, bertitik tolak pada sudut pandang yang memberi arti bahwa mengajar merupakan usaha untuk menciptakan lingkungan yang mengoptimalkan kegiatan belajar. Mengajar dalam arti ini ialah usaha untuk menciptakan suasana belajar bagi peserta didik secara optimal. Yang menjadi pusat perhatian dalam proses pembelajaran ialah peserta didik, menitikberatkan pada usaha meningkatkan kemampuan peserta didik untuk menemukan, memahami, dan memproses informasi. Peserta didik bukan objek pendidikan karena sebagai manusia ia adalah subjek dalam modalitas. Dalam proses pembelajaran peserta didik secara aktif untuk mengembangkan dirinya di bawah bimbingan pengajar. Berdasarkan pemahaman tersebut, strategi pembelajaran yang berpusat pada peserta didik adalah strategi pembelajaran yang member kesempatan seluasluasnya kepada peserta didik untuk aktif dan berperan dalam kegiatan pembelajaran. Dalam strategi pembelajaran ini pengajar berperan sebagai fasilitator dan motivator. Pengajar membantu peserta didik untuk mengembangkan dirinya secara utuh sehingga pengajar harus mengenal potensi-potensi yang dimiliki peserta didik untuk dikembangkan. Teknik penyajian yang paralel dengan strategi pembelajaran ini adalah teknik inkuiri (inquiry), teknik satuan pengajaran(unit teaching), teknik advokasi, teknik diskusi, teknik kerja kelompok, teknik penemuan(discovery), teknik eksperimen, teknik kerja lapangan, teknik sosiodrama, teknik nondirektif, dan teknik penyajian kasus.

Pengajaran BIPA di Universitas Australia Bahasa Indonesia telah dipelajari dan diajarkan oleh banyak perguruan tinggi di luar Indonesia, seperti Amerika Serikat, Australia, Belanda, dan Inggris. Pemakalah hanya akan membahas tentang pembelajaran Bahasa Indonesia untuk penutur asing yang berada di tingkat perguruan tinggi (PT) yang berada di wilayah Australia. Pada tingkat perguruan tinggi, menurut Australian Academy of Humanitities (2000), bahasa Indonesia diajarkan di 25 dari 37 universitas yang mengajarkan LOTE. Bentuk dan tingkat pengajaran di ke-25 universitas itu tidak sama. Pengajaran BIPA memperlihatkan tingkatan yang berbeda-beda, ada yang dalam bentuk kuliah-kuliah khusus untuk mendapatkan sertifikat atau diploma. Di dalam pelaksanaan pengajaran bahasa Indonesia, perguruan tinggi di Australia pada umumnya menggunakan pengelompokkan mahasiswa berdasarkan tingkat atau tahun pembelajaran. Namun, ada juga perguruan tinggi yang menggunakan keterampilan bahasa Indonesia sebagai pedoman pengelompokan. Sistem

3.

Strategi Pembelajaran yang Berpusat pada Materi Pengajaran Materi pelajaran dapat dibedakan antara materi formal dan materi informal. Materi formal adalah isi pelajaran yang terdapat dalam buku-buku teks resmi di sekolah. Sedangkan materi informal ialah bahan-bahan pelajaran yang bersumber dari lingkungan sekolah yang bersangkutan. Bahan-bahan yang bersifat informal ini dibutuhkan agar pengajaran lebih relevan dan aktual atau berdasarkan situasi nyata. Pendidikan yang berlangsung di lembaga pendidikan formal adalah pendidikan yang terarah pada tujuan tertentu. Salah satunya berorientasi pada disiplin ilmu pengetahuan, yang mengantar peserta didik pada penguasaan ilmu pengetahuan atau materi pengajaran. Sehubunga dengan itu, maka strategi pembelajaran diarahkan dan disusun berdasarkan disiplin ilmu pengetahuan atau materi pengajaran yang menjadi sasaran. Menurut Ahmadi (1990) ―Pada hakekatnya, suatu

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang pengajarannya pun berbeda-beda, ada yang sistem kelas dan ada pula yang menggunakan sistem tutorial.

Kurikulum di Murdoch University dipersiapkan oleh penyelenggara program sesuai dengan kurikulum untuk kelas reguler. Kurikulum dan silabus disusun oleh tim khusus yang juga tim pengajar BIPA di universitas ini berdasarkan kebutuhan pembelajar. Bahan ajar yang digunakan oleh Murdoch University adalah bahan ajar yang disusun oleh pengajar itu sendiri yang juga disusun berdasarkan kurikulum. Selain itu, pengajar juga menggunakan buku-buku yang berasal dari kepustakaan Indonesia dan mengunduh bahan ajar dari internet atau dari media elektrik lainnya untuk digunakan oleh universitas ini. Metode pembelajaran di Murdoch University menggunakan sistem kelas. Dalam pelaksanaan program pembelajaran, pembelajar dalam satu kelas ini dibagi dalam kelompok. Materi yang disajikan dalam kelas meliputi materi teori dan praktik. Materi praktik menggunakan sistem tutorial yang mana pembelajar dibagi dalam kelompok yang terdiri atas satu sampai dengan empat orang. Setiap kelompok dibimbing oleh satu orang tutor. Pengajar BIPA di Murdoch University berjumlah 2 orang. 1 orang berasal dari Indonesia dan 1 orang lagi berasal dari Australia.

Australian National University Australian National University atau ANU merupakan salah satu lembaga penyelenggara pembelajaran bahasa Indonesia untuk orang asing (BIPA) non-pemerintah yang berada di Australia. Lembaga ini berdiri sejak tahun 1957. ANU beralamat di Canberra ACT 0200, Australia. ANU memiliki tiga jenis program pengajaran bahasa Indonesia, yaitu kelas program studi regular, kelas intensif, dan kelas tujuan khusus. ANU telah memiliki program baku yang disusun oleh devisi khusus dalam penyusunan kurikulum. Kurikulum disusun oleh penyelenggara program sesuai dengan kurikulum untuk kelas reguler, kelas intensif, dan kelas tujuan khusus. Lembaga ini tidak melibatkan pihak lain untuk menyusun kurikulum, termasuk pengajar di lembaga tersebut. Waktu pembelajaran dalam satu pertemuan dibagi dalam dua jenis, yaitu pembelajaran teori dan pembelajaran praktik. Namun, waktu pembelajaran praktik lebih banyak daripada waktu pembelajaran teori. Misalnya, jika dalam satu pertemuan terdapat tiga jam, waktu pembelajaran praktik dua jam dan waktu pembelajaran teori satu jam. Bahan ajar yang digunakan oleh ANU adalah bahan ajar yang telah disediakan oleh lembaga pengajaran BIPA tersebut. Di samping buku paket yang telah diajarkan sebagai bahan ajar utama, bahan ajar pendukung yang digunakan oleh lembaga ini adalah buku-buku yang berasal dari kepustakaan Indonesia dan bahan ajar yang diunduh dari internet atau dari media elektronik lainnya. Metode pembelajaran di ANU menggunakan sistem kelas. Jumlah pembelajar setiap kelas bergantung pada minat pembelajar yang mengikuti program ini. Materi yang disajikan dalam kelas meliputi materi teori dan materi praktik diberikan di dalam kelompok. Materi praktik ini menggunakan sistem tutorial. Pembelajar dibagi dalam kelompok yang terdiri atas satu sampai dengan empat orang. Setiap kelompok dibimbing oleh satu orang tutor. Pengajar BIPA di ANU berjumlah 4 orang. Dua orang berasal dari Indonesia dan 2 orang dari Australia.

Deakin University Universitas Deakin beralamat di 221 Burwood Highway, Burwoood, Victoria 3125, Australia. Di Universitas Deakin, pengajaran BIPA berada di bawah School of International and Political Studies, Faculty of Arts and Education (Sekolah Kajian Ilmu Internasional dan Politik, Fakultas Seni dan Pendidikan). Program pembelajaran BIPA yang ditawarkan Universitas Deakin bersifat reguler. Program reguler yang ditawarkan ada tiga, yaitu (1) program mayor, minor, dan elektif dalam bahasa Indonesia, (2) sertifikat bahasa Indonesia , dan (3) Diploma Bahasa Indonesia. Silabus pengajaran bahasa Indonesia di Universitas Deakin disusun oleh tim pengajar. Silabus disusun berdasarkan tingkat kemahiran pembelajar dan bersifat berkesinambungan. Untuk mahasiswa tahun pertama dan kedua, jumlah tiga jam pelajaran per minggu dibagi menjadi satu jam kelas ceramah atau teori dan dua jam kelas tutorial atau praktik. Sementara itu, untuk mahasiswa tahun ketiga, jumlah empat jam pelajaran per minggu dibagi menjadi dua jam kelas ceramah atau teori dan dua jam kelas tutorial atau praktik. Universitas Deakin sudah memiliki bahan ajar sendiri. Ada empat bahan ajar BIPA yang dipakai dalam pengajaran BIPA di sana, yaitu Pergi ke Mana-Mana, Pesta di Rumah Rini, Indonesian Study Guide, dan Professional and Academic Indonesia Study Guide. Dari segi metode pembelajaran, pembelajaran BIPA di Universitas Deakin menggunakan sistem kelas dan tutorial. Sistem kelas dengan pengajaran yang berbentuk ceramah digunakan untuk menyampaikan teori, sedangkan sistem tutorial memberikan kesempatan kepada mahasiswa untuk mempraktikkan teori yang sudah didapatkannya dalam kelas ceramah. Pada saat tutorial,

Murdoch University Murdoch University adalah Universitas negeri yang berada di SOUTH ST, Murdoch WA 6150. Universitas ini telah berdiri sejak tahun 1974. BIPA berada di dalam program Studi Indonesia dalam Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Humaniora. Murdoch University memiliki jenis program pembelajaran bersifat kelas reguler. Program dilaksanakan dengan model pembelajaran dengan satuan kredit semester seperti kuliah pada bidang ilmu lainnya. Program ini ditempuh dalam waktu satu semester yang berlangsung selama enam bulan.

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang mahasiswa dibantu oleh seorang tutor. Jumlah siswa pada kelas ceramah dan tutorial sangat bervariasi, bergantung pada peminat bahasa Indonesia pada setiap tahun ajaran. Pengajar BIPA di Universitas Deakin berjumlah tiga orang dengan status pengajar tetap yang bekerja penuh waktu.

sendiri dan mengambil bahan ajar dari media elektonik serta dari kepustakaan Indonesia. Metode pembelajaran menggunakan sistem kelas. Jumlah pembelajar per kelas antara dua puluh pembelajar sampai lima puluh pembelajar. Dalam proses belajar mengajar selain dalam bentuk kelas juga diadakan dalam bentuk kelompok dan tutorial. Pembelajaran dalam sistem kelompok jumlah pembelajar antara tiga sampai tujuh orang sedangkan dalam sistem tutorial jumlah siswa antara sepuluh sampai tiga puluh orang. Motivasi pembelajar BIPA untuk belajar bahasa Indonesia beragam. Ada motivasi untuk mengetahui budaya Indonesia, untuk keperluan belajar di Indonesia, dan untuk keperluan bekerja juga untuk alasan kunjungan singkat ke Indonesia. Pengajar BIPA di universitas ini ada yang berasal dari Indonesia dan dari Australia. Para pengajar ada yang berstatus bekerja penuh waktu dan paruh waktu.

Griffith University Salah satu universitas yang menyelenggarakan pengajaran BIPA di negara bagian Queensland, Australia adalah Universitas Griffith. Di Universitas Griffith, pengajaran BIPA berada di bawah School of Languages and Linguistics (Sekolah Bahasa dan Linguistik). Program pembelajaran BIPA yang ditawarkan Universitas Griffith bersifat reguler. Program reguler berjenjang yang ditawarkan ada empat, yaitu (1) First Year Indonesian IA dan IB, (2) Second Year Indonesian IIA dan IIB, (3) Third Year Indonesian IIIA dan IIIB, dan (4) Fourth Year Indonesian IVA dan IVB. Sementara itu, dua program reguler lain yang ditawarkan adalah Translation for Beginners dan Introduction to Indonesian Literature. Silabus pengajaran bahasa Indonesia di Universitas Griffith disusun oleh tim pengajar. Universitas Griffith sudah memiliki bahan ajar BIPA sendiri. Bahan ajar tersebut tersedia baik dalam bentuk cetak maupun elektronik. Penempatan pembelajar BIPA pada kelas kemahiran tertentu dilakukan berdasarkan rekomendasi pengajar. Pembelajar BIPA yang telah lulus umumnya bekerja di bidang pemerintahan, pendidikan, pariwisata, dan ekonomi. Pengajar BIPA di Universitas Griffith berjumlah satu orang dengan status pengajar tetap yang bekerja penuh waktu.

University of Western Australia (UWA) Program BIPA di University of Western Australia (UWA) berada di bawah Program Kajian Asia atau Asian Studies yang beralamat di 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Australia Barat. Program pembelajaran BIPA di lembaga ini bersifat reguler. UWA mempunyai kurikulum dan silabus BIPA sendiri yang disusun oleh tim pengajar BIPA kurikulum dan silabus disusun berdasarkan analisis kebutuhan pembelajar dengan mempertimbangkan perimbangan waktu pembelajaran teori dan praktik. Perbandingan waktu pembelajaran BIPA di UWA antara teori dan praktik adalah dua jam per pertemuan untuk teori dan enam jam per pertemuan untuk praktik. Bahan ajar yang digunakan dalam pembelajaran BIPA di UWA disediakan oleh penyelenggara BIPA di UWA itu sendiri. Selain itu, bahan ajar juga diambil dari media elektronik dan kepustakaan Indonesia. Dilihat dari metode pembelajaran yang diterapkan, UWA menerapkan sistem kelas dengan jumlah siswa di setiap kelas berkisar antara dua sampai dengan dua puluh orang siswa. Selain itu, lembaga ini juga menerapkan metode pembelajaran dengan sistem kelompok dengan jumlah siswa di setiap kelompok berkisar antara dua sampai dengan lima orang siswa. Pengajar BIPA di UWA berjumlah delapan orang, yang berasal dari Indonesia berjumlah 2 orang, dari Australia berjumlah 2 orang, dari negara bagian lain benua Australia berjumlah 2 orang, dan dari luar benua Australia berjumlah 2 orang.

Monash University Universitas Monash adalah Universitas negeri yang berada di Clayton, Australia. Penyelenggaraan pembelajaran BIPA berada di dalam program Studi Indonesian Studies, School of languages, Cultural and Linguistics. Universitas ini telah berdiri sejak tahun 1961 tetapi program BIPA ada dua tahun kemudian yaitu pada tahun 1963. Universitas Monash memiliki jenis program pengajaran bahasa Indonesia, yaitu kelas program studi, kelas reguler, dan program pembelajaran bersifat intensif yang bekerja sama dengan Universitas Gajah Mada. Kurikulum di universitas ini disusun oleh tim pengajar BIPA berdasarkan analisis kebutuhan pembelajar. Kurikulum disusun berdasarkan perimbanganan pembelajaran teori dan praktek. Untuk pelaksanaan teori satu jam per pertemuan dan praktek tiga jam per pertemuan. Tim penyusun kurikulum juga telah memasukkan topik kebudayaan yang disusun bersifat akademis. Dalam proses belajar mengajar, universitas ini menggunakan buku yang disediakan oleh universitas itu

University of Melbourne (UM) Program BIPA di University of Melbourne (UM) berada di bawah Program Institut Asia atau Asian Institute. Untuk dapat melaksanakan pembelajaran BIPA, UM membuat sendiri kurikulum pengajaran BIPA. Selanjutnya, silabus pengajaran BIPA disusun oleh tim pengajar BIPA di UM berdasarkan analisis kebutuhan

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang pembelajar. Selain itu, silabus pembelajaran BIPA di lembaga ini juga disusun dengan mempertimbangkan perimbangan waktu pembelajaran teori dan praktik. Perbandingan waktu pembelajaran BIPA di UM antara teori dan praktik adalah setengah jam per pertemuan untuk teori dan tiga setengah jam per pertemuan untuk praktik. Bahan ajar yang digunakan dalam pembelajaran BIPA di UM diambil dari kepustakaan Indonesia dan media elektronik berbahasa Indonesia, seperti majalah dan surat kabar elektronik. Dilihat dari metode pembelajaran yang diterapkan, UM menerapkan sistem kelas dengan jumlah siswa dua puluh orang di setiap kelas. Selain itu, lembaga ini juga menerapkan metode pembelajaran dengan sistem kelompok dengan jumlah siswa di setiap kelompok berkisar antara dua sampai dengan empat orang siswa. Motivasi pembelajar untuk belajar BIPA adalah untuk keperluan datang ke Indonesia dan juga untuk bekerja di Indonesia. Pembelajar BIPA dari UM yang telah lulus, bekerja dalam bidang ekonomi, sosial, teknologi, dan pendidikan. Penempatan pembelajar di kelas-kelas BIPA di UM dilakukan berdasarkan rekomendasi dan juga berdasarkan tes penempatan. Penempatan pembelajar BIPA di kelas BIPA tertentu tidak dilakukan berdasarkan permintaan pembelajar. Pengajar BIPA di UM berjumlah empat orang. Berasal dari Indonesia berjumlah 3 orang dan yang berasal dari Australia berjumlah 1 orang.

tutorial sama, yaitu masing-masing berjumlah 15 orang. Materi yang disajikan dalam kelas meliputi materi teori dan praktik yang masing-masing diberikan selama 2 jam per pertemuan. Pengajar BIPA di Universitas La Trobe berjumlah empat orang, yaitu tiga orang berasal dari Indonesia dan satu orang berasal dari Australia.

Australian Defence Force Academy (ADFA) Australian Defence Force Akademy (ADVA) merupakan salah satu lembaga penyelenggara pembelajaran BIPA yang berada di Australia beralamat di Canberra 2600, Australia. Dengan status lembaga program studi strata satu, School of Humanity and Social Science, bagian dari UNSW (University of New South Wales). ADVA memiliki jenis program pengajaran bahasa Indonesia, yaitu kelas program studi kelas reguler. Program studi ini merupakan program yang dilaksanakan secara reguler dalam bentuk kelas. Kurikulum pengajaran bahasa Indonesia di ADVA dibuat oleh lembaga pemerintah (nasional). Kurikulum di penyelenggara BIPA bahan ajar yang digunakan oleh ADVA adalah bahan ajar yang disusun oleh tim khusus di lembaga pembelajaran BIPA yang bersangkutan. Dalam penyusunan kurikulum maupun silabus, lembaga ini tidak melibatkan pihak lain untuk menyusun kurikulum dan silabus tersebut, tetapi tim khusus tersebut adalah tim pengajar BIPA di ADVA. Kurikulum dan silabus pembelajaran disusun berdasarkan analisis kebutuhan pembelajar. Selanjutnya, waktu pembelajaran dalam satu pertemuan dibagi dalam dua jenis. yaitu pembelajaran teori dan pembelajaran praktik. Bahan ajar yang digunakan adalah bahan ajar yang disusun oleh lembaga pengajaran BIPA dan juga menggunakan buku-buku yang berasal dari kepustakaan Indonesia dan media elektronik. Metode pembelajaran di ADVA menggunakan sistem kelas. Jumlah siswa setiap kelas antara 1—15 orang. Dalam pelaksanaan program pembelajaran, pembelajar dalam satu kelas ini dibagi dalam kelompok. Jumlah pembelajar dalam setiap kelompok adalah 2—4 orang. Selain itu, dalam pembelajaran ini juga menggunakakan sistem tutorial dengan jumlah pembelajar konsepnya sama dengan sistem kelas, yaitu antara 10—15 orang. Masing-masing diberikan selama 2 jam per pertemuan. Motivasi pembelajar BIPA di ADVA, selain pemenuhan kebutuhan unit pelajaran untuk pembelajar sarjana strata 1 faculty of humanity and social science, mereka memang cadet/calon pegawai di defence Australia yang nantinya di Indonesia mungkin akan ditugasi menjadi diplomat, tentara, inteligen, dan lain-lain. Pengajar BIPA di ADVA berjumlah 5 orang. Pengajar tersebut, 1 orang berasal dari Indonesia, 3 orang berasal dari Australia, dan 1 orang lagi berasal dari luar benua Australia.

La Trobe University Salah satu universitas yang menyelenggaraan pengajaran BIPA di Negara bagian Victoria, Australia adalah Universitas La Trobe. Universitas ini beralamat di Bundoora, Victoria 3086, Australia. Program pembelajaran BIPA di Universitas La Trobe memiliki dua jenis program pengajaran bahasa Indonesia, yaitu kelas program studi dan kelas tujuan khusus. Program studi ini merupakan program yang dilaksanakan secara reguler dalam bentuk kelas. Silabus pengajaran bahasa Indonesia di Universitas La Trobe disusun oleh tim pengajar. Silabus disusun berdasarkan tingkat kemahiran pembelajar. Universitas La Trobe sudah memiliki bahan ajar BIPA sendiri. Silabus pembelajaran disusun berdasarkan analisis kebutuhan pembelajar. Buku ajar tidak hanya menggunakan bahan ajar sendiri tetapi juga menggunakan buku-buku produk Pusat Bahasa, Depdiknas, media elektronik, dan kepustakaan Indonesia. Dari segi metode pembelajaran, pembelajaran BIPA di Universitas La Trobe menggunakan sistem kelas, tutorial, dan sistem kelompok. Sistem kelas dengan pengajaran yang berbentuk ceramah digunakan untuk menyampaikan teori, sedangkan sistem tutorial memberikan kesempatan kepada mahasiswa untuk mempraktikkan teori yang sudah didapatkannya dalam kelas ceramah. Pada saat tutorial, mahasiswa dibantu oleh seorang tutor. Jumlah siswa pada kelas ceramah dan

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Australia yang Kedua‖. Dalam ―Hasil-hasil Persidangan Konferensi Indonesia Mengenai Pengajaran BIPA‖. Jakarta: Universitas Indonesia.

Kesimpulan Penulis menyimpulkan bahwa strategi pembelajaran BIPA di universitas di Australia berdasarkan penekanan yang digunakan adalah strategi pembelajaran yang berpusat pada peserta didik dan strategi pembelajara yang berpusat pada materi. Strategi pembelajaran berpusat pada peserta didik dengan alasan metode pembelajaran yang digunakan bervariasi. Penyelenggara BIPA mendisain metode pengajaran dengan sedemikian rupa dengan menberikan waktu pembelajaran praktik lebih banyak daripada pembelajaran teori. Tidak ada satu universitaspun yang menggunakan hanya dengan satu metode pengajaran seperti ceramah atau teori. Hampir semua universitas menggunakan sistem kelas kemudian membaginya menjadi kelompok-kelompok kecil. Setiap kelompok akan dibimbing oleh tutor. Materi yang disajikan di dalam kelas adalah materi teori dan materi praktik diberikan dalam kelompok dengan menggunakan sistem tutorial. Penulis juga menyimpulkan bahwa selain strategi pembelajaran yang berpusat pada peserta didik, universitas di Australia juga menggunakan strategi pembelajaran yang berpusat pada materi. Hal ini terlihat dari bahan ajar yang digunakan. Penyelenggara menggunakan bahan ajar yang dibuat sendiri oleh penyelenggara BIPA tersebut yang tentu saja sesuai dengan kebutuhan penyelenggara itu sendiri serta menggunakan bahan ajar pendukung dari kepustakaan Indonesia dan juga mengunduh bahan ajar dari internet. Penyelenggara tidak hanya menggunakan buku teks tetapi juga mengunduh bahan ajar dari berbagai media cetak maupun elektronik untuk memperoleh bahan ajar yang up to date. Bahan-bahan yang bersifat informal ini dibutuhkan agar pengajaran lebih relevan dan aktual atau berdasarkan situasi nyata. Sumber informasi juga tidak hanya didapat dari pengajar yang dapat mengajarkan bahasa Indonesia tetapi menggunakan pengajar yang merupakan pengguna bahasa Indonesia itu sendiri (pengajar orang Indonesia).

Ahmadi, Muksin. 1990. Strategi Belajar Mengajar. Keterampilan Berbahasa dan Apresiasi Sastra. Malang: YA3 Malang. Cakrawala TNI AL. 2007. ―Pemerolehan Bahasa Kedua‖. Jakarta. Golo, W. 2002. Strategi Belajar Mengajar. Jakarta. Grasindo. Hamalik, Oemar. 2008. Proses Belajar Mengajar. Jakarta: PT Bumi Aksara. Iskandarwassid dan Dadang Sunendar. 2008. Strategi Pembelajaran Bahasa. Bandung: Sekolah Pascasarjana Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia dengan PT Remaja Rosdakarya. Pusat Bahasa. 2007. ―Menggalang Citra Indonesia Melalui BIPA‖. Kumpulan Makalah Seminar dan Lokakarya Internasional Pengajaran BIPA. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan Indonesia. Pusat Bahasa. 2008. Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Gramedia. Pusat Bahasa. 1998. Bahasa Indonesia Mnjelang 2000. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan Indonesia. Quin, George. 2009. ―Sepuluh Tahun Surutnya Study Bahasa Indonesia pada Institusi Pengajian Tinggi di Australia: Sebab-Musabab dan Upaya Pemulihannya‖. Dalam Forthcoming in Hiroki Nomoto at. Al. (Editor). Kajian dan Pendidikan Bahasa-Tinta Kenangan bagi Profesor Isamu Shoho. Malaysia: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Zaini, Darmiyanti dan Budiasih. 1997. Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia di Kelas Rendah. Dirjen Dikti.

Daftar Pustaka Adelaar, K.A. Sander. 1991. ―Pengajaran Bahasa Indonesia di Australia Laporan dari onferensi BIPA se-

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Postcolonialism Ideology in Avatar‟s Plot: A Literary Analysis on Movie Gracia Sudargo Liberal Arts Department Pelita Harapan University

During these recent years, movie has become a crucial element of human culture. Since early childhood until the senior age, human beings tend to spend their leisure time in front of a TV set. In fact, one of the biggest incomes comes from movie industry. Moreover, movie might lead the spirit of the age of a certain generation. Take for example Grease in late 70‘s prompted millions of teenagers to imitate John Travolta and Olivia Newton John, Meteor Garden in early 21st century created long straight hair trend all over Asia, and of course Harry Potter series which encourage many other mass production in the same genre (such as Narnia, Lord of the Rings, Bridge to Terabithia, and the Golden Compass). Lapsley and Westlake in their Film Theory: An Introduction propose: "Not only does narrative emerge in a wide variety of forms in our own culture, but it is also a cultural universal, present from the beginning of human history in all cultures at all times. As such it has always appeared to be as natural as life itself."(1988:129) Thus, it is not over-reacting if literary studies pay a close attention on movie analysis. As a literary production, the spirit of a movie mirrors the society‘s ideology. Each culture will produce different kind of movie. Hollywood is well known for its American movies which demonstrate the power of USA heroism, while Bollywood‘s love story is never vulgar, full of singing and dancing. Latino‘s production prefers to enrich their conflicts with exaggerated accent and body language, but Far East Asian tends to remake animations and comics into live actors. Learning movies as literature is learning people of its culture.

Abstract - This paper will present about some relevant and prominent issues dealing with postcolonialism in Avatar movie. As a prologue, the theories of postcolonialism and its function in literature critic will be discussed. Then the issues in the movie plot will be discussed further.

Movie as Literature Narrative exists through the history of human beings, since the earliest time until such postmodern era, narrative formulation has enriched our mankind's life. In fact, narrative survives globally together with our culture. Take for example; children all over the world grow up with fables, legends, epics, short stories, even tales painted in stained glass, pictures, and pantomimes. Narratives for humans are very natural, every moment we have been dealing with many kinds of narratives. This is the most familiar, and in a way, considered normal literature for us, since we have grown with it. Narrative presents a form of illusion and joy for the audience, so that unconsciously it can provoke us with hidden values. Rob Pope supports this idea by saying: "Narrative can be provisionally defined as telling stories, true or false, factual or fictional, in any medium. The term narration is sometimes reserved for the process of telling stories, as distinct from the product of the activity, the narrative proper. Such capacious definitions are handy because they encourage us to recognize as narratives and narrations all sorts of products and processes: from anecdotes and jokes to adverts and news stories, from short stories to blockbuster novels, from comic strips and cartoons to full-length feature films (and their sequels), from your most recent account of what happened yesterday (in conversation or diary) to full-blown printed histories, auto/biographies and TV documentaries. Narrative is any activity which results in a story being told and an event represented and reported. Such a perspective therefore allows us to see the printed novel and short story (the narrative genres most often featured in literature courses) as simply two amongst many story-telling modes. To offset exclusively literary and verbal emphases, we also look at narrative in history and news, including film, TV and video." (2002:218)

Theories of Marxism, Orientalism, and Postcolonialism Europe has grown so rapidly in their industry and technology. Fascinating sophisticated products are made in Europe, such as cars, machines, medical electronic tools, even fashions and science. This development had given certain honor for the Europeans to feel proud (or even over-proud) of themselves. In fact even the canon literary works are neither Indian nor Arabic, they are English. The development of science and inventory prompts the European nations to challenge their territory by touring around the world. Spain, Portugal, and British raced to spread their wings to Asian and African countries. On the contrary, the Orients used to live in their own culture with high respect for the past not the future. The Orients never force themselves to change their world. Whenever the Europeans arrived, they quickly colonized the Orient. As the oppressor, the West propaganda on their superiority forces the oppressed Orient to admit and

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang brainwash the oppressed Orient to feel their inferiority. Such inferior identity is over and over again being dictated to the Orient so that they might have no passion to move forward. Basically Edward Said criticizes the dichotomy between the West and the East. What so called the West are the European countries and their cousin the American. The West sees the Asian and also the African as the nations from the East or the Orient. The Western people have different perspective and philosophy from the Orient. They see things differently. As a result, the west paradigm in seeing the Orient is not the same as the Orient see themselves. The people in the East build their identity proudly over their ethnic origin with all their belief and culture. This constructs certain pride which is not understandable for the West. Orientalism signifies the whole comprehensive identity and culture of the people in the East. On the other hand, the West views the East as their ―primitive‖ or ―savage‖ past that still live with old fashioned way of living; therefore the East is uncivilized yet. The West considers themselves as the torch-bearer of civilization and that they are the chosen people who should lead the world into a better era. Unfortunately, this concept is refused by the Orient since it underestimates their value and identity. In Oriental world, a member of society is closely tied up to the socio-cultural and historical geographical background of his origin. A person becomes whosoever he or she is because the society and the nature construct the self identity. A Jewish boy is grown tightly in a constructed family and social education to maintain the Jewish heritage and his worldview. A Chinese girl will not dare to produce the taboo from outside of her culture and ancestry philosophy. An Indian child grows up believing the religion and paradigm the Indian society had taught. Therefore, whenever an Orientalist composes a work, actually the work is not a personal self achievement. It is a social production. The whole background contributes to the construction of the world. This exposure proposes a new breakthrough in Cultural Studies and Literary Criticism. Said enables literary teachers in Orient to teach literature that is not Oriental. At the same time Said helps the Westerners to understand Oriental literature. Even in Religious Studies, Said has become the silver lining. Take for example, in the Bible, there is a scene where Samson, an Israelite committed suicide by destroying a huge temple in order to kill thousands of Philistines. In Westerner‘s mind, this is a severe consequence, a terrible one; Samson had to receive because of his disobedient attitude to God and his adultery with Delilah. However, for the Jewish, this is a heroic action. According to the Orient, the death for your country, death on defeating your nation‘s enemy, death for your God, is something precious and honored. Another example might come from a Caribbean teacher who wants to teach about Jane Eyre in a literary class. This novel presents the Caribbean character as the antagonist. In order to maintain the balance in the students mind, study on Jane Eyre is accommodated by the presence of Wide Sargasso Sea.

Said writes his Orientalism to challenge Marxist Theory, but Leela Gandhi, in one of her chapters, criticizes Said‘s Orientalism. At least there are two points in which Gandhi tries to reveal. The first is related to subjunctive attitude of Orientalism. Said criticizes Marxism for being limited in Western world only; however Gandhi says that Said himself is symptomatically articulating the events of 1968. On those years, the labours and students across Europe were protesting against the capitalist state and betraying Stalinist leaders. This utopian revolution influenced a lot in Said‘s reconsideration on West and Marx. Therefore, Orientalism itself, despite of its brilliant critic to Marxist, is social production text. Next, the second point is Said‘s debt to poststructuralism. In Said‘s critique of Marxist theory, he arrives at objections to Marxist ancestor; Poststructuralist. Unfortunately, Gandhi considers Said failed to value his debts to his theoretical predecessors, the Poststructuralism. Said, she says, is not really fair and is imbalance in accomplishing and value the theories and knowledge he critiques. Said fails to criticize Poststructuralism since his own theory actually is built upon Poststructuralism. He tends to underestimate Orientalism debts to Poststructuralist ancestor. Postcolonialism basically is a deconstruction to reveal the colonial conception on the oppressed and to articulate the ‗others‘ mute opinion. Postcolonialism arise because of the realization of West- East binary opposition. This opposition is sharply proposed to the world through Said‘s Orientalism. We can say that Orientalism is the grandfather of Postcolonialism. Marxism is produced because of social injustice in Europe. It inspires Orientalism which is produced because of social injustice in Asia. Postcolonialism is inspired by Orientalism and produced due to social injustice in colonized countries. Abdul R. JanMohamed in his The Economy of Manichean Allegory describes colonialist as motivated by his own passion to conquer. He says: ―Motivated by his desire to conquer and dominate, the imperialist configures the colonial realm as a confrontation based on differences in race, language, social customs, cultural values, and modes of production.‖ As it is known that there are many forms of colonialism manifestation. It could be Dutch colony oppress the Indonesian to get the spices as in the previous centuries, or American colonizes the world countries‘ finance and trends nowadays, or even the military forces of a country oppress their own people to gain fake stability. All of them have the same spirit; harsh conquer to erase Others. In colonialism, the different race should be minimized, the other language must be forbidden, and strange culture is better to get rid off. Often in order to achieve this, any kind of harassment and violence would be allowed.

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang beauty was also presented through the presence of a beautiful female character of Neytiri. Shift of paradigm also happened in the way we perceive authority in life. Human being were called ‗the Sky People‘ by the Na‘vi because human came from the sky with helicopters and aircrafts. Humans relied their life on the technology they had in Pandora, while the Na‘vi worshipped their Goddess of life; Eywa. Jake Sully himself also experienced the shift of paradigm inside his own personality. At first, he was the West who entrusted his activity in technology. When he was being attacked by a Hammerhead Titanotheres in the Pandora forest for the first time, he used his machine gun to defend his life. So did at night when a pack of Viperwolves surrounded him, weaponless, Sully still tried to invent an aid; torch. Later on in the plot, Sully changed his way of thinking into a more similar way with the Na‘vy‘s. At the end of the movie, when Sully and the Na‘vy were in the face of great destruction caused by the Sky People‘s attack, he ran towards Tree of Soul to ask for Eywa‘s favour. He no longer relied on his own strength of invention and technology. This shift was also reflected in the way human and humanoid should relate with the nature around. The Na‘vy believed that nature is the essence of meaningful life. Without connection with nature, life of human beings is meaningless. We must be in a bond with natural world around. Harmony was the key. On the other hand, for Sky People, we should be the ruler of nature, we took benefit fro them, we craved them, we lived from them. Such opposite paradigm led to chaotic situation in the plot where it reached the climax at the great battle between the blue humanoid clans led by the Na‘vi against the smaller human being with their ravish machineries. There were two plots at the same time ran in this movie. The first battle happened physically in our visual are, between the Na‘vi representing the East versus the Sky People, representing the West. The second battle happened deep inside Jake Sully‘s hidden mind. It is the battle between his identity as human being, the West, against his new passion for Neytiri and the Na‘vi, the East. as it was clearly seen in the plot, those two battle were won by the East. Jake Sully finally decided to risk everything he had when he chose to regain the trust of the Na'vi by taking things to a whole new level which was to find the Great Leonopteryx. At the moment Jake Sully leaped from his Ikran onto the back of the Leonopteryx and bonded with it, he had become the sixth Toruk Makto, the highest leadership stage of the Na‘vi. Thus, he had been reborn into a new identity, out of the West, into the East. As the great leader Toruk Makto, Sully flew over to the sky to lead now-his-people the Na‘vy to fight against once-his-own race; human beings. As Neytiri had predicted that Eywa was with him, the victory was in the Na‘vy‘s. Edward Said began his incredible theory with a spirit to articulate the silence of the marginal. His book was written decades ago, yet his passion echoed until today. His legacy is a precious treasure every Eastern, every woman, every child, every slave, every tribal, everyone who used to be categorized as savage must

Postcolonialism in Avatar Avatar portrays an era when human with enormously sophisticated technology invade outer space – a far far away planet. This movie plot is begun at the moment of Jake Sully‘s arrival in Pandora. Jake was a limb soldier hurt in the battle. He was sent to Pandora to replace his deceased twin brother as avatar driver. Jake arrived in awe marveling such powerful show of strength of human military army in Pandora. Camera angle brings us to the eye level of normal human beings, seeing mercenaries as huge as gigantic dinosaurs. The tanks, the robots, the aircrafts, they were three times bigger than earthly size. Viewers‘ tense is built with the drum rhythm so condensed in its suspenseful music score as the background. We are invited to perceive Pandora from Jake‘s eyes. He was amazed and surprisingly passionate about the totally new life here. Everything was so brand new and never been known before. Yet, the childish admiration and excitement seeing those enormous armors actually also rang an alarm of danger. The emotion on the plot was shifted into a gloomier warning from Colonel Miles Quaritch as the head of the squadron. He took the role of a proud pessimist who saw no goodness in Pandora. He warned everybody to stay away from the savageness of Pandora. In his mind, human technology meant salvation, while savageness brought doom. In Orientalism, Said criticizes most on the way the West perceives the East. The West always thinks highly of himself, while the East is considered lower and savage. The West stands proudly for his modern thinking, civilized culture, and of course a long list of technology inventory. Technology in Western world does not only mean as tools to make life easier. Technology is life itself. Without technology, there shall be no meaning of life. The Century of Invention, started from James Watt‘s smoke machine until Bill Gates‘ Microsoft, delivers the West from its Era of Darkness into the new Enlightment Days. For the West, technology is their savior. On the contrary, the East stays static in her savageness for centuries. The world may change rapidly, but the East persistently keep her cultural inheritance more valuable than West‘s offers of technology. In fact, the West sees no good in the East savageness at all. As an avatar driver, Jake Sully tried his avatar for the first time. It was totally a breakthrough experience. For the first time in several years after the accident, Sully could the his nerve system to move a pair of legs to stand up, to walk, to run to wide vast field of Pandora, even to jump and leap into the breezing blue horizon. Once he settled down in his new body, the Avatar ride, our perspective was shifted into the Na‘vi‘s perspective. The plot started to change. Pandora began to be presented as something gorgeously beautiful. It was scary, but later it was marvelous and breath-taking. Remember the scene where Neytiri and Jake entered the Omaticaya clan‘s village? The forest was no longer the dark haunting setting; it had been presented in a different way that the forest was dim yet sparkling. The sense of

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang appreciate. The big question is, do we, the intellectuals, use our power to dominate like the West, or to articulate the silence of the marginal, the East?

Lapsley, Robert and Michael Westlake. Film Theory: An Introduction . Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988.

Bibliography

Pope, Rob. The English Studies Book: An Introduction to Language, Literature, and Culture . London: Routledge, 2002.

Bressler, Charles. E. Literary Criticism. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1999

Said, Edward. W. Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient. London: Penguin, 1978.

Gandhi, Leela. Postcolonial Theory. St. Leonards: Allen and Unwin, 1998. JanMohamed, Abdul R. The Economy of Manichean Allegory

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Portfolio and Self-assessment in Translation Class Harris Hermansyah Setiajid Simon Arsa Manggala Winda Adeputri English Letters Department Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta

manager of the classrooms who facilitate and manage teaching-learning process. Students are required to undergo a cycle of learning consisting of learning, experiencing, reflecting, and evaluating. The cycle can be diagrammed as follows: LEARNING

Abstract – Learner autonomy has become a major issue in recent years. Learners are encouraged to undergo a cycle of learning, consisting of learning, experiencing, reflecting, and evaluating. Learner reflection has become an effective tool for students to measure their progress. The reflection can be made through portfolios and self-assessment method in which students are able to assess what they have done and to compare it with the teacher‘s assessment. This will lead to students‘ understanding of their problem and of weakness they do not realize previously. To some extent, the self-assessment method will also raise students‘ awareness of their own strategies and develop them to be autonomous learners, which are essential when dealing with real life tasks. In translation class, this cycle of learning and portfolios and learner self-assessment is beneficial for students in that they can reflect and assess how far they are progressing. Such method helps students to be an autonomous learner and solve the problems independently. This paper tries to discuss a cycle of learning and to show how portfolios and learner self-assessment work in a translation class.

EVALUATING

EXPERIENCING REFLECTING

Fig. 1. The cycle of learning

1. Learning In this initial phase, students learn theories, assumptions, strategies in order to get a common ground for what they will explore in the next phase. Learning phase enables students to discuss and questions the theories presented to them. Students are not only given but also encouraged to state the opinion and express what they know and believe. Before the class, the students are given some reading assignments related with the topic of the discussion. Teachers give direction, guide the discussion, and redirect when the discussion goes onto the wrong direction. The weakness of this phase is that inarticulate or shy students sometimes cannot join the discussion happily. They feel forced and depressed. The solution for this is that the discussion is held in groups. In a group, various students are involved: shy, articulate, inarticulate, attentive, inattentive. The group then can choose a member who can express clearly to be a speaker.

Keywords: learner autonomy, learning, experiencing, reflecting, evaluating, portfolios, self-assessment

The cycle of learning

2. Experiencing

This paper is inspired by Khader Nawaz Khan and Mahija Nambiar Veetil from Dhofar University, Oman, about portfolios and learner self-assessment for their writing class. The current trend of teaching-learning strategies is the autonomous learning method for learners of English. This method allows students to find their strength and their weakness in their study. Being autonomous learners, students are expected to go beyond what they have learned in the classrooms. This method also emphasizes on the process of learning, that is, the students are monitored and guided through the well-prepared and well-organized teaching. This process-oriented teaching expects students to grow and develop intellectually and academically. Teachers in the classrooms role not as an omnipotent person who knows everything, but rather as a resource person and

After students ‗master‘ the theories, they are now ready to experience what they have learned in class. Students are given assignments of real world. In my translation class, I gave the students texts from my clients that I had translated previously. Students were also given a time limit. The situation was created in such a way that it recreated a real translator-client situation, except for price negotiation. This experiencing phase is to train not only students‘ skill to apply the strategies they have learned in class, but also their soft skill, i.e. their professionalism in getting the job done. Students are expected to feel as if they are in the real world, not just learning and studying in the classrooms aloof from the real problem they might encounter when they leave the university. The opponents of this cycle state that this experiencing phase might give an impression of being the

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang students‘ learning process. A portfolio should reflect the five characteristic as follows (Moya and O‘Malley, 1994, cited in Coombe and Barlow, 2004 in Khan).

same with that of vocational institutions. University students should learn the academic side, not the mechanical things. We cannot remain deaf, however, to the real job-market which demands university graduated students who are already prepared to fill the vacancy. Some university students, job-markets say, do not know anything about real world so they have to be trained first. This will cost them a lot of money, let alone their waiting period. The experience phase gives students pictures of what they might face when they mingle with the real world. The phase learning and experiencing actually can be changed over. Students might experience first before they learn. From that experience, they will learn how to handle the problem. This will eventually lead them to a better understanding of the ground they study.

1. Comprehesiveness The potential for determining the depth and breadth of students‘ capabilities can be realized through comprehensive data collection and analysis. 2. Predetermined and systematic A sound portfolio is planned prior to implementation. This includes information such as purpose, contents, data collection schedule and student grading criteria. 3. Informative The information in the portfolio must be meaningful to students, teachers, and sometime parents.

3. Reflecting

4. Tailored An exemplary portfolio is tailored to the purpose for which it will be used, classroom goals and objectives and individual assessment needs.

After they learn and experience or experience and learn, the students are given opportunity to reflect what they have done so far. This is called reflecting phase. Students are able to identify the dificulties and problems and find a way to solve them. Teachers‘ role in this phase is to guide and give direction to the students lest they get lost in their study.

5. Authentic A good portfolio provides student information based on asssessment tasks that reflect authentic activities during classrooms instructions.

4. Evaluating

Meanwhile, learner self-assessment as an approach to learning is ―that students take some significant responsibility for their own learning over and above responding the situation…[and] in order to assume greater control of their learning, learners need ways of assessing the quality of their language performance‖ (Cotterall 1988 in Khan). Self assessment is a way for students to know their progress in learning.

Evaluating the process-oriented learning is difficult. The evaluation must come along the way with the learning process. Students are evaluated and assessed in every step of the process. Summative test which is done at the end of the learning process will be unfair to the students. Their activity and achievement in each step will be overlooked by such test. One method to assess and evaluate such kind of learning is by portfolio and learner self assessment. This method emphasizes on the process the students undergo during their study. The paragraphs to come will discuss the portfolio and self-assessment and their application in my translation class.

Portfolio and learner self-assessment in my translation class In the first meeting of the class, I usually gave a students a kind of questionnaire to know what the students expect from the translation (English-Bahasa Indonesia) class. This lets me know an approximate picture of the students‘ expectation and whether my syllabus will meet their needs. The choices I provided for the question ―what do you expect in the translation class?‖ are: (1) to better understand English through Bahasa Indonesia, (2) to learn how to translate well, (3) to understand English culture, (4) to learn how to be a translator, and (5) others. Most of the students answered that they want to learn how to translate well (83%), to better understand English through Bahasa Indonesia (10%), to learn how to be a translator (3%), to understand English culture (3%) and others (1%). The students‘ answers for ‗others‘ are: (1) the required subject in the curriculum, (2) ―go with the flow‖, (3) no expectation, (4) not to sleep during the class, (5) ―meet my favorite teacher‖ (6) others.

Portfolio and learner self-assessment Coombe and Barlow say ―portfolio assessment is in the forefront of alternative assessment approaches.‖ (in Khan and Veetil, 2006). It is an appropriate method of assessment in the process-oriented learning. Combined with reflective learning, the portfolio and learner selfassessment will be an adequate method of assessment. Khan and Veetil further say that ―it is important that learners become aware of their own progress and reflect upon their learning strategies.‖ Students can use the data they gather in their portfolio as their reflection tool. This will lead them to possess ―higher order thinking skills‖, things which are needed in professional world. Portfolio is an ―ongoing collection of works done by individual students‖. Portfolio shows evidences of

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang The result shows that the majority of the students expect to learn how to translate English into Bahasa Indonesia well. When pursued ―how well‖, they answered that at least they know the strategies to translate various English texts into Bahasa Indonesia so that they will have sufficient equipment to be a translator. This will eventually be the same with the choice ―to learn how to be a translator‖. The students‘ expectation worried me because according to ATA (American Translators Association) ―completing a translation program does give a student skills but does not provide any assurance that these skills will find a ready market‖ (my emphasis, Tinsel, 1973 in Hubscher-Davidson, 2007). The ATA further advises ―institutions to provide students with as much ‗real-world‘ practice as possible‖ (in Hubscher-Davidson, 2007) to anticipate the uncertain job-market. Sewell and Higgins (in Hubscher-Davidson, 2007) state that ―in recent years universities have been increasingly aware of the needs and practices of professional life‖. Consequently, the students expect the course will equip them with the skills needed for their future career. That is why ‗experiencing‘ real-life situations with the real life-life tasks is imperative. Therefore, I designed my syllabus to meet the students‘ expectations after long years of teaching translation classes and observing the students‘ expectations and interests. This course is meant for fourth-semester students whose English proficiency should be in advanced level. The materials include grammatical and cultural difficulties, strategies to overcome difficulties, and translation of texts of different registers. Most of the texts provided are the texts from my clients ranging from literary texts to legal documents. All of them are translated using different strategies based on the context. In line with the portfolios method, students are also given opportunity to reflect upon what they have done. The questions for reflection include (1) the difficulties the students encounter during the translation process and (2) how the students solve the difficulties. I also apply TAP (Thinking-Aloud Protocol) in order to know how students translate. TAP is a method to understand the process of translation which takes place in translators‘ mind. The verbalization of what is going on in the students‘mind turned out to be an exciting activities for my translation students. They were eager to share what they had in mind while translating. When it comes to evaluating, the students are given opportunity to assess their own translation. According to Khan and Veetil, the learner self-assessment ―is done in a stress-free environment…which provides lots of opportunities for student reflection [so that] a positive and non-threatening learning atmosphere could be established.‖ By this method, the students do not feel threatened by the teacher assessment. To guide the student assessment, a grading criteria is given. The criteria for translation include (1) accuracy, i.e. message conveyed, terminology, (2) readability, i.e. understable or not. naturalness, (3) completeness, i.e. all ideas/messages conveyed, and (4) grammatical correctnes,

i.e. spelling, punctuation, grammar and other mechanics. The learner self-assessment is then compared with the teacher assessment. At the end of the course, the students are asked to organize the portfolio by choosing the best translation for each different register. The reason why they choose the particular work must be written.

Concluding remarks The cycle of learning enables students to gain a better and deeper understanding of what they have done in the classrooms. The experience phase enables students to have a real-life assignment, while the reflective element improve the students‘ analytical skills. The evaluating phase using portfolio and learner selfassessment encourage students to know their progress in a non-threatening fashion. They can identify their own weaknesses and strengths and eventually pursue the improvement. In line with the growing demand of the jobmarket for well-equipped and well-prepared graduates, the learner self-assessment combined with reflection and experience element enables students to be autonomous learners to accomplish a larger objective.

Bibliography Basnett, Susan. 1991. Translation Studies. London: Routledge. Bell, Roger T. 1991. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London: Longman. Hubscher-Davidson, Severine. 2007. ―Meeting Students‘ Expectations. Translation Journal. www.accurapid.com/journal. Accessed 13 Feb 2007. Khan, Khader Nawaz and Mahija Nambiar Veetil. 2006. ―Portfolios and Learner Self-Assessment‖. Paper presented in TEFLIN International Conference 2006. Salatiga. Suryawinata, Zuchridin dan Sugeng Hariyanto. 2003. Translation. Bahasan Teori dan Penuntun Praktis Menerjemahkan. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Kanisius. Venuti, Lawrence. 2002. ―The difference that translation makes: the translator‘s unconsious‖. Translation Studies: Perspectives on an Emerging Discipline editor Alessandra Riccardi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Appendix 1 TRANSLATION SELF ASSESSMENT SHEET

3. How I feel about my translation skill for this text ______________________________________________

Name : Date : Text register :

4. What I will do to develop my translation skill ______________________________________________ 5. How I grade my translation Excellent Very Good Good improve

Tick the appropriate column for each statement given below No

Statement

1.

All have been translated All have been translated accurately The translation result is readable No mistakes in grammar, spelling, punctuation and other mechanics I undertand complicated English structures I found culturallyloaded words I found sciencerelated words I found legal terminolgies Able to translate culturally-loaded words Able to translate science-related words Able to translate legal terminolgies I just copy from my friends

2. 3. 4.

5.

6. 7. 8. 9.

10.

11. 12.

Always

Sometimes

Not sure

Weak

Needs

to

Teacher Comments: ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________

Grading criteria: (by teacher) 1 2 3 4

Accuracy Readability Completeness Grammatical correctness

1 1 1 1

1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

2 2 2 2

2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5

3 3 3 3

3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

4 4 4 4

4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5

5 5 5 5

Appendix 2 TRANSLATION POST SELF-ASSESSMENT SHEET Name : Date : Text register : 1. What are my teachers‘ comments on my translation? _________________________________________ _________________________________________ 2. What did I do to improve my translation? _________________________________________ _________________________________________ 3. How did I grade my translation BEFORE getting teacher‘s comment? Excellent Very Good Good Weak Needs to improve

My Reflection: 1. The difficulties I encountered while translating ______________________________________________ 2. How I solve the difficulties ______________________________________________

4. How do I grade my translation in the light of the teacher‘s comment? THE DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHING Excellent Very Good Good Weak Needs to improve

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Materials for The Students of The Faculty of Engineering Universitas Brawijaya Indah Winarni Rita Darmayanti Moch. Aminullah Afif Ikhwanul M Universitas Brawijaya Malang

low; and the undertrained instructors, mostly S-1 and S-2 graduates who lack the knowledge and training in ESP/EAP and who have not acquired much teaching experience. ESED takes place in seven departments of Civil, Mechanical, Electrical, Architecture, Water Resources, Industrial and Town Planning Engineering. There are 20 ESED classes in the academic year of 2009/2010 and 15 English instructors, who come from the Faculty of Culture Studies. The number of students in one class ranges from 35 – 55 students.

This paper describes the attempts of the development of teaching materials for the teaching of English to the students of Engineering Departments (henceforth ESED), Brawijaya University (BU). The wider framework within which the development of the teaching materials is placed is first described. Then the policy and pragmatic constraints underlying the decision making of ESED curriculum development are described. A description on the formulation of aims and specification of ends/means is presented before illustration on a course unit is provided. The development of teaching materials for the teaching of ESED is part of a proposed long-term developmental research project aimed at reconciling the policy and pragmatic constraints (Johnson,1990) underlying the curriculum development of the teaching of ESED in order to make the curriculum more coherent. Apart from the development of teaching materials the project is also aimed at the development of a home base for the English instructors to ensure accountability in terms of administrative, managerial and professional concerns. The formulation of the aim of the project is based on the analysis of policy and pragmatic constraints underlying the curriculum development of ESED. Policy‘ is defined as what to be achieved; ‗pragmatics‘ are the constraints on what to be achieved, and ‗participants‘ are those involved in the decision making processes whose decisions will determine the coherence of a curriculum (Johnson, 1990:xii).. The policy constraints have been identified in the document curriculum issued by the National Ministry of Education (National Curriculum Documents U/2000 and U 2002) ; Government Regulation of National Education 2003 ; and Buku Pedoman Pendidikan Jurusan Fakultas Teknik 2008/2009. The analysis of non-curricular constraints underlying ESED as part of English for the students of non English departments (ESNED) points to its being marginalized and ambiguous as a result of its position as belonging to integration culture in education (Holliday, 1997, Winarni, 2006). It is under resourced in terms of time and money, it is ambiguous, it takes place in large classes and it is allocated only 2 – 3 sks. Further to this is that English has been identified as having insignificant role for the students in finishing their S-1 study program (Winarni, 2005) The curricular pragmatic constraints have been identified as the heterogeneity of the various of proficiency of English of the students, which is mostly

The Development of ESED Teaching Materials Johnson‘s (1990) ELT curriculum development stages comprise planning (formulation of aim), ends/means specification (syllabus design), program implementation (materials development and teacher training) and teaching and learning acts. Materials development is constrained by the specification of the aims (syllabus) and the production of the syllabus is constrained by the formulation of the general aims of the ELT.

Formulation of Aims The need of the Indonesian country to recover from the multidimensional crisis and the need of the Indonesian society to impart a meaningful contribution to the global market has brought a significant change to the system of national education as reflected in the Decree No. 20/2003. The change concerns the content, process, and management of the system. Language is a compulsory subject in higher education curriculum. English has been stipulated as one of the important foreign languages in the interaction of the global world, and thus should be part of the graduates‘ competence. Prior to the government decree, the National Ministry of Education had issued national curriculum of higher education (National Curriculum Documents U/2000 and U 2002) stipulating that the design of higher education curriculum should involve the society as its stakeholders. Document U/2002 categorizes the aims of subjects to be taught in higher education into (1) developing the students‘ personality, (2) developing the students‘ mastery of knowledge and the required skills in the mastery of knowledge; (3) developing the students‘ professional skills, and (4) developing the students‘ professional attitudes. Constrained by these documents, the Faculty of Engineering UB has categorized ESED as belonging to the category of the subjects which are aimed at developing the students‘ personality. The literature of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), however, categorizes ESNED as belonging to English for

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Academic Purposes (EAP). As a branch of ESP, EAP has the absolute characteristics that it makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the disciplines it serves; ESP is centered on the language (grammar, lexis, register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these activities (Dudley-Evans 1998:4-5). It is argued then that categorizing ESED as belonging to the subjects which are aimed at developing the students‘ personality could be misleading. It is proposed therefore, that the aim of ESED is to develop the students‘ professional skills as well as to develop their professional attitudes.

implementation of the design including patenting, computer aided design and learning from failures. Chapter seven deals with engineering calculations which an ESED instructor with no educational background in engineering would struggle to understand the meaning intended by the writers. The same holds true with the rest of the chapters. Chapter eight, nine, and ten are organized under the headings of engineering mechanics, electronics, and computers. Chapter ten deals with a case study of space shuttle Challenger accident, including the cause and the contributing cause of the accident.

Ends/Means Specification

Introduction to Engineering for ESED

Developing the students‘ professional skills as well as developing their professional attitudes could be carried out through the development of ESED materials which are related to the content subjects they should learn, listed in the department‘s curriculum. As expected, however, a survey on the references listed on the subjects taught in the departments of Civil and Water Resources Engineering shows that none of the references could be exploited as ESED teaching materials for the reason of their being too specific for the ESED instructors to understand. Further search for the teaching materials, however, has pointed to Introduction to Engineering, first edition (1989) by Paul H. Wright et al. The third edition of the book is published in 2002 but currently it is not in the access of the writers of this article. The following section provides a brief summary of and discussion on the book s it is related to its being used as a resource of teaching materials development for ESED

Detailed examination of the book concludes that the book could be exploited as the teaching materials for ESED. Firstly, as it is intended for beginning students in engineering, it covers not only the design and application of all the branches of engineering, but it also covers the philosophy of engineering through the presentation and discussion on the history of engineering, engineering as profession and the underlying method of learning and creative thought in engineering. ESED is mostly offered to first year students. Thus, they are included as the prospective readers of the book. Secondly, this book also addresses how beginning students of engineering should cope in the college academic environment, which is different from high school environment, for the students to be successful engineering students. It is often observed that the students of ESED too, find problems in coping with tertiary education system from that in high school Introduction to Engineering, therefore provides relevant benchmark for the ESED

Introduction to Engineering by Paul H. Wright et al.

As previously described, Introduction to Engineering consists of eleven chapters. Care should be taken, however, that the chapters being exploited as ESED teaching materials should exclude chapter seven onwards and it is suggested that instructors of ESED collaborate with the discipline subject lecturers in exploiting chapter five and six as ESED teaching materials. To refer to Hudson (2007), that text, purpose and content seem to mediate the identification of reading skills, specifying the ends, i.e. what to be achieved and the means, how to achieve the ends of ESED then can be carried out through text analysis. The aim of ESED then could be defined as for the students to be able to read part of the book on Introduction to Engineering. Thus the ends can be defined as for the students to acquire and apply reading skills and strategies in reading the book. In the following, illustration is presented on how a passage, Engineering in the Early Civilization: the Mesopotamians (appendix 1) is exploited as teaching materials for ESED. This involves activating the students‘ background knowledge, building the students‘ vocabulary, and developing reading comprehension exercises. Prior to this, a brief description on the passage is presented.

Introduction to Engineering is written by senior lecturers of Georgia Institute of Technology. All of the writers have their long recognized academic and professional reputation in the field of engineering. In the preface of the book it is written that the book is intended for the beginning students in all branches of engineering. It consists of eleven chapters summarized in the following Chapter one is concerned with history of engineering examining the roots of engineering from the early civilization to its development in the twentieth century. In chapter two and three, definition of engineering is dealt with. It comprises the description of professional responsibilities of engineers, the legal framework of the engineering practice, the purpose and importance of engineering societies and the code of ethics of engineering profession. Chapter three and four deal with engineering education pertinent to the discussion on the successful engineering student, on engineering curriculum and classroom, on the psychology of learning and thought, and on the learning process and creativity. Chapter five and six discuss the nature of engineering design and engineering communication respectively. Engineering design discusses procedures of engineering method from identification of problem through to

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) (online). http://www.americancorpus.org/ retrieved on April 2, 2010. Holliday, A. 1997. Putting the Teacher Back in the Picture: A Liberal Approach to Special English. In Coleman, H., Soedradjat, T. M. and Westaway, G. (Eds). Teaching English to University Undergraduates in the Indonesian Context: Issues and Development. (pp.92-101) Bandung: ITB Press and School of Education University of Leeds. Hudson, Thom. 2007. Teaching Second Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press Johnson, R. K. 1990. A Decision Making Framework for the Coherent Language Curriculum in Johnson R. K. (Ed. The Second Language Curriculum (p. 123.). Cambridge : Cambridge University Press Winarni, I. 2002. English for Non English Department : In Search for an Essential Home Base. Jurnal Ilmu Pendidikan. (pp. 200-212) 9(3). Winarni, I. 2005. English for non-English Department: How Essential? TEFLIN Journal. Volume 16 Number 1 February. ISSN 021573X Wright, P. H. 1989. Introduction to Engineering. Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Engineering in the Early Civilization: the Mesopotamians The passage is concerned with the achievements of Mesopotamians in engineering. The wheeled cart, the astrolabe, the ziggurat and the codes of Hammurabi, are among the significant achievements discussed in the passage. The text is structured in past tense and passive construction and a lot of past participle nominalization and clause complexes. Illustration on activating the students‘ background knowledge comprises content as well as formal schema. Activating the students‘ content schema could be done through providing them with pictures related to the achievement of Mesopotamia in engineering in the early civilizations and providing them with probing questions (appendix 2A). Activating the students‘ formal schema could be carried out by providing exercises on the syntax used in the text (appendix 2B). Illustration on building the students‘ vocabulary makes use of exercises using context clues and corpus. Appendix 2C illustrates the exercise on transferring verbal language to diagrams and describing a sequence of events depicted in pictures, before and after the invention of the wheeled cart.

References Buku Pedoman Pendidikan Jurusan Pengairan Fakultas Teknik 2008-2009 Universitas Brawijaya

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APPENDIX 1 If a builder build a house and do not make its construction firm and the house he has built collapse and make the death of the owner of the house that builder should be put to death. If it cause the death of the son of the owner of the house they shall be put to death a son of the builder. If it cause the death of the slave of the owner of the house he shall give to the owner of the house a slave of a equal value. If it destroy property, he shall restore whatever it destroyed, and because he did not make The house which he built firm and it collapsed He shall rebuild The house which collapsed at his own expense. If a builder build a house for a man and do not make its construction meet the requirements and a wall fall in that builders shall strengthen the wall at his own expense.

THE MESOPOTAMIANS Significant engineering achievements must be credited to the ancient dwellers of Mesopotamia, the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, currently the country of Iraq. In this area, the wheeled cart is said to have first appeared. In southern Mesopotamia, at the beginning of recorded history, the ancient and mysterious Sumerian people constructed canals, temples, and city walls that comprised the world‘s first engineering works. The land of Mesopotamia was open to attack from the north, east, and west, and its history is a confused record of conquests and occupations by neighboring peoples. The most prominent rulers of ancient Mesopotamia were the Babylonians and the Assyrians. Records inscribed on clay tablets have been discovered and deciphered, providing an insight into life in that area thousands of years ago. These records show as early as 2000 BC, an angle measuring device called the astrolabe was being used for astronomical observations. This instrument, which was based on the 60-unit numerical system used by the Mesopotamians, consisted of a graduated circle and a sighting arm. That system has been retained in time and angle measurements to the present day. The most unusual class of structure left by the Mesopotamians was the ziggurat, a temple tower built in honor of their gods. The ziggurat was a terraced pyramid of brick with staircases, setbacks, and a shrine or chapel at the top. The tower of Babel mentioned in the Old Testament is believed to have been this type of structure. Hammurabi, the great king who ruled Babylonia for 43 years (circa 1850 to 1750 BC) compiled a comprehensive new code of law that bears his name. This famous code provided penalties for those who permitted poor construction practices and is considered to be a forerunner of today‘s building codes. The Code of Hammurabi provided an important message dealing with quality assurance and professional responsibility and exacted extremely severe penalties for its branch. It is not surprising that the people who populated the Tigris and Euphrates developed significant irrigation and flood control works.

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang APPENDIX 2A

Before reading the text, answer the following questions. 1. Do you know Mesopotamia? Where is it? 2. What do you remember about Mesopotamia? 3. What are the contributions of Mesopotamian to the world of Engineering? Background knowledge helps students to reconcile new information with schema and assists comprehension before reading the passage. For teaching comprehension, teachers assign the students to make their own question about the topic before they read, read the whole text, highlight the key sentence and topic of each paragraph to point out events or ideas, make a brief note of the main idea and organization/structure of the passage while they read, and review the text focusing on the important points and details.

APPENDIX 2B Teachers can ask students to rewrite the past participle construction such as the following:  Records inscribed on clay tablets have been discovered and deciphered...  Records which is inscribed on clay tablets.‖ Vocabulary Builder Context clues: Students are to find difficult words in the passage are to write them down and try to guess the meaning. To guess the meaning, they should probe from the context clues of the sentence. After the students guess the meaning, teachers can check the accuracy of their guessing and then if they encounter a wrong guess they can discuss and lead the students to have the right guessing. 1.

Significant engineering achievements must be credited to the ancient dwellers of Mesopotamia, the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, currently the country of Iraq. Vocabulary  The vocabulary words below are taken from ―Introduction to Engineering: ancient engineering in Mesopotamia‖. Use each word in a sentence that shows you understand what it has to do with Mesopotamia and engineering. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

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achievement dwellers comprise prominent shrine

National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Corpus The use of corpus is useful in understanding context. The usage of corpus is as a tool in understanding the context clues of a word. achievement  …in: (1) reductions in delinquent behaviors, (2) increased academic achievement, (3) increased access to and safe utilization of technology, (4…. (Source: Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA)) Make your own conclusion on the meaning and pattern of usage of the words achievement, dweller, comprise, prominent, and shrine based on the corpus above. 1. achievement _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ ___________

 Students are to describe the picture in their own words

Source: http://mathildasanthropologyblog.wordpress.com/

__________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________

APPENDIX 2C  Teachers can assign students to make a diagram of the main idea and organization / structure of the passage to check students‘ comprehension. e.g.:  Engineering in the Early Civilizations: The Mesopotamians

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Blended Learning: Best Practice in ICT-based ELT Implementation Indra Charismiadji Higher Learning Jakarta

This presentation will consider how to improve the process of teaching and learning by designing blended learning environments that are authentic, self-regulated and promote student reflection. The framework for designing instruction will be complemented with examples of pedagogical tools designed specifically to promote student engagement. The presentation will cover the following areas: the evolution of e-learning; blended learning; learning theories; learning designs; the role of assessment; the role of teachers; a model for designing learning materials; new technologies; pedagogical tools and demonstrations.

Abstract – Blended Learning or learning that combines different modes of delivery, such as computer-based learning and traditional face-to-face learning, is increasingly becoming an attractive option as new and innovative technologies become increasingly available. However, technology alone cannot provide effective and efficient solutions for teaching and learning. Solid instructional design and pedagogical approaches must be used in conjunction with blended learning for success.

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Language Assessment Using Technology Indra Charismiadji Higher Learning Jakarta

Some of the tools that will be introduced and showcased include:

It is a challenge and burden for many teachers to assess and evaluate learners‘ performance in a language learning class. Most teachers use series of tests / quizzes such as mid test and final test in assessing learners‘ performance. The problems with this traditional approach are: firstly, the more test a teacher conducts the more hours are needed in preparing and grading the test; secondly, the results of the test typically do not measure learners‘ proficiencies accurately. It is very common to find learners with good grades but cannot communicate with the language at all. Therefore, teachers are finding new and effective ways to improve the process. This presentation will showcase a solution in language assessment, ICT-based tools for collecting, analyzing, evaluating, and directing learners‘ practice. Along the way, some insights from the neurosciences about how the brain processes the language and why this is important for language teachers will be explained.

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

Placement Test (how to place learners at the right level)

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Study Scores and Weighted Study Scores (how to assess the way learners practice in achieving AUTOMATICITY)

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Mastery Test (how to assess learners‘ MASTERY of the lessons)

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Speaking Test (how to assess learners‘ oral fluency)

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Intelligent Tutor (automatic and on-going 24/7 guidance for learners to improve performance)

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Extension Activities Score (how to assess learners activities in the classroom)

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Post Test (how to see learners‘ improvement in proficiency)


Teaching Writing at Senior High School: A Challenge Joni Alfino Universitas Bung Hatta Padang

language to memory. Students often find it useful to write sentence using new language shortly after they have studied it. b. Language development The actual process of writing helps learners to learn language. It means that students can improve or develop their language though practice. One of activities that can provide a space for students to develop their language is writing. The more they write, the more they can use language. This process automatically will improve and develop their language. c. Learning style Mastering a language by reading only is not enough. There should be an activity that enables them to use and produce the language. For many students, writing is a quiet reflective activity to produce language.

Background Before taking about teaching writing at senior high school specifically, it had better talk about teaching English in general first. If we talk about teaching English in Indonesia, it means that we talk about English as foreign language. As a foreign language, the teaching of English in Indonesia has been developed again and again. In the past, English teaching began at junior high schools. Then, the English teaching at junior and senior high schools focused on reading skill. But now, English is taught at several elementary schools of Indonesia as local content. Then, it includes four language skills. Logically, there should be an analysis on the result of English teaching in the past that focused on reading skill before deciding to include four language skills in the teaching of English at senior high school. Indeed, Baradja (1989) states that the English teaching at junior and senior high schools has not run well because college students do not master basic English. Then, this statement is supported by Mukminatien (2005) who states that the teaching of English has been considered unsuccessful as high school leavers are unable to use the language, even for basic communication. In addition, their English is inadequate to help them understand reading passage for academic purposes. Based on the statement above, English teachers at junior and senior high schools have a challenge in teaching English now. They have to teach writing to students who have inadequate English ability. This is not an easy job. In addition, they are also required to have a good writing ability.

Writing activities in classroom Brown (2001) mentions several types of classroom writing performance. They are: a. Imitative, or writing down This activity can be done as follows  Teacher reads a short paragraph once or twice at normal speed  Teacher reads the paragraph in short phrase units of three or four words each, and each unit is followed by a pause  During the pause, students write exactly what they hear  Teacher then read the whole paragraph once more at normal speed so students can check their writing b. Intensive, or controlled The intensive writing typically appears in written grammar exercise. Meanwhile, a common form of controlled writing is to present a paragraph to students in which they have to alter a given structure throughout

Why is writing important

c. Self-writing; note-taking and diary writing falls into this category

There are several experts that state the importance of writing. Harris in Alfino (1995) says that writing is generally used apply grammatical structure. Then, Han also in Alfino says that writing is used to express perception, reality, and point of view. Ghani in Alfino furthermore, states that writing is one of skills that improves student‘s language and stimulates the student‘s cognitive ability in learning English. In addition, Harmer (1998) states several benefits of writing for students of English as foreign students. They are a. Reinforcement Some students acquire a language in purely oral/aural way, but most of them greatly from seeing the language written down. The visual demonstration of language construction is invaluable for both their understanding of how it will fit together an as an aid to committing the new

d. Display writing; short answer exercise, essay examination, and research report are the type of this category

Challenges to teach writing at senior high school In teaching writing skill at senior high school, teacher has several challenges. They are: 1. High objective: students with very limited competence in vocabulary and structure are required to get ability in writing a correct paragraph of several genres. Unfortunately, most of students still have problem writing

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang an Indonesia-correct paragraph. Now with some limitation they have, they have to be able to English-correct paragraph. This is a hard job. 2. Big class and short time: to control students writing ability, a teacher is needed to check 40 students‘ works anytime s/he teaches writing skill. This is impossible actually because what s/he has to do it does not meet the time available. But s/he has to do it. Although s/he finally does it, the result is far from what is hoped 3. To have a good writing skill: one who can check someone‘s writing has to have a good writing ability because s/he has to know what to do to a written work. If a writing corrector doesn‘t have a well-writing ability, what s/he will check in a work is to correct grammatical points only. This is not accepted because writing component is not only grammar.

References Alfino, Joni. 1995. some grammatical errors made by the second year students of FKIP of Bung Hatta University in telling picture in writing class. Unpublished thesis. Padang; Universitas Bung Hatta. Baradja, M. F. 1989. Kapita selekta pengajaran bahasa. Malang: IKIP Malang. Brown, H. D. 2001. Teaching by principles: an integrative approach to language pedagogy. Second edition. San Francisco: San Francisco State University.

Conclusion

Harmer, J. 1998. Ho to teach English: an introduction to the practice of English language teaching. Longman: Addison Wesley Longman Ltd.

The English current curriculum used in Indonesia provides a challenge for English teachers to do more than before. They should be able to make students with very limited English competence have a good English, including writing competence. This is not an easy job. But they have to reach it.

Mukminatien, N. 2005. Building teachers‘ critical analysis for successful teaching action through reflection. Paper presented at International seminar and workshop at the State University of Padang, Padang, 3-4 June 2005.

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New Words Encountered as The Results of Unpredictable Word Formation Processes Kartika Nuswantara UPM SOSHUM Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember Surabaya

the words, as they might be helped by the context surrounding the words. If not, there is another clue that can be used to recognize the meanings of the words by analyzing the process of the formation of the words. The regularity of a word formation process is a beneficially useful guide to help language users to reach the closest meaning of a new word. The word ‗brunch‘ for instance comes into use when people get busier with their work and have to leave early for breakfast and they often have their lunch as the work is progressing during the lunch hour. Thus, they built a new habit to have their meals in the morning when the time for breakfast is gone and when lunch time is still a way. Then, they blend two words, breakfast and lunch to refer to a new term for meal-time. Refer to this processes, there is a rigid and more consistent way to form a word that is by joining initial part of the first word, breakfast, and final part of the second word, lunch. This sort of formation is followed by many other words in English. In the linguistic processes the form of new word or term are called ―word formation processes‖. That is the constant evolution of new terms and new uses of old terms and new uses of old terms as a reassuring sign of vitality and creativeness in the way a language is shaped by the need users. Yule (1985: 52) states that through the processes of coinage, borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping, back formation, conversion, acronym, derivation, multiple processes, prefixes - suffixes, and infixes. In addition, Bauer (1983: 39) states that word formation is a traditional label and one which is useful, but it does not generally cover all possible ways of forming everything that can be mentioned a word. From this definition, the word formation is then classified into two groups: predictable and unpredictable word formation. The classification refers to the degree of uniformity that can be reached by the formation. The latter classification refers to those that are less consistent so that the uniformity is less rigid. It involves blending, acronym, coinage, clipping, and mixed formation. Word Formation process is likely to be challenging field to be investigated and elaborated in more laborious ways. The present writer intends to work on this field by trying to figure out the processes of formation of words and then trying to generate possible rules borne from the real life phenomena. Studying word forming from daily use of the language is interesting in the way that most language users like to use and to creatively and freely produce new expressions with language to coin something. In Indonesia, for instance, good producers tend to create creative names of the products creatively in order to attract the consumers‘ attention to use the product; say, one of the oil products that is named, MIPI. The word MIPI is a new word that is comprised from two words, minyak and pijat. The formation of this new word is called blending where two

Abstract – This is a study which is concerned with unpredictable word formation processes that have produced numbers of new words. Using ELLE magazine advertisement texts as the source of data, the present study attempts to figure out the process of forming the unpredictable new words. In other words, the present study attempts to focus on the unique formation process, unpredictable word formation. To carry out the study, two problems are raised, namely (1) what types of word formation are involved in the process of forming the words found in the advertisement texts in the magazines? (2) how these word formation processes have derived to form the new words? Thus, the present study attempts to classify the unpredictably new words into distinct types, and then from that, the study tries to trace back the processes involved in producing the words. From the analysis, it is figured out that there are 37 data derived from 30 advertisements. From 37 data, there are 7 words that are formed by cutting any parts of the words and then they become newly formed words that can stand on their own. The process of cutting the parts of the words is called clipping. Then, other 7 words are formed by blending certain parts of the words and then form new words. Other process is acronym in which the process involved is more rigid than other formations. Another process that is the least rigid is mixed formations that there are 16 words formed through this process. In conclusion, the present study finds out that amongst the less regularity of unpredictable word formations, the present study could come up with some that is still possible to be derived into regular rules. However, it cannot be denied that this study also conforms that such process of word formation are less rigid in terms of degree of generalisability or regularity. Finally, the present study comes up with a proposition that the more varied the rules that can be derived from a process of word formation the more inconsistent the process is. Keywords: new word, unpredictable word formation process, blending, clipping, coinage, acronym, and mixed formation.

Introduction Many new words in a language come into a general term to refer to newly born objects or inventions. Although people never hear the word before, they probably have not difficulty understanding the meaning of

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang words are joined to form a new word with new meaning, and it is done by taking the initial syllable of the first word and join with another initial word syllable. Other phenomenon like when people say, ― dokumennya dixerox aja lho, supaya hasilnya lebih bagus.‖ (i.e. it is better to Xerox (to copy) the document for better result). The word ―Xerox‖ is used to coin a copier that produce good copy result, as the name of the copier remains unknown, the already existing copier brand is picked for naming any brands of copier machine. To see these phenomena, there seems to be challenging to investigate various words formations that are used to name the products as they are found in various texts.

The present study tends to rely more on what has been defined and classified by Bauer (1993), as his definitions and classification are more elaborated and systematic so that it is easier for the writer to put the steps of the present study forward.

Predictable Word Formations

Objectives This research is aimed to answer the following problems: (1) What types of word formation are involved in the process of forming the words found in both magazines? (2) How these word formation processes have been derived to form new words?

Theories on Word Formation Processes By definition, word formation processes refer to a process of resulting new words that are created by adding affixes to the base word or root. Sometimes the adding comes at the beginning or at the end of the base word or root. These processes are able to get the changing of the part of speech of the word and the meaning. Word formation processes are the linguistics of creating new words of terms. For example, the word ―Xerox‖ is actually derived from the old words become new words as coinage words that are mentioned by Bauer (1983: 238). Besides that George Yule (1985: 51) states that word formation is the basic processes new terms are created. It means that the language have many new words are created and variation in conversation. The word-formation processes, according to Yule (1985: 51-56) in the study of language, consists of coinage, borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping, back formation, acronyms, multiple process, prefixes and suffixes, infixes. In contrast with what has been stated by Yule (1985), Bauer (1993) classifies word formation process into two groups in which each represent the degree of regularities of the formation. He states that in terms of its degree of regularities, there is a group of word formation processes that implies more rigid generalization so that the new words formed are mostly followed more rigid rules. Such process is called predictable word formation that involved all the above processes that are mentioned by Yule (1985). Another group refers to those that are less regular so that they are less generalisable so that the rules are loosely followed. This is called unpredictable word formation that includes blending, acronym, coinage, clipping, and mixed formation.

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One of the most common sources of new words in English is the process simply labeled borrowing, that is, the taking over words from other languages (Howard (1988: 24-27) and Yule (1985: 52-53)) The English language, for instance, adopted from Japanese language use of Suupaamaaketto (Supermarket) and rajio (radio), or Hungarians talking about sport, klub and futbal, or the French discussing problems of Le Parking, over a glass of le whisky, during le weekend. Yule (1985: 52-53) cited that a special type of borrowing is described as loantranslation, or calque. In this process, there is a direct translation of elements of word into the borrowing language. For example Un grate-ciel (French)-scrape-skyskyscraper, Uber-Mensch (German)-superman and perros callients-dog hot-hot dogs. Other formation categorized in this group is compounding, a process of joining two separate words to produce a single form. For examples, bookcase, fingerprint, sunburn, wallpaper, doorknob, textbox, wastebasket, and waterbed (Yule, 1985:53) In Indonesian language also have the example of compounding, namely rumah sakit (hospital), papan tulis (blackboard) and lampu lalu lintas (traffic lights). Bauer (1983: 28) and Robertson (1954: 191-198) confirm that compounding is the process when two or more elements that can potentially be used as seems are combined to form another stem, and the meaning of a compound depends on the meaning of its parts, but almost kind of meaning connection can be involved between the parts. For example, an aircraft is a craft made for use in the air, but an air conditioner is a conditioner of air, similarly, an airbrush is a brush of air. Based on what has already been defined by Yule (1985: 54), the next formation, back-formation, is a type of reduction process that is typically a word of one type (usually noun) is reduced to form another word of a different type (usually a verb). A good example of backformation is television as noun and televise as verb. Other examples of word created by this process are: edit (from editor), donate (from donation), opt (from option), emote (from emotion), and enthuse (from enthusiasm). Then, conversion is one of kind word formation process when a noun comes to be used as a verb without any reduction (Yule, 1985: 54). Other labels for this very common process are category change and functional shift. A number of norms, such as paper, butter, bottle, vacation, can, are the process of conversion, come to be used as verbs, as in the following sentences. He is papering the bedroom walls, have you buttered the toast, we bottled the home brew last night, they are vacationing

National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang in France. From example above, the writer concludes that noun becomes verbs. Other common word formation in this group is Derivation, as it is cited by Yule (1985: 55), that this formation is easily found in the production of new English words and it is accomplished by means of large number of small ‗bits‘ of the English language which are not usually given separate listings in dictionaries. These small ‗bits‘ are called affixes and a few examples are elements un-, mis-, pre-, -ful, -less, -ish, -ism, -ness which appear in words like unhappy, misrepresent, prejudge, joyful, careless, boyish, terrorism and sadness. According to Yule (1985: 55), the next formation is prefixes and Suffixes. It should be obvious that some affixes have to be added to beginning of a word (e.g. un ), these are called prefixes. The other affix forms are added to the end of the word (e.g. – ish) and are named suffixes, or both. Thus, mislead has a prefixes, disrestpectful has both a prefix and a suffix, and foolishness has two suffixes. Finally, the last type of this group is called infixes are incorporate inside another word. It is possible to see the general principle at work in certain expression, occasionally used in fortuitous or aggravating circumstances by emotionally aroused English speaker: Hallebloodylujah!, Absogoddamlutely! and Unfuckingbelievable! The people can view these ‗inserted‘ forms as special version of infixing. However, a much better set of examples can be provided from Kamhmu, a language spoken in South East Asia.

Secondly, according to Yule (1985: 54) and Stageberg (1977: 128), clipping is the process that occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to shorter from, often in casual speech. The term gasoline is still in use, but occurs much less frequently than gas, the clipped from. Common examples are ad (advertisement), fan (fanatic), bus, plane, prof, lab, and flu. Then, acronym is some new words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words. These acronym often consist of capital letters as in NATO, NASA or UNESCO, but can lose their capitals to become every day terms such as laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation), radar (radio detecting and ranging), and scuba (self contained underwater breathing apparatus). Yule (1958: 52) mentioned that one of the least common processes of word formation in English is coinage, that is, the invention of totally new terms. Our fanciful creation of somp would be one example. Words like aspirin and nylon, originally invented trade names, and which have quickly become everyday words in the language.

Methodology This study is a descriptive study in which the main aim is only to discuss the regularity levels found in the process of creatively unpredictable word formation in English as they are encountered in the texts of the magazine advertisement.

Source of Data Unpredictable Word Formation

Prior to collect the data, a survey has been conducted for selecting the source of data. In the survey, it is found out that ELLE is selected as the source of the data in which English word formation processes can easily be identified from. Then, to maintain the newness of the data collected, the present study takes the last four months editions (September 2009 – Desember 2009).

Besides the above word formations that tend to be higher in consistency and regularity as they follow specific rules of word formation, as it has been mentioned by Bauer (1983:232), there are inevitably some word formations that are used to form in less rigid way, so that they are less rule governed and less consistent or regular. Such a formation is categorized as the Unpredictable Word Formations. This sort of formation refers, according to Aronoff (1976:20), to any word formation in which the process depends upon orthography to a greater or lesser degree, and thus can hardly be universal. This formation involves blending, clipping, acronym, coinage (word manufacture), and mix formation. Firstly, blending is one of kind word formation process which has combination from two separate forms to produce a single new term. However, blending is typically accomplished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the other word. As it is exemplified by Yule (1985: 53), in some parts of the United States, there is a product, which is used like gasoline, but is made from alcohol, so the blended term for referring to this product is gasohol. In Indonesian language, the process of blending occurs in kamra (keamanan rakyat/people‘s security), or curhat (curahan hati/share one‘s problem).

Stages for Data Collection and Analysis In order to come to the finding of the research, there are some stages taken orderly to collect and then analyze the collected data. Then, the writer follows the following stages or steps. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Reading all the advertisement texts Taking all new words Sorting out the irrelevant data Categorizing or classifying the data Identifying the process Figuring out the patterns or the rules by comparing to the already existing theories. Drawing a conclusion

All the seven steps lead to the finding of the research; therefore. All the stages are proceeded wisely so that valid result can be attained at the end of this research.

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Result and Discussion

35 36

Bitchfest Auto-bake

From the magazines, it can be identified that that there are 37 new words in English that are derived from various unpredictable word formations.

37

DermoExpertise

Bitch Festival Automatic bake Dermatology Expertise

v v v

Table 1. List of English Unpredictable Word Process Types of Word Formation Process

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Mod Cons Glam Quest Pics Celebs luxe Hi-tech

9

Foodtech

10

Ecotourism

11

Eco-friendly

12

Bio-essence

13 14 15 16

Promilk Propak Femail BOTOX

17

UBS

18

ANZ

19

UOB

20

DKNY

21

MOCA

22 23

Lubriplate Synxtreme

24 25 26

Diorsnow Kenzoamour ESOne

27 28 29 30

Combibloc Combifit Combishape Biogradable

31 32 33

Shinylicious Pinkolicious Benefactor

34

Outbondholic

Modern Conveniences Glamour Questions Pictures Celebrities Luxerious High Technology Food Technology Ecological Tourism Ecological Friendly Biological essence Protein milk Product Pack Female mail Botulinum and Toxin Union Bank of Switzerland Australia and New Zealand United Overseas Bank Donna Karan New York Museum of Contemporary Art. Lubricant plate synchronize and extreme Dior Snow Kenzo glamour Easy Share One Combi block Combi fit Combi shape Biology gradable Shiny delicious Pink delicious Beneficial factor Out Bond holic

Coinage MixedFormation

Clipping

Data Blending Acronym

No

Data populated in the above table (table 1) have revealed the creativity of the language users in forming new words. From the table, only coinage can hardly be found in the real use. From 37 data, there are 7 words that are formed by cutting any parts of the words and then they become newly formed words that can stand on their own. The process of cutting the parts of the words is called clipping. Then, other 7 words are formed by blending certain parts of the words and then form new words. Other process is acronym in which the process involved is more rigid than other formations. Another process that is the least rigid is mixed formations that there are 16 words formed through this process.

v v v v v v v v v v

Similarity

Word Formation Process Clipping Acronym

v v

Blending

v v v v

Difference

Blending

a. Initial Syllable + Root Word b. Root Word + Initial Syllable c. One syllable word (with some adjustment in the level of sound structure) + Initial Syllable d. (with some adjustments in the level of sound structure)

Mixed Formation

a. b. c. d.

v v v v v

v v v v v v v v v

Possible Rules of English Word Formations A complete Free word cutting The Initial Letter of Each Words are Joined together forming new words Initial Syllable + Initial Syllable

Acronym + Root Blending + Acronym Clipping + Acronym Blending + Clipping

Table 2. Generated Rules of Unpredictable Word Formation in English The above table (table 2) has presented the result of populating all possible rules derived from the process of word formations of English. More irregular rules resulted from the process would reflect the high degree of freedom of the word creator to form new words. There is nothing instead of the phenomenon of language creativity. In other

v v v v

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang word, word creator may create new word they like without considering the uniformity or consistency of the process.

References Bauer, Laurie. 1983. English Word Formation. New York: Cambridge University Press

Conclusion

Franklin, Victoria and Rodman, Robert. 1983. An Introduction to Language. Canada: CBS College Publishing

In conclusion, similarity refers to uniformity, in other words, possibility to reach similar rules would govern a pathway to consistency. In this case, only clipping and acronym tend to be highly consistently followed by the language users. On the contrary, differences lead to inconsistency, blending and mixed formation tend to be less consistent, it means that language users prefer to use these forms to form new words on their own way without considering any rule that might tight them up. Finally, it could be proposed that the more rules produced by a process, the less consistent the process would reflect. Then, the findings of this present study confirm the idea of unpredictable word formation as it is proposed by Bauer (1983), that is that unpredictable word formations would refer to unpredictable ways of the language users to form the new words. Then, the freedom of creating words is one of the result of the creativity of the language user or word creator that at the same time causes language creativity.

Howard, Jackson. 1988. Word and Meaning. New York: Longman Inc Matthews. 1974. Morphology. New York: Cambridge University Press Nashr, T: Raja. 1980. The Essential of Linguistic Science. London: Cambridge University Press Travers, Robert, M.W. 1969. An Introduction to Educational Research. Mac Milan Company, Inc Yule, George. 1985. The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

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To be Global is Good, But to be Glocal is Perfect Like Raskova Octaberlina UIN Maulana Malik Ibrahim, Malang

instruction at schools for accelerating the global scientific penetration where the materials of education are mostly accessed and available in English. This consideration has changed the national policy in education where English is changed from the native language to be a second language. This policy has been implemented in the form of bilingual program where English and Indonesian language will be delivered at the same portion in delivering materials inside the class and as medium of instruction in education system.

A global phenomenon which creates a global perspective has been a global faith for anyone who wants to be admitted as the member of competitive global world. This condition has consequently forced the people to empower themselves with any ‗weapon‘ to be able to compete and fight in the battle of global war in any aspects of life. This has made the word globalization has been the most important issue where the whole country from any part of the world are walking together towards this direction.

This new policy is not without problem. As we know that the role of language is not only as a means of communication but also as a means to recognize the culture background and identity embedded with it. The existence of English with its cultural background and identity has challenged the existence of local cultural background and local identity as an Indonesian people. The effort of promoting global perspective challenges the existence of the local perspective. Global perspective has the opposite side of the local perspective. Global perspective has promoted the global way of thinking where the people all over the world are connected by borderless area and unlimited space. This perspective has not only linked the people all over the world but act as a melting pot where biodiversity will soon become blurred.

The word globalization is like a new uniform which makes the people who wear it feel safe and comfortable since they will be protected from the danger of being strange and different from other. The word ―global‖ as a new uniform, make the people all over the world feel that it is a must to be the same with the other people. This new uniform has changed the wearer to have the same points of view that being the same with other is the safest and the best and the most important thing… is the most survival weapon to continue our lives. One kind of global actions being promoted by any country is the global action in enhancing the future dynamic development in all sectors which will be carried out by the future generation. Since the target is preparing the future human resources, one aspect of life where it is effective enough to empower the people is the education aspect. Nowadays, all of countries are trying hard to empower its society to be ready to compete by developing the quality of education. One solution which is given is by promoting the global perspective. This global perspective is implied in any subjects being taught. This affects the preparation of learning material which must be oriented to promote global perspective toward students‘ way of thinking.

Local perspective is posted in the opposite side where the local diversity is highly validated by that society. This local diversity validation has led to the validation of the existence of local culture where certain kind of clothes, ceremony, and way of life are agreed to be obeyed by that society. This validation of certain norm in certain society has also led to the existence of the validation local identity. This local identity, where differences are highly appreciated is revolutionary challenged by the global identity which believes that the connection of people all over the world would decrease the biodiversity. The best thing is that everything must be done in balanced condition. The global and local perspective, even though they are different, cannot be separated one another. This is because those two perspectives are exactly like a coin with two sides in the opposite side but cannot be separated. What we had to do is to combine those two sides in formulating the national curriculum. The global perspective should be emphasized to make the students able to compete in the global world, and the local perspective is also important to be emphasized to preserve the local culture and local identity as the national treasure in terms of the preservation of biodiversity. This is what is so called ―glocal‖ perspective in applying the curriculum in any levels of schools which can be implemented in the material, the medium of instruction and the manner of doing daily activities at school. This glocal perspective is important to make those students perfect human resources

Now, each country are racing to change their national curriculum to be more adaptive and hospitably welcome the existence of global phenomenon. The target of national curriculum in any levels are by familiarizing the domestic human resources with the global issue and global scientific development by expecting that this global doctrine will stimulate the local human resources to be more responsive and ready to face the global action and ready to get involved in its dynamic actions. One strategic way to familiarize the global system in the national curriculum is by using the same medium of instruction which is mostly used by most people in most parts of the world. The most medium of instruction which has been globally admitted is English. The existence of English as the global language has made almost all countries agree to put English as the medium of

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang have any impact on what‘s happening in the world, or should we focus only on improving our student‘s language proficiency?‖(Jacobs & Cates, 1999). The answer is that we should do both of them. We can conduct both of them by considering the content, topic, theme with some global materials such as world peace and friendship, cultural understanding, appreciation on differences, empathy on poverty, environmental issues.

in the future who are skillful in any life competition but never forget their culture and proudly hold their identity wherever they go. Since we know that language is the symbol of culture and identity where each person always needs their identity be admitted, the role of English in bilingual program should be set as wisely as possible by having glocal education. Glocal Education is a dimension that runs through the curriculum, an extra filter to help children understand all the information and opinion the world is giving them (Murdibjono, 2010). In glocal education, an educational program in which both a native language and a second language are taught as subject matter and used as media of instruction for academic subjects. The two languages, that is English and Indonesian language have to develop side-by-side and hand-in-hand.

After considering the method, we should consider some methods of teaching which can be applied in glocal education class. Some teaching methods are such as projects, role plays and simulation, and the last but not least is cooperative learning. However, the implications of some global issues as material in our class have created some problems. This is because we cannot claim our English teaching successful if our learners do not know and do not care about world problems, have no social conscience or use their skills to communicate for world crime, exploitation, oppression, or having empathy about environmental destruction (Cates, 1997). We should not only teach the students about global issues but also educate them to think critically and respond responsibly about local issues or problems which have happened in their surrounding.

The goal of conducting bilingual education is to build a community who has glocal perspective in terms of politics, economics, social, culture sense which are reflected in their point of view, frame of thinking, tolerant and cooperative behaviour. In addition, the goal of implementing English as the second language has some specific goals in the national scope. Those goals are: to enhance the rapid economic development, and to enhance the international links and regional exchange between Indonesia and other countries in any cooperation in International levels. However, this English role inside the class has been improved by presenting the Indonesian language which has functions as a lingua franca for all Indonesian people with its diverse cultural and linguistic background, promote local culture through its ethnical pluralism, cultivate the sense of local identity according to their ethnic and national identity as an Indonesian so they know what makes them what they are.

To solve this problem, there is one solution which can betaken that is by implementing a teaching methodology which is suitable for this matter. Content-Based Language Teaching (CBLT) is the answer. This teaching methodology is a kind of method where the teacher stimulates the students‘ language capability by digging their own background knowledge and relate it with the materials being given. By doing this, it is expected that language is most effectively learned in the context of relevant, meaningful, motivating content which stimulates students to think and learn through the use of the language being learned (Silver, 1991).

In our national curriculum, the existence of English as the second language is expected to be an access to empower the society with any knowledge and technology for being ready to join the world market. In this case, English should act as an instrument rather than a brandmark (Pakir, 1999). Glocal education should combine methodology (active and learning-by-doing discussion-based activities, a caring, co-operative and open view on the classroom experience) and core concerns (cultures of different countries and groups, causes of poverty and inequality, the environment). Glocal education looks at the ways in which everyday life and experience affect and are affected by the wider world.

The material being used to promote glocal issues should be adjusted with the level of students. For students in elementary level some topics which can be presented are such as clothing, climate, food, education, family life, geography, history, meeting people, pets, social occasion, holidays, leisure time, sports, non-verbal communication, transportation. While in the intermediate level, some global issues which can be used are real issues which occurred as current topics. Those topics are such as destruction of rain forests, natural disasters, factory waste disposal, oil contamination of sea water, population growth, AIDS, diabetes, malnutrition, drug Abuse, domestic violence, GO GREEN, etc.

In one side, the glocal education has promoted the issues in the global scope, the subjects should be familiar with the existence of all people or nations all over the world. Based on this, glocal education is as much about the relationships of learners (and teachers) in the classroom as it is about relationships of peoples in the world. Reflecting this phenomenon, there is a problem which should be solved. It is about ―Can teachers of English

In presenting our glocal topics inside the class in order to create a balanced condition by promoting the global and local content as well, we as a teacher should think globally (of global issues), but act locally as a teacher (of English) in our classroom. We can do it by implementing global issues such as destruction of rain forests, natural disasters, poverty and lack of education and add more local contents to teach and learn together with our

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang students. The local content which can be used is such as local disease, local, local culture, traditional dance, local sports, local politics, etc. Besides, we can make use of local environment such as school environment: plants in the schoolyard, sanitation, books in the library.

two and until the last students who have number eight will also make a group that is group eight. This means there are eight groups in this session. After that, each group will discuss about different criteria for comparing and contrasting the food which is being given by the teacher. Group one and two are assigned to discuss about the comparison and contrast of how to make American meal and local meal. Group three and four are assigned to discuss about the physical appearance of the food. Group five and six are assigned to discuss about the main ingredients of those food. Group seven and eight are assigned to discuss about how to serve the food and describe the special occasion where and when those special food are served.

By having this, we will guide the students to think and react globally by understanding peace education, understanding the bioecosystem diversity and also think and react locally by understanding and respecting the existence of local issue while using techniques that promote positive interdependence among students both in groups and in whole class, in which learners have individual responsibility as well as responsibility to help other learners. Some facilities which can be used are the classroom, conducive environment (English speaking area), Internet access, Library access, Language lab and audio equipment, Audio books, CD player, MP3 player, Cassette player.

After all groups are discussing, the teacher will go around the groups for checking the students activities, helping them for difficult words, and guiding them based on the students‘ questions and difficulties during the process of discussion.

Some activities which can be done is by having comparison and contrast about the international and national issue. This can be done by having a group work where the students are given some tasks to compare certain objects in their own place and in other country. One activities which can be done is by comparing the daily food from the students‘ original place and the daily food in United States. One of the techniques which can be used is by using games ―Two Stay Two Stray‖. In this game, the students are divided into several groups. Each group consists of around four until seven students. The teacher will give an assignment by asking each group to identity the differences and similarities of their local food and the American food. The teacher gives some criteria which can be used as a base of comparing and contrasting. Some criteria being given are such as the type of the food such as whether it is an appetizer, main meal or dessert. Other criteria might be about the main ingredients of the food such as wheat, beef, rice, vegetables, fruit, fish, etc. Other criteria is about how to make the food, whether it must be chopped down, sliced, mashed, blended, fried, boiled, steamed, etc. Other criteria is about the shape and physical performance of the food which include the shape, texture, taste, and color of the food. The other criteria can be about how to serve it and in what occasion this food is served.

After that, the teacher ask all groups stop discussion and ask two members of each group go to other group with the same topics for getting information from other group. While the other member of the group will stay in that group for receiving the guests from other group who will visit them for having other information. After the process of receiving the guests and visiting other groups are over, the teacher ask the students to go back to their group and this time the two members who are leaving their own group for finding information from other group will tell their friends about other different opinion and other information they have got from other group for completing their answers or can be negotiated again if they do not agree about those other group‘s answers. The teacher, then, once again, ask the students to name themselves with a number in their own group. If in one group there are four students, so the students will name themselves as number one until four. After that, the teacher will ask questions to each group by calling number. The student who has that number should answer the question. This method would enable the students to get information as much as possible by sharing information one another and also train their critical analysis in digesting the other group‘s answer. Besides, numbering system will stimulate the students to create cooperative learning by working and helping one for empowering each of them with the glocal information and issue being discussed in that class.

After the teacher gives clear description about what the students have to do, students will make their own group. In making the group, the teacher will ask each students to name themselves with a number. When the teacher wants to make 8 groups which consist of four students in each, the teacher will ask the students to name themselves in the order of number one until eight. After reaching number eight, the next student will be back to mention number one until eight, and so on until the last student. After each gets a number, the teacher ask the students to make a group based on the similar number. It means that the students who name themselves with number one will gather as group one, the students who names themselves with number two will gather to make a group as group

By conducting this, it is expected that glocal education can reach its optimal target where the students can get international issue or glocal information as much as possible by preserving the sense of cooperative and respecting the differences in their glocal environment.

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang McKay, S. L. 2002. Teaching English as an International Language. Oxford University Press.

References Cates, K. A. 1997. New Trends in Global Issues and English Teaching. The Language Teacher Online.

Murdibjono, Arwijati.2010. Enhancing Global Education. Presented in Seminar held by Kanjuruhan University.

Jacobs, G. M. & Cates, K. 1999. Global Education in Second language Teaching. KATA, 1 (1), 44-56.

Pakir, Anne.1999. Bilingual Education with English as an Official Language: Sociocultural Implications. Language, Society, and Education in Singapore: Trends and Issues.

Kagan, S. & Kagan, M. 1994. The Structural Approach: New Tools for Teachers. TLT The Language Teacher, 18 (10), 12-15. Lie, A. 1997. Cooperative Paradigms of College Teaching.

Learning:

Silver, R. 1991. Content-based language Teaching: Introduction. TLT The Language Teacher, 15 (11), 2.

Changing

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Peran dan Kepedulian Media Massa terhadap Penggunaan Bahasa Indonesia yang Baik dan Benar Lis Setiawati Universitas Terbuka Jakarta

Pendahuluan Bahasa menjadi identitas bagi sebuah negara. Bila kita menengok sejarah perkembangan bahasa Indonesia, begitu panjang perjalanan menuju lahirnya bahasa Indonesia, sepanjang perjalanan bangsa ini dalam meraih kemerdekaan. Para pejuang ketika itu menyadari akan pentingnya keberadaan bahasa persatuan dalam sebuah negara. Oleh karena itu, secara aklamasi bahasa Melayu yang semula menjadi bahasa perhubungan (lingua franca) disepakati menjadi cikal bakal bahasa Indonesia. Demi persatuan dan kesatuan serta berbagai pertimbangan, bahasa-bahasa daerah seperti Jawa, Sunda, Minangkabau yang jumlah pendukungnya lebih besar dibandingkan pendukung bahasa Melayu dengan rela menerima putusan itu. Berkaitan dengan lahirnya bahasa Indonesia, Soedjito (2008) dalam tulisannya menyatakan ―Lahirnya bahasa Indonesia bukan sebagai sesuatu yang tiba-tiba jatuh dari langit, tetapi melalui perjuangan panjang disertai keinsafan, kebulatan tekad, dan semangat untuk bersatu.‖ Keinginan para pemuda/pejuang untuk memiliki bahasa persatuan diwujudkan melalui ikrar Sumpah Pemuda 28 Oktober 1928 butir 3 yang berbunyi “Kami poetra dan poetri Indonesia mendjoendjoeng bahasa persatoean, bahasa Indonesia”. Makna ikrar tersebut memberi kedudukan kepada bahasa Indonesia sebagai bahasa nasional. Dalam kedudukannya sebagai bahasa nasional, bahasa Indonesia berfungsi sebagai (1) lambang kebanggaan nasional, (2) lambang identitas nasional, (3) alat pemersatu berbagai suku bangsa, dan (4) alat perhubungan antardaerah dan antarbudaya. Selain berkedudukan sebagai bahasa nasional, bahasa Indonesia juga resmi menjadi bahasa negara sejak UUD 1945 diresmikan yaitu pada 18 Agustus 1945. Dalam UUD 1945, Bab XV, Pasal 35 tercantum ―Bahasa negara ialah Bahasa Indonesia”. Dalam kedudukannya sebagai bahasa negara, bahasa Indonesia berfungsi sebagai (1) bahasa resmi kenegaraan, (2) bahasa pengantar di lembaga-lembaga pendidikan, (3) alat perhubungan pada tingkat nasional, dan alat pengembang kebudayaan, ilmu pengetahuan, dan teknologi. Begitu kuatnya tekad para pemuda dalam mewujudkan cita-cita untuk memiliki bahasa persatuan ‗bahasa Indonesia‘ pada masa perjuangan. kini menjadi tanggung jawab kita bersama untuk selalu menjaga dan membinakan bahasa Indonesia sebagai bahasa nasional dan bahasa negara. Kenyataan yang kita lihat dan kita dengar sekarang ini, banyak orang menggunakan bahasa Indonesia tanpa memperhatikan kaidah-kaidah bahasa Indonesia yang baik dan benar. Di samping itu, tidak sedikit pula yang mencampuradukkannya dengan bahasa

Abstrak- Bahasa Indonesia memiliki fungsi sebagai bahasa nasional dan bahasa negara. Fungsi sebagai bahasa nasional ditunjukkan oleh setiap warga negara Indonesia melalui sikap bangga terhadap bahasa Indonesia. Fungsi sebagai bahasa negara ditunjukkan oleh setiap warga negara Indonesia dari suku manapun melalui penggunaan bahasa Indonesia yang baik dan benar dalam berkomunikasi. Namun kedua fungsi bahasa Indonesia itu pada kenyataannya tidak terimplementasi sebagaimana mestinya. Pembinaan bahasa Indonesia kepada warga negara menjadi tanggung jawab bagi banyak pihak, salah satunya adalah media massa. Media massa menduduki ruang yang strategis dalam pembinaan ini. Penerapan kaidah bahasa Indonesia di media massa (cetak dan elektronik) menunjukkan seberapa besar kepedulian media massa dalam memotivasi masyarakat untuk mengangkat jati diri bangsa ini melalui bahasa. Makalah ini mencoba menggambarkan hasil analisis yang difokuskan pada penerapan kaidah bahasa Indonesia oleh media massa yang meliputi ejaan, tanda baca, dan kefektifan kalimat. Penerapan ejaan dan tanda baca dalam penggunaan bahasa Indonesia menunjukkan kepedulian dan konsistensi yang tinggi terhadap kebanggaan setiap orang kepada bahasa yang digunakannya. Penggunaan kalimat efektif menunjukkan kemampuan seseorang dalam menata pikirannya melalui kalimat-kalimat yang diujarkannya. Beberapa tahun belakang, pusat bahasa telah memberikan penghargaan kepada tokoh-tokoh masyarakat dan media cetak yang telah menggunakan bahasa Indonesia secara baik dan benar dalam berkomunikasi. Hal ini membuktikan bahwa ada orang-orang yang peduli dengan keberadaan bahasa Indonesia. Dengan demikian kita dapat memastikan bahwa masih banyak warga negara ini yang belum mau peduli. Semoga analisis ini dapat memberi gambaran tentang kepedulian masyarakat Indonesia terhadap bahasanya sendiri. Kata kunci: bahasa Indonesia; kaidah; media massa

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang asing sehingga sering kali komunikasi menjadi kehilangan makna. Satu dari sekian banyak pihak yang memiliki peran dalam membinakan bahasa Indonesia adalah media massa. Media massa memiliki ruang yang lebih luas dan posisi yang lebih strategis dalam membinakan bahasa Indonesia kepada masyarakat dibandingkan yang lain. Sebaliknya, media massa juga dapat merusak bahasa Indonesia melalui contoh-contoh yang salah yang pasti akan ditiru oleh masyarakat pembaca dan pendengar (cetak, elektronik, televisi, radio). Begitu banyak media massa khususnya media cetak yang beredar di masyarakat, mulai dari surat kabar/koran, majalah, buletin, media dakwah yang berbentuk buku, sampai pada brosur. Tidak sedikit media massa yang telah menggunakan bahasa Indonesia dengan baik dan benar, namun tidak sedikit pula yang belum memperhatikan kaidah-kaidah bahasa dalam menyampaikan informasi sehingga menimbulkan salah makna. Kesalahan-kesalahan penerapan kaidah bahasa Indonesia yang terdapat dalam media massa akan diikuti oleh masyarakat pembaca, terlebih lagi bila yang membuat kesalahan adalah media yang cukup memiliki nama dan menjadi ikutan masyarakat pembaca/pendengar.

dengan cara memperbaiki penerapan ejaan bahasa Indonesia yang dilafalkan secara salah oleh ibunya. Pembinaan atau penggunaan bahasa Indonesia yang baik dan benar bertujuan untuk mempertahankan jati diri bangsa melalui bahasa yang berfungsi sebagai lambang identitas sebuah negara. Masih banyak masyarakat yang belum memahami perbedaan bahasa Indonesia yang baik dengan bahasa Indonesia yang benar. Bahasa Indonesia yang baik adalah bahasa Indonesia yang digunakan sesuai dengan situasi dan kondisi ketika komunikasi berlangsung. Misal, ketika seseorang berada di warung kopi atau rumah makan akan memesan makanan atau minuman dengan ujaran ―Saya nasi goreng.‖ Ujaran ini sudah berterima, tidak perlu dipermasalahkan walaupun dilihat dari struktur ujaran tersebut tidak benar. Ketidakbenaran struktur pada kalimat itu sudah ditutupi oleh situasi yang mendukung sifat komunikatif dalam komunikasi tersebut. Bayangkan bila kalimat yang diujarankan ―Mas, tolong hidangkan sepiring nasi goreng untuk saya.‖ Sebaliknya bila dalam satu acara resmi seorang pemandu acara misalnya berujar ―Hadirin sekalian, sekarang giliran Ibu camat memberi wejangan, mari rame-rame kita dengerin.‖ Ujaran ini bukan bahasa Indonesia yang baik karena situasi komunikasinya tidak mendukung (situasi resmi). Bahasa Indonesia yang benar adalah bahasa Indonesia yang digunakan dengan menerapkan kaidah bahasa Indonesia secara benar. Penerapan kaidah bahasa Indonesia diterapkan dalam komunikasi yang bersifat resmi, akademik/ilmiah terlebih pada ragam tulis. Penjelasan ini bukan berarti bahwa kedua istilah tersebut (baik dan benar) dapat dipilah penggunaannya. Ungkapan yang dipopulerkan oleh Yus Badudu ini ―gunakanlah bahasa Indonesia yang baik benar‖ suatu harapan dan anjuran yang patut diterapkan. Sugono dalam www. suaramerdeka.com (2004) menjelaskan bahwa, pembinaan (bahasa Indonesia) ditujukan pada upaya peningkatan mutu penggunaan bahasa Indonesia. Upaya itu dilakukan melalui perbaikan penggunaan bahasa Indonesia dalam berbagai bentuk tulisan. Selain itu, pembinaan dapat menyangkut masyarakat penutur. Untuk itu, perlu terus dilakukan pemasyarakatan penggunaan bahasa Indonesia secara baik dan benar ke seluruh lapisan masyarakat. Pemasyarakatan penggunaan bahasa Indonesia yang baik dan benar dapat dilakukan dengan cara memberikan penyuluhan, pelatihan, pembelajaran, dan dapat pula dilakukan secara alami. Penyuluhan, pelatihan, dan pembelajaran biasa dilakukan oleh para pakar bahasa, cara alami dapat dilakukan oleh seluruh lapisan masyarakat yang mengetahui tentang penerapan kaidah bahasa Indonesia. Satu dari bagian masyarakat itu adalah media massa.

Pembinaan Bahasa Indonenesia Kehilangan bahasa sama artinya kehilangan bangsa dan negara karena bahasa merupakan lambang identitas suatu bangsa. Bahasa Indonesia yang telah diakui dan disetujui sebagai bahasa persatuan merupakan lambang identitas sebuah bangsa yang besar seharusnya selalu dijaga dan dibanggakan. Bahasa Indonesia yang lahir melalui perjalanan yang panjang akan selalu tumbuh dan berkembang bersama masyarakat sejalan dengan perkembangan ilmu dan teknologi. Dengan demikian kepedulian masyarakat pengguna, dalam hal ini setiap warga negara Indonesia sangat diperlukan. Hasil pengembangan bahasa Indonesia ini diikuti dengan kegiatan pembinaan bahasa Indonesia. Tasai (2007) menjelaskan perbedaan pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa Indonesia sebagai berikut. ―Pembinaan bahasa Indonesia adalah kegiatan penyebaran bahasa Indonesia ke seluruh masyarakat Indonesia, ke semua masyarakat pemakai bahasa. Pengembangan bahasa adalah usaha menjadikan bahasa sebagai alat komunikasi di dalam hubungannya dengan perkembangan keilmuan, budaya, dan teknologi‖. Kegiatan pembinaan dan pengembangan di sini bukan suatu kegiatan yang harus dilaksanakan oleh suatu lembaga, unit, organisasi, atau kelompok. Kegiatan pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa Indonesia dapat berlangsungn secara alamiah di dalam kegiatan komunikasi sehari-hari. Sebagai contoh, seorang ibu memperkenalkan putranya kepada Anda, ―Ini Revan putra saya, profesinya sebagai penterjemah.‖ Revan menyalami Anda sambil berujar: ―Selamat siang tante. Penerjemah Ibu bukan penterjemah.‖ Dalam hal ini Revan sudah melakukan pembinaan bahasa Indonesia

Peran Media Massa dalam Pembinaan Bahasa Indonesia Media massa atau mass media adalah media yang khusus digunakan untuk komunikasi massa. Artinya segala informasi dan bentuk komunikasi dapat di ketahui oleh

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang massa atau masyarakat di manapun yang mampu memahami bahasa yang digunakan oleh media tersebut. saluran/alat komunikasi dan informasi yang melakukan penyebaran informasi secara massal dan dapat diakses oleh masyarakat secara massal pula. Pengertian tersebut menyiratkan bahwa media massa yang menyampaikan informasinya dengan menggunakan bahasa maka secara tidak langsung ia telah menunjukkan bagaimana menggunakan bahasa secara baik dan benar. Dampak dari penggunaan bahasa di media massa terhadap masyarakat pembaca bisa benar dan bisa salah. Hal ini ditentukan oleh media tersebut, apakah kaidah bahasa yang digunakannya benar atau salah. Setyawan (2009) menjelaskan bahwa, media massa memainkan peran dalam mencerdaskan kehidupan Bangsa Indonesia khususnya dalam kegiatan berkomunikasi dengan menggunakan Bahasa Indonesia. Media massa menyajikan berita dalam Bahasa Indonesia, secara tidak langsung mengharuskan masyarakat untuk belajar Bahasa Indonesia. Mengingat peranan yang sangat strategis tersebut media massa diharapkan menggunakan Bahasa Indonesia yang baik dan benar dengan tetap melihat pada standardisasi dalam penulisan di media massa. Informasi yang diperoleh melalui berbagai media massa memegang peranan sangat penting dalam membentuk sikap mental masyarakat agar dapat berperan secara aktif dalam pelaksanaan pembangunan umumnya dan terhadap kesadaran untuk aktif menjaga kelestarian Bahasa Indonesia. Begitu banyak media massa yang beredar di masyarakat, banyak yang telah berusaha menggunakan bahasa Indonesia secara baik dan benar, tetapi masih ada yang belum memberi perhatian atau kepedulian terhadap penggunaan bahasa Indonesia yang baik dan benar. Sebagaimana peran media massa yang strategis ini maka ketidakpeduliannya terhadap bahasa Indonesia akan berdampak buruk yang tidak sedikit, karena pembaca media tersebut juga tidak sedikit. Seperti tulisan dalam sebuah situs (dinsamsoe.multiply.com) ... , tidak sedikit media dalam memberikan informasi tersebut tidak diimbangi dengan penggunaan bahasa Indonesia yang baik dan benar. Jika bahasa yang digunakan di media tersebut tidak sesuai dengan ketentuan, ini sangat merugikan pembaca karena ada kalanya informasi menjadi sulit diterima. Satu hal lagi, jika bahasa di media massa sudah menyalahi aturan, ini sangat ―membahayakan‖ karena semua pembaca pun cenderung salah juga dalam berbahasa. Hal itu dapat terjadi karena bahasa di media massa sering dijadikan ―guru‖ untuk dicontoh oleh para pembacanya. Bahasa di media sering dianggap benar oleh para pembaca. Dengan demikian, jika ―guru‖ (media) salah memberikan contoh, ―murid‖ (pembaca) pun pasti ikut-ikutan salah. Kesalahan-kesalahan penerapan kaidah bahasa Indonesia dalam media massa meliputi penerapan tanda baca dan ejaan yang berpengaruh terhadap keefektifan kalimat. Berikut ini beberapa contoh kesalahan penerapan kaidah bahasa Indonesia di media massa (surat kabar, majalah, tabloid, buletein, brosur, internet, baliho, dan spanduk) yang sering kita temukan (diambil langsung/fotokopi).

Menurut

Mulyana

(2010:2),

media

massa

adalah

Contoh kesalahan penerapan tanda baca  penerapan tanda koma (1)

(2)

(3)

 penerapan tanda hubung (1)

(2)

Petani-petani tambak di Sukabumi sedang giat-giatnya membudidayakan ikan bandeng air tawar.

Contoh kesalahan penerapan ejaan  penerapan/penulisan kata (tunggal dan majemuk) Manajemen Personal

(1)

70



Rubah Data Profil



Rubah Password

(2)

Hindari penulisan kata mubadzir.

(3)

Silahkan tulis tanggapan Anda di ruang ini.

(4)

matapelajaran/matakuliah matematika

National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang  Penerapan/penulisan kata dalam kalimat (1)

Kegiatan ini workshop

(2)

Bagaimana menyikapi masalah ini agar tidak selalu menjadi persoalan di antara kami. Jazakillah atas tanggapannya.

(3)

dilakukan

dalam

Penggalan/kutipan-kutipan di atas merupakan sedikit contoh penerapan kaidah bahasa Indonesia yang tidak taat azas (salah). Penerapan yang benar dijelaskan dengan menggunakan tabel sebagai berikut.

bentuk

Kaidah penulisan huruf kapital.

Produk yang dihasilkan adalah 18 (delapan belas) naskah GBPM (Garis-garis Besar Program Media) dan 18 (delapan belas) naskah program video streaming kasus pembelajaran masing-masing naskah terdiri dari 3 penggalan kasus pembelajaran yang telah ditelaah dan siap untuk direvisi dan difinalkan.

penerapan tanda baca (tanda koma tanda hubung)

 Penerapan imbuhan (1)

Anda harus masuk sistem merubah lokasi ujian anda.

(2)

LOWONGAN KERJA TERBARU MENGENAI MENTERJEMAHKAN ARTIKEL BAHASA INGGRIS KE BAHASA INDONESIA

(3)

penerapan kata

 Penerapan awalan dan kata depan

Salah DI mata ketua juri Kick Andy Heroes Award

 Pria kelahiran Padang, 11 Mei 1963, ini terjun sebagai tim medis di Afghanistan ... .  Dynand Fariz berhak mendapatkan penghargaa n ini.

Seharusnya Di mata ketua juri Kick Andy Heroes Award

 Pria



 Tanda koma dan

kelahiran Padang, 11 Mei 1963 ini terjun sebagai tim medis di Afghanistan ... . Dynand Fariz berhak mendapatkan atau mendapatkan atau mendapatkan penghargaan ini.

 Rubah Data  Ubah Profil  Rubah Password  mubadzir

 mubazir

 Silahkan

 Silakan

Keterangan Huruf kapital hanya diterapkan pada: awal kalimat, awal kata nama orang, nama tempat, nama diri, nama jenis, nama alilran, sapaan, dan lambang mata uang.

Data

titik digunakan dalam satu napas dan satu satuan makna.

 Tanda hubung diterapkan untuk memenggal kata persuku kata, namun tidak boleh satu huruf berdiri sendiri di akhir baris, walaupun huruf tersebut berfungsi sebagai suku.seperti: ikan, a-pi, bu-i, dll.

 Rubah adalah

Profil

hewan sejenis anjing.

 Penggunakan kata



 Contoh susunan kalimat (tidak efektif) (1)

 matapelajar  mata

Di Nias ada 2 orang korban, tetapi tidak melapor (2)

an/ matakuliah

Lima orang pegawai BRR kecelakaan di Meulaboh. Mobil yang ditumpanginya tertabrak pohon.‖ am media massa?

(3) Hasil daripada penelitian bermanfaat bagi masyarakat

ini

diharapkan

71

pelajaran/ mata kuliah



harus sesuai makna leksikon yang terdapat dalam kamus. Sesuai dengan leksikon dalam kamus besar bahasa Indonesia (KBBI) Kata tersebut merupakan kata majemuk sehingga penulisannya harus dipisah


penerapan istilah asing

 workshop  Jazakillah

 18 (delapan belas)

penerapan awalan dan kata depan

 mohon di

penerapan kalimat efektif

 Di Nias ada

kunci  diluar tanggung jawab





2 orang korban, tetapi tidak melapor. Mobil yang ditumpangin ya tertabrak pohon. Hasil daripada penelitian ini diharapkan bermanfaat bagi masyarakat

 lokakarya

kepada media massa yang telah menerapkan kaidah bahasa Indonesia dengan benar dalam tulisan-tulisannya. Media- media massa tersebut adalah koran Tempo, Kompas, Bisnis Indonesia, Jawa Pos, Investor Daily, Suara Pembaruan, Republika, Berita Kota, dan Haluan (Padang, Sumatera Barat), yang menjadi satu-satunya surat kabar dari luar Pulau Jawa. Di samping media massa, terdapat juga tokoh-tokoh yang mendapat penghargaan tersebut seperti presiden kita Bapak SBY, Maudy Kusnadi, dan lain-lain. Cara ini merupakan satu motivasi bagi seluruh warga Indonesia untuk selalu menggunakan bahasa Indonesia yang baik dan benar sebagai suatu bukti kebanggaan terhadap bahasa persatuan atau bahasa nasional.

 gunakan istilah

bahasa Indonesia, kecuali bila belum ada istilah dalam bahasa  18 atau Indonesia.. delapan belas  pilih penggunaan bilangan angka atau huruf, tidak perlu keduanya. Jika hanya satu angka harus ditulis dengan huruf, bukan dengan angka., misal: Dua orang perampok berhasil lolos dari kejaran petugas, bukan; 2 orang perampok ... .

Kesimpulan Bahasa Indonesia lahir karena perjuangan para pemuda yang berpredikat sebagai pejuang/pahlawan. Bangsa yang baik adalah bangsa yang menghargai jasa para pahlawannya, sebagai warga ynag memiliki rasa nasionalisme akan selalu membanggakan negara, bangsa, dan bahasanya. Cesarzc: 2007) mengungkapkan bahwa, ―Bangsa Indonesia harus bangga terhadap bahasa Indonesia sebab bahasa Indonesia merupakan bahasa keempat terbanyak dipakai setelah bahasa Mandarin, Inggris, dan Spanyol.‖ Media massa memiliki fungsi strategis. Ribuan, puluhan, atau mungkin ratusan ribu orang membaca satu penerbitan media cetak berbahasa Indonesia. Sejumlah itu pula orang yang belajar dan meniru penerapan kaidah bahasa Indonesia yang diketahuinya melalui media tersebut. Dengan demikian, pengaruh media massa terhadap penggunaan bahasa Indonesia masyarakat sangat besar. Setyawan (2009) menuliskan beberapa kriteria penulisan bahasa Indonesia di media massa sebagai berikut. 1. Membatasi penulisan akronim. 2. Jangan menghilangkan imbuhan kecuali dalam judul. 3. Menuliskan kalimat-kalimat dalam berita cecara terpadu. 4. Menggunakan kalimat efektif. 5. Memilih kata atau istilah secara tepat. 6. Menghindari istilah-istilah asing,teknis, dan ilmiah. 7. Menghindari penulisan kata secara mubazir.

 mohon dikunci  di pada kata dikunci  di luar tanggung jawab

 Di Nias ada 2 orang korban, tetapi tidak ada yang melaporkan.  Mobil yang ditumpanginya menabrak pohon.  Hasil penelitian ini diharapkan bermanfaat bagi masyarakat

merupakan awalan bukan kata depan (penulisan awalan harus disambung).  di pada kata diluar merupakan kata depan bukan awalan (penulisan kata depan harus dipisah)..

 Tidak logis, perlu menambah penjelasan.

 Tidak logis, 

harus mengubah kata bentukan. Tidak tepat, kata daripada berfungsi membandingka n oleh karena itu harus dihilangkan.

Berbuat kesalahan yang tidak disengaja bersifat manusiawi, berbuat kesalahan karena tidak tahu mencirikan kurang belajar, berbuat kesalahan karena tidak peduli suatu sifat yang tidak baik. Kesalahan penerapan kaidah bahasa Indonesia karena ketidaksengajaan, seperti kesalahan ketik dapat dimengerti sebagai suatu sifat manusia yang tidak sempurna. Kesalahan karena tidak sengaja dapat ditandai, karena kesalahan ini tidak berlangsung secara konsisten. Kesalahan karena tidak tahu/tidak mau belajar mencirikan sebagai orang yang tidak terpelajar, dan kesalahan karena ketidakpedulian mencirikan sebagai orang yang lupa diri atau sombong. Indonesia merupakan bangsa yang besar dan kaya dipandang dari berbagai sudut. Oleh karena itu, kita harus

Contoh kesalahan penerapan kaidah bahasa Indonesia di atas sering kita temukan di dalam media massa. Kesalahan-kesalahan ini dapat dikurangi atau dihilangkan sama sekali dengan didasari kesadaran untuk selalu menggunakan bahasa Indonesia yang baik dan benar. Kesadaran ini perlu dimiliki baik bagi media massa maupun pembaca/penyimak bagi media audio visual dan diikuti dengan selalu mengikuti perkembangan bahasa Indonesia. Dalam hal ini, pada kegiatan bulan bahasa tahun 2006 Pusat Bahasa telah memberikan penghargaan

72

National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang menjaga segala yang kita miliki. Bahasa merupakan jati diri bangsa, bahasa juga merupakan bagian dari budaya yang harus selalu kita banggakan dihadapan bangsabangsa lain di dunia ini..

Setyawan, susilo Adi. 2009. Peran Media Massa dalam Usaha Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa. Diambil dari http://susilo.adi.setyawan.student.fkip. uns. ac.id/2009/04/12/peran-media-massa-dalam-usahapembinaan-dan-pengembangan-bahasa/ diakses 4 Maret 2010.

Daftar Pustaka

Soedjito. 2009. Perkembangan Bahasa Indonesia dalam Bahasa Bantu. Jakarta: Universitas Terbuka.

_______. 2006. Diambil dari http://pusatbahasa.diknas.go.id/laman/index.php?info= berita&action=detail&beritaid=75 diakses 5 Maret 2010.

Sugono, Dendy. Meningkatkan Daya Ungkap Bahasa. Diambil dari http://www.suaramerdeka.com/harian/0402/03/kha2.htm diakses 5 Maret 2010.

Cesarzc. 2007. Banggalah Berbahasa Indonesia. Diambil dari http://cesarzc.wordpress. com/tag/bahasa-indonesia/ _______. 2008. Bahasa Media Massa Semakin Membingungkan? Diambil dari http://dinsamsoe.multiply.com/jurnal/item/10 diakses 4 Maret 2010.

Tasai, Amran dan Zaidan, Abdul Razak. 2008. Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Universitas Terbuka. Pusat Bahasa. 2008. Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia Edisi Keempat. Jakarta: PT Gramedia.

Laksono, Kisyani, 2008. Menyunting Bahasa Tulis dalam Penyuntingan. Jakarta: Universitas Terbuka. Mulyana, Akhmad. 2010. Sosiologi Komunikasi (modul). Jakarta: Universitas Mercu Buana.

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Developing KTSP in the Teaching of English Grammatical Structure Masnidar Tanjung Pudjo Sumedi The University of Muhammadiyah Prof. Dr. Hamka (UHAMKA) Jakarta

Theoritical Background 1.

KTSP The Curriculum at the Unit Level of Education; that is the Operational Curiculum which is composed and applied by each unit of education ―Kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan (KTSP) ‗adalah kurikulum operasional yang disusun oleh dan dilaksanakan di masing-masing satuan pendidikan‖. (PP No. 19 th 2005 about the National Standard of Education)

Introduction Nobody would deny that English has become an important subject among the other subjects taught at schools in Indonesia nowadays . It has the priority as the first foreign language. (the decree of the Minister of Education and Culture No. 096 on December 12th , 1967). No matter what curriculum is applied in teaching, especially English, ( started from 1968, 1974, 1994 curriculum, untill the latest one of the KTSP), it is based on the assumption that language is a means of communication. This assumption is intended to make the students use the language in communication. It is a fact that the teachers who teaches English as a foreign language often encounters difficulties in making their students successful in learning the language. Failure in teaching might be caused by the weakness of aspects in learning as well as in teaching; such as lack of books, poor equipments, poor students motivation and poor teacher‘s qualifications. As a matter of fact, and based on experience in teaching grammar to the students, satisfactory result, yet still could not be found. What is the fact is that the students were lazy and discouraged during the period of learning that influenced their achievement, that may be resulted by the way how the lesson was presented; that is by using deductive teaching strategy most of the time, where the teacher become the most active participant in the classroom. The teaching was started by writing down the formula on the board and then giving the explanation of the given rules to the students. It is realized then that this conventional way of teaching has some weaknesses from the teacher‘s point of view as well as from the students. Due to this problems, the teacher should try to look for the way out of solving the problem by observing the students mental involvement during the process of teaching and learning activities; which goes hand in hand with the phylosophy of that of KTSP; as the goverment stated about the National Standard of Education.

The Standard of Identification

Contextual Analysis

• The Competency Needed • The Content • How to Manage Learning • The Process • The Evaluation

The Condition of The Unit

The Strength & the weakness : • The Learners • The Instructor • The Facility • Funding • The Program

Environmental Condition of Each Unit

The Opportunity & Threat: School Committee The Governmental Rules The Social Condition (Culture)

5

2.

74

Marry Finochiario in the ―Foreign Language Learner‖ said : . . . . . . the learner brings to the task of learning on his innate mental capacity. He brings his perception of relationships and his unconscious formulation of the rules resulting from his discovery of the structure and organization of new material and with his perception of its relationship with known material ― (Finochiaro , 1973). It means that the teaching nowadays should be stressesed more on the way how the students gain and enrich their knowledge about language, and practice or use the rule in real communication as well, as a psichomotoric development.

K T S P

National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang 3.

Teaching Strategies



Deductively Teaching Strategy



The teacher is the star in the classroom and an active participant during the process of learning;



Lecture strategy is mostly used; The students are passive learners; Rules are already clearly stated by the teacher



The learners do not need to be involved psychologically in the learning process



Inductively Teaching Strategy



The strategies include, questions and answers, demonstrations, and discusions; and the limited amount of lecture



The teacher role is more as a motivator, stimulator , and a helper to a greater extent; The rules of language are discovered by the learners themselves at the end of the learning process.

could be given more chance to use their mental capacities, where psychological condition should be also taken into consideration. Teaching grammar inductively then could be more beneficial than teaching it deductvely. It means that the Student Centered Instruction, that focuses on the students during the teaching and learning activities, where they become the active learners; and the strategies include, questions and answers, demonstrations, and discusions; and the limited amount of lecture strategy could be used. The teacher‘s role in this case is more diversified. The teacher just functions as a motivator, stimulator , and a helper to a greater extent; and the rules of language are discovered by the learner themselves at the end of the learning process; the students get the knowledge of the function and the meaning of the rules; and can use the rules in spoken as well as in written language.. The teacher should avoid or at least minimize the using of teacher centered instruction on the other hand, where the concept is that, the teacher is the star in the classroom, and an active participant during the process of learning; the lecture strategy is mostly used; the students are passive learners; rules are already clearly stated by the teacher, and that is a why the students do not need to be involved psychologically in the learning process. Finally, the students mastery in structure can be evaluated by using test instrument that can be in the forms of : Multiple Choice, Completion, and Essay type tests.

Some Problems Encountered It is the real fact that most of senior High Schools graduates tend to have low achievement in English , except for those who took English course . The cause to this problem could be : 1 . Specification of the teaching objectives 2 .The approppriateness of the materials and the teaching process to the principles stated in the 1994 curriculum or KTSP; and 3 . The test materials given which are not relevant to the four skills that can lower the students motivation in learning .

Recomendation

The Possible Way to Solve the Problems What should we do then, that is to try to change the technique of teaching, that might create good result in teaching, by teaching inductively, which in turn aims at hoping the teaching can be more beneficial . The students here are not only prepared to listen to the teacher exposing the rules to the students, but rather give more chance to the students to think, to analyze, and to discover the rules through examples given by the teacher. Generalization then made by the students, not by the teacher . The teacher in this case functioned just as facilitator and motivator . As it can be assumed that, the tasks of developing the curriculum known as ―Process Oriented‖ seems to support the principle of the Students‟ Active Learning. That is why in teaching grammar, it would be better to put more stress on the process of observing, and then discovering the rules by the students themselves; where the students should cognitively involved during the learning activities. The students

Finally the writer would like to give input in teaching that:  Let us pay attention to the contextual analysis of KTSP; the national standard of education: the standard of the content, approppriatness, process, manajement, and the standard of evaluation  Make a very specific goal of teaching, of any subjects to teach  Create learning strategies that fulfill the need, and make the learning enjoyable, which is not of the less important

Bibliography Adams, Anna R. (1999). Industry Standards Based Curriculum. Australian National Training Authority. dams, Anna R. (1995). Competency Based Training. Directorate Vocational Education, IATVEP A Project. Abdul Gafur (1986). Disain Instruksional: Langkah Sistematis Penyusunan Pola Dasar Kegiatan Belajar Mengajar. Sala: Tiga Serangkai. Abdul Gafur (1987). Pengaruh Strategi Urutan Penyampaian, Umpan Balik, dan Keterampilan

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Intelektual Terhadap Hasil Belajar Konsep. Jakarta: PAU - UT. Abdul Gafur, dkk. (1986). Definisi Teknologi Pendidikan. Jakarta: CV Rajawali. Abdul Gafur (1985). Media Besar Media Kecil: Alat dan Teknologi Pengajaran. Semarang: IKIP Press. Anglin Gary J. (1991). Instructional Technology: Past, Present, and Future. Colorado: Englewood Cliffs. Bloom et al. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals. New York: McKay. Bratton, Barry. (1991). Professional Competencies and Certifcation in the Instructional Technology Field. Colorado: Englewood Cliffs, Inco. Center for Civics Education (1997). National Standard for Civics and Government. Calabasas CA: CEC Publ. Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan (1992). Himpunan Peraturan Perundang-Undangan Republik Indonesia Bidang Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. Jakarta: Sekjen Debdikbud. Departemen Pendidikan Nasional (2005, 2006, dan 2007). Permendiknas: Standar Nasional Pendidikan (SNP). DEPDIKNAS Dick, W. & Carey L. (1978). The Systematic Design of Instruction. Illinois: Scott & Co. Publication. Direktorat Pendidikan Menengah Umum (2001). Kebijakan Pendidikan Menengah Umum. Jakarta: Direktorat Pendidikan Menengah Umum. Edwards, H. Cliford, et.all (1988). Planning, Teaching, and Evaluating: A Competency Approach. Chicago: Nelson-Hall. Gronlund, Norman E. (1984). Determining Accountability for Classroom Instruction. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.

Hall, Gene E & Jones, H.L. (1976). Competency-Based Education: A process for the improvement of education. New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs, Inc. Hall, William C. (1995). Course Planning. Adelaide: Advisory Center for University, the University of Adelaide. Hooper, R. (1975). The Curriculum. Edinburg: Oliver &Boyd: The Open University. Joice, B, & Weil, M. (1980). Models of Teaching. New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs, Publ. Kemp, Jerold (1977). Instructional Design: A Plan for Unit and Curriculum Development. New Jersey: Sage Publication. Kaufman, Roger A. (1992). Educational Systems Planning. New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs. Marzano RJ & Kendal JS (1996). Designing standardbased districts, schools, and classrooms. Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. McAshan, H.H. (1989). Competency-Based Education and Behavioral Objectives. New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, Engelwood Cliffs. Oneil Jr., Harold F. (1989). Procedures for Instructional Systems Development. New York: Academic Press. Reigeluth, Charles M. (1987) Instructional Theories in Action: Lessons Illustrating Selected Theories and Models. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publ. Rosset, A. (1991). A Handbook of Job Aids. San Diego: Pfeiffer Publ. Russell, James D. (1984). Modular Instruction: A Guide to Design, Selection, Utilization and Evaluation of Modular Materials. Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Company.

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The Students‟ Perspective on Teacher‟s Identity Representation in EFL Classroom Interactions Meinarni Susilowati UIN Maulana Malik Ibrahim, Malang

is socially constructed and that people are not free to take any identity they choose but adding a sense of multiplicity, hybridity, and fluidity‘ (p.10). Following the two definitions above, Bucholtz and Hall (2005), who see identity from a socio-cultural linguistic point of view, perceive identity as the social positioning of self and other. This definition treats identity as a product of social cultural practice rather than internal psychological phenomenon because identity is viewed as ‗a product rather than the source of linguistic and other semiotic practices‘ (p.588). The nature of such definitions posits identity as culture-laden and tends to flexibly change from time to time. The definitions then may create classification of identity such as personal identity, ethnic identity, group, and national identity. In many cases, people tend to make use language as the main instrument of labeling their identity. For quite long people often say that language represents their identity. History witnessed how Bahasa Indonesia successfully united all existing local languages and today it is strongly perceived as the representation of Indonesians. Hall (1997) portrays this relation in his circuit of culture to indicate how language as the main medium produces and exchanges meanings, which are obtained through a language as the representational system, using sign and symbols to shape as well as express people‘s identity. The relation between language and identity is sometimes ‗so strong that even a single feature of the language suffices to identify someone‘s membership in a given group‘ (Tabouret-Keller, 1998 p 317). People using ‗Tegal‘ dialect (e.g.‘enyong‘ for ‗I‘) tend to be quite different from ‗Wonosobo‘ dialect (‗inyong‘) even though most ordinary people from other areas consider the two dialects the same or at least similar. There are some other aspects of language which construct identity such as a heritage language, borrowed variety, suprasegmental and discourse features, and code switching (Fought, 2006). Switching from one language to another reflects the speakers‘ way of indexing their identity to a certain community speaking the language they are switching to. Bhatt (2008) has showed that codechoice ‗serves as a linguistic diacritic to signal ‗difference‘ among various sectors of the middle class, especially between the English-knowing bilinguals and ‗other‘ bilinguals‘ (p 1). It is further stated that there is a sociolinguistically significant generalization that ‗members of speech communities in vastly different societies use their linguistic resources sometimes to present a social identity, to set boundaries linguistically, to overcome the strong forces of conquest‘ (p.1). Furthermore, identity is also closely related to discourse. Paltridge (2006) states that identity is recognized by participants involved in the interactions. It is further stated that the identity someone shows depends very much on the context, occasion, and purpose of the discourse.

Abstract – The present study aims at investigating the students‘ opinion toward the teacher‘s identity representation in EFL classroom interactions. This study was conducted to reveal how actually students perceive teachers‘ identity representation in classroom interactions. It is significant to conduct this study because teachers‘ efforts to reflect their identity were not necessarily successful. This survey shows that the students consider it important for the teachers to represent their identity in their EFL classroom interactions. It is also found out that a particular language is perceived as cultural specific and value laden in reflecting teachers‘ identity. Some conclusions, however, should be cautiously made considering the limitations of the present study. Keywords: identity, teachers‘ identity, identity representation Generally the term ‗identity‘ is associated with ‗self‘. When I asked a group of English teachers, for example, they said that identity is related to their characteristics which are reflected on, among other, their identity cards, driving license, passport and so forth. All these things show name, sex, address, job, marital status, and residence registered number. Other people say that their identity is ‗all about me‘. It is firstly represented by a name. It then mostly deals with personality, whether we are an introvert or extrovert, open mind, love swimming, or good at cooking. Sometimes, people also label themselves as a part of a certain group as their identity. It is quite often we see people wearing a t-shirt ‗Ongis Nade‘ with all accessories as an indication of being an ‗Arema‘. These characteristics of ‗self‘ are often seen as fixed and permanent. Scholars working in identity define the term identity as socially shaped, fluid and therefore multiple. Hall (1997) states that identity is relational as it is shaped through social relation and symbolically marked. For example, if something is considered as taboo, that will have a real effect because a particular person can be excluded from a member of a group and loose the identity if s/he does not keep it taboo. In this case, identity of a particular member relies for her/his member on something outside of this person. In addition, Hall further contends, identity is fluid in the sense that it is flexible. The same person may possess several types of identity at the same time due to different roles a person plays. Ivanic (1998) defines identity as the everyday word for people‘s sense of who they are. She further sees other terms such as subjectivity, positioning, and possibilities for self-holds as the relevant terms to identity as ‗carrying the connotation that identity

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang tendency in perceiving teachers‘ utterances representing their identity. It basically provides a trend obtained from the data rather than offers a thorough explanation of the researched topic (Cresswell, 2008).

Fought (2006) highlights some significant discourse features, which covers how people make use of indirectness, norms of exchange of conversations (turn taking, silence, and backchanelling), jokes, complementing, and acquisition of language norms. Referring to some experts‘ works, Wolfowitz (1991) elaborates more the coverage of context by considering the importance of other social features such as setting, social status, knowledge of participants, and topics.

Subjects There were 164 English Department students of UIN Maliki Malang involved in this survey. There was no specific consideration for selecting them as the subjects of this survey because basically their participation in this study was voluntary based. 49 students were from the fourth semester while the rest were of the sixth semester.

Classroom also mirrors the above phenomena. Classroom interactions reflect the complexity and heterogeneity of the real world and therefore are effective in preserving values and identity (Norton, 2000). In a more specific way, teachers‘ language reflects their identity and their linguistic features shape their pupil‘s identity (Llamas, Mullany, and Stockwell, 2007). In addition, power relation in class interaction also creates certain social structures which may determine learners‘ identity (Ellis, 1997). In a broader sense, Fought (2006) asserts that selection of teachers‘ linguistic features indicates their commitment of revitalizing particular values and beliefs.

All participants were asked to consider their subject course teachers while filling out the questionnaire. From my previous observations, it turned out that teachers‘ content courses tend to flexibly switch into Bahasa Indonesia or even Javanese, as the most common spoken local language. The nature of language skill classes generally prevents the teachers to use any other language except English. Thus, it can be safely assumed that referring to classroom interactions of content courses teachers sufficiently indicates the nature of teachers‘ identity representation.

Despite the significant role of teachers‘ language in shaping the students‘ identity, to my knowledge, there are not many studies investigating this particular area. Based on her investigation on how the materials used in classroom interactions reflect particular values and beliefs, Susilowati (2008) recommends a further research focused on how actually teachers represent their identity through classroom interactions. In fact, from teachers‘ narration, Connely and Clandinin (1999) find out that teachers do make efforts in representing their identity both in their material selection and classroom interaction. The investigation on how teachers perceive their identity representation implicates the importance of obtaining the students‘ perception toward the teachers‘ identity representation in classroom interaction because the teachers‘ efforts are not necessarily successful (Susilowati, 2010). It is plausible to investigate the students‘ opinion toward teachers‘ identity representation in classroom interactions. This present study is then unavoidably pertinent to do.

Instruments A questionnaire and an interview were used to obtain the needed data. The questionnaire consists of ten statements (see the attached questionnaire). The statements cover the use of particular languages, Indonesian, English, and a local language to represent the teachers‘ identity in their classroom interactions. The responses were arranged in a four-point Likert scale. The participants were required to select the most suitable response which best represented their opinion. The responses were ranged from ‗strongly agree‘, ‗agree‘, ‗disagree‘ and ‗strongly disagree‘. An open-ended interview with two students was also conducted to dig up deeper information the questionnaire did not accommodate. The interview was done two weeks after the participants filled out the questionnaire. The gap was necessitated to guarantee the participants‘ genuine responses which might not be obtained due to the influence of their previous responses on the questionnaire.

Research Question Based on the above discussion, this present study proposes the following research question: ‗How do students perceive teachers‘ identity representation in classroom interactions?‘

Findings This research aims at finding out the students‘ perception toward teachers‘ identity representation. There were 164 returned questionnaires out of 180 distributed copies. From the questionnaires, it shows that in general the students detected teachers‘ efforts to represent identity in classroom interactions. The students also perceived that teachers made use of a particular language as the reflection of a particular identity. Seen from the combination between ‗strongly agree‘ and ‗agree‘ responses, it turns out that most students stated that

Research Method Research Design This present study was a survey because it identified the students‘ opinion toward the importance of teachers‘ identity representation in their classroom interactions. In this case, this survey study described the students‘

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang teachers introduce native speakers‘ identity (92%), use English to express their identity (91.16%), discuss native speakers‘ identity in English (88.2%), select teaching materials which contain native speakers‘ identity (87.13%), and help the students shape their identity

chose ‗strongly disagree‘. From the interview, it is also indicated that the students detected the teachers‘ different ways of discussing the native speakers‘ identity, without necessarily relating this to the topic being taught. Teachers‘ efforts of introducing the native speakers‘ identity are perceived as a package of teaching instead of a separate loosely done activity. STRONGLY AGREE DISAGREE STRONGLY AGREE DISAGREE Most students also noticed the important role of NO STATEMENTS teaching materials as a medium of exposing them to total total total total native speakers‘ identity. Regardless different nature % % % % of the courses and the topic discussed in the 1. Introducing 23 127 11 3 classroom, 17.6 % of respondents strongly agreed to values, beliefs 14% 77.4% 0.67% 0.18% say that teaching materials contain cultural aspects, and values, beliefs and characteristics of English characteristics of NS community and 70.7% confirmed their ‗agree‘. The 2. Materials with 29 116 17 2 rest indicated their disagreement with different cultural aspects, 17.6% 70.7% 10.3% 0.12% degrees. The 10.3% of the respondents chose values and ‗disagree‘ while 0,12% gave their ‗strongly beliefs of NS 3. T switch to BI to 15 101 45 3 disagree‘. The students admitted that they could get represent their 0.91% 61.5% 27.4% 0.18% the access of native speakers‘ identity from the personal identity selected materials, with different degree of intensity. 4. T switch to LL to 14 58 75 17 Some courses, in line with syllabus, contained dense represent their 0.85% 35% 45.7% 10% information while some others only touched personal identity 5. T switch to BI to 22 97 40 4 particular angles of native speakers‘ identity. The represent 13.4% 59.1% 24.3% 0.24% students also confirmed the fact that most materials at national identity least led them to know more about any values and 6. English for T 44 108 9 3 beliefs of native community regardless the topics personal identity 26.8% 65.8% 0.54% 0.18% representation mentioned in the syllabus or course outline. 7. T help shape SS 36 99 24 5 In terms of the use of code switching into Indonesian, identity 21.9% 60.3% 14.6% 0.3% more than half of the students perceived this 8. T influence SS 19 84 54 7 linguistic feature as the teachers‘ identity identity 11.5% 51.2% 32.9 % 0.4% representation in classroom interactions. From the 9. SS comfort of T 26 75 60 3 use BI for T 15.8% 45.7% 36.5% 0.1% total respondents, 61.5% noticed that teachers‘ code identity switching is as the reflection of teachers‘ personal representation identity, 0.91% stated their ‗strongly agree‘, while 10 SS comfort of T 30 115 15 4 27.4% provided their ‗strongly disagree‘ and 0.18 % use English for 18.2% 70% 9.1% 0.24 % introducing NS of the students selected the option of ‗strongly identity disagree‘. From the interview, the students confessed (81.12%). In addition, the students conceived teachers‘ that teachers code switched into ‗bahasa Indonesia‘ not code switching into Bahasa Indonesia (BI) as teachers‘ just a matter of helping the students understand the identity representation (62.96%), teachers‘ influence on concepts being taught. In some cases, they further their identity (62.7), their comfort of teachers‘ identity acknowledged, the teachers were trying to uncover an reflection using BI (50.15%) and teachers‘ use of a local effort to signify their point of view which symbolizes their language to signify their identity (35.85%). The students‘ identity. responses are summarized in the following table. In a very special case, it turns out that teachers also code switched into a local language, in this case Javanese. Table 1. The students‟ opinion toward teachers‟ When asked the use of a local language, especially identity representation Javanese, as teachers‘ personal identity representation, the NS = native speaker of English students‘ disagreement tended to be dominant. Almost T = teachers half of the respondents (45.7%) showed their ‗disagree‘ BI = Bahasa Indonesia and 10% was on ‗strongly disagree‘. The ‗strongly agree‘ LL = a local language was only selected by 0.85 % of the respondents and SS = students ‗agree‘ was chosen by 35% of the students. The students confirmed that the teachers‘ way of representing their Seen from the students‘ detailed response on the personal identity through Javanese was considered to be questionnaire, the following findings are obtained. The ‗more natural‘ in a way that the code choice could students recognized teaching activities as the arenas of dramatically show ‗the Javanese‘ side which could not introducing the identity of English community. This is well pictured by any mean. indicated by the students‘ responses which marked For representing teachers‘ national identity, most students ‗strongly agree‘ (14%) and ‗agree‘ (77.4%). Only 11 perceived the national language as mostly appropriate. students (0.67%) selected ‗disagree‘ and 3 others (0.18%) The respondents strongly agreed to say that the teachers‘

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang code switching into Bahasa Indonesia was an indication of teachers‘ national identity representation (13.4%) and more than half (59.1%) stated their ‗agree‘ to the above statement. In this particular case, the students‘ ‗disagree‘ responses was 24.3% while the rest (0.24%) was posited to ‗strongly disagree‘. It is interesting to note that the students perceived English as the instrument to represent their teachers‘ personal identity. From the students‘ point of view, their teachers also brought their identity while speaking English in the class. This is indicated by the students‘ responses which skewed more to ‗strongly agree‘ (26.8%) and ‗agree‘ (65.8%); only 0.54% of the respondents selected ‗disagree‘ and 0.18% chose ‗disagree‘. From the interview, the students admitted that their teachers tended to exploit some ways of setting up their territory to signify their personal identity. In this particular context then, English is treated more than just the main means of classroom interaction. The students could also detect its function as identity representation. Most students also think that teachers shape their identity in classroom interaction. From the students‘ responses, it is revealed that classroom interactions are of great help in building their identity even though some students stated they consider themselves adult who do not need others to build their identity. The responses show that the students strongly agreed (21.9%) and agreed (60.3%) that teachers help them shape their identity while teaching. 14.6% stated disagree while another 0.3% strongly disagreed

with the above statement. In addition, students also perceived the teachers‘ influence in building the students identity, the students‘ disagreement tends to be higher compared to the previous responses. Even though more than half of students agreed (11.5% selected ‗strongly agree‘ and 51.2% stated ‗agree‘), the ‗disagree‘ response was selected by 32.9% and another 0.4% of ‗strongly disagree‘. The result of the interview indicated that this disagreement was of reflection of ‗bigger portion of self responsibility‘ of building up their identity which may not be determined by somebody else. This group of students conceived that university students should be more independent in shaping their identity. When confronted with the statement whether they feel more comfortable with the teachers‘ Indonesian code switching, around 60% indicated their agreement while the rest disagreed. Seen from their detailed responses, 15.8% was ‗strongly agree‘, 45.7% was ‗agree‘, 36.5% was ‗disagree‘ and 0.1% was ‗strongly disagree‘. However, when the teachers use English to represent their personal identity, the students‘ responses tend to skew to another direction. From the respondents, 30 students (18.2%) stated that they strongly agree they feel comfortable with teachers‘ identity representation in English, 115 students (70%) agree, 15 respondents (9.1%) disagreed, and only 4 students (0.24%) strongly disagreed.

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Promoting Environmental Sustainability Awareness in the Classroom: Integrating Renewable Energy Issues in English Lessons Based on KTSP Mierza Miranti Sugar Group High School Lampung

the intensification of management, accountability, and image before the public. It is believed that the government, along with parties involved in the process, has given the best effort to achieve the aforementioned objectives (Depdiknas: 2002) One of the most considered valuable system established by the government is to have KTSP (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan) – or literally translated into Curriculum on Independent Education Unit – to be applied in the national educational system. This system has actually given appropriate possibilities to teachers as the front liners to really make use of the situation in order to give the most of the learning for the students. An advantage of having the KTSP applied in the education system is of course to have a complete autonomy to design lessons that meet or are above the required standard. Schools and educators can take a look what would be beneficial to be given beyond the basic requirements which would equip the students to prepare for their future. Language is one of the equipments needed to strengthen their ability to communicate and comprehend the world better. Thus, everyone would have agreed upon the statement ―Language is a mean of communication‖. Whether the students realize it or not, the language they learn will be used or have been used to communicate, state, communicate their ideas, thoughts, feelings, opinions, and other functions to others in the world outside their classroom. A successful user of language, or we can say as a former language classroom student, can be observed on how he or she utilizes it in any form perfectly and appropriately in every situations. However, teachers sometimes do not realize the fact that one day their tudents will become citizens who have rights and responsibilities. The educational process they have will finally formulate their way of thinking, acting, and responding to the developmental issues. They might even face the world which they are not ready to cope with since they are not equipped with the equipments to confront global issues and challenges. Giving the not only the lesson itself but also how to use it critically and learn it meaningfully, for example by giving sufficient exposures to sustainable development issues, will play a role in molding their awareness to be part of the maintaining sustainability communities and become responsible citizens of the world. As for in English classes, it is quite devastating that in contrast with the program generated by the government to have a more communicative and applicative learning, some issues that are still found in nowadays teachings seem to only serve for a traditional manner of teaching and learning processes that make students only become

Abstract -Globalization coming with the benefits and impacts it brings challenges education practitioners to raise the awareness of the future leaders namely today‘s students. Teachers are actually capable of being the agents that can take part in bringing globalization issue into the classroom by integrating them along with the lesson. Thus, this paper analyzes the practice on the application of integrating renewable energy issues in English lesson based on the national curriculum set by the government. Hopefully, the incorporation will encourage students to have awareness and think critically toward the impact of globalization on environmental sustainability as a part of sustainable development. The paper also reports on the planning and flows of activities conducted in the classroom for nine activities in ten sessions covering all learning aspects: listening, reading, writing, and speaking. Finally, it is continued with the teacher reflection on the practice and concluded by the suggestions for further works in the other scopes of issues as well teaching subjects. Keyword: environmental renewable energy, KTSP

sustainability,

awareness,

Introduction Indonesia is now facing a reality of the upcoming – if not to say the already come – globalization that has a great impact on almost every aspect of the living systems, including environment. The youngsters whom teachers meet in the classroom will soon take part or be expected to get involved in the global world. They need to be prepared to become responsible global citizens who serve the role as those who promote sustainable development and we – teachers – are part of the preparation. The guidance starts by promoting awareness of what consequences of the actions they take for the upcoming generations. Thus, it is relieving to acknowledge that the government of Indonesia has a profound awareness of the upcoming situation. The support given by the Department of Education of Indonesia is to focus on the development of education in Indonesia toward three things, namely the distribution of education, the improvements on quality, relevance, and competitiveness in education, as well as

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang passive learners. For example, students mostly do the practices and tests, discuss – or in other word: to check for – the answers, and listen to teachers‘ explanations or dictations. This kind of learning situations would only give the students materials to be memorized. It only provides few opportunities for the students to actually apply the language itself. Consequently, some valuable times to have English as the media of communication might be lost since it is learnt unconnectedly with the world. This paper therefore examines the integration of a topic of renewable energy as the one related to environmental sustainability into English lessons by incorporating them with the curriculum set by the Education Department which is used by the school. Based on the analysis of literature, the paper presents the process of applying environmental sustainability issue by taking one matter, namely Renewable Energy, in listening, reading, speaking, and finally writing sessions in the first half semester of twelve graders. The application is then examined by using teacher reflection. The paper includes recommendation for future research.

2. Needs and rights of future generations: Understanding our own basic needs and the implications for the needs of future generations of actions taken today. 3. Diversity : Respecting and valuing both human diversity (cultural, social and economic) and biodiversity. 4. Quality of life : Acknowledging that global equity and justice are essential elements of sustainability and that basic needs must be met universally. 5. Sustainable change : Understanding that resources are finite and that this has implications for people's lifestyles and for commerce and industry. 6. Balance : Understanding of uncertainty and of the need for precautions in action. One point raised in the seven key concepts above is sustainable change that covers all area of the alleged environmental sustainability which is defined as the process of trying to find out whether the current development of interaction with the environment are practiced with the system of maintaining an environment as natural as possible based on ideal-seeking behavior. This idea is further applied in societies and coined by the Pollution Prevention Alliance as sustainable communities that would include:  businesses and services which prevent waste;  viable markets for locally-produced goods and services  reliance on energy efficiency and renewable sources of energy;  high levels of public awareness about and participation in local environmental issues;  relatively proportionate distribution of environmental assets such as park land quality and quantity; These proposed communities would ensure some components of the sustainable communities are inhabitable, equitable, and affordable over the long-term Thus, to sustain strong sustainable communities, there are some essential elements to work on (The ―Defining Sustainable Communities‖ National Conference, June 1994). These components are defined by Oneida Tribe of Wisconsin Mission Statement in the conference as ―Environmental Integrity‖ that includes:  Living within ecological limits  Protecting natural resources  Responsible consumption patterns: re-use, recycling  Measurable carrying capacity indicators: water  Quality, air quality, species diversity, etc.

Energy and Environmental Sustainability The issues of sustainable development have been brought up by public since the concern to the carrying the population size of the species that the environment can sustain indefinitely, given the food, habitat, water and other necessities available in the environment is related with the social problems facing humanity. As Bruntland Comission in 1987, formally the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), coined the meaning as development that "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." Sustainable development also points out on the significance of preserving the capability to respond to future shock, yet when their chances, locations, and effects cannot be measured. This issue also stresses out the importance of taking long-term perspective about the consequences ones might have for taking certain actions. It is as well a vision of development that covers populations, animal and plant species, ecosystems, natural resources and that integrates concerns such as the fight against poverty, gender equality, human rights, education for all, health, human security, intercultural dialogue, etc (UNESCO, 1995-2009). It was also pointed out by the Panel for Education for Sustainable Development (1999) as the seven key concepts that need to be taken into account: Interdependence: Understanding how people, the environment and the economy are inextricably linked at all levels from local to global. 1. Citizenship and stewardship: Recognizing the importance of taking individual responsibility and action to ensure the world is a better place.

The above points are interrelated as one subject and cannot be treated solely since there would be a consequence for not taking a wise decision today in the future. One of the most important decisions and very popular is the energy issue as the energy insecurity combined with other global issues risks fueling conflict, repeating past mistakes in history. Energy is indeed the key requirement for the economic and social sectors, but some forms of energy can damage

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang the environment quality when they are produced, transported and used. Energy accounts for 85% of total greenhouse gas emissions in several countries. It also contributes substantially to emissions of sulphur oxides, nitrous oxides, volatile organic compounds and particulates. It is also projected that 57% increase in world energy consumption over the next 20 years risks impacting heavily on the environment (OECD, 2001) and not mention the security of the energy which are mostly in use and cannot be replenished such as fossil fuels. This condition leads some ideas reformation to the inventions and research on renewable and other energy sources (Shah, 2009) as it is defined as natural energy which does not have a limited supply.

2. Comprehend meanings in short functional texts and monologs in forms of narrative, explanation, and discussion in daily life contexts.

Integrating the Renewable Energy Issues into English Lesson Based on the Current Curriculum of KTSP Standard of Competency Speaking 3. To express meanings in formal and sustained conversational and transactional texts in daily life contexts.

Indonesian curriculum has undergone various kinds of changes in the attempts of achieving the best method and practices to develop best potential of the students, starting from the curriculum of 1989, 1994, 1999 and even Competency Based Curriculum (KBK – Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi) applied in 1994. The latest one – KSTP – has been being applied since 2006 based on the PP (Peraturan Pemerintah: Government Regulation – writer) No. 99/2005. KTSP is an alleged result of improvement of the previous national curriculum –KBK – which did not accommodate the variety of culture and conditions in Indonesia (Ambarsari, 1994). This curriculum is claimed to have some advantages in compare to the previous ones, especially on some aspects of application as it promotes the school autonomy to creatively develop the curriculum based on the needs of the students and even the demands of globalization (Hanafie, 2007). This paper analyzes the application of the planning which took place in the first semester of 12 grade. Followings are the standard of competency and basic requirements set in the national curriculum:

4. To express meanings in short functional texts and monologs in forms of narrative, explanation, and discussion texts in daily life contexts.

―KTSP‖ CURRICULUM FOR SEMESTER 1 GRADE XII HIGH SCHOOL Standard of Basic Competencies Competency Listening To respond to expressions of formal 1. Comprehend and sustained transactional (to get meanings contained things done) and interpersonal in formal and (socializing) expressions on sustained accurate, fluent, and acceptable conversational and manners in daily life contexts and transactional texts in involving the expressions of: daily life contexts. suggesting, begging, lodging complaints, discussing possibilities, and/or to do someting, and instructing.

Standard of Competency Reading 5. To comprehend meanings of short functional texts and essays in forms of

To respond to expressions of formal and sustained transactional (to get things done) and interpersonal

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(socializing) expressions on accurate, fluent, and acceptable manners in daily life contexts and involving the expressions of: admitting mistakes, making promises, accusing, showing curiosity, and expressing stances. To respond to meanings in formal and informal short functional texts and monologs utilizing a variety of spoken language on an accurate, fluent, and acceptable manner in daily life contexts. To respond to meanings in monologs utilizing a variety of spoken language on an accurate, fluent, and acceptable manner in daily life contexts in forms of narrative, explanation, and discussion texts.

Basic Competencies To express utterances using expressions of formal and sustained transactional (to get things done) and interpersonal (socializing) conversations on accurate, fluent, and acceptable manners in daily life contexts and involving the expressions of: suggesting, begging, lodging complaints, discussing possibilities, and/or to do someting, and instructing. To express utterances using expressions of formal and sustained transactional (to get things done) and interpersonal (socializing) conversations on accurate, fluent, and acceptable manners in daily life contexts and involving the expressions of: admitting mistakes, making promises, accusing, showing curiosity, and expressing stances. To express meanings in formal and informal settings of short functional texts and monologs by using a variety of spoken language on an accurate, fluent, and acceptable manner in daily life contexts. To express meanings in monologs utilizing a variety of spoken language on an accurate, fluent, and acceptable manner in daily life contexts in forms of narrative, explanation, and discussion texts. Basic Competencies

To respond to meanings in formal and informal short functional texts utilizing a variety of written


To respond to meanings and rhetorical stages in essays utilizing a variety of written language on an accurate, fluent, acceptable manner in daily life contexts and to access knowledge in texts of narrative, explanation and discussion.

THE INTEGRATION OF ISSUE IN THE CURRICULUM FOR GRADE XII SUGAR GROUP HIGH SCHOOL Indicators

Exposing meanings in formal and informal short functional texts utilizing a variety of written language on an accurate, fluent, acceptable manner in daily life contexts.

Activities

a. Give written dialog to elicit the expression then practice reading and pronouncing it. Expected Expression Elicited:  I‘d like to make complain about…  Could you do something about…  I‘m afraid that… b. Listen to the Earth Song by Michael Jackson as tuning-in process. c. Drill expression usage. 2.Listening: a. Listen to 2 songs: To identify and ―Free‖ from respond to the Lighthouse Family language of and ―I Wonder‖ curiosity from Kelly Pickler to elicit the expressions of showing curiosity. Expected Expression Elicited: (i) How on earth… (ii)I wonder if… (ii)I want to know whether… (iv) I wish I knew… b. Drill expression usage using Global Warming topic. c. Ask each pair to make problem and read it for others to respond.

Time

1.Listening Identifying and responding to complaints

Exposing meanings and rhetorical stages in written monologs utilizing a variety of written language on an accurate, fluent, acceptable manner in daily life contexts in texts of narrative, explanation and dan discussion.

Furthermore, the minimum requirements set by the government in the basic competence above can be straightforwardly incorporated with the issues or topics required in English classroom. Integration itself can take part along with the time an educator teaches some aspects of language in the classroom, i.e. reading, writing, speaking, listening, and even grammar and structure. Some activities that integrate the issue, of course, are combined together to achieve communication goals – which are known as the three main strains – of a language, i.e. oral communication, written communication, and visual communication. The activities should be carefully chosen and planned. One consideration that can be taken as a benchmark is to have activities that encourage students to discover, explore, extend, and communicate their own values, adjustments, opinions, and even arguments, while listening to other people‘s point of view as a practice of respect. Finally, it is expected that at the same time, students do not only learn about linguistic aspects of a language or how to speak, listen, write, and read properly, but beyond that: they would find that the decisions which are made by people in other parts of the world would affect our lives, just as our decisions would affect the others.

The Case Study The writer practiced and examined the case at the time she taught the students of science major 12 grade in Sugar Group High School, Lampung, Indonesia – which is currently still her own class at the time this paper compiled. The case study occurred in the first half of the

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Tuesday 24 August 2009

Writing 6. Exposing meanings in written monologs in forms of narrative, explanation dan discussion on accurate, fluent, and acceptable manners in daily life contexts.

first semester of 2009-2010 academic years in which the issue applied was about Renewable Energy. The planning, which exhibits the basic competencies taken, and the practices can be observed in the following table. The activities were applied from 24 August to 16 September 2009 based on the planning designed.

language on an accurate, fluent, acceptable manner in daily life contexts and to access knowledge.

Wednesday 25 August 2009

narrative, explanation, and discussion in daily life context and to access knowledge as well.

Class

1-2 7.30-9.00

XII Sci-C

5-6 10.46-12.15

XII Sci-B

7-8 13.15-14.45

XII Sci-A

1-2 7.30 – 9.00 3-4 9.00-9.45 10.00-10.45

XII Sci-C

5-6 10.46–12.15

XII Sci-A

XII Sci-B


c.

XII Sci-C

3-4 9.00–9.45 10.00–10.45

XII Sci-A

5-6 10.46–12.15

XII Sci-B

Indicators

Time

Class

1-2 7.30 -9.00

XII Sci-A

7-8 13.15-14.45

XII Sci-C

7-8 13.1514.45

8.Writing: Editing explanation text based on the generic structure.

XII Sci-B

1-2 7.30-9.00 5-6 10.46-12.15

XII Sci-C XII Sci-B

7-8 13.15-14.45

XII Sci-A

9.Speaking Debate on animal testing issues using the expression of expressing curiosity and possibilities.

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3-4 9.00–9.45 XII Sci-A 10.00–10.45

5-6 10.46–12.15

Activities a. Students sit based on the pair they have the previous meeting. b. The pairs edit and publish the works. c. Every pair presents their work in front of the class. d. Form a group of four to prepare for debate of Renewable Energy topic the next meeting. a. Students make a group of four. Each group stands on one type of renewable energy resources, i.e. fossil fuel, wind, solar, biomass, and hydro energy. b. Each group will have 25 minutes for both presentation and debate. c. Students must use the taught expression of curiosity and possibilities every time they rebut. d. Each member must take turn in speaking, delegation system is used.

XII Sci-C

Wednesday 9September2009

b.

1-2 7.30–9.00

Time Thursday 10September2009

XII Sci-B

a.

Friday 11 September2009

Friday 27 August 2009

7-8 13.15-14.45

7.Writing: Explanation text based on the generic structure.

Tuesday 15 September 2009

XII Sci-C

plotting on Global Warming topic. Create a group explanation text Edit, revise, and publish the work afterward. Students are told to work in pairs to do the write and run activity to produce explanation text using Renewable Energy topic. Every 2 pair sits to form one group. The first 10 minutes, they are asked to make the explanation scheme and generic structure. The activity runs for 50 minutes in which the students move from one group to another to write one single paragraph for every 10 minutes as a part of the planned explanation text.

Wednesday 16 September 2009

6.Writing: Explanation text based on the generic structure.

7-8 13.15-14.45

c.

d.

Activities a. Give written dialog of possibilities to elicit the expressions of questioning possibilities and stating something is possible or impossible. b. Watch the ―Inconvenient Truth‖ movie from Al Gore and ask students to jot down important facts and language of possibilities. c. Discuss the language of possibilities found or the ones that could be made. a. Students form a group of four. b. Discuss important facts found in the movie and make explanation text scheme and GS

XII Sci-A

1-2 7.30 – 9.00

Thursday 3 September 2009

5.Listening: To identify and respond to the language of possibilities.

1-2 7.30 – 9.00

Friday 4September2009

Indicators

Class

Wednesday 2 September 2009

3.Reading and a. Matching pictures listening: of kinds of energy Comprehendin and their definition g meanings in (pelmanism) texts and b. Categorize the essays in a pictures into two form of energy categories: explanation renewable and text. nonrenewable c. Watch a video about the application of Renewable energy in a Highland and Scotland as reading activity. d. Word-search game e. Read a text about Renewable Energy 4.Reading: a. Find the generic To understand structure (GS) of the generic explanation text structure of from the previous explanation meeting and make text and the scheme. applying b. Give another passive voice. example of explanation text titled Acid Rain as background information of the effect of fossil fuels use and analyze the GS and scheme. c. Find passive voice in the text. d. Change active voice in Renewable Energy passage and practice changing them to passive.

Time Thursday 26 August 2009

Activities

Tuesday 8 September 2009

Indicators

XII Sci-B

Class

1-2 XII Sci-A 7.30 – 9.00 7-8 13.15-14.45

XII Sci-C

7-8 13.15-14.45

XII Sci-B

1-2 7.30-9.00

XII Sci-C

5-6 10.46-12.15

XII Sci-B

7-8 13.15-14.4

XII Sci-A

1-2 7.30 – 9.00

XII Sci-C

3-4 9.00 – 9.45 10.00–10.45

XII Sci-A

5-6 10.46–12.15

XII Sci-B


b. Activity Two: Listening – Identifying and responding to the language of curiosity.

e. The presenting groups will be divided into two days since the time is so limited.

In this given activity, the students are asked to listen to two songs - ―Free‖ from Lighthouse Family and ―I Wonder‖ from Kelly Pickler to elicit the expressions of showing curiosity. While listening, the students were asked to fill in the blanks with the words that would be used in the elicitation process and some new words that would enrich their vocabulary bank. The tape was played only twice in order to make them used to fast-pace listening scheme. Afterward, the class discussed the answers of the blanks. Then, by still using the answer, teacher elicited the expected expressions. All of the three classes were able to find the expressions ―I wonder‖ from Kelly Prickles and ―I wish I knew‖ from Lighthouse Family. The classes, however, failed to mention the function of the expressions i.e. to express curiosity. Thus, teacher tried to lead them by using real-life situations to elicit more. A feedback emerged from the situation that became a reflection: teacher needed to find specifically more suitable listening material(s) in order to elicit all of the expected expressions. Finally, by using the issue of Global Warming that was quite familiar for this grade as a tuning-in for Renewable Energy topic, teacher drilled the usage of the expressions by asking some groups to make situations related to the issue and asked the other groups to make the expressions. None of the students came up with the relation between renewable energy and global warming. Hence, teacher elicited by using the expression taught: ―I wonder whether there is a connection between the use of energy and global warming.‖ Furthermore, she asked them to create similar expressions. Surprisingly, two students out of sixty came up with two estimated expressions: 1. How on earth fossil fuel can cause global warming (to – teacher) happen soon(-er– teacher). 2. I wish I knew how we can create (another type of teacher) energy that will decrease (the – teacher) global warming effect.

As explained in the previous chapter, the activities are designed to meet the flow of information for the students in order to be able to apply their initial knowledge as well as the given one into the English materials to be covered. Therefore, the mapping of the curriculum must be constructed not based on the given syllabus, however by the need of information. Nevertheless, it should be noted that teachers should also be very careful in managing the time. Even though the lesson plan does not completely follow the order listed by the national curriculum, careful planning is needed in order to cover all materials.

Reflections on Practice This section reports on the writer‘s experiences and reflection on the application of integrating renewable energy issues into English lesson based on the indicators.

a. Activity One: Listening - Identifying and responding to complaints The first step was to give student written dialogs to elicit the expression learnt. Elicitation stage is important as a foundation of initial learning assessment to promote students‘ learning inquiry process. It was then followed by another activity i.e. listening to Michael Jackson song titled Earth Song. The tape was played only twice since the purpose was to be part of the tuning in process. Therefore, time management needed to be taken into concern to reach the goal. At the time they listened, they also filled in the gaps to enrich their vocabulary. Afterward, by using the situation given inform the tape, teacher elicited from the students what message conveyed in the lyric. The students‘ answers were various but have the same bottom line that was the way human treat earth. Additionally, another leading questions - ―If you were the mother earth, what would you feel?‖ – was given. Most of the students answered that the earth would feel sad, annoyed, disturbed, or angry. Finally, the last guiding question was raised: What would you say if you were the mother earth? Most of the students came up with answers which did not meet the expected ones that would lead them to the topic they were about to have that was lodging complaint. There was only one student who could answer related to the topic: ―If I were mother earth, I‘d like to complain!‖

From this activity, researcher was quite satisfied with the finding since most of the students were able to link between the tuning-in process that they had gone through and the upcoming topic they were about to have.

c. Activity Three: Reading and Listening – Comprehending meanings in texts and essays in a form of explanation text. The activities started by matching pictures of kinds of energy and their definition (known also as ―pelmanism‖) as a starting point of the renewable energy topic. Most of the students had background knowledge of this information. Therefore, there were only 6 pairs out of 15 in the three classes who made mistakes in the matching activity. After discussing the

An important feedback surfaced for the writer due to the situation. She believes that it is important to formulize questions that really guide the students to utter the expression wanted by the teacher in order to promote student-oriented classroom situation.

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang correct answer, the students were asked to group them into two energy categories: renewable and nonrenewable. All of the students, as predicted, were able to categorize them without mistakes due to their prior knowledge. Furthermore, to supplement their knowledge on the issue, they were asked to watch a video about the application of renewable energy in a Highland and Scotland as reading activity since the video only used instrumental music two or three lines subtitles as explanations for every scenes. During the session, they were inquired to find the other types of renewable energy mentioned in the movie since subsequently they would be asked to do a wordsearch game. These activities were created to give students the log of vocabularies and to gather their attention before getting into the reading activity. Thus, based on the researcher‘s interpretation, the students seemed to be interested to continue to reading activity since almost of students took part in discussions.

d. Activity Four: Reading - Understanding the generic structure of explanation text and applying passive voice. In this activity, teacher used the previous the reading material from the previous lesson titled Renewable Energy in teaching students the generic structure of an explanation text and its explanation scheme. The method of delivery was by using elicitation through groups and class discussion. As a drilling phase, teacher gave a another text titled Acid Rain that still has the connection showing the effect of using fossil fuel inappropriately. In this activity, the students did not have any difficulty in identifying the generic structure since all of the groups have correct answer in differentiating the parts of generic structure: (i) General statements, (ii) Explanation sequences, and (iii) concluding statements. Nevertheless, they seemed to find difficulty in formulating the explanation sequences since they needed to use their skimming skill in order to be able to find the main ideas of every paragraph and formulated them in a form of sentences. Furthermore, both of the texts are used as another elicitation stage for the students as a tuning-in phase into passive voice. Since the grammar point had been given in the previous lesson, the function here was only to review. The students were asked to find examples of passive voice in the texts and as a practice they were asked to change the active voice into passives.

e. Activity Five: Listening – Identifying and responding to the language of possibilities. In this session, the students were given a written dialog having the elements of expressing possibilities while two students read for them in front of the class. Afterward, the students were asked to watch the ―Inconvenient Truth‖ movie from Al Gore and to jot down important facts. From the facts found by the students, they were then required to create utterances as a drilling process. Teacher then tried to elicit more expression that related their findings with Renewable Energy topic. It was found that most of the students were able to formulate the utterances by using the facts from the movies. Nevertheless, they seemed to have difficulty in formulating utterances that have a close relation to renewable energy. Based on the situation, teacher asked students to find more materials that would support their speaking activity form the internet as their background knowledge to support their arguments in the upcoming debate session.

f. Activity Six : Writing – Explanation text based on the generic structure In this session, students were asked to form a group of four. In 20 minutes, every group discussed the facts found in the movie they watched in the previous lessons and brainstormed about the ones they would use in their explanation text they were about to make. Before writing the text, they should produce the generic structure plot and text scheme in order to comprehend thoroughly the construction of an explanation text. In the next 40 minutes, the draft must be completely finished. At the time the students worked, teacher went around making sure all students work and cooperated well in their group. This process was quite crucial in shaping students‘ cognitive and affective competences. After they had finished, in 10 minutes, each of the group‘s work was exchanged with the others clockwise to be checked and edited for any mistakes in English conventions. Each group was given 100 as the starting score. This score would be reduced by 5 every time a mistake was found by the editors. Subsequently, the works were given back to the writing groups to be revised in the last 20 minutes. This activity promoted error recognition features without discouraging students with boredom that might take place due to their perception of reading as passive activity.

g. Activity Seven: Writing – Explanation text based on the generic structure In this session, teacher asked the students to sit in pairs in order to create a class explanation text by

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang using a ―write & run‖ activity. The two pairs must sit facing another pairs and from a group. So, in a class of 20 students, there were five groups having two pairs each. The text created was not originally their own but a compilation of paragraphs made by the other pairs but based on the generic structure. The game started by having the pairs sit for 10 minutes to discuss about what they want to write that still have a relation with Renewable Energy issue and designed the generic structure and text scheme. Then, in every 10 minutes for four times, all groups of two pairs had to move to the other tables clockwise and continued writing the next one single paragraph based in the generic structure and scheme made by the first pair. This game was considered successful in maintaining the writing mood of the students since it combined cognitive, affective, and psychomotor aspects. Without having burdened, the students conducted the activities without haste. One thing that should be taken into consideration was the time management. Time keeping needed to be preserved carefully since it was easily cause chaos if the instruction was not delivered carefully and the time division was not equal for every session of the game.

h. Activity Eight: Editing explanation text based on the generic structure. The activity in this session was a continuation of the previous one. Here, the students were asked to sit with their partner to edit the works written collaboratively by them and also the other pairs in the previous meeting. Basically, the editing system would be the same as the one conducted in activity six i.e. minus 5 from 100 as the ―capital point‖ for every found error in English convention and the work itself would be republished after revision. Then, every pair presented their work before the class. This activity would allegedly encourage students to be unhesitant in correcting works and be corrected as well. Subsequently, after all participants had presented their writing, they gathered with the other pairs to form a group of four. This group would be rebutting in the next meeting, taking a stance on a position to talk about the benefit of certain energy. Technically, there would be 5 groups in each class. Each group would take a stand on one of 5 energies: fossil fuel, wind, solar, biomass, and hydro energy. One group having one stance would go against the other four groups having the other stance. The topic was assign in this session for every group so they could brainstorm and prepare for their arguments.

i. Activity nine: Having a debate on animal testing issues using the expression of expressing curiosity and possibilities. In this session, each presenting group was given 25 minutes to have rebuttal: 2 minutes 30 seconds to

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perform their presentation, 20 minutes for rebuttal, and the last 2 minutes 30 seconds to deliver their group‘s conclusion. The debate will be assessed by using a rubric that pointed out not only their speaking and rebuttal performance but also the usage of the taught expressions of curiosity and possibilities. The most important system applied here was called ―delegation system‖ in which every member took turn in speaking and must be given opportunities equally. Should a member had an idea to be uttered; he or she must ―delegate‖ the other member to speak his or her mind. If one group failed to conduct this system, their score in the rubric would be reduced. Since the time was limited, the activity was held in two consecutive meetings. From the activity, the students were able to express their idea about a particular topic and take a stance on it. At the same time, they were also required to use the assigned expressions in delivering their rebuttal. By using this method, the students were challenged to use not only the language itself, but also how to improve their critical thinking competence by being able to formulize arguments required in the debate. As for in the affective aspect, it was very important for them to speak up even though they feel they were not ready due to the application of delegation system. Thus, there would be no ―passive‖ and ―active‖ speakers since all students are encouraged to speak critically.

Conclusion Teaching English in the classroom can be made to be more meaningful by integrating issues that can promote creative and critical thinking. This paper utilizes the issue of renewable energy as a part of concerns on environmental sustainable development. By having the integration, it is expected that the students will improve their awareness toward the issue. Hopefully, they would go beyond having the awareness itself, but to be the agent of change that would bring beneficial impact on being part of the sustainable development. The activities proposed in this paper were carefully planned with the level and interests of the learners to make it flowing naturally and interestingly based on the basic requirement made by the government‘s curriculum namely KTSP. Future research could undertake an analysis of the practice of integration of the others issues promoting the environmental sustainable development awareness such as living within ecological limits, protecting natural resources, having a responsible consumption patterns: re-using and recycling, conducing measurable carrying capacity indicators: water, discussing air quality, species diversity, etc. The aforementioned topics are expectantly to be adjustably integrated not only to English and other language teachings but also the other lessons.

National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang That Affect Us All: http://www.globalissues.org/article/595/energy-security

References Depdiknas, 2002. Manajemen Peningkatan Mutu Berbasis Sekolah. Jakarta: Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah

Sutriono & Hanafie, Rita. 2007. Filsafat Ilmu dan Metodologi Penelitian. Yogyakarta: Andi The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development . (1998). Organizing Knowledge for Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development. Partnerships for Global Ecosystem Management: Science, Econimic, and Law. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

IISD. (2002). Sustainable Development Timeline. Canada: International Institute for Sustainable Development Andi. Lebel, Gregory G.; Kane, Hal. (1990). Sustainable Development: A Guide to Our Common Future. Geneva: Center for Our Common Future.

United Nations. (1987). Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, General Assembly Resolution 42/187, 11 December 1987. Retrieved: 200912-01.

OECD. (2001). Sustainable Development: Critical Issues. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development.

UNESCO Associated Schools. (2009). Good Practices: Education for Sustainable Development. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Panel for Education for Sustainable Development. (1999). Sustainable Education Panel First Annual Report. Defra,UK: DETR.

United Nations. (1987, December 11).Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: General Assembly Resolution. www.unesco.org. Retrieved: 2007-04-12

Pollution Prevention Alliance. (2009). Environmental Sustainability Kit. Retrieved December 21, 2009, from Pollution Prevention: http://www.edf.org/page.cfm?tagID=83.

Wals, Arjen. (2009). Learning for a Sustainable World. Paris: United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development.

Shah, A. (2009, November 20). Energy Security. Retrieved December 21, 2009, from Global Issues: Social, Political, Economic and Environmental Issues

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English Competence Needed by Nursing Department Students Pikir Wisnu Wijayanto Telkom Polytechnic Bandung [email protected]

C. Problem Limitation In doing limitation of the research achievement, the research only focus on the authentic English competence needs in learning process such as listening, speaking, writing, and reading related with nursing competencies.

The research aimed at finding out the English competence needed by nursing department students during the course of their studies as well as in preparing themselves for their future work as nurses at the international level. This research took place at the Health Science Faculty at Nursing Department Program at Muhammadiyah University of Purwokerto. The research was descriptive qualitative in nature. This study used interviews and observations to collect the data to answer the research questions. The source of data was sixteen nursing students, one lecturer and the dean. The results of the data analysis indicated that there were ten main competencies to acquire by nursing students to function properly in the nursing profession. The competencies included giving explanation of the escort of basic treatment, giving the health counseling, giving the explanation of the escort of pathology and its treatment, translating the data collection, medical record and report data, executing the basic treatment, using communication skills in a healthcare, approaching to the patient, listening, questioning and diagnosing, giving explanation and advice, and communicating in term of involving patient in management.

D. Problem Formulation The research problems are formulated as follows: 1. What English Competence was needed by nursing students related with the communication activities at the Health Science Faculty of UMP?

E. Research Objectives The research had been conducted to serve some objectives, namely: 1. to identify the English Competency needed by nursing students related with the communication activities, and F. Research Benefits By conducting this research, it is hoped that by focusing on the nursing communication activities and future knowledge and skills of the language, this research helps them in developing their ability and competency in English and they can perform the communication activities in nursing context successfully and enable them to function adequately through the medium of English both in the classroom and in the work setting in their international relationship

Keywords: English competence, ESP, and need analysis,

II. THEORETICAL REVIEW FRAMEWORK A. THEORETICAL REVIEW

I. INTRODUCTION A. Background This research aims at describing the English competence needed related with communication activities performed by nursing department students in English learning activities and the graduate students in their future work. The required competences are needed in order to perform those international communication activities successfully. Thus its basic purpose is that of enabling the students to function adequately through the medium of English both in the classroom and in the work setting.

1.

B. Problem Identification The main issue discussed in this study was that the students‘ need of English competence, which its basic mission was that of enabling the students to function adequately through the medium of English both in the classroom and in the work setting.

90

AND

Communicative Competences Communicating effectively in English as a foreign language (EFL) has been identified as a major challenge facing EFL nursing students. Strategies used at the institution which are aimed at assisting students to meet this challenge included assessment of language proficiency for the nursing program, language assistance throughout the program, and measures taken by faculty to decrease the materials and test bias and facilitate the materials and test-taking by EFL students. The very term 'communicative' carries an obvious ring of truth that we 'learn to communicate by communicating' (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 131).


Socio -cultural Competence

Discourse Competence

Actional Competence

Linguistic Competence Strategic Competence

Figure 2.1. Communicative competence model (CelceMurcia et al. 1995) 2.

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 21) define that English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is an approach to language teaching, which aims to meet the need of particular learners. This means in practice that much of the work done by ESP teachers is concerned with designing appropriate courses for various groups of learners.

b.

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) English for Academic Purposes (EAP)

English for Occupational Purposes (EOP)

English For Science Technology (EST) (Academic)

English for Business and Economic (EBE) (Academic)

English for Medical Purposes (EMP) (Academic)

English for Professional Purposes

Identification of Target Group ▼ Identification of Duties of Professional Workers ▼ Assessment of Communicative Needs ▼ Translation of Needs into Competencies ▼ Translation of Competencies into linguistic and other specifications ▼ Teaching/Learning Activities to develop competencies

Vocational ESL

English for Medical Purposes

Pre-Employment VESL

English for Business Purposes

Chester VESL

Occupational Specific VESL

Woorkplace VESL English for Law (EL) (Academic)

Figure 2.2. The classification of ESP categories by (Johns & Machado in Celce-Murcia 2001) a.

certainly a part of teaching English for Specific Purposes. It can be for academic purpose and for occupational purpose. This program has an objective to improve the students‘ language competence. Besides, it also expected that the information in communication would be conveyed well because the competence of the students in English is improved. This program deals with the English needed in the nursing world, which prepares the students to be able to communicate using English with the foreign medical patients. Therefore, English Competency for nursing students is really needed to help nurse to master English speaking skills that will be very useful later in doing their future job as a real nurse, in which they have to communicate with foreign patients and medical application form. Establishing English Competency in ESP Context: Nursing In establishing English competencies needed in a particular workplace, a course designer can start from target needs (TSA) by analyzing responsibilities/duties/tasks of professional workers in the target situation where the language is going to be used. The responsibilities are then translated into competencies (skills and sub-skills) needed in workplaces in order to be able to master the language needed in the particular workplace. The following are suggested steps in finding out English competencies needed in a particular workplace.

Figure 2.3. Target Situation Analysis (TSA) and Learning Situation Analysis (LSA) (Adapted from Dudley-Evans & St. John's: 1988)

English for Nursing Students English for nursing students is an English program, which is held to meet the nursing students‘ language skills need of English to support their study and future work. In this study, teaching English is

c.

Need analysis Naturally, students begin a course with many questions: What are the instructor‘s attitudes toward the material? What can I learn

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang in this class? What will be required of me? Can I manage the work for this class given the other courses I am taking?

assess the appropriateness of the data instruments and procedures (Ary et.al. 2002: 565). In other words, pilot study was conducted to know whether the study was feasible and worthwhile to continue. From the piloting, it was found that the instruments were applicable. The respondents could answer all questions in the interview guideline well. In addition, there were no changes in two instruments because the respondents did not give any comments. They assumed that the instruments were appropriate.

In preparing the program and the structured materials, the first step to be taken is a needs analysis. Strevens (1980: 109) stated that: ―A detailed analysis of the learners‘ needs starting from the stand point that is not general English that is needed, and the learner can supply comprehensive information about the aims, purposes, needs wants, roles, functions, for which English is required in his or her circumstances.‖ To ensure some success for English as a second language (ESL) learner, teachers need to determine what each learner needs and wants to learn. This is done through needs analysis, before the course, during the course, or after the course has ended. The assessment may use standardized tests or other alternatives, like interviews with learners, group discussion with other teachers who have the experience in handing the course, or through learner observation. In other words, to develop a material program for a specific group of learners, a needs analysis should be conducted.

D. Data Setting and Source The research was conducted from January 2007 until March 2007 at the Health Science Faculty (FIK) at Muhammadiyah University of Purwokerto (UMP). It was done by conducting the interview guideline with students, a lecturer, and the officials (the dean and the head of study program), doing observation in learning process in the classroom, the library condition, and language laboratory. Source of data used in this research was the nursing department students‘, which were argumentative ones, and the documentation. The types of needs were used to answer the first research question. The nursing department students‘ needs on which teacher had given English materials. Those needs, then, were analyzed to know the types of needs for the nursing department students‘ needs.

III. METHODOLOGY A. Methods

E. Data Gathering Instruments

The research was descriptive-qualitative method. The qualitative method is a research procedure that results a descriptive data in the form of written words or statements from people and behavior observed. This research was concerned with English competence for nursing department students in their communication activities both in their study and in the work setting for their international relationship.

The current research implemented three data gathering instruments; they were interview, and observation.

F. Data Collection The participants involved in this research were the students of nursing department program, the English lecturer, and the official of the University (Kaprodi) at the Health Science Faculty (FIK) UMP. The participants were 16 students, the lecturer, and the officials (the dean and the head of study program) of the University). The researcher put them as the subject of research. Although the samples were chosen randomly, their opinions represented the other students‘ generally.

B. Nature of Data The nature of the research data of this research was qualitative data. The data were descriptive because the obtained data described the nursing competencies related with the successfully perform nursing competencies in term of communicative competence. The faculty needs to improve their communicative in English by joining the language course; therefore, the nursing students are able to successfully perform their competencies activity in order to maintain their international relationship and communication. The data were investigated and generated from the participants‘ answer on the interview and the result of observation activity.

G. Data Analysis Data Analysis used in this research was descriptive qualitative analysis with interactive model of analysis. According to Miles and Huberman (1992), there were three analysis components. They were data reduction, display data, and drawing conclusion that are done as interactive model in collecting data process as a circle.

C. The Pilot Study

H.

A pilot study was previously conducted before conducting the research. Pilot study was defined as a trial run with a few subjects to

Data Validation In order to ensure the internal validity and reliability, this research used data verification to check the validity of data that used other

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang source(s) for checking or comparing data. The purpose of data verification was to check the data validation, therefore the result of this research are real based on the reality and condition in research setting. The process of data verification in this study were by comparing and confirming the data gathered from one informant to other informant.

IV. RESEARCH RESULTS A. English competence for nursing department students‟ in term of communicative competences activities The competencies in nursing in term of English communication were addressed explicitly in the interview and implicitly in the observation. There are ten main competencies or activities must be had by nursing. Those were giving the explanation of the escort of basic treatment, giving the health counseling, giving the explanation of the escort of pathology and its treatment, translating the collect data, medical record and report data, executing the basic treatment, using communication skills in a healthcare, approaching to the patient, listening, Ashworth, questioning and diagnosing, giving explanation and advice, and communicating in term of involving patient in management. V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS A. Conclusion The competencies in nursing in term of English communication were addressed explicitly in the interview and implicitly in the observation. The results of the data analysis indicated that there were ten main competencies acquired by nursing students to function properly in the nursing profession. They included Giving the explanation of the escort of basic treatment, Giving the health counseling, Giving the explanation of the escort of pathology and its treatment, Translating the collect data, medical record and report data, Executing the basic treatment, Using communication skills in a healthcare, Approaching to the patient, Listening, questioning and diagnosing, Giving explanation and advice, and Communicating in term of involving patient in management. B. Recommendation English should be as a medium instruction in the learning process. This matter has purpose to give not only the conducive atmosphere in improving English competency to the students. When designing a curriculum for Nursing English, it is important to survey the motives of the students, and it has found these are not always the same. In supporting the students‘ motivation in mastering English, the officials of university need to cooperate with the

hospitals or other medical institutions in abroad or domestic hospitals which has international standard for placing the collegiate. The method of curriculum design and delivery for Nursing Department Students of FIK UMP needs to shift to the communicative approach for teachers and teachers-in-training who want to provide opportunities in the classroom for their students to engage in real-life communication in the target-language. The newest standard of books collection for English should be added. It has the purpose to support the students‘ activity in learning process. Therefore, English Competence for nursing students is really needed to help nurses to master English skills that will be very useful later in doing their future job as real nurses, in which they have to support their academic course, to communicate with foreign patients and medical application form, and others.

Bibliography S., and Morrison, P. 1991. Problems of Competence-Based Nurse Education, Nurse Education Today. pp. 256–260. Retrieved April 21st, 2007, from http:/ /www.scopus.com/Publications/index.htm

Austin, D., and Tim. C. 1976. English for Nurses. London: Longman Group Limited Bogdan, R. C., and Taylor, S. 2000. Qualitative Research for Education: An Introduction to Theory and Methods. Boston: Allyn and Bacon Bradshaw, A. 1972. Defining ‘Competency‘ in Nursing (Part I): A Policy Review, Journal of Clinical Nursing, pp. 347–354. Retrieved April 21st, 2007, from http:/ /www.scopus.com/Publications/index.html Dudley .E, and Maggie, St. J, 1998. Developments in English for Specific Purpose. Cambridge: CUP. Hutchinson, T., and Waters, A.1987. English for Specific Purposes. A Learning Centered Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press John, A. M. and Price-Machado. D. 2001. English for Specific Purposes (ESP): Tailoring Courses to Students Need and to the Outside World. In Celce Murcia. (Ed), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Boston: Heinle and Heinle. Strevens, P. 1988. ―ESP after 20 Years‖ in Tickoo, ML. (ed.) ESP: State of Art. Anthology Series 21. Singapore : RELC

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The Improvement of Academic Reading Achievement by Using Task-based Learning R.A. Noer Doddy Irmawati Ahmad Dahlan University Yogyakarta

descriptive statistic technique and critical analysis to know the improvement of the situation in detail and precisely according to the improving of the treatment in each cycle.

Abstract – Reading is a compulsory subject in English Letters Faculty of Letters Ahmad Dahlan University Yogyakarta. The emphasis is on academic reading. So far, the English achievement of students in English Letters Faculty of Letters UAD Yogyakarta is low, which is shown by the indicator of mean scores 2,431 = C+ (AY.2004/ 2005), 2,297 = C (AY.2005/2006), and 2,492 = C+ (AY.2006/2007). The low achievement is caused by (1) low input quality, (2) the weakness of English basic ability, (3) unrelevant syllabus, (4) the conventional of learning method, and (5) students‘ attitude toward the difficulty of English. Starting from the problems and the causes mention above, the writer proposes a solution, that is learning academic reading by using Task-Based Learning (TBL). The problems of this research are (1) Can the use of TBL improve the achievement of academic reading of the students? If yes, how far is the improvement?, (2) How is the study intensity of the students while the lecturers teach them by using TBL?, (3) What are the benefit and the weakness of TBL toward the learning of academic reading in English Letters Faculty of Letters Ahmad Dahlan University (ADU) Yogyakarta?.

The results showed the application of TBL can improve the achievement of academic reading of the students of English Leters Faculty of Letters ADU Yogyakarta in some aspects and dimensions, such as (1) aspects of reading ability, (2) aspects of academic reading, and (3) aspects of English: vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation, and improving the dimensions of (1) attitude, (2) profesionalism, (3) motivation and interest, (4) communication, (5) ability of cooperation, colaboration, socialization, sharing ideas, opinion, and suggestion, (6) discipline and timing value ability, (7) reading analysis ability, (8) TBL and its processes can be used as an emotional medium. How far is the improvement can be described as follow: the result of pre-test increased (1st cycle is 57,41, 2nd cycle is 62,41, and 3rd cycle is 66,62) and the result of post-test increased (1st cycle is 65,22, 2nd cycle is 66,27, and 3rd cycle is 75,30). The result of learning also increased, cognitive aspect is 89,19% (33 of 37 students got the score above 66). Afective aspect is 89,19%. Psycomotor aspect is 91,89% (34 students got good score above 4). The improvement of students learning intensity such as (1) students interest in learning English, (2) learning enthusiasm, (3) responsibility toward doing the tasks, (4) learning result on cognitive, affective, and psycomotor aspects, (5) speaking effort in English, (6) using time effectively, (7) professionalism awareness, (8) social attitude and socialization, (9) leadership, model, and moral value. The weaknesses are (1) need longer time, (2) must be done at that moment together, (3) the result of doing the tasks must be collected at the same time together, (4) making the weak students become lazy, bored, desperate, and mysterious passenger of success, (5) task is not well and right done, (6) all the answers are not well discussed, (7) egoism makes others emotional, (8) the use of dictionary confiscates learning time, (9) the difficulty of sharing idea becomes discussion blocks, (10) ashamed becomes communication blocks, (11) making bad atmosphere and not so relax.

This is the result of a classroom action research which was done in English Letters Faculty of Letters ADU Yogyakarta from 8th May 2008 up to 31st December 2008. This classroom action research was done by a three cycles performed by (1) planning, (2) preventative steps of performance, (3) observation, and (4) reflection. Each cycle had five times meeting. To get the data the researcher did some activities such as observing, interviewing, asking for fulfilling form, giving test, giving questioner, and analyzing document. Data resource triangulation and method triangulation were used to know the validity of the investigation technique. Informant review was also used in data validity test. Reliability estimation to guarantee reliability of data was found by test and observation. To analyze the data the researcher used the result of observation which was reflected and the learning result of the students which was achieved. The technique of analyzing the data was

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Engagement Strategy for Teaching Reading to Students of English Combined with Munthe and Kemps‘ concept, I group steps (2), (3), and (4) as in the process section, while step (1) is the same as that of Munthe and Kemp. To support the implementation steps 2, 3, and 4, certain learning materials should be carefully and well-designed, and to know the positive or negative effects, models of evaluation and assessment are implemented as in figure 1 below.

R. Hendro Prasetianto STKIP PGRI Blitar

Introduction The challenge Indonesian students of English have to face in reading class is how to make them engaged in reading activities. The literature in reading instruction abounds with researches or papers of efforts to enhance the students‘ active response in reading class (Cahyono, 2009; Kam & Wong, 2004). The phrase how to make indicates some teaching strategies related to selection and gradation of teaching materials and implementation of appropriate way. The word meaningful indicates student engagement in concept organization and language mastery. It is in line with what Morison et al say (2001:124): ―Learning is an active process in which the learner constructs meaningful relationship between the new knowledge presented in the instruction and the learner‘s existing knowledge. A well-designed instructional strategy prompts or motivates the learner to actively make these connections between what the learner already knows and the new information.‖ Another thing to keep in mind here is decision to choose Grolier Student Encyclopedia as the learning material in reading instruction as having several unique features to meet the students‘ need in reading class.

Objectives

Unit

Curriculum as a System

Process

Evaluation/ Assesment

Figure 1: Components of Curriculum Based on the concept shown in figure 1 and to be more specific, reading instruction can be analogically designed as in figure 2. Reading instruction is affected by the construction of reading objectives, organization of the learning materials or units, organization and implementation of approaches, methods, strategies or techniques, and evaluation or assessment principles. Each working component is then elaborated by experts in different ways or criteria. Reading objectives, for instance, can be formulated under Gagné‘s theory in three domains.

Reading Instruction

Reading Objectives

Reading instruction covers many sides. At least there are four basic relevant components included in discussing curriculum as a system. They are competences as learning goals/objectives, learning materials as units, learning strategies included in the process section, and evaluation and assessment (Munthe, 2009, Kemp, 1985). In lesson planning Gagné (1979:41) stated this way: ―The purpose of lesson planning, as presented here, is to be sure that necessary instructional events take place. Key steps in lesson planning (or design of self instructional modules) therefore include: (1) classifying the lesson objectives,(2) listing the needed instructional events, (3) choosing a medium of instruction for each event, and (4) incorporating appropriate conditions of learning into the prescription for how each event will be accomplished by the lesson.‖

Learning Materials

Reading Instructions

Learning and Teaching Activities

Evaluation/ Assesment

Figure 2: Reading Instruction Components Process component constitutes the organization and implementation of learning and teaching activities where teachers and students apply certain approaches, methods, and strategies of learning ad teaching. This part is subject to open discussion as it includes various fields or instruction emphases. Kirn and Hartmann (1990), for example, offer a set of learning activities, which are different from one part of instruction to another. The activities meant can cover getting started, pre-reading

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang questions, initial reading and controlled reading, getting or skimming for the main ideas or scanning for information, guessing meaning from context, understanding reading structure, distinguishing facts from theories, and discussing the reading questions, and making inferences as post-reading exercises. Talok (1993) provides a model of five steps in designing instructional material. The first step is prior knowledge activation, which consists of vocabulary preview and anticipation of content. The second step consists only of a reading passage to be read. The third step is about comprehension tasks in which reading activities are designed into three level exercises, that is, literary level, interpretive level, and applied level. Language exercises, namely reviewing the linguistic devices from the text, and integrating activity to adapt and store the knowledge/information from the text in students‘ memory constitute the fourth and fifth steps respectively. Evaluation or assessment component is about the standard criteria for judging the success of learning and teaching processes or activities, both on the part of students and teachers, and where the quality of learning and teaching is also validly judged. But in line with the topic of discussion, I limit my treatment to unit component and how it is implemented in reading instruction.

Structural Consideration

Learning Materials

Lexical Consideration

Visual Layout

Learning Material Design

Learners

Background/ Prior Knowledge

Figure 3: Learning Material Design Tjitrowibowo (1988) questioned which factor affected more in student‘s understanding of the reading texts: whether prior knowledge or language mastery. He studied the dominant role of the prior knowledge regarding the topic in his research and found out that the prior knowledge on the reading topics affected the process and level of students‘ understanding of English reading texts. The two considerations meant, namely, visual aspect and prior knowledge, may also affect student interest and motivation. In designing learning material for reading instruction linguistic consideration is of importance. Language mastery is the right term for this consideration. The problem of language, in this case English, determines the student interest and motivation. Kasbolah (1988b) stated that reading should be presented in simple vocabulary and structure. The simpler vocabulary ad structure, the more readable the reading texts are. The simplicity of vocabulary and structure in reading texts concerns with the readability of the ease of reading. Determining readability of reading text is actually not easy. It covers a number of factors. Klare (1984) uses the term readable to refer to any one of the three characteristics of reading matter, namely, legibility, ease of reading, and ease of understanding. In order to see how readable the reading texts are the readability should be predicted. The most common device used to predict the readability ease is the Flesch Formula. Several years before Kasbolah‘s opinion was launched, Hill (1979) argued that the formula was the most applicable for predicting the readability of short reading texts. A reading text is considered to be suitable for the readers, if its reading ease is judged standard by using the Flesch formula. In this formula designers of reading texts are suggested to follow the criteria of determining the language difficulty. The lexical difficulty is often assessed by employing word counts, while the structural difficulty is assessed by employing sentence counts. Common word counts used are word length. Common sentence counts are sentence length, that is, the average number of words or syllables per sentence. It is worth noting that the structural difficulty in terms of number of phrases and clauses as well as the function of sentence such as declarative, imperative, has not been demonstrated using Readability formulas and Readability Ease (206.835 -

Criteria for Learning Material Design For the learning materials to be meaningful to the students, certain criteria are professionally determined. Figure 3 depicts the criteria. Each component in learning material design is integral, meaning that they are closely interdependent. Kemp (1985:10) identified four fundamental statements concerning the instructional design process, that is, student, methods, objectives, and evaluation and says that these elements are interrelated and could conceivably comprise an entire instructional design plan. As students are learners, learning material designers should take into consideration the characteristics of students. One of them is that students as human beings need to be visually fed. Pictures as learning aids facilitate students of visual talent to learn what they read; visual input is a means proper to visual learning style (Pribadi, 2009). Pictures constitute a learning aid for mind mapping or construct designing. Beside that, what they see determines the quality of interest. My survey on my students‘ learning style on January using the checklist proposed by dePotter et al (1999) reads that 72% of the students have visual learning style, 14% of them have audio and kinesthetic learning styles respectively.

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang .846wl – 1,015sl, where wl means number of syllables per 100 words while sl indicates average number of words per sentence (Klare, 1974:68). Figure 4 below shows the readability graph.

they want to learn an instrument so that they can play in an orchestra … Famous research … suggested that students who felt most warmly about a language and who wanted to integrate into the culture of its speakers were more highly motivated … One of the main tasks for teachers is to provoke interest and involvement in the subject even when students are not initially interested in it. … But real motivation comes from within each individual.‖ One more thing to mind is that motivation is closely related to engagement perspective on reading development and correlated with achievement in reading comprehension. Even Guthrie et al (2004) stated that a second major component of engagement perspective is cognitive strategy use during reading.

Student Engagement The phrase student engagement refers to the active involvement or participation on the part of the students either individually or in small groups. To be fully active, students should be well-motivated. To trigger student motivation in reading activities, the teacher should put into practice the right strategy. The right engagement strategy here includes Anticipation Guide strategy, Frame of Reference Strategy, QAR strategy, Collaborative Annolighting A Text strategy, Kinesthetic Strategy, Multisensory Strategy, and Writer‘s Craft strategy. All these strategies are applied to arouse student motivation. So, there is a close relationship between strategy and motivation.

Grolier Student Encyclopedia The reading texts in Grolier Student Encyclopedia are used as the teaching materials since they have certain unique features which match with the criteria. The unique features include visual aspect, conceptual aspect, and linguistic aspect. The visual aspect of this encyclopedia is marked by ―boxes‖ and ―references‖, which help provoke students motivation and interest. The special boxes covering particular subjects in extra detail are key facts boxes, did you know boxes, amazing facts boxes, biography boxes, and the like. The references are see also references and look into the index for references. Each is meant to enlarge the horizon of knowledge. The key facts box gives facts and figures about someone or something like U.S. presidents, and planets. The did you know box is intended to provide detailed information about a wide range of topics such as Northwest Native Americans. The amazing fact box highlights fascinating or fun facts about culture, the natural world, and modern technology. Other boxes meant to add extra information about the topics being treated may be about biography, the animal kingdom, great architects, famous astronauts, artists, Nobel Prize winners, famous frontiersmen, major physical features of Asia. The references constitute cross-referencing devices that also help students find further information about the topics being discussed. The first are ―see also‖ references. They direct the students from a term not used as an entry to the entry where the information will be found. Other references are the ―look into the index for‖ references. These references tell the students the set contains information about the topic and they can find it by looking up the subject in the index available at the end part of each volume. Next, the Encyclopedia provides other accessories such pictures and maps and their captions. The captions are written in simple English. These accessories serve to provoke students‘ enthusiasm in reading activities. The pictures and maps are related to the content of the texts.

Figure 4: Readability Graph

Engaged readers are well-motivated (Harmer, 1998) and get interested in reading texts and activities (Gutherie, 2000) through such accessories as pictures, maps, and other extra information regarding the topics being treated. Harmer described at length the importance of motivation on the part of the student as reader. Motivation can be elicited if the student is fully interested in reading or learning material. Motivation and interest can arouse students‘ positive attitude towards what they are learning. The points to keep mind in line with this concept are stated by Harmer (1998:8): ―Whatever we think of the teaching methods used – or the reasons for the language learning – the teachers and students in these cases had a number of things on their side: they were highly motivated, they really wanted to learn and they had powerful reasons for doing so – including, of course, a fear of failure. The desire to learn can come from many causes. Perhaps the students love the subject or are simply interested to see what it is like. On the other hand, they have a practical reason for their study:

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Maps are generally about tribes or states or countries or continents. The further information about the maps is sometimes clarified in key fact boxes. Maps function to draw in students the concept of location, names of important sites, towns, and the like. Maps also train students to think about the concept or ideas visually. The Encyclopedia also enriches the conceptual aspect with a variety of topics to be read and explained in a rather complete way. The topics are dispersed in seventeen volumes and alphabetically written. The topics range from abolitionist movement to zoology. All the topics in my opinion provide a large set of knowledge, and this can serve as prior knowledge for students when later they are reading similar topics in any English articles, magazines, or books. Another mark of this encyclopedia is the linguistic aspect: lexical and structural considerations. The new vocabulary will enrich students with the abundant wealth of vocabulary. If students finished reading one volume or certain texts, they would add their vocabulary property.

At post-stage, my individual students paraphrase what they have read either in groups or in individualy to check the level of their understanding and language mastery. This activity is termed Writer‘s Craft strategy where students analyze the passage and put the ideas in composition. Needs : What ideas in the text, What lexical information and grammatical information

Introduction

Content

Accessories

Main and Supporting Ideas

Vocabulary Problems

Structure Problems

Real Teaching

What to do next

The real teaching begins with advance organizers. This device is meant to elicit and focusstudents‘ attention to the topics being discussed. Some of the advance organizers used in the Pre-Reading stage are Anticipation Guide strategy (AGs), and Frame of Reference strategy (FRs). AGs is typically used to help to engage students in the topics to be discussed, while FRs is to create a mental context for reading a passage. The during stage concerns with the small group response to the topics being discussed and individual work (Silberman, 1996). To activate student engagement in the class, I design a graphic organizer from Belanca‘s ideas, decision maker‘s flow chart (see figure 5). Belanca (2007) states that this organizer is used to provide visual schematic for the decision-making process. In terms of thinking process, this organizer trains students to generate alternatives, analyze, find similarities, and evaluate. In order to elicit students‘ prior or existing knowledge, I also apply concept map (see figure 6) used to enable students to make relationships among concepts collected from multiple or complex sources of information. These two are accompanied with QAR strategy, Collaborative Annolighting A Text strategy, Kinesthetic Strategy, Multisensory Strategy to encourage students to see the relationship of ideas, identifying difficult words and structure and accessories used in the passage. During the group and individual work, I teach them lexico-grammatical problems and cohesive ties to relate one idea to another. I teach my students these things to train them to connect the information gained. This makes the learning process meaningful for the students as at the end of the reading instruction, they have to paraphrase what they have read and learnt. I do this to keep my students working in the right track while maintaining their enthusiasm, which is my interpersonal rapport (Pica, 1945).

Figure 5: Decision Flow Chart

Figure 6: Concept Map

References Adler, C.R. 2004. Seven Strategies to Teach Students Text Comprehension. (Online), (http://www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/publications/readin g_first text.html, accessed on 10 January, 2010) Belanca, James. 2007. A Guide to Graphic Organizers (2nd ed). Thousand oaks: Corwin Press. Cahyono, Bambang Yudhi (ed). 2009. Teaching English with Insights from Linguistics. Malang: State University of Malang Press. DePotter, Bobbi, Reardon, Mark, & Singer-Nourie, Sarah. 1999. Quantum Teaching: Orchestrating Student Success. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Gagné, Robert M. & Briggs, Leslie J. 1979. Principles of Instructional Design. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Klare, George R (1974) ―Assessing Readability‖ in Reading Research Quarterly, volume X, number 1.

Guthrie, John T. Contexts for Engagement and Motivation in Morrison, Gary R., Ross, Steven M. & Kemp, Jerrold E. Reading. (Online), 2001. Designing Effective Instruction. New York: John (http://www.readingonline.org/articles/handbook/gutherie/, Wiley & Sons, Inc. accessed on 10 January, 2010) Munthe, Bermawi. 2009. Desain Pembelajaran. Guthrie, John T. et al. 2004. Increasing reading Yogyakarta: Pustaka Insan Madani. Comprehension and Engagement Through ConceptOriented Reading Instruction. Journal of Educational Pica, Teresa, Barnes, Gregory A. & Finger, Alexis G. Psychology, 2004, Vol. 96, No. 3, 403-423. 1990. Teaching Matters: Skills and Strategies For International Teaching Assistants. New York: Newbury Harmer, Jeremy. 1998. How to Teach English: An House Publishers. introduction to the practice of English language teaching. Longman. Silberman, Melvin. 1996. Active Learning: 101 Strategies to Teach Any Subjects. Allyn & Bacon. Kam, Ho Wah & Wong, Ruth Y L (ed.) 2004. English Language Teaching in East Asia Today (2nd ed.) Talok, Damianus. 1993. Reading Comprehension: Three Singapore: Marshall Cavendish International. Level Exercises for Pre-Advanced Readers. Yogyakarta: Kanisius. Kasbolah, Kasihani (1988b) The Teaching of Reading, Structure and Vocabulary. Unpublished papers presented Kasbolah, Kasihani (1988b) The Teaching of Reading, in the TLS II class at the English Department. Structure and Vocabulary. Unpublished papers presented in the TLS II class at the English Department. Kemp, Jerrold E. 1985. The Instructional Design Process. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers. Klare, George R (1974) ―Assessing Readability‖ in Reading Research Quarterly, volume X, number 1. Kirn, Elaine & Hartmann, Pamela. 1990. Interactions II: A Reading Skills Book (2nd ed.). New York: McGrawHill, Inc.

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A Marxist Feminist Reading of El Saadawi‟s Women at Point Zero and Linggasari„s Sali: Two Women from Vastly Different Civilizations at Vastly Different Point Zeros Reimundus Raymond Fatubun Cenderawasih University Jayapura, Papua

oppression of the patriarchal societies be presented in literary works through the sexual division of labor? Since these two novels were written by two women from two different civilizations, one can say that they really represent their world through their own voices. What do these two women represent their world here?

Marxism and Feminism What is Marxism? We need to have a through understanding of this concept first before moving on to the concept of feminism because feminism was derived from one of the concepts central to Marxism. According to Humm (1995:161-162, see also Wilczynski, 1984:185, Humm, 1994, Morton, 2007), Marxism is the theory and practice of revolutionary class politics. Marxism is a system of philosophical, economic and social beliefs about human nature and society. The main elements of Marxism which guide feminism are dialectical materialism and the labor theory of value. And what is feminism? The definition of this term incorporates both a doctrine of equal rights for women and an ideology of social transformation aiming to create a world for women beyond simple social equality. In general, feminism is the ideology of women's liberation since intrinsic in all its approaches is the belief that women suffer injustice because of our sex. Two of the purposes, therefore, are to establish a women‘s canon and to explore the cultural construction of gender and identity (Merriam Webster‘s Encyclopedia of Literature, 1995:409, see also Morner and Rausch, 1991:82) 1.2 Marxist Feminism Humm (1995:162-163, 1994, see also Barry, 1995) states that feminist theory is crucially different from Marxist theory because feminism must focus on gender and sexuality rather than on material conditions in any ideological construction. Many feminists argue, however, that only a synthesis of Marxism and feminism, even if it is 'an unhappy marriage', can emancipate women. The aims of Marxist feminism are: to describe the material basis of women's subjugation, and the relationship between the modes of production and women's status; and to apply theories of women and class to the role of the family. Marxist feminists identify mainly the sexual division of labor as a cause of oppression and Marxist feminism is then an agenda of economic change. To understand women and their world, one needs to read women‘s writing, ecriture feminine (Humm, 1995:75, see also Barth, Derrida, 1960s, later defined by the French theorist, Helene Cixous in her essay, ―The Laugh of the Medusa) Only through ecriture feminine can one see women‘s world and problems through their own language, speaking their own minds. How can the

El Saadawi and Linggasari Nawal El Saadawi is a world famous Egyptian feminist writer who had to or may still have to suffer a lot of consequences for choosing to address woman issues in her country. Because of her writing she was once removed from her jobs. But it was a good chance for her to use the free time to think, to research and to write. As a wellknown psychiatrist, she used her expertise to research women who were detained and goaled. Her novel is a real life experience with the woman who becomes her leading character, Firdaus, a real woman prisoner. Her novel may be said to be an exemplary psychiatric novel. Her novels and books on the situation of women have had a deep effect on successive generations of young women and men over the last five decades. Her play ―God Resigns At the Summit Meeting‖ was banned in Egypt during November 2006 and she faced a new trial in Cairo court raised against her by Al Azhar in February 2007, accusing her of apostasy and heresy because of her new play. She won the case. El Saadawi had been awarded national and international literary prizes, lectured in many universities, and participated in many international and national conferences. Her works have been translated into more than thirty languages all over the world, and some of them are taught in a number of universities in different countries. (retrieved and adapted from www.nawalsaadawi.net, March 15, 2010). Dewi Linggasari is a woman ethnographer who has participated in a number of studies concerning pastoral life and has started it since she was still a university student. Because of her research background experience in pastoral life, she can understand rural life as she portrays in her novel which is set in the famous Baliem Valley. Her extensive stay in Papua gives her enough glimpses into the Papuan rural life like Wamena. Sali is a feminist novel but Dewi is interested in the life of those left behind in general.

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The Plot Summaries Woman at Point Zero (WPZ hereafter) is set in medias res and Sali is set ab ovo. WPZ was translated from the Arab language into English but Sali is still in Bahasa Indonesia. (Quotes in this paper are my translation for Sali. To save room, I did not include the Indonesian versions) WPZ: An Egyptian woman called Firdaus was arrested and put in jail for something she did but she did it to defend her life. She insisted that it must have been because of those men who were in power. She hates men and refuses to live under the laws made by their patriarchal hierarchy. She decided to become a whore rather than a wife for she believed that becoming a wife is practicing the patriarchal laws and therefore, become a legal slave for her husband; becoming a prostitute means becoming a free woman who can decide what to do with her own body, to sell as a commodity for money or to share with somebody else for enjoyment. It is up to her to decide without interference from anybody else. SALI: A young doctor from Java on her outreach program in Wamena met a Dani patient called Liwa at her late pregnancy and very sick. She saved Liwa and her children for the Dani woman gave birth to twin. According to the traditional belief of the Dani, one child of the twin has to be killed because they believe it to be the child of the devil. Through her own words Liwa informs the doctor of her everyday life under her very rigidly patriarchal society. Since Liwa could not bear the oppression of her husband, she decided that she had to do the ultimate: pluging herself into the violent current river below and drown, leaving her sali on a rock to signal her departure to oblivion.

other causes. Marginalization to women actually starts at home in terms of discrimination towards the family members in a family. The issue of marginalization is apparent in these novels. The following quote shows how religious precepts allow this to happen: … I said my uncle was a respected Sheikh, well versed in the teachings of religion, and he, therefore, could not possibly be in the habit of beating his wife. She replied that it was precisely men well versed in the religion who beat their wives. The precepts of religion permitted such punishment. A virtuous woman was not supposed to complain about her husband. Her duty was perfect obedience. (WPZ, p.44) (c) Negative Labeling Negative labeling or stereotypical stigma is the label put on a group of people or ethnic group which is almost always negative and therefore it may make this particular group of people suffer unnecessary bad treatment. A group of people suffering from this practice of negatively labeling is gender based and most of the time it is the female who are labeled this way. Wearing cosmetic is an example people use to negatively label women. Wearing cosmetic is associated with efforts of women to attract sexual partners. Public psychological attitudes may develop negative opinions based on this stereotyping which in turn result in government policies, adat laws, religious interpretations that do not side women. … While he was biting me, he kept on repeating: 'Slut, bitch.' Then he started insisting my mother in words I was not able to follow. Later on, when I tried to pronounce them, I was not able. But after that night I heard them often from Bayoumi, and from Bayoumi's friends. So I got used to their sound, … (WPZ, p. 50)

The Five Prevailing Injustices towards Women This paper discusses the Marxist feminist issues depicted in the novels in terms of the what is put forth by Fakih in his book Analisis Gender & Transformasi Sosial (Gender Analysis & Social Transformation, 2008:72-75; see also Ridwan, 2006; Sugihastuti and Septiawan, 2007, and Nugroho, 2008). Fakih mentions five prevailing injustices found in societies. These are (a) marginalization; (b) subordination; (c) negative labeling; (d) violence; and (e) domestic duties. To proceed to the discussion, I would like to use these five injustices to analyze the situations faced by the two leading characters in these novels. (a) Marginalization. Marginalization emerges because of poverty resulting from natural disasters, cultural strata, or gender differences. This last one is what evident with women in many places. These gender differences which result in gender inequalities are from various sources such as policies, religious precepts, adat laws and ethnic cultural practices, or interpretations of the holy books and many

(d) Violence Violence may be physical or psychological. Violence, both psychological and physical, may be suffered by anybody but often it is because of gender differences that make women undergo more unnecessary violence. And it is because of the gender differences that the public view that violence towards women in many cases are justified. This gender related violence may take various forms. According to Fakih (2008:17) there are seven forms of gender related violence: (a) raping, (b) domestic violence, (c) genital mutilation, (d) prostitution, (e) pornography, (f) enforced sterilization, (g) molestation, (h) sexual and emotional harassment. The following domestic violence shows how the husbands of Firdaus and Liwa practice:

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On one occasion he hit me all over with his shoe. My face and body became swollen and bruised. So I left the house and went to my uncle. But my uncle told me that all husbands beat their wives, and my uncle's wife added that her husband often beat her. (WPZ, p.44)


If there is no food, Kugara, her husband, would rage violently and hit her. After working that hard Aburah felt terrible fatigue, her bones ached, suffering a terrible fever, and could not even stand. Only in a condition like this could she be perceived as being sick and could be allowed to have a rest. (Sali, p.7) (e) Domestic Duties There is an assumption that women are more caring and more attentive to household works. This develops to become the belief that women take care of all the domestic duties. This is a view that has been there for millennia. This is also evident in both novels but in Sali it is very strongly rooted in the Dani cultural belief, i.e, hipit (women as the ones to lean on), inomaken (women as roots to support), inamukareke (women as power of life), ilak hutik (women are the ones to breast feed and to maintain relations) (Alua, 2006: 118). These values are seen in the following: The work loads for Lapina* becomes heavier, she has to get up early, prepares food for Kugara, goes to attend fields while looking after Liwa, feeds the pigs, and behaves as though a wife. Months later Lapina feels weaker and sickly. In this condition she still has to go to the garden for their daily food both for them and the pigs (Sali, p. 32 *Lapina is Liwa‘s aunt)

There were other famous queens like Nevertiti, Nevertari, Cleopatra, not to mention the famous black Queens from Nubia (now the Sudan) who brought Egypt prosperity in the arts and culture. One has to also remember that at divinity level, most of the kown civilized world worshipped the most famous Egyptian Magna Mater in the history of mankind, Isis (Carey, 1991; Clayton, 1990; Storm, 2003). Only utill the Virgin Mary came into the scene was Isis thrown into oblivion. In general it was only with the advent of the Abrahmic religions that the authority of great Egyptian women fell into obscurity. Firdaus is actually struggling to bring back values of her ancestry. She has the power to confront her patriarchal authority, saying: I became a very successful prostitute. I was paid the highest price, and even men of great importance competed for my favours. … I knew that successful politicians cannot bear to accept defeat in front of others, probably because they always carry defeat I within themselves. … They draw a feeling of supremacy from their power over others. (WPZ, p. 89) Liwa

Firdaus and Liwa‟s Reactions to Their Patriarchal Oppresions These two novels are set in two very vastly different civilizations. One is in Cairo, Egypt, a centuriesold-highly civilized society; the other, one could say, is in a still primitive stone-age-civilization, Wamena in Papua. Firdaus In WPZ, Elsadawi‘s Firdaus has role models she can hold on to, especially from ancient times. In the antiquity, the Egyptians had already had a concept of balance in life including gender roles called ma‘at (Glassman, 2000). There was still male domination in certain areas like top authority (pharaoh) but in everyday life Egyptian women were very free to choose whatever they wanted to do. There were, however, famous queens of the Nile who ruled as pharaos. Ordinary lay women could own properties, divorced husbands, etc. This was an extremely unbelievable progress compared to even women in the west who were still oppressed even until the 19th century. This shows, to some extent, an androgynous society, a world in which gender roles were balanced or at least not rigidly defined. To mention just one example of the famous queens of the Nile, Queen Hutsapsut wore a fake beard to show her authority as a pharaoh. She was the one who built the tall obelisks we can still witness today.

The Dani women, on the other hand, could be said to have been living, still, in the dark ages. Compared with Firdaus who has reached the understanding of the importance of being free to use her own body, Liwa still struggles with the basic necessities just to survive and to go on living in her dangerously patriarchal world. She does not have role models to turn to. No famous queens among the Dani for her to imitate although the Papuans are believed to have been in Papua since some 50.000 to 60.000 years ago (Muller, 2008:38). The Dani live in circular thatched, smoked-filled huts. Dani men wore penis gourds called koteka and women, grass skirts called sali and go bare-breasted. The Dani women do most of the work, tending the fields, raising the children and watching over the tribe's most prized possession, pigs, a symbol of wealth. Most Dani women carry string bags, called noken, across their foreheads. The bags, which hang down the back, are filled with vegetables, wood, a child, or anything that needs carrying. And, although it is outlawed by the government, many Dani women continue to follow an ancient ritual of amputating one or two joints of a finger when a relative dies. The joint is removed to placate the ancestral ghosts. Since the Dani woman does not have any role models to turn to, the common way of escaping from the male domination is through homicide, plunging herself into the strong torrent below as:

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In Vugima, there is a very deep river, a woman who cannot bear life oppressions any longer would come there, leaving her sali on the rocks, weighing herself down with heavy rocks, plunging herself into the river and never to be seen again. … the sali …. is the sign. (Sali, p. 182)


Some Pedagogical Implications for The EFL Classroom

Carey, Gary. (Ed). 1991. Mythology. Lincoln: Cliff Notes Inc.

Traditionally, schools have been very lefthemisphere-oriented, with emphasis on rational thought and the ability to verbalize with clarity, accuracy, and fluency. We forget that imagination is the first source in the development of a civilization through literary works, folklore included (Gredler, 1997). Language is as the interface between cultures and for expressing ideas and feelings. Literary works may serve this purpose. In this modern world in which emotional quotient is getting more and more important (Carter and Nunan, 2001), sharing what takes place in the literary world like what these two main characters experience is an excellent example for students to do. For EFL teaching purposes, students may be asked to write short seminar papers concerning women‘s issues in these two cultures.

References Alua, Agus. 2006. Nilai-Nilai Hidup Masyarakat Hubula di Lembah Balim, Papua. Jayapura: Biro Penelitian STFT Fajar Timur. Anwar, Ahyar. 2009. Geneologi Feminis. Jakarta: Penerbit Republika. Amstrong, Jane. (Producer) and Amstrong, Jane (Director). 2007. Cleopatra‘s Palace: In Search of a Legend. [Film]. Discovery Channel Baldick, Chris. 1991. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. New York: Oxford University Press. Barry, Peter. 1995. Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultura Theory. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Byrne, Clara (Producer) and Hawes, James (Director). 2005. Egypt Golden Empire. [Film]. Hollywood : Paramount.

Carter, Ronald & Nunan, David. 2001. Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Clayton, Peter. 1990. Great Figures of Mythology. New Jersey: Crescent Books. El Saadawi, Nawal. 1996. Woman at Point Zero. London: Zed Books Ltd. Fakih, Mansour. 2008. Analisis Gender dan Transformasi Sosial. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar. Glassman, Gary (Producer) and Glassman, Gary (Director). 2000. Women Pharaohs. [Film]. Discovery Channel Gredler, Margareth E. 1997. Learning and Instruction. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc. Linggasari, Dewi. 2007. Sali: Kisah Seorang Wanita Suku Dani. Yogyakarta: Kunci Ilmu. Muller, Karl. 2008. Introducing Papua. PT. Freeport Indonesia: Daisy World Books Nugroho, Riant. 2008. Gender dan Strategi Pengarusutamaannya di Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar. Ridwan. 2006. Kekerasan Berbasis Gender. Purwokerto: Pusat Studi Gender. Sugihastuti, and Saptiawan, Itsna Hadi. 2007. Gender & Inferioritas Perempuan. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar. Storm, Rachel. 2003. The Encyclopedia of Eastern Mythology. London: Lorenz Books.

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Discovering Student‟s Expertise to Augment Claim Quality in Writing Class at UIN Maliki Malang Rohmani Nur Indah UIN Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang

Background Writing argumentation is a matter of applying what we understand from the information around certain issues in the written form and therefore this becomes a challenging task for teachers dig up student‘s interest to the information. Writing teachers cannot push students to write about a controversial issue which is unfamiliar to students‘ interest. Writing, especially on argumentation, is essential for academic purpose. Therefore the teaching of writing should develop both students writing skill and critical thinking that support their academic study skills. Such approach should also cover more socially oriented activities meaning that it is not merely an assignment to be read by the teacher. Tribble (1997) states that writing should focus on the way in which writers and texts need to interact. Writing learners, therefore, need to develop their skill through process approach which can help them to have better understanding academic writing perspective (Herdiah, 2005; Laksmi, 2006; and Siu, 2007). Accordingly, writing should also incorporate the teaching of critical thinking in EFL instruction (Triastuti, 2006). Basically, writing is an essential part of thinking and learning in educational context, particularly in light of 21st Century demands (Johannesen, 2001) and therefore writing tasks are a ―critical tool for intellectual and social development‖ (Bruning & Horn, 2000, p. 30). In writing class, students‘ ability to present information and ideas through their writing has ―an integral role in academic and professional success‖ (Applebee, Langer, Mullis, Latham, & Gentile, 1994, p. 25, quoted in Sadik, 2008). Such success cannot be reached without integrated writing skill which is started from students‘ interest in particular issues. It is commonly believed that writing is an important means through which students are challenged to think more critically. This becomes definitely a demanding task because it requires the writing processes, skills, and knowledge involved in writing strategies such as planning, drafting and revising text. Because the process is not simple, collaborative learning should be applied. According to Larsen-Freeman (2000:164), cooperative or collaborative learning essentially involves students learning from each other in groups. In collaborative writing students are encouraged to brainstorm ideas in pairs or groups, to give each other‘s feedback, and to proofread and edit each other‘s writing. Successful collaborative writing allows students to learn

from each other. It gives each member of the collaboration access to other‘s mind and knowledge, and it implies the task with a sense of shared goals which can motivate them. The activities suggested in any level of writing courses have the same main parts namely prewriting, drafting and revising (Oshima and Hogue,1999, Hedge, 2000). All of activities promoted are purposed to facilitate students to create a good writing. Unfortunately, having applied the activities in the beginning of the semester, I found that students still have some problems in writing argumentation. This study begins with the identification of some problems in my writing classes. Developing cliché claim and copying other person‘s opinion have been the main problems followed by their failure to develop sufficient examples to support their claim and eliminate the number of grammatical and mechanical error in their essays. I also tried to find out the reason through some discussions both with students and colleagues. It appeared that students reading habit is unsatisfying and as the result they do not expand their critical thinking skill. The other significant reason is students mostly think that writing is a difficult assignment. These reasons begin from the fact that students do not know their own potential in expressing ideas on written, therefore finding their interest or discovering their ‗real expertise‘ becomes significant.

Purpose Based on the background above, this study is aimed to improve the students‘ writing skill especially on argumentative writing in UIN Maliki Malang. It is important in three ways. First, it is expected to guide the students to find their real interest to be developed into claims in their argumentative writing. Second, by starting from their interest, writing argumentation will be a more interesting activity than what they have assumed before, this is because they can publish their argumentative writing in the form of mini magazine. Finally, the students are immersed to collaborative learning which can be applied not only to improve their writing skill but also other competencies.

Scope Writing is one of the language skills taught in the English Letters and Language Department of UIN Maliki Malang, along with other language skills, namely Listening, Speaking and Reading. Writing I covers paragraph development, writing II focuses on the development of essays of various types, and writing III is

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang limited to the development of Argumentative Essay and practice of TOEFL and IELTS writing test. Writing III is the concern of this study as argumentative writing appears to be a complex skill for students. Based on pre-test in the form of take home assignment, most of the students‘ essay started from cliché claim. Some students copied other person‘s opinion or used some parts of downloaded essay. There were more students developing sufficient examples to support their claim. The number of grammatical and mechanical error in their essays, although not much, still needs to be eliminated. The course is normally conducted in the cycle planning-drafting-scoring. The textbook used for the course is Refining Composition Skills written by Smalley, Ruetten, and Kozyrev (2001). The activities introduced to the course cover Potency mapping, Brainstorming, Schemata broadening, Holding class conference, Peer editing, Draft revising, and Essay publishing.

outlining 5

Holding class conference

6

Peer editing on draft Feedback on first essay

7

8

Brainstorming and outlining for 2nd essay

9

Holding class conference

10

Peer editing on draft Feedback on 2nd draft

Description of the Implementation The implementation involves a series of stages, starting from the planning of the course to the completion of the course described below.

11

Planning the course

12

Planning for publication

Before the activities of writing were started, the students were introduced to some important concept in argumentative writing. Teacher demonstrated the steps of writing using the following aspects:

13

Publication process

 Finding the issue on WHAT TO WRITE  Planning ahead on HOW TO BEGIN  Finding the idea based on WHICH ONE TO EMPHASIZE  Figuring out WHICH FACT SUPPORTS IT  Organizing the idea based on HOW TO ELABORATE IT The meeting schedule is as follow: Meeting 1

Topic Overview of the course & Pretest

2

Introduction to elements of argumentative writing Potency Mapping & Brainstorming

3

4

Schemata broadening and

Activities Writing an argumentative essay as one day assignment Taking notes on the essay feedback and demonstrated procedure Filling out questionnaire and discussion in group of similar interest to propose claim of fact Making catalogue card related to the

claim and constructing outline Answering questions related to the claim and asking for peer comment. Drafting as assignment Revising draft Revising and preparing for 2nd claim Proposing claim of value or policy and finding related reference Answering questions related to the claim and asking for peer comment. Drafting as assignment Revising draft Revising draft into final work based on teacher‘s evaluation Deciding name and theme of the mini magazine as group work Arranging the essays and designing the magazine lay out

Implementing the course The core of the writing activities is basically rooted from potency mapping. In this stage, students are trying to discover the following:  What is my area of interest?  What kinds of topic I look for when I browse internet?  What are the issues that I couldn‘t miss? From this activity, it was found that the favorable topics cover music; fashion; sport; health, teen‘s lifestyle; and traveling. Meanwhile the unfavorable ones related to political issue, philosophy and education Having found the students interest, the next activity is brainstorming in group of similar interest to dig the related issue and decide the claim to be proposed. The first claim is in the form of claim of fact, while the second essay focuses on claim of value or policy. By doing the brainstorming, students can consider the pro and con opinion related to the issue proposed. There are some goals in conducting brainstorming:  Finding the possible questions related to the area chosen  Identifying the controversial issue on it  Constructing two views : pro & con

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang 

Deciding which one to hold (or taking a stand) Having Date before Marriage

After brainstorming, each of the students proposed two or three claims to be approved by the teacher through personal consultation done outside the class. In consultation, the teacher reminds students to start searching for related references. The students should organize their reading process by making catalogue card as the following example

Many people have negative assumption about having date before marriage. They tend to underestimate making love relationship, seeing the fact that it has some disadvantages such as getting bored easily, wasting time, spending much money, etc. However, we can’t deny the positive effect of having date found among the young people. For instance, it can help us to get acquaintance more each time before getting married. Thus, wanting to know our spouse to-be, having date before marriage is needed.

Topic: Sport and health Source: Epidemiology and Health (edition: September, 2007)

The next activity is drafting done as assignment. In class students check their friends draft by peer-editing to eliminate the grammatical and mechanical errors. This process also facilitates the teacher in the evaluation. The following is an example of a final draft written by a student who is apparently a football-aholic.

Quotation: Dr. Mark A. Tully from Ulster University of North Ireland says, “Doing sport less than 30 minutes is advantageous. Based on the research covering 106 subjects aged ranging from 60-6, it is found that although the blood pressure, size of waist and buttock are not significantly different, the group doing walking to work show lower risk of getting heart disease.” Dr. Kenneth R. Wilund says, “Doing regular sport can reduce chronicle diseases such as heart disease, diabetic, some kinds of cancer and gall bladder disease”.

The Power of Football

The students prepared outline of the essay comprising the method of introductory paragraph, method of development paragraph and method of concluding paragraph as reviewed in the introductory to elements of argumentative essay. The method of introductory paragraph can be in the form of funnel, turn about, quotation or dramatic entrance. The method of development paragraph has been discussed in Writing II covering exemplification, comparison and contrast, classification, process analysis and cause-effect analysis. The next phase is conducting class conference. By participating in class conference, students are getting involved in the following learning experience:  Presenting the claim  Defining the type of claim (fact/value/policy)  Explaining the outline of the argumentative essay  Sharing ideas  Getting feedback In class conference, the students present their outline and asking for comment and suggestion from others. The most frequent suggestion given deals with the method of introductory paragraph. Instead of having funnel, dramatic entrance or turn about are suggested to improve to quality of introducing claim as seen in the following example

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I could play football when I was in elementary school. One of my classmates introduced me about this kind of sport. He explained everything about how to play football, when we could watch football match, what components in football are, and so on. From these cases, I could learn many things about bad effects and benefit of this sport. Actually, bad effects of football are incommensurate to many benefits that we will get from doing this kind of sport. The first thing that we will get from football is the effect to our health. By football, we get so many advantageous in our body such as getting more energy, reducing risk of heart disease, helping weight control, and many others. Prof. Jiri Dvorak, a FIFA medical expert said, “The potential and the power of football to reach people from all walks of life to promote healthy living and a healthy lifestyle in the Oceania”. As we know that this kind of sport will make our concentration improve. We have to concentrate in 90 minutes just to look for a ball in which only a player brings the ball. We have to run around the field at the time. We have to focus on making a goal or more. Besides, we also have to manage our energy so that we can follow all particular time. Increasing profit is also a beneficial effect of football. Many football players become rich because of this sport. David Becham, the most famous British football player, becomes rich because of his skill in football. His club must give him high wage which is balance with his contribution to the club. His ability makes many people offer him to be the model of famous product such as Nike, Pepsi, Lea, etc. Not only the player but also the club or the country will get the benefit of football. The club’s or country’s income will also increase because of certain event. In football, we will find many competitions which are hold by FIFA such as EURO cup, Olimpiad cup, etc. Ex Manchester United chief executive David Gill told that “The World cup will be a fantastic event

National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang and produce huge profits and the belief that the assets are being provided for free by the clubs. Therefore, many clubs or countries really want to be a host in certain event right now. It is because of the high profit that we will get. In conclusion, football can give us so many advantages in our life. Our body will be healthy and our profit will increase because of football. Let’s make our life better and healthy by this kind of sport. As a famous wise word says, “Men sana in corpore sano” in a strong body contains a healthy life.

Topics Social

Essay Title  Organization  Say no to make a date  Polygamy  Why women should not have abortion  The phenomenon of veil in Indonesia

The final work is then published in the form of mini magazine done in groups. Publishing the writing covers the following activities:  Deciding the group member or editorial board  Deciding the theme of publication and the selected essay  Organizing the topic of the essays  Lay outing and printing  Distributing the mini magazine The following is the mini magazine‘s content completed with the elements of the essays produced by the students: a. Be SILBU magz Theme: Change the world with writing

Entertainme nt

Education

Culinary

 The effect of horror movie  What happen with our music  Easy and effective way to get data  Is independent learning a good choice?  Be selective in choosing food product

Essay Title

Type of Claims

Method of introductory

Method of development

 Pornograph y is not art

Claim of fact

Quotation

Comparison & contrast

 Blue film: a big mistake

Claim of value

Turn about

Cause-effect

 Having date before marriage  Get the best Education future with SMK  The bad effect of play station  Negative effect of getting Psychology married in young age  Bad effect of transsexual character in TV  The power Sport of football  Does organic Health food really save our lives?  Beauty is Beauty cheap

Claim of value Claim of fact

Turn about

Exemplification

Turn about

Exemplification

Claim of value Claim of value

Dramatic entrance

Cause-effect

 Should we follow all western culture?  High heel shoes  Yes, I‘m beautiful

Dramatic entrance

Cause-effect

 Watch our cosmetic

Claim of fact

Dramatic entrance

Topics

Issue

Topics

Claim of value

Beauty and fashion

Social issue

Dramatic entrance Turn about

Quotation

Claim of fact Claim of value Claim of value Claim of value

Method Method of of development introductory Turn about Exemplification Cause-effect Turn about Exemplification Turn about Cause-effect Funnel

Exemplification Claim of fact Claim of value Claim of value Claim of fact

Dramatic entrance Turn about

Cause-effect

Turn about

Exemplification

Turn about

Exemplification

Claim of value Claim of policy

Turn about

Exemplification

Quotation

Exemplification

c. Lazuardi Magz Theme: Winging swiftly through the sky

Culture

Claim of fact Claim of fact

Type of Claims

Cause-effect

Exemplification

Technology

Exemplification

Comparison & contrast Sport

b. Ultra Mag Theme: Metamorphosis

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Essay Title

 Is it difficult for career women to be successful as men?  No pornography  How effective is using high technology in school?  The advantages of using train than bus  Indonesia badminton

Type Method of of introductory Claims Claim Turn of about value

Method of development Comparison contrast

&

Claim of fact Claim of value Claim of fact

Turn about Funnel

Cause-effect

Turn about

Exemplification

Claim of value

Turn about

Exemplification

Claim of value Claim of fact

Dramatic entrance

Cause-effect

Turn about

Exemplification

Claim of fact

Funnel

Comparison contrast

Claim of policy

Dramatic entrance

Exemplification

Exemplification

&

National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Entertainm ent

 Indonesian music in Malaysia

Claim of policy

Dramatic entrance

Exemplification

d. Infinity magazine Theme: Writing is how to be immortal Topics

Food

Health

Educatio n

Culture

Essay Title  Fast food is not good for our health  Fast food, is it safe?  Never let dangerous food kill you  Healthy life by sport  Healthy food  Going to library is a must  Using LPG  Hate can produce child  Sex among Asian  The forbidden art  Young generatio n and identity of nation

Type of Claims Claim of value

Method of introductory

Method of development

Funnel

Cause-effect


Quotation

Cause-effect

Turn about

Exemplification

Claim of value Claim of value Claim of value Claim of policy Claim of fact

Turn about

Exemplification

Quotation

Exemplification

Turn about


Funnel


Dramatic entrance

Cause-effect

Claim of fact

Funnel

Cause-effect


Dramatic entrance

Exemplification

Turn about

Exemplification

students write using various elements of argumentative essay. Based on the students‘ feedback of the course at the end of the writing process, some benefits attained are as follow:  Students start writing more easily  They participated actively in class conference  Reading skill is also promoted  No more plagiarism found  Error in diction and grammar can be minimized by learning from others  Reaching larger audience by distributing the magazines to other classes  They are challenged to write more productively

Conclusion This paper has presented a report of the study that was aimed to improve the teaching of Writing III (Argumentative Essay Writing) course in the English Letters and Language Department of UIN Maliki Malang by finding the students‘ expertise to augment claim quality. The focus of the course was on the improvement of the essay quality particularly on claim of fact, value and policy. The examination of the teaching implementation and student feedback shows three major advantages of this study. First, it is expected to guide the students to find their real interest to be developed into claims in their argumentative writing. Second, by starting from their interest, writing argumentation will be a more interesting activity than what they have assumed before, this is because they can publish their argumentative writing in the form of mini magazine. Finally, the students are immersed to collaborative learning which can be applied not only to improve their writing skill but also other competencies.

References Ary, Donald., Jacobs Lucy Cheser., Razavieh, Asghar. 1979. Introduction to Research in Education. Second Edition. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.

Completion of the course Based on the published essays, it is found that there were more students writing on claim of value (58%) than on claim of fact (33%) and claim of policy (9%). This is because they have strong argument which has been rooted from their basic interest. Concerning method of introductory, there is an interesting finding. In previous writing class students tend to use funnel. Yet, because of the suggestion from the class conference, students used various method of introductory. Turn about is mostly used (51%), whereas dramatic entrance is chosen by some students (25%), the rest used quotation (12%) and funnel (12%). The method of development which was mainly employed is exemplification (50%), over cause-effect analysis (35%) and comparison and contrast (15%). The various types of claim, method of introductory and development employed by the students show that the implementation to some extent help

Brown, H. Douglas. 2004. Language Assessment: Principles and Classroom Practices.Longman. Bruning, R., & Horn, C. 2000. Developing motivation to write. Educational Psychologist, 35,25 – 37. Hedge, Tricia. 2000. Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Oxford: Oxford University. Harmer J. 2004. How to Teach Writing. London :Longman Group UK LTD. Johannessen, L. R. 2001. Teaching thinking and writing for a new century. English Journal, 90, 38 – 46.

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Larsen-Freeman. 1987. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. New York: Oxford University. Press. Nunan, D.1991. Language teaching methodology – a handbook for teachers, Prentice Hall International. Oshima, Alice and Ann Hogue. 1999. Writing Academic English. New York, NY: Addition Wesley Longman.

Sadik, A. 2008. Correlation between Cognitive Writing Strategies and Students‘ Writing Performance. TEFLIN 56th Program Book White, R and V. Arndt. 1993. Process Writing - a handbook for teachers, Longman. London and New York.

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Memfungsikan Bahasa Inggris Dalam Kehidupan Sudartomo Macaryus FKIP Universitas Sarjanawiyata Tamansiswa Yogyakarta Menurut Ki Hadjar Dewantara, (pengajaran) bahasa merupakan alat mencapai tujuan kulturil, yaitu mempertinggi derajat manusia. Pengajaran bahasa perlu upaya model pembelajaran yang memahamkan anak pada ilmu bahasa dan kecakapan bahasa. Bahasa, memiliki nilai kebatinan dan merupakan benda berjiwa sendiri yang khusus. Oleh karena itu, dengan mempelajari bahasa sendiri akan mendapat basis yang sekodrat untuk berdiri sebagai anggauta dari masyarakat kemanusiaan. Pengajaran bahasa asing memberi kesempatan kepada kita untuk menambah kekayaan budi kebangsaan dengan beberapa ‖nilai kebatinan‖ dari bangsa-bangsa lain, yang masing-masing mempunyai ‖benda jiwa‖ sendiri-sendiri yang khusus (Tauchid, 2004: 495). Penguasaan bahasa asing yang baik bermanfaat untuk: 1) mencari pengetahuan, 2) memudahkan hubungan internasional, 3) mengirimkan pelajar ke seluruh dunia, dan 4) menambah kekayaan batin (budaya) seseorang. Oleh karena itu, dalam hal penguasaan bahasa asing, Ki

Hadjar Dewantara tidak membatasi hanya bahasa yang tertentu (Mandarin, Inggris, Prancis, Belanda, Arab, dan sebagainya). Hal tersebut tercermin dalam pandangan beliau yang mengatakan bahwa segala bahasa asing yang bernilai dan dapat dipakai sebagai alat untuk mengembangkan dan/atau memperkaya kebudayaan Indonesia harus mendapat perhatian yang layak dari pihak bangsa kita. Dengan demikian, penguasaan bahasa asing apapun sejauh bermanfaat dipandang baik adanya dan perlu diupayakan terus. Bahasa asing dalam pandangan Ki Hadjar Dewantara berkaitan dengan orientasi dan visi kebudayaan. Akan tetapi, bahasa asing yang diberikan pada kelas awal belum berfungsi dan hanya menambah beban serta menyalahi alam pendidikan. Ki Hadjar Dewantara tidak melarang pengajaran bahasa asing pada anak-anak, sejauh hal tersebut memiliki fungsi yang tertentu. Oleh karena itu, yang diperlukan adalah peningkatan fungsi bahasa asing dalam kehidupan. Fungsi yang dimaksud dapat yang bersifat praktis, misalnya untuk komunikasi, nonton film, membaca komik, menyanyi, bermain drama, dan sebagainya. Tulisan ini menawarkan beberapa kemungkinan dan pengalaman memfungsikan bahasa Inggris dalam kehidupan dengan memanfaatkan tiga pusat pendidikan, yaitu keluarga, sekolah, dan masyarakat.

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Teknologi Informasi dan Profesi Penerjemahan Sugeng Hariyanto Politeknik Negeri Malang Malang

pemerintah beroperasi dengan pertimbangan kepentingan dirinya sendiri dan individu, perusahaan, pemerintah lain di seluruh permukaan ―globe‖ (bola dunia). Pada dasarnya, globalisasi adalah integrasi internasional (Chomsky1). Integrasi ini bisa di bidang budaya, sains, dan lain-lain. Namun, yang menjadi panglimanya sejauh ini adalah globalisasi ekonomi. Inti dari globalisasi ekonomi ini adalah berdagang di seluruh permukaan ―globe‖ (bumi). Dalam rangka melakukan perdagangan inilah, perusahaan perlu membuat dokumen dalam bahasa pasar di bagian lain bumi ini. Dan ini adalah penerjemahan juga. Globalisasi sekarang ini sedang kencang-kencangnya karena mendapat sokongan yang luar biasa dari bidang teknologi informasi. Teknologi informasi menurut Information Technology Association of America (ITAA), is "the study, design, development, implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems, particularly software applications and computer hardware." TI secara umum meliputi penggunaan perangkat keras dan lunak komputer untuk mengonversi, menyimpan, melindungi, memroses, mengirim, dan membuka ulang informasi.2 Dengan adanya teknologi ini, terbuka banyak kemungkinan menuju kerja terjemahan yang efisien. Dengan komputer orang bisa menulis dengan cepat dan mencari data dengan cepat karena banyak dokumen yang didigitalisasi. Mendigitalkan informasi berarti mengubahnya ke dalam bentuk yang mudah dibaca oleh komputer (Collin Cobuild Dictionary). Bukan hanya dokumen yang akan diterjemahkan yang mengalami digitalisasi. Kamus pun juga mengalami digitisasi, sehingga ini mempengaruhi kerja penerjemah. Selain itu, beberapa perangkat lunak komputer juga dibuat untuk memudahkan kerja penerjemah. Proses memadukan teknologi digital ke dalam kehidupan seharihari, dalam hal ini kehidupan penerjemah, disebut digitalisasi.3 Dengan digitalisasi ini, kamus yang tebal dapat di buat menjadi beberapa megabyte saja. Kamus pun dapat dibuka dengan sangat cepat. Dari hal-hal baru yang dicapai oleh perkembangan TI, Internet adalah yang paling berdampak besar. Internet adalah hubungan jaringan komputer dengan standar yang sama sehingga pesan dapat dikirimkan dari satu komputer yang terdaftar di sebuah jaringan ke komputer lain dalam jaringan lain (Crystal, : 3). Dengan demikian, internet adalah media baru bagi pertukaran pesan. Dan menururt Crystal (6-10), ragam bahasa yang dipakai di internet mempunyai cirri tersendiri dalam hal: (a) fitur grafis, (b)

Abstrak – Ada beberapa megatren yang mempengaruhi profesi penerjemahan. Beberapa dari megratren yang terpending adalah globalisasi ekonomi, perkembangan teknologi informasi dan digitalisasi. Globalisasi ekonomi menyebabkan sebuah perusahaan berusaha untuk hadir dan berbisnis di seluruh dunia. Untuk itu, perusahaan merasa perlu menerbitkan situs web dalam bahasa dimana perusahaannya akan beroperasi, menerbitkan dokumen produk dalam bahasa pasar sasaran, dll. Ini berarti penerjemahan menjadi salah satu alternatif untuk menghilangkan jarak psikologi. Perkembangan teknologi informasi telah mempengaruhi jenis teks dan karenanya mempengaruhi bagaimana teks itu harus diterjemahkan. Teks sekarang ini tidak saja tetrtulis di artas kertas, tetapi tersimpan di server internet dan bisa memuat gambar dan suara. Karakteristik jenis teks baru ini tentunya tidak bisa diterjemahkan dengan cara tradisional. Diperlukan perangkat lunak tertentu dan keterampilan tertentu di samping keterampilan linguistik yang digunakan di penerjemahan tradisional. Terakhir, dengan adanya digitalisasi membuat dokumen referensi yang dulu tercetak diatas kertas sekarang dengan mudah dibuka dan dirujuk menggunakan komputer. Hal ini juga terkait dengan perangkat lunak atau kemajuan teknologi informasi. Dengan digitalisasi, seorang penerjemah dapat membuka banyak kamus dan ensikopledia dalam beberapa detik saja. Artikel ini juga membahas secara ringkas apa-apa yang perlu dipersiapkan oleh penerjemah dalam rangka menjawab tantangan tiga butir megatren ini. Terakhir, pembahasan ini juga dapat ditarik lebar ke arah kurikulum pengajaran penerjemahan. Singkatnya, kurikulum harus juga memuat butir-butir keterampilan yang diperlukan untuk menjawab tantangan ini. Kata kunci: megatren, globalisasi, teknologi informasi, digitalisasi, perangkat lunak penerjemahan, CAT Tool, mesin penerjemah, website, keterampilan penerjemahan, keprigelan penerjemah, kurikulum penerjemahan

Tiga Megatren yang Mempengaruhi Profesi Penerjemah

1

Tiga megatren yng mempengaruhi terjemahan dan profesi penerjemahan adalah: globalisasi ekonomi, perkembangan teknologi informasi, dan digitalisasi. Globalisasi berasal dari kata "globe‖ yang merujuk pada bola dunia. Globalisasi adalah suata proses meleburnya batas-batas negara sehingga individu, perusahaan,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization cite_ref-135 Noam Chomsky Znet 07 May 2002 / The Croatian Feral Tribune 27 April 2002 [4] 2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology 3

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/digitalizatio n.html

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang fitur grafologis, (c) fitur gramatikal, (d) fitur leksikal, dan fitur wacana. Karena suara juga bisa ditampilkan di dalam teks, maka Crystal juga menambahkan (e) fitur fonetik dan (f) fitur fonologis. Lebih jauh Crystal (10) mengidentifikasi beberapa situasi yang menggunakan internet, yaitu: (a) email, (b) chatgroup, (c) virtual world (online game), (d) word wide web, (e) instant messaging, and (f) blogging. Dari enam penggunaan internet tersebut, world wide web mempunyai pengaruh yang paling besar terhadap penerjemahan. Pengaruh ini dapat ditelisik dari dua hal. Pertama, semakin banyak situs web yang diterjemahkan dan kedua, semakin banyak informasi yang ada di internet yang bisa membantu kerja penerjemah. Singkatnya, gabungan antara perkembangan teknologi komputer dan internet, mempengaruhi profesi penerjemahan dalam hal (a) format dokumen baru, (b) kebutuhan penerjemahan yang semakin banyak, dan (c) sumber daya penerjemahan semakin kaya. Menurut Gouadec (2007) Teknologi Infirmasi (TI) mempengaruhi profesi penerjemah. Pertama karena TI membuka pasar terjemahan yang benar-benar baru. Kedua, bidang terjemahan sebagai profesi yang semakin khusus, bukan lagi sekadar bisa dikerjakan oleh dwibahsawan, karena bidang ini memerlukan perangkat lunak khusus dengan tingkat harga yang lumayan dan kerumitan yang tinggi. Dia malah mengistilahkan ―clean up the market‖ untuk perubahan ini. Ketiga, website menjadi sarana untuk mengelola penawaran dan kebutuhan jasa terjemahan. Dan akhirnya, TI melahirkan peranti penerjemahan berbantuan komputer (CAT Tool). Lebih lanjut Gouadec (2007) juga menengarai adanya lima hal yang membuat revosulsi teknologi ini menjadi tidak bersahabat bagi penerjemah. Pertama, komputerisasi telah mengubah kerja terjemahan dari kerja amatir menjadi kerja rumahan dan kemudian menjadi bagiand dari proses industri. Sebagai proses industri, berarti ada volume pekerjaan yang sangat besar, ada alat tertentu yang selaras dengan proses induistri keseluruhan, dan penerapan prosedur standar. Ini artinya penerjemah harus berinvestasi besar tidak hanya dalam hal uang tetapi juga dalam hal belajar teknik-teknik dan cara kerja baru. Menurutnya, standar perlengkapan penerjemah terkait TI adalah program pngolah kata + desk publishing + manajemen memori terjemahan + menajemen glosari + internet tanpa batas. Hal kedua yang kurang menguntungkan penerjemah adalah ketatnya kompetisi harga karena dengan globalisasi dan internet, klien bisa memesan jasa terjemahan kepada siapapun di sudut dunia asalkan harganya rendah dan kualitas tidak mengecewakan. Ketiga, TI membuat penerjemah sangat bergantung pada komputer, bahkan bisa-bisa menjadi budak komputer. Hal terakhir adalah terpisahnya penerjemah dari koleganya karena bekerja dari rumah. Khusus untuk hal terakhir ini, Gouadec (2007) tidak sepenuhnya benar karena dengan bantuan internet sekarang ini komunikasi dengan sesama penerjemah dapat dilakukan dengan baik. Lebih jauh Gouadec (2007) juga menyatakan bahwa nantinya setelah penerjemah menguasa sarana baru ini, penerjemah segera akan disibukan dengan belajar bagaimana menangani

materi (jenis teks) sumber baru yang akan dibuat dengan sarana yang lebih baru dari yang telah dikuasai oleh penerjemah

Kebutuhan Baru,Kompetensi Baru, Keterampilan Baru Adanya format dokumen baru menuntut penerjemah menerjemahkan dengan teknik yang baru pula karena tidak mungkin dokumen yang berupa file animasi diterjemahkan dengan program pengolah kata saja. Seperti yang telah disinggung di atas. Perkembangan TI melahirkan peranti penerjemah berbantuan komputer (yang dalam bahasa Inggris disebut ―Computer Assisted Translation Tools atau disingkat CAT Tool).4 Lebih lanjut, dengan adanya digitalisasi, perangkat lunak CAT Tool ini dapat dengan mudah disebarkan dan dipasang di komputer para penerjemah. Penguasaan keterampilan terkait CAT Tool ini dapat dikategorikan sebagai salah satu sub-kompetensi menerjemahkan (PACTE Group, 2005). PACTE Group adalah sebuah kelompok riset di University of Barcelona yang khusus mempelajari kompetensi terjemahan secara sistematis dan empiris. Grup ini mendefinisikan kompetensi terjemahan sebagai sistem yang mendasari pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang diperlukan untuk dapat menerjemahkan (PACTE Group, 2005). Lesznyak (2007: 168) mengatakan bahwa model kompetensi terjemahan yang diusulkan oleh kelompok riset ini adalah yang paling canggih untuk saat ini. Grup PACTE menyatakan bahwa kompetensi terjemahan memiliki empat karakteristik khas: (a) kompetensi terjemahan adalah pengetahuan khusus yang tidak dimiliki oleh semua dwibahasawan, (b) pada dasarnya kompetensi terjemahan bersifat prosedural (bukan deklaratif), (c) kompetensi terjemahan terdiri dari beberapa sub-kompetensi, dan (4) sub-kompetensi strategis sangat penting karena kompetensi terjemahan merupakan pengetahuan prosedural, bukan deklaratif. Sub-kompetensi terjemahan dan kesalingterkaitan diilustrasikan pada Gambar 1 berikut ini. Subkompetensi pertama adalah subkompetensi bilingual (dwibahasa). Subkompetensi ini terdiri atas pengetahuan pragmatik, sosio-linguistik, tekstual dan leksikalgramatikal bahasa sumber (Bsu) dan Bahasa Sasaran (Bsa). Menurut hemat saya, ini kurang lebih sama dengan kompetensi linguistik pada umumnya. Sub-kompetensi kedua adalah subkompetensi ekstra-linguistik yang terdiri dari pengetahuan ensiklopedik, tematik dan bikultural (dwibudaya). Sub-kompetensi ketiga adalah pengetahuan tentang terjemahan. Pengetahuan ini adalah pengetahuan tentang prinsip-prinsip yang memandu penerjemahan (misalnya proses penerjemahan, metode terjemahan, prosedur terjemahan, dll.) dan pengetahuan tentang 4

Mesin penerjemah tidak termasuk di dalam perkembangan baru ini karena mesin penerjemah sendiri mulai dikembangkan sebelum Perang Dunia II dan tidak terkait dengan kemunculan jenis teks baru ini.

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang profesi penerjemah (msl. Jenis-jenis terjemahan, cara memahami perintah terjemahan, karakteristik pembaca sasaran, harapan pembaca sasaran, dll.). Subkompetensi keempat—subkompetensi instrumental—adalah subkompetensi yang terdiri dari pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang terkait dengan penggunaan alat atau sumber-sumber yang dapat membantu penerjemah menerjemahkan. Di sinilah kita bisa menggolongkan keterampilan penggunaan teknologi penerjemahan. Terakhir, sub-kompetensi yang paling penting terletak di tengah-tengah di dalam gambar di atas, yaitu subkompetensi strategis. Ini adalah subkompetensi yang mengordinasikan subkompetensi lainnya sehingga dapat terciptaka kompetensi terjemahan yang utuh. (Meskipun tidak sama persis, ini bisa dibandingkan dengan strategi metakognitif di dalam teori strategi belajar.) Subkompetensi ini berperan dalam memecahkan masalah dan menjamin efisiensi proses karena subkompetensi ini terkait dengan perencanaan proses penerjemahan dan pembuatan keputusan dalam setiap tahap proses penerjemahan.

Proses Penerjemahan Teks Elektronik Pentingnya keterampilan ini dapat dilihat dari model penerjemahan naskah elektronik usulan Hariyanto (2009). Untuk lebih jelasnya, perhatikan Gambar 2 berikut ini. Di dalam model tersebut, proses penerjemahan dibagi menjadi tiga fase utama: persiapan, proses utama, dan penutup. Ini bisa dibaca di bagian kiri. Di bagian tengah adalah langkah-langkah yang ditempuh oleh penerjemah dan di bagian kanan adalah kompetensi (pengetahuan dan/atau keterampilan) yang dipakai dalam menerjemahkan teks elektronik. Kalau dibaca secara horizontal, maka didapatlah keterangan bahwa dalam proses persiapan, langkah pertama adalah mempelajari perintah penerjemahan dan butir subkompetensi yang diperlukan adalah keterampilan dwibahasa dan pengetahuan tentang penerjemahan.

Gambar 1. Model Kompetensi Terjemahan menurut Grup PACTE (2005) Selain terjemahan itu, ada satu kelompok komponen yang mempengaruhi hasil terjemahan, yaitu komponen psiko-fisiologis. Komponen psiko-fisiologis mengacu pada komponen kognitif dan sikap (memori, rentang perhatian, ketekunan, daya kritis, dll.) dan mekanisme psikomotor. Karena dwibahasan selalu memiliki pengetahuan tentang dua bahasa (Bsu dan Bsa) dan mungkin juga memiliki pengetahuan ekstra-linguistik, maka PACTE Grup menganggap bahwa sub-kompetensi khusus dari kompetensi terjemahan adalah subkompetensi strategis, instrumental dan pengetahuan tentang terjemahan. Sehubungan dengan pembahasan kita sekarang, dengan adanya globalisasi, perkembangan teknologi informasi dan digitalisasi, subkompetensi instrumental perlu mendapat perhatian lebih karena teksteks yang akan dikerjakan meliputi teks-teks elektronik.

Gambar 2. Model Proses Penerjemahan Teks Elektronik Dari gambar di atas dapat diketahui bahwa mulai dari fase persiapan, keterampilan instrumental diperlukan untuk mempersiapkan glosari. Mempersiapkan glosari mungkin berarti membuka file atau bahwa menyusun glosari baru. Hal ini dilakukan dengan menggunakan perangkat lunak manajemen glosari, yang biasanya berhubungan dengan perangkat lunak terjemahan utama

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang (memori terjemahan). Dalam proses utama penerjemahan, keterampilan instrumental yang diperlukan adalah keterampilan untuk menuliskan hasil terjemahan (BSa), untuk menemukan kata atau istilah yang ekuivalen di dalam arsip memori terjemahan, dan juga untuk memanipulasi kode teknis dalam dokumen elektronik. Akhirnya, pada tahap kesimpulan, keterampilan instrumental diperlukan untuk memeriksa terjemahan kualitas terjemahan dari segi linguistic (konsistensi terminologi) dan kualitas teknis (dengan memeriksa apakah format naskah rusak atau beberapa kode teknis hilang atau tidak). Dengan demikian, penguasaan perangkat lunak penerjemahn menjadi mutlak adanya untuk menerjemahkan naskah jenis baru sebagai buah dari perkembangan teknologi informasi.

Penutup Pentingnya menguaai keterampilan baru seperti yang dipaparkan di atas sudah disadari oleh Himpunan Penerjemah Indonesia dan beberapa asosiasi penerjemah di Indonesia. Oleh karenanya beberapa pelatihan singkat di bidang ini sudah digelar karena, terutama HPI, khawatir bahwa lapangan kerja di bidang ini akan diambil oleh orang di luar Indonesia. Sementara itu, di perguruan tinggi Indonesia, hal ini kurang begitu mendapat tanggapan sehingga tidak banyak jurusan bahasa asing yang mengajarkan matakuliah Terjemahan yang mengenalkan keterampilan ini kepada mahasiswanya. Sejatinya, perguruan tinggi yang menawarkan matakuliah Penerjemahan selayaknya mengikuti perkembangan ini dan mengenalkan teknologi penerjemahan ini di dalam sajian kuliahnya. Kalau tidak, maka kemungkinan kerja bagi para mahasiswa hanyalah menjadi penerjemah naskah tertulis dan tidak bisa melebar ke penerjemahan naskah elektronik yang jenisnya sangat beragam, mulai dari menu layar untuk alat elektronik, antarmuka perangkat lunak, sampai halaman web. Mahasiswa juga perlu dikenalkan dengan bagaimana mencari bantuan dengan cepat dan efisien di internet, baik dengan cari melakukan pencarian lewat browser maupun mengenali cara menggunakan situs-situs khusus perjemah seperti www.bahtera.org/kateglo.5 Pengajaran Terjemahan idealnya mengonversi keterampilan dan pengetahuan yang diperlukan penerjemah untuk bekerja ke dalam kurikulum matakuliah atau program studi penerjemahan dan, kurikulum itu sendiri harus bersifat fleksibel (Suryawinata, 1982: 23). Fleksibel di sini artinya mudah beradaptasi dengan situasi yang ada atau dengan kbutuhan terjemahan di lapangan.Selanjutnya Suryawinata (1982: 29) juga menyatakan bahwa pengajaran terjemahan yang dikembangkan berdasarkan teori dan praktek yang relevan akan menghasilkan penerjemah yang baik.

Sejauh ini, dalam pengajaran matakuliah Terjemahan di Indonesia, umumnya tidak mengajarkan keterampilan atau subkompetensi instrumental seperti yang disampaikan di atas. Tidak ada topik-topik ini di dalam katalog matakuliah Penerjemahan di sebagian besar (atau bahkan hampir semua) program studi bahasa asing, termasuk di dalam silabus Program D3 Penerjemahan Universitas Terbuka (UT) (Katalog UT, 2007). Keterampilan dan pengetahuan ini juga tidak diperkenalkan kepada mahasiswa Terjemahan, Departemen Linguistik, Program Pascasarjana Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta, dan mahasiswa Program Studi Penerjemahan di Sekolah Pascasarjana Universitas Udayana, Denpasar (Machali, 2009). Sajauh yang penulis ketahui, Pengantar CAT Tools ini diberikan kepada mahasiswa program pascasarjana dalam Sastra Inggris, bidang peminatan Penerjemahan, di Universitas Gunadarma, Jakarta. Sekarang ini bidang penerjemahan sebagai bidang profesi telah berkembang menjadi GILT (Globalisasi, Internasionalisasi, Lokalisasi dan Terjemahan). Oleh karena itu calon penerjemah harus siap berhadapan dengan dokumen elektronik. Oleh karena itu, sekali lagi, topik terkait CAT Tool harus diperkenalkan kepada mahasiswa program studi Bahasa Inggris atau Penerjemahan. Dengan masuknya topik-topik ini, bisa diharapkan mahasiswa mengembangkan sendiri keterampilannya berdasarkan pengetahuan dasar yang diperoleh di bangkuk kuliah. Tentunya, ini sejalan dengan apa yang Budin (di Hornby, Pochhacker, dan Kaindl, 1992) nyatakan bahwa beberapa megatrend komunikasi, yaitu Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi, internasionalisasi, komersialisasi, dan kontekstualisasi, mengarah pada profil profesional yang baru dan kurikulum universitas harus disesuaikan secepat mungkin. Akhir kata, memang tidak bisa dipungkiri bahwa kompetensi linguistik (atau sub-kompetensi dwibahasa) dalam arti yang luas merupakan sub-kompetensi utama untuk penerjemah. Namun, temuan penelitian Hariyanto (2009) dan pembahasan dalam makalah ini mempertegas bahwa perkembangan teknologi informasi yang menyokong globalisasi dan membawa serta digitalisasi memerlukan adaptasi cepat dari universitas yang mengajarkan Terjemahan sebagai bagian dari kurikulum mereka atau sebagai program studi yang terpisah sehingga kebutuhan penerjemah yang handal bisa dijawab dengan tepat.

Daftar Pustaka Crystal, David. 2006. Language and the Internet. 2nd Edition. New York: Cambridge University Press. Gouadec. Daniel, 2007. Translation as A Profession. John Benjamins Publishing Co

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Kateglo adalah gabungan dari kamus, thesaurus dan glosari yang dikembangkan oleh anggota Bahtera bernama Ivan Lannin yang juga Executive Director Wikimedia Indonesia.

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Hariyanto, Sugeng. 2009. The Translation of Company Websitesfrom English into Indonesian. Unpublished Doctorate Dissertation. Gradute Program, UM, Malang

National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Hornby, Mary Snell., Pochhacker, Franz., and Kaindl, Klaus. 1992. Translation Studies: An Interdisipline. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Lesznyak, Marta. 2007. Conceptualizing Translation Competence. Across Languages and Cultures. 8 (2), pp. 167-194.

PACTE

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Group. 2005. Investigating Translation Competence: Conceptual and Methodological Issues. Meta: Translation Journal, vol 50, No 2, 2005. pp. 609-619.


Pengembangan Bahan Ajar BIPA Berdasarkan Authentic Materials Suko Winarsih Universitas Kanjuruhan Malang

Latar Belakang Orang asing yang datang ke lembaga atau penyelenggara program BIPA di Indonesia mempunyai tujuan bermacam-macam. Ada yang ingin belajar bahasa Indonesia agar dapat sekadar berkomunikasi dengan pembantu rumah tangga, sopir, penjaga rumah, dan tukang kebun (survival Indonesian). Ada pula yang belajar bahasa Indonesia karena tuntutan pekerjaan, misalnya sebagai karyawan suatu perusahaan atau karyawan kedutaan. Selain itu, ada juga calon mahapembelajar BIPA asing yang akan belajar di perguruan tinggi di Indonesia, dan mereka perlu menguasai bahasa Indonesia. Apa pun tujuan belajar mereka, mereka memerlukan buku teks, yang dapat dipakai sebagai panduan untuk belajar atau mengulang pelajaran yang telah mereka dapatkan di kelas. Namun demikian, acap kali terdengar keluhan pembelajar BIPApembelajar BIPA yang merasa tidak dapat berkomunikasi dengan orang lain di luar kelas BIPA. ―I have no problem understanding my teacher‘s Indonesian, but when I talk to people outside the classroom, I can barely understand them‖ atau ―I can‘t understand what they are talking about‖. Demikian antara lain keluhan pembelajar BIPA. Keluhan ini wajar, karena kebanyakan buku teks tidak menghadirkan hal-hal yang bersifat nyata atau aktual. Bagi pembelajar BIPA yang belajar bahasa Indonesia karena tuntutan pekerjaan atau profesi, hanya dengan mengandalkan buku teks saja tidaklah memadai. Bahasa Indonesia dalam buku teks adalah bahasa yang bookish, yang apabila diterapkan untuk situasi yang sebenarnya, seringkali terdengar kurang tepat, tidak sesuai dngan konteks atau bahkan terdengar aneh. Dalam proses pengajaran bahasa asing, salah satu materi utama yang dibu-tuhkan adalah buku teks. Buku teks yang digunakan di berbagai program BIPA beragam, ada yang menggunakan buku teks yang disusun oleh orang Indonesia, atau orang asing yang mahir berbahasa Indonesia dan mempunyai latar belakang lingu-istik, atau orang Indonesia bersama orang asing, dan ada yang menggunakan materi yang dibuat oleh institusi atau lembaga kursus untuk keperluan sendiri. Namun demi-kian, materi ajar yang tersedia dalam buku teks tersebut acap kali dirasakan kurang memadai karena pembelajar BIPA tidak dihadapkan pada situasi yang sebenarnya atau konteks yang natural. Untuk mengatasi kesulitan pembelajar BIPA ini, khu-susnya pembelajar BIPA kelas madya ke atas yang belajar bahasa Indonesia untuk tujuan khusus, ada baiknya jika selain buku teks, digunakan juga materi dan situasi otentik agar

pembelajar BIPA terpajankan dengan hal-hal yang nyata. Dalam belajar bahasa asing dikenal empat jenis kemahiran, yaitu kemahiran menyimak, membaca, berbicara, dan menulis. Kemahiran menyimak dan membaca bersifat reseptif, sedang kemahiran berbicara dan menulis bersifat produktif. Penguasaan bahasa yang ideal mencakup keempat jenis kemahiran tersebut, walaupun kenyataannya ada pembelajar BIPA yang cepat mahir berbicara tetapi lemah dalam menulis atau sebaliknya (Lado, 1985). Dalam hubungannya dengan retensi atau kemampuan mengingat kembali unsur-unsur bahasa yang sudah dipelajari, kemahiran membaca mempunyai derajat yang paling rendah. Seperti dilaporkan oleh Dale (1969), pada umumnya pembelajar hanya 10% mengingat dari apa yang mereka baca, 20% dari apa yang mereka dengar, 30% dari apa yang mereka lihat, 50% dari apa yang mereka dengar dan lihat, 70% dari apa yang mereka katakan dan tulis, dan 90% dari apa yang mereka katakan seperti yang mereka lakukan. Mengingat rendahnya kemampuan mengingat dari apa yang mereka baca dan dengar dalam proses belajar bahasa asing, maka pelajaran membaca, menyimak, dan berbicara harus mendapat perhatian yang seksama. Salah satu problem dalam belajar bahasa asing ialah adanya kesenjangan antara bahasa pertama dan bahasa target yang akan dipelajari. Secara umum dapat dikatakan bahwa semakin jauh kesenjangan itu, semakin sulit proses pembelajarannya; dan semakin dekat kesenjangan itu, semakin mudah proses pembelajarannya. Kesulitan itu terasa pada pembelajar kelas pemula, atau pembelajar yang sama sekali belum mengenal bahasa target yang akan dipelajari. Pada situasi seperti itu penggunaan pendekatan dan pemilihan materi atau bahan ajar sangat menentukan keberhasilan proses pembelajaran bahasa asing. Dalam hal ini akan diuraikan secara singkat penggunaan authentic materials dalam pengajaran bahasa Indonesia bagi penutur asing. Untuk mendukung pengajaran BIPA yang berkualitas, selain guru atau tutor yang cukup berpengalaman, salah satu sarana utama lainnya adalah buku teks. Buku-buku teks yang digunakan untuk pengajaran BIPA di Indonesia sangat beragam. Antara tahun 1970 dan 1980an, buku teks yang dipakai adalah karangan John Wolff, di antaranya adalah Beginning Indonesian dan Indonesian Readings. Buku-buku teks lain yang juga dipakai adalah yang dibuat oleh orang Indonesia bersama dengan orang asing, antara lain Learn Indonesian (JD McGarry dan Sumaryono) dan Beginning Indonesian through Self-Instruction (Dede Oetomo, Daniel Fietkiewics, dan John Wolff). Ada juga buku teks yang dikarang oleh orang-orang asing, di antaranya adalah Bahasa Tetanggaku (Ian J. White), Spoken

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Indonesian: A Course in Indonesia‘s National Language (Edmund A. Anderson), dan Kenalilah Indonesia (Linda Hibbs, Tracey Stobbe, dan Sally Ure). Buku teks BIPA yang dikarang oleh orang Indonesia sendiri tidak terlalu banyak jumlahnya, antara lain ―Belajar Bahasa Indonesia tanpa Guru‖ (Amin Singgih), Survival Indonesian: Daily Bahasa Indonesia for Foreigners (Tina Mariani). Beberapa lembaga atau penyelenggara program BIPA membuat sendiri buku teks untuk Pengajaran BIPA. Pusat Pengajaran Bahasa Unika Atma Jaya, misalnya, mempunyai buku teks Pengajaran BIPA untuk pemula dan tingkat menengah, yang disusun sendiri untuk keperluan sendiri. Untuk meningkatkan mutu pengajaran BIPA, penyelenggara program BIPA perlu menyediakan bermacam-macam authentic materials (materi otentik) dan memajankan pembelajar BIPA dengan situasi yang otentik pula. Tentunya materi dan situasi tersebut harus disesuaikan dengan tingkat kemahiran dan tujuan pembelajar BIPA belajar BIPA. Seorang pembelajar BIPA diplomat yang belajar Bahasa Indonesia karena ia akan ditugasi untuk mendalami masalah lingkungan hidup di Indonesia, misalnya, perlu mendapatkan materi otentik yang sesuai dengan bidang pekerjaan yang digelutinya. Situasi otentik dapat diperoleh dengan memajankan pembelajar BIPA pada acara-acara di televisi tentang lingkungan hidup, atau meng-ajak pembelajar BIPA mengunjungi tempat tertentu. Karena pengajaran BIPA tak dapat dilepaskan dari pengenalan akan budaya Indonesia, alangkah baiknya apabila penyelenggara program BIPA juga memasukkan program pengenalan khazanah budaya tanah air yang beraneka ragam. Materi dan situasi budaya yang otentik dapat diwujudkan dengan pemu-taran video tentang berbagai macam perkawinan adat di Indonesia, upacara ngaben dan galungan di Bali, upacara kematian di Tana Toraja, dll. Materi yang otentik antara lain adalah pengumuman di tempat-tempat umum, siaran berita atau iklan di radio maupun televisi, dll. Untuk situasi yang otentik, hal ini dapat diwujudkan dengan memindahkan situasi kelas ke luar kelas, misalnya dengan mengajak pembe-lajar BIPA melakukan karya wisata atau mengunjungi tempattempat budaya yang ada. Materi dan situasi otentik juga dapat terwujud lewat video tentang khazanah budaya tanah air yang beraneka ragam, antara lain upacara perkawinan adat, upacara kematian di Tana Toraja, upacara ngaben di Bali, dll. Dalam hal ini Pusat Bahasa, mungkin bekerjasama dengan Dirjen Kepariwisataan, dapat meningkatkan perannya dengan menyediakan rekaman video tentang aneka ragam budaya tanah air.

Problem Belajar Bahasa Asing Salah satu problem dalam belajar bahasa asing ialah adanya kesenjangan antara bahasa pertama dan bahasa target yang akan dipelajari. Lazimnya problem itu muncul karena kurangnya pengetahuan bahasa target oleh pembelajar bahasa asing. Pengetahuan itu oleh Eskey (1986) dikategorikan sebagai: (1) ketrampilan kognitif level bawah, mempersyaratkan identifikasi

bentuk bahasa, misalnya: grafofonik, retorik leksaikl/sintaktik/semantik, (2) ketrampilan kognitif tingkat tinggi, memper-syaratkan penginterpretasian makna, misalnya: kultural, prakmatik, subjek khusus. Hal ini mendorong para peneliti menyadari mengapa pembelajar yang berlatar belakang barat lebih cepat belajar bahasa Inggris daripada pembelajar yang tidak berlatar belakang seperti itu. Sementara itu Grabe (1986) menjelaskan problem belajar bahasa asing muncul sebagai akibat dari perbedaan-perbedaan linguistis dan sosiokultural dari bahasa pertama dan bahasa target. Pembelajar harus menguasai kompetensi gramatikal dan leksikal dari bahasa target jika ingin menguasai bahasa target itu. Meskipun demikian adakalanya sejumlah pembelajar yang sudah mempunyai kompetensi secukupnya dalam bahasa target tetap menghadapi kesulitan memahami teks tertentu karena kurangnya pemahaman sosiokultur pemakai bahasa target. Oleh karena itu pemahaman sosiokultur pemakai bahasa target diperlukan untuk melengkapi kompetensi gramatikal dan leksikal mengenai bahasa target. Kesulitan dalam belajar bahasa asing sebagai akibat dari kesenjangan bahasa pertama dan bahasa target sangat terasa bagi pembelajar yang sama sekali belum mengenal bahasa target. Dalam keadaan seperti ini penggunaan pendekatan yang tepat dan pemilihan materi atau bahan ajar yang fungsional sangat menentukan. keberhasilan pencapaian tujuan belajar bahasa asing. Selain untuk mencapai tujuan utama belajar bahasa asing, Kedua hal itu juga sangat penting untuk membangkitkan interes atau minat pembelajar dan memelihara keterlibatan pembelajar pada subjek yang sedang dipelajarinya.

Klasifikasi Kelas Berdasarkan Kategori Pembelajar Pada umumnya pembelajar bahasa asing dikelompokkan ke dalam tiga tingkatan, yaitu kelas pemula (novice), menengah (intermediate), dan atas (advanced). Kelas pemula dibedakan atas kelas pemula bawah (novice-low), pemula tengah (novice-mid), dan pemula atas (novice-high). Kelas menengah dibagi atas kelas menengah bawah (intermediate-low), menengah tengah (intermediate-mid), dan menengah atas (intermediate-high). Untuk kelas atas jika diperlukan dapat dibedakan atas kelas atas (advanced) dan kelas superior (superior). Kelas pemula ditandai oleh kemampuan berkomunikasi secara minimal atas materi yang dipelajari. Kelas menengah ditandai oleh kemampuan menggunakan materi pelajaran dengan mengkombinasikan unsur-unsur yang dipelajari dan bertanya serta menjawab pertanyaan. Kelas atas ditandai oleh kemampuan berkomunikasi serta menulis teks yang utuh. Pengelompokan ini sangat penting untuk melaksanakan pendekatan komunikatif-integratif, karena hanya kelas yang kemampuan pesertanya hampir samalah interaksi antarpembelajar dan pengajar dapat terjalin dengan baik. Apabila kemampuan pembelajar relatif berbeda, tidak jarang proses belajar-mengajar terganggu

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang oleh pembelajar yang tidak dapat mengikuti pelajaran, atau sebaliknya oleh pembelajar lain yang lebih tinggi kemampuannya.

Definisi Authentic Materials Definisi authentic materials berbeda-beda dalam beberapa sumber literatur. Authentic materials dapat didefinisikan sebagai 'exposure to real language and its use in its own community' (pajanan terhadap bahasa yang nyata digunakan oleh masyarakat tertentu) (Ferit Kilickaya, http://www.metu.edu.tr/~kilickay). Rogers (1988) mendefinisikannya sebagai 'appropriate' and 'quality' in terms of goals, objectives, learner needs and interest and 'natural' in terms of real life and meaningful communication (tujuan pembelajaran, yang tepat, dan kebutuhan dan ketertarikan pembelajar terhadap komunikasi di dalam kehidupan nyata dan yang berarti, hal. 467). Harmer (1991), dikiutip di dalam Matsuta mendefinisikan otentik teks sebagai materi pembelajaran yang didesain untuk penutur asli; yang berupa teks nyata atau asli yang didesain bukan untuk pembelajar bahasa, tetapi didesain untuk penutur bahasa. Jordan (1997) merujuk otentik teks yang tidak ditulis untuk keper-luan tujuan pengajaran bahasa. Authentic materials sangat berarti dalam pembe-lajaran bahasa asing karena materi tersebut dapat meningkatkan motivasi belajar, membuat pembelajar berhubungan dengan bahasa yang nyata yang digunakan oleh masyarakat (Guariento & Morley, 2001). Manfaat utama penggunaan authentic materials (Philips and Shettlesworth 1978; Clarke 1989; Peacock 1997, dalam Richards, 2001): (1) berdampak positif pada motivasi belajar si pembelajar bahasa, (2) menawakran informasi kebudayaann yang otentik, (3) menawarkan pajanan bahasa, (4) lebih dekat berhubungan dengan kebutuhan pembelajar, dan (5) mendukung pen-dekatan pengajaran yang kreatif. Dalam hal ini pembelajar dihadapkan pada penggunaan bahasa secara nyata di masyarakat bahasa tersebut dan mereka merasakan bahwa mereka mempelajari bahasa nyata. Hal ini membuat pembelajar bersemangat dan selalu ingin menggunakan materi otentik di kelas. Tetapi dalam penggunaannya, pembelajar dihadapkan pada berbagai masalah,

Perlunya Penggunaan Authentic Materials Seperti telah dijelaskan oleh Eskey (1986) dan Grabe (1986) salah satu problem belajar bahasa asing ialah adanya kesenjangan antara bahasa pertama dan bahasa target. Ada beberapa cara yang dapat dipakai untuk mengatasi problem ini, antara lain ialah penggunaan pendekatan yang tepat dan pemilihan materi atau bahan ajar yang fungsional. Dalam belajar bahasa asing dapat dipakai salah satu dari beberapa pendekatan yang telah dikenal hingga saat ini. Penggunaan pendekatan tertentu berkorelasi dengan jenis kemahiran berbahasa dan materi yang dipelajari. Pemakaian authentic materials dituntut keberadaannya

jika kita menggunakan pendekatan komunikatif-integratif dalam pengajaran bahasa Indonesia bagi penutur asing. Secara singkat dapat dijelaskan bahwa yang dimaksud dengan pendekatan komunikatif integratif adalah pendekatan dalam pembelajaran bahasa dengan menekankan aspek komunikatif dan integratif. Dengan komunikatif dimaksudkan sebagai pendekatan yang mengutamakan pembelajar menggunakan bahasa Indonesia untuk komunikasi secara aktif. Ini berarti fokus terletak pada penggunaan bahasa dalam konteks kehidupan sehari-hari. Sementara itu yang dimaksud dengan integratif ialah keterpaduan penggunaan kemahiran menyimak, membaca, berbicara, dan menulis. Di samping itu, dengan pendekatan integratif pembelajar bahasa juga dilibatkan dalam aktivitas di kelas dan di luar kelas, baik dalam bentuk tugas terstruktur atau sosialisasi dengan masyarakat di sekitarnya. Agar para pembelajar dan pengajar dapat berkomunikasi dengan baik diperlukan materi pembelajaran yang fungsional. Seperti dijelaskan oleh Eskey (1986) para pembelajar yang termasuk lower-level cognitive skills (berketrampoilan kognitif tingkat rendah) memerlukan materi pembelajaran yang menekankan identifikasi bentuk bahasa. Sedang para pembelajar yang termasuk berketrampilan kognitif tingkat tinggi memerlukan materi pembelajaran yang menekankan interpretasi makna. Bagi para pembelajar yang termasuk berketrampilan kognitif tingkat rendah yang lazimnya berada di kelas pemula pemakaian authentic materials yang menekankan aspek bentuk sangat penting untuk menjembatani kesenjangan komunikasi di antara pembelajar dan pengajar. Dapat dibayangkan apa yang terjadi di dalam kelas jika para pembelajar tidak mengetahui satu kata pun dari bahasa yang dipelajarinya, sementara itu pengajar harus memaparkan materi pelajaran dengan memakai bahasa yang sedang dipelajarinya. Dengan menggunakan authentic materials yang tepat para pembelajar akan dapat mengikuti pelajaran dengan memanfaatkan pengetahuan dasarnya untuk menebak materi pelajaran yang dipelajarinya.

Penggunaan Authentic Materials di dalam Kelas Berdasarkan asumsi bahwa retensi yang dihasilkan dari aktivitas membaca paling rendah bila dibandingkan dengan aktivitas lainnya, maka pelajaran membaca perlu mendapatkan perhatian khusus. Dengan menggunakan pendekatan komunikatif-integratif, aktivitas pada pelajaran membaca tidak terbatas pada membaca saja, tetapi dapat pula menjangkau aktivitas menyimak, berbicara, dan menulis. Hal ini berarti beberapa jenis aktivitas itu diintegrasikan ke dalam suatu aktivitas, yaitu melalui pelajaran membaca. Aktivitas menyimak terlibat dalam pelajaran membaca karena pembelajar harus mendengarkan ucapan-ucapan guru dan pembelajar lain ketika berinteraksi di dalam kelas, aktivitas berbicara terwujud pada saat pembelajar mendiskusikan materi pelajaran, dan aktivitas menulis tercakup dengan adanya

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang tugas-tugas menulis karangan atau laporan dari hasil diskusi kelompok. Pada dasarnya, pelajaran membaca itu sendiri dilaksanakan dalam tiga tahapan, yaitu tahap prabacaan, bacaan, dan pascabacaan. Setiap tahap harus dilakukan karena tahap yang satu menjadi prasyarat bagi tahap lainnya, dan keberhasilan pelajaran membaca ditentukan oleh ketiga tahapan itu. Pada tahap prabacaan guru memperkenalkan tipe teks yang akan dipelajari dan menyampaikan bagan atau gambaran umum mengenai topik yang akan dibahas. Tahap prabacaan berfungsi sebagai basis dari keseluruhan pelajaran membaca, dalam arti bahwa pembelajar akan mengalami kesulitan mengikuti pelajaran ini tanpa dibekali informasi dan pikiran yang tepat mengenai teks yang akan mereka baca. Untuk itu sebelum pelajaran membaca dimulai, guru mulai menjelaskan hal-hal yang berhubungan dengan topik yang akan dibahas. Dalam hubungan ini guru menanyakan informasi apa saja yang akan muncul berkenaan dengan topik yang akan dipelajari dan dicatat pada papan tulis agar dapat dilihat dan diingat oleh para pembelajar. Dalam hal ini guru sangat dituntut peranannya untuk memancing pembelajar BIPA terlibat aktif dalam tahap prabacaan ini. Perlu diketahui bahwa pada tahap prabacaan ini guru belum membagikan teks yang akan dipelajari. Sebelum teks dibagi, guru mendiskusikan topik yang akan dibahas di dalam teks. Diskusi ini dimaksudkan untuk memancing informasi yang akan dipakai sebagai kata kunci untuk menyusun hipotesis dalam memahami isi teks. Kegiatan membaca dimulai ketika guru sudah mendistribusikan teks kepada para pembelajar. Para pembelajar diminta membaca dan memahami isi teks. Kata-kata yang dianggap sulit (karena belum pernah dikenalnya) dicatat dan ditanyakan kepada guru. Guru menjelaskan makna kata itu beserta sinonimnya agar para pembelajar bertambah penguasaan kosa katanya. Pada bagian bacaan terdapat pertanyaan tentang teks atau memilih serta mengisi bagian-bagian tertentu dari soal yang disajikan. Untuk mengerjakan bagian ini para pembelajar dibagi ke dalam kelompok-kelompok kecil yang terdiri atas 2 atau 3 orang. Dalam kelompok itu pembelajar berdiskusi dengan temannya mengenai apa yang ditanyakan dalam teks. Setelah diskusi selesai guru bertanya kepada para pembelajar satu per satu mengenai apa yang dikerjakan dan bagaimana hasilnya. Jika dalam materi pelajaran terdapat bagian yang harus diperankan, maka para pembelajar diminta untuk main peran mengenai hal tertentu, seperti wawancara antara wartawan dengan seorang pejabat, atau percakapan di antara penjual dan pembeli dalam transaksi jual beli di pasar tradisional. Pada bagian pascabacaan terdapat tugas yang harus dikerjakan oleh para pembelajar setelah pelajaran selesai. Ini berarti setelah pelajaran selesai para pembelajar diberi pekerjaan rumah. Pekerjaan rumah ini dikumpulkan pada hari berikutnya ketika pelajaran yang sama berlangsung lagi. Sedapat mungkin pekerjaan para pembelajar dari pascabacaan ini diperiksa dan hasilnya dikembalikan kepada para pembelajar. Jika waktu tidak memungkinkan, bagian pascabacaan ini tidak perlu dibahas di kelas, tetapi guru menyediakan waktu bagi para pembelajar jika ingin

menanyakan sesuatu berkenaan dengan materi yang ada pada bagian pascabacaan. Teks yang akan dipakai sebagai bahan bacaan harus disesuaikan dengan kemampuan para pembelajar dan sebaiknya berasal dari authentic materials. Untuk kelas pemula yang sama sekali belum mengenal bahasa Indonesia dapat dipilih teks yang berasal dari authentic materials mulai dari yang sangat sederhana hingga yang sedikit lebih kompleks. Seperti dianjurkan oleh Eskey (1986) untuk para pembelajar yang termasuk lower-level cognitive skills disajikan teks yang menekankan identifikasi bentuk. Dalam hal ini teks yang menekankan identifikasi bentuk itu diusahakan teks yang mengandung unsur-unsur universal sehingga para pembelajar dapat mengenali bentuk teks tulis sekali pun mereka tidak dapat memahami kata-kata yang ada dalam teks itu. Sebagai contoh pada hari pertama dalam pelajaran membaca pada kelas pemula guru menyajikan kartu nama sebagai bahan pelajaran. Pada umumnya kartu nama mempunyai bentuk yang relatif standar sehingga para pembelajar dapat menebak bagian-bagian yang memuat informasi tentang nama, alamat kantor atau alamat rumah, nomor telepon dan sebagainya, seperti terlihat pada contoh berikut nama institusi 1.1.1

PT. MAJU MUNDUR

ASWIN BUDI PRATAMA Direktur Utama Kantor: Jl Wuruk 4 T 7471374 Smg

Rumah: Jl Jangli 23 T7478209 Smg

nama diri jabatan

alamat kantor/rumah

Dengan memakai kartu nama guru dapat melaksanakan tugas mengajar sesuai dengan tahapan-tahapan yang telah diuraikan sebelum ini. Pada tahap prabacaan guru menjelaskan anatomi kartu nama, dan para pembelajar dipancing untuk mengidentifikasikannya. Setelah guru mendistribusikan teks yang berisi kartu nama, guru mulai menjelaskan atau menanyakan beberapa hal, misalnya dengan kalimat-kalimat seperti berikut ini: (1) Siapa Naka? Nama saya ………………… (2) Di mana rumahku? Rumah saya…………………. (3) Berapa nomor telepon rumahku? Nomor telepon rumahku…… Pada tahap pascabacaan para pembelajar diminta menulis kartu nama dari setiap pembelajar. Tugas itu dilengkapi penjelasan tentang informasi diri setiap pembelajar seperti yang telah dijelaskan di dalam kelas. Setelah dimulai dengan teks yang sangat sederhana seperti kartu nama selanjutnya dapat disajikan teks yang berasal dari authentic materials yang lain, seperti bon atau nota pembelian barang, daftar menu rumah makan, kartu undangan dan lain sebagainya. Teks-teks seperti itu mudah diidentifikasi bentuknya karena para pembelajar

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang pernah memakai atau menjumpainya dalam kehidupan sehari-hari walaupun ditulis dalam bahasa yang berbeda. Dengan demikian para pembelajar akan tertarik dengan materi pelajaran itu dan keterlibatan pembelajar pada subjek yang sedang dipelajari dapat dipelihara. Untuk kelas menengah dan atas mulai disajikan teks dari authentic materials yang menuntut interpretasi makna kata-kata dan kalimat yang ada di dalam teks. Diasumsikan para pembelajar pada kelas menengah dan atas sudah menguasai sejumlah kata bahasa Indonesia sehingga kata-kata yang dikuasainya dapat dipakai sebagai modal untuk mengikuti pelajaran guna meningkatkan kemampuan bahasa Indonesia mereka. Berturut-turut dapat dipilih teks yang berasal dari bagianbagian surat kabar, seperti: iklan, berita keluarga; dan teks lain yang sederhana seperti: surat, selebaran, pengumuman, dan sebagainya. Untuk kelas atas dapat dipilih teks yang berasal dari bagian-bagian majalah atau buku untuk dibahas isinya. Setelah teks-teks itu dibahas di dalam kelas, para pembelajar baik di tingkat menengah atau atas diminta menulis karangan atau laporan yang berkaitan dengan teks itu. Tugas ini dapat dipakai sebagai acuan untuk mengetahui penguasaan bahasa Indonesia oleh para pembelajar dan perkembangan yang dialami selama mengikuti pelajaran.



Pembelajar dapat menghasilkan pemahaman dan prestasi secara nyata, mislanya dapat menjelaskan peta wilayah untuk merencanakan kunjungan wisata ke suatu daerah di Indonesia selama 4-5 hari kunjungan.



Materi otentik yang sama dapat digunakan untuk mengerjakan tugas yang berbeda.



Perubahan bahasa direfleksikan dalam materi tersebut sehingga pembelajar dan guru dapat mengikuti perubahanyang terjadi.



Teks bacaan sangat ideal untuk melatih ketrampilanketrampilan kecil, seperti surat kabar dan scanning, misalnya pembelajar diberi sebuah artikel dari surat kabar dan diminta untuk melihat informasi-informasi tertentu (dalam bentuk jumlah, prosentase), atau pembelajar diminta untuk menyimak laporan berita di radio dan tau televisi kemudian diminta untuk mengidentifikasi nama orang-orang terkenal, dan lain-lain yang berhu-bungan dengan kemampuan mengenali kata kunci (Ricards, 1983)



Buku-buku, artikel, koran, dan lain-lain yang berisi bermacam-macam tipe teks, gaya bahasa, (language style) yang tidak mudah ditemukan pada materi pembelajaran di kelas.

Kelebihan dan Kekurangan Penggunaan  Authentic Materials Materi otentik yand dijadikan sebagai sumber pembelajaran BIPA mempunyai beberapa kelebihan dan kelemahan dari berbgai sudut pandang.

Kelebihan

Kelemahan

Penggunaan materi otentik di kelas, meskipun tidak terjadi pada situasi yang sebenarnya dapat dikembangkan secara tepat dan sesuai dalam beberapa alas an sebagai berikut ini. 





Materi otentik dapat meningkatkan kemampuan membaca untuk kese-nangan karena materi tersebut mengandung topik-topik yang menarik, khususnya pembelajar diberikan kesempatan untuk memberikan pendapat-nya mengenai topik tersebut atau jenis-jenis materi otentik yang digunakan

Pembelajar berhadapan dengan wacana nyata, misalnya video yang memuat wawancara dengan orang-orang terkenal, misalnya: politikus, selebritis, negarawaan, yang dapat disimak oleh pembelajar BIPA. Materi otentik menginformasikan hal-hal yang sedang terjadi di dunia, sehingga pembelajar memiliki nilai edukasional secara intrinsik. Seorang tutor, sebagai pendidik bekerja di dalam sistem sekolah sehingga pendi-dikan dan perkembangan secara umum merupakan bagian dari tanggung jawab pendidik (Sanderson, 1999).\ Buku teks sering kali tidak banyak berperan dalam pengembangan kema-juan berbahasa Indonesia bagi pembelajar asing.

Beberapa kelemahan penggunaan materi otentik dalam pembelajaran BIPA adalah sebagai berikut ini. 

Materi otentik bisa jadi terlalu sarat bermuatan budaya, sehingga pembe-lajar bahasa asing atau BIPA mengalami kesulitan memahami bahasa riil yang digunakan oleh masyarakat bahasa target.



Banyak kosakata yang kurang relevan dengan kebutuhan pembelajar.



Terlalu bnayak struktur bahasa yang sulit dipahami, terutama oleh pembelajar pemula dalam mengkodekan teks.



Pembelajar memerlukan menyita banyak waktu.



Pada pembelajaran perbedaan aksen



Materi-materi cepat kadaluarsa, misalnya: berita.

120

persiapan

menyimak:

khusus

terlalu

dan

banyak


Sumber-sumber Authentic Materials Pada zaman gloibalisasi ini, materi otentik yang dapat dijadikan sebagai sum-ber pembelajaran BIPA adalah: Koran, program-program TV, majalah, internet, film lagulagu, brosur, komik, karya sastra (novel, puisi, dan cerita pendek), dan seba-gainya. Berikut ini adalah beberapa contoh authedntic materials dalam pembelajaran BIPA.

Karya Sastra Alasan penggunaan karya sastra di kelas telah diawali oleh Pound. Karya sastra yang adiluhung adalah karya sastra yang mengandung bahasa sederhana yang sarat dengan makna dalam berbagai derajat (Ezra Pound). Tentu saja, fokusnya harus berada pada aspek pembelajaran bahasa, bukan aspek sastranya. Dengan kata lain, idenya harus menggunakan teks literer sebagai salah satu jenis teks. Dengan demi-kian, tugas yang diberikan kepada pembelajar harus bertujuan memaknai dan bukan merumuskan, khususnya stilistika.

berbeda dan bervariasi bentuk dan jenisnya. Ada materi yang disajikan khusus untuk pembelajar BIPA tingkat pemula, menengah atau madya, dan tingkat lanjut. Tugastugas tersebut harus sesuai dengan kehidupan si pembelajar. Contoh Tugas (1) Iklan Baris Iklan baris dapat digunakan oleh orang dewasa dengan cara sebagai berikut: pembelajar tingkat pemula BIPA diminta untuk menemukan iklan baris yang memuat lowongan pekerjaan sesuai dengan kualifikasi mereka. Pembelajar tingkat madya atau menengah diberi tugas menulis surat lamaran pekerjaan atau riwayat hidup, dan pembelajar tingkat lanjut diberi tugas mendiskusikan siapa-siapa yang memenuhi kualifikasi untuk mengisi lowongan pekerjaan yang dimuat di iklan baris pada koran tersebut, menulis kembali iklan baris tersebut atau bermain peran melakukan wawan-cara (job interviews) sehubungan dengan lowongan pekerjaan tersebut (2) Perburuan (Treasure Hunt ) Pembelajar BIPA menemukan artikel yang ada di koran atau majalah dan selembar kertas dengan seperangkat pertanyaan mengenai: tanggal/.hari, peristiwa, orang-orang yang terlibat, dan lain-lain.

Perangkat Lunak Komputer Perangkat lunak umum dapat digunakan di kelas, dalam bentuk asli atau otentik. Contohnya, permainan petualangan di mana pembelajar harus menemukan petunjuk untuk memecahkan misteri. Permainan ini memerlukan banyak perhatian dalam membaca petunjuk dan penggunaan multimedia dalam menghasilkan efek bunyi-bunyi tertentu , terutama gambaran nyata para pembicara bahasa target yang berbeda usia dan aksen, dan imajinasi yang luar biasa. Pembelajar dapat bermain berpasangan atau bertiga dan mendiskusikan hal yang harus dilakukan selanjutnya, sehingga interaksi yang terjadi merupakan suatu proses belajar. Keuntungan lain dari permainan ini adalah bahwa mereka mengembangkan kemampuan literasi komputer, yaitu suatu ketrampilan yang sangat diperlukan di dunia modern. Internet Dengan luasnya ketersediaan website di internet, guru dan pembelajar dapat memnfaatkan alamat-alamat situs tertentu untuk keperluan pembelajaran BIPA. Kegi-atan menelusuri informasi yang terdapat di internet akan sangat berguna bagi pembe-lajar. Petualangan memburu dan berinteraksi dengan penutur asli bahasa Indonesia juga bisa didapatkan melalui jaringan sosial di internet, misalnya: Yahoo Messanger, facebook, twitter, indonesiancupid, perfspot, dan lain-lain. Tugas Tugas atau sesuatu yang harus dikerjakan oleh pembelajar dengan nmateri yang telah dipersiapkan,

(3) Menu (menus) Penyajian daftar menu makanan dan mnuman di restoran, rumah makan, atau warung makan bias juga dijadikan materi otentik pembelajaran BIPA. Pembelajar bisa bermain peran, ada yang menjadi pramusaji restoran, dan yang lain berperan sebagai pelanggan yang memesan jenis makanan dan minuman tertentu. Contoh: ―Bapak mau memesan apa?‖ ―Saya pesan 2 porsi nasi rawon dan 2 gelas jus alpukat‖ (4) Iklan di Majalah Menebak produk. Pada tugas ini, guru memotong lembaran iklan dari majalah, menyembunyikan teks mengenai produk yang diiklankan dan menunjukkan iklan tersebut kepada pembelajar satu per satu untuk menebak produk apa yang diiklankan. Untuk melatih kosakata khusus, guru memberikan tiga atau empat pilihan kosakata per iklan. Contoh lain mengenai penggunaan iklan di majalah adalah berikut ini. Pembe-lajar dibagi menjadi 3- 4 kelompok, dan masing-masing kelompok diberi empat iklan yang didapatkan dari majalah. Merek a diminta untuk membayangkan bahwa mereka bekerja pada perusahaan periklanan dan membandingkan keempat iklan tersebut dari segi desain teks dan gambargambarnya. Kemudian kelompok diminta untuk membandingkan mana desain iklan yang paling bagus dan

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang yang paling jelek. Kemudian, mereka diminta untuk membuat desain baru untuk iklan yang paling jelek, termasuk tampilan teksnya. Iklan dengan teks pendek didesain oleh pembelajar ting-kat pemula, sedangkan tingkat madya harus membuat yang lebih panjang, dan tingkat lanjut membuat iklan dengan desain yang kompleks.

Untuk itu perlu dikembangkan berma-cam-macam jenis kebudayaan pada bahasa target sebagai materi pembelajaran. Untuk itu, materi pembelajaran yang memuat budaya otentik masyarakat pada bahasa target perlu dikembangkan variasi jenisnya, bukan kebudayaan yang spesifik.

Daftar Pustaka

(5) Kolom Agoni Empat atau lima huruf pada kolom agoni dipotong dan ditempelkan pada kartu-kartu. Pembelajar mengerjakannya secara berpasangan atau berkelompok tiga orang dan mencocokkan huruf-huruf awal dan akhir, dan mereka mencocokkan jawaban pada tiap pesan. (6) Brosur Perjalanan Contoh penggunaan brosur perjalanan sebagai berikut ini. Para pembelajar duduk dalam satu kelompok yang terdiri atas 4-5 orang. Mereka diberi brosur-brosur perjalanan mengenai tempat-tempat wisata yang menarik. Mereka diminta untuk merancang brosur sejenis yang menarik. Di dalamnya, mereka mencantumkan ciri-ciri kemenarikan tempat wisata tersebut, misalnya: spageti sebagai makanan khas, taman yang menarik, minuman vodka, dan lain-lain.

Clarke, D. (1990), Communicative Theory andI its Influence on Materials Production. Language Teaching 2/5/1, pp73-86 Cross, David. 1992. A Practical Handbook of Language Teaching. New York: Prentice Hall. Dale, Cone. 1969. Education Media. New York: Charles Merriil. Donough, J.C. Shaw. 1993. Materials and Methods in ELT. London: Blackwell. Dubin, F, and D.E Eskey and W. Grabe. 1986. Teaching Second Language: Reading for Academic Purposes. Addison: Wesley Publishing Co. Inc. Lado, Robert. 1985. ―Memory Span as a Factor in Second Language Learning,‖ dalam IRAL 3: 23-129. Lund, S. (1992), Giving Your Courses a Dose of Reality. ELT Forum 3 pp.10-15

Kesimpulan Authentic materials memungkinan pembelajar berinteraksi dengan bahasa yang riil dan isi pesan daripada bentuknya. Para pembelajar merasakan bahwa mere-ka mempelajari bahasa target yang digunakan oleh masyarakat di luar kelas. Memper-timbangkan hal ini, tidaklah salah jika dikatakan bahwa pada tingkat atau level mana-pun authentic materials harus digunakan untuk menjembatani kesenjangan antara kompetensi dan performansi pembelajar bahasa, yang merupakan masalah umum di antara penutur normatif. Hal ini mempersyaratkan pola-pola bahasa yang dijadikan sebagai bahan latihan di dalam kehidupan masyarakat secara nyata. Aspek kebuda-yaan memegang peran penting dalam pembelajaran bahasa target yang dapat menarik perhatian pembelajar terhadap bahasa target.

Richards, J.(1983), Listening Comprehension: Approach, Design, Procedure. TESOL Quarterly 17/2 pp. 219-239 Sanderson, P. (1999), Using Newspapers in the Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Shortall, T. (2001), Distinctions and Dichotomies: Artificial and Authentic. English Teaching Professional, 21, pp35 Ur, P. (1984), Teaching Listening Comprehension. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

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Pengajaran Apresiasi Drama dengan Pendekatan Konstruktivis Menggunakan Media Film “Anna and The King” Susi Harliani Politeknik Elektronika Negeri Surabaya Institut Teknologi Sepuluh November (PENS-ITS) Surabaya Endro Sutrisno IKIP PGRI Madiun Abstrak – Makalah ini melaporkan implementasi pengajaran apresiasi drama (PAD) dengan pendekatan konstruktivis pada mata kuliah Apresiasi Drama untuk mahasiswa semester 4 jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris. Di sini digunakan film ―Anna and The King‖ sebagai media. Hasil kajiannya menyatakan, bahwa pengajaran ini efektif dalam membina mahasiswa, baik dalam ranah kognitif, afektif, maupun psikomotorik. Lebih lanjut, pengajaran ini berdampak positif terhadap pendewasaan diri mahasiswa. Kata kunci: PAD, pendewasaan diri.

pendekatan

konstruktivis,

Pendahuluan Pengajaran apresiasi drama (PAD) tampaknya belum dipandang sebagai bagian penting dalam pengajaran apresiasi sastra. Hal ini ditunjukkan dengan kenyataan, bahwa pengajaran drama jarang dilakukan di dalam program pengajaran sastra, dan jarangnya lembaga pendidikan bahasa dan sastra memiliki grup drama. Pengajaran sastra cenderung berhenti pada dimensi teori. Jika ini yang terjadi, berdasarkan pandangan Bloom, pengajaran itu hanya menyentuh ranah kognitif, belum menjangkau ranah afektif dan psikomotorik; padahal, PAD berpotensi membentuk karakter (Herman J. Waluyo, 2001). Memang perlu diakui, bahwa terdapat faktor eksternal yang mengendalai PAD, misalnya: lembaga tidak menyediakan sarana yang memadai, kemampuan dosen terbatas dalam mengembangkan metode pengajaran, perpustakaan terbatas dalam menyediakan eksposur formal, media massa juga terbatas dalam menyediakan eksposur informal yang dikehendaki. Berangkat dari fakta itu, diperlukan terobosan yang mampu menjawab kebutuhan. Terobosan itu tentu meliputi pemilihan pendekatan, pengembangan metode dan teknik. Salah satu terobosan yang bisa dipertimbangkan ialah penggunaan pendekatan konstruktivis dalam PAD. Penggunaan pendekatan konstruktivis disarankan dalam pembelajaran kontekstual dan bermakna (Johnson, 2002). Karena itu, pendekatan

ini memungkinkan dikembangkannya metode dan teknik eklektik (gabungan). Walaupun konsep pendekatan konstruktivis ini muncul dari konteks pembelajaran sains (Paul Suparno, 1997), bisa pula diterapkan dalam pengajaran sastra, khususnya drama. Dengan cara ini, PAD mampu lebih efektif dan menyentuh langsung kebutuhan nyata pembelajar, yaitu pembentukan karakter. Agar PAD efektif, materi dan media perlu dipilih, sebagai bagian dari bentuk pengembangan materi dan media pengajaran. Untuk itu, film ―Anna and The King‖ layak dipilih. Film ini diangkat dari kisah nyata, dikemas secara professional, dibintangi aktor dan aktris terkenal, sarat nilai. Berbagai kelebihan itulah yang menjadikan film ini layak menjadi media pengajaran yang bermutu, khususnya bagi PAD. Makalah ini melaporkan penggunaan film itu sebagai media pengajaran dalam mata kuliah Apresiasi Drama bagi mahasiswa semester 4 jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris. Standar kompetensi (SK) yang hendak dicapai ialah: Mengapresiasi drama; kompetensi dasarnya (KD) ialah: 1) Mengungkap nilai-nilai dalam drama, 2) Mendiskusikan nilai-nilai dalam drama, 3) Menghubungkan nilai-nilai dalam drama dengan kehidupan sehari-hari. Pengajaran ini membutuhkan waktu 12 x 50 menit, yang terbagi dalam 6 x tatap muka. Hasil kajiannya menunjukkan, bahwa: 1) Proses Belajar Mengajar (PBM) lebih hidup dan dinamis, 2) Pencapaian SK dan KD lebih optimal. Kedua hal itu dipaparkan secara ringkas namun relatif lengkap dalam makalah ini.

Landasan Teoretik Pengajaran Sastra bertujuan tidak saja membekali pembelajar dengan pemahaman teori dan sejarah (kognitif), tetapi juga menempa sikap (afektif) dan ketrampilan bersastra (psikomotorik) (Herman J. Waluyo, 2001: 161). Di sini, PAD memiliki peranan penting, karena mampu mengakomodasi ketiga wilayah tersebut untuk menunjang pendidikan karakter. Hal itu dimungkinkan karena dalam PAD, pembelajar berhadapan langsung dengan replika kehidupan, karena drama adalah proyeksi kehidupan (Sanger, 2001: 5). Secara teknis, PAD bisa dilaksanakan dengan mengajak pembelajar menyelami unsur-unsur dalam drama, misalnya: 1) alur atau jalan cerita, 2) penokohan dan perwatakan, 3) nilai-nilai yang terkandung dalam cerita, 4) latar cerita (fisik maupun nonfisik). Dengan pilihan media (drama atau film) yang tepat, penyelaman atas berbagai unsur tersebut bersifat krusial karena menjangkau berbagai dimensi sebagai berikut. Dengan mencermati alur cerita, pembelajar terlibat dalam berbagai peristiwa yang dialami para tokoh cerita,

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang terlibat dalam konflik cerita. Keterlibatan yang intensif akan menciptakan kesan mendalam. Kesan mendalam itu pada saatnya akan menjadi bagian dari background knowledge atau pengetahuan awal (the prior knowledge), bahkan setara dengan pengalaman awal (the prior experience), yang kelak bermanfaat bagi pembangunan karakter, pematangan olah pikir, pengembangan wawasan, pendewasaan diri, kesadaran berbudaya. Dengan mencermati penokohan dan perwatakan, pembelajar menerima eksposur konkret tentang berbagai jenis kualitas individu dan berbagai jenis karakter manusia. Hal ini penting bagi masa depannya, dalam menghadapi kehidupan di masyarakat yang kompleks dan sarat konflik. Pada saatnya, pendalaman dan penghayatan atas karakter para tokoh cerita akan mampu menjadi wahana pengembangan wawasan, pendewasaan diri. Dengan mencermati berbagai nilai yang terkandung dalam cerita, pembelajar dihadapkan pada kondisi yang mampu mengasah ketajaman batinnya, pematangan dirinya. Jika misalnya dalam cerita terkandung nilai budaya, hal itu mampu mengasah kesadaran berbudayanya. Jika misalnya dalam cerita terkandung nilai hukum, ekonomi, politik, hal itu mampu memperluas wawasannya. Jika misalnya dalam cerita terkandung nilai sosial, moral, religi, hal itu mampu membangun karakternya. Dengan mencermati latar cerita, baik fisik maupun psikis, pembelajar menerima eksposur aspek-aspek teaterikal dalam cerita. Pada saatnya, hal itu penting bagi penguasaan materi sastrawi baginya. Kemampuannya mengidentifikasi latar cerita secara rinci mencerminkan kemampuannya menguasai aspek teaterikal cerita. Hal ini efektif untuk mencapai tujuan khusus kurikulum, yang menunjang secara langsung pembinaan afeksi dan psikomotor. Dengan menguasai aspek teaterikal, seseorang memiliki sikap yang positif terhadap teater dan trampil bermain teater. Berbagai kemampuan tersebut dapat dicapai pembelajar dengan menerapkan pendekatan konstruktivis, yaitu suatu pendekatan yang: 1) membangun pemahaman diri sendiri berdasarkan pengalaman, 2) mengembangkan pemahaman melalui pengalaman belajar (Woolfolk, 2005: 320). Pendekatan konstruktivis berangkat dari asumsi sebagai berikut. Pengetahuan merupakan suatu proses pembentukan (konstruksi) yang terus-menerus berkembang dan berubah… pengetahuan lebih menunjuk kepada pengalaman seseorang akan dunia daripada dunia itu sendiri. Tanpa pengalaman itu, seseorang tidak dapat membentuk pengetahuan (Paul Suparno, 1997: 18). Dengan pendekatan ini, hakikat sosial belajar dihayati. Hal itulah yang mendasari pemikiran munculnya pendekatan ini oleh Piaget dan Vygotsky (Mohamad Nur & Prima, 2000:3). Dalam praktik pembelajaran, terdapat tiga pola pendekatan konstruktivis, yaitu: 1) Psychological/Individual Constructivism, yang diterapkan ketika fokusnya adalah upaya bagaimana seorang individu (pembelajar) membangun elemen tertentu dalam perangkat kognitif dan emosionalnya; 2) Social Constructivism, yang diterapkan ketika fokusnya adalah

upaya bagaimana konteks sosial dan budaya berperan penting dalam mendewasakan diri pembelajar; 3) Constructionism, yang diterapkan ketika individu dan konteks sosial-budaya berperan penting dalam upaya membangun pengetahuan (Woolfolk, 2005: 325-316). Pola yang pertama dirumuskan oleh Piaget, yang menekankan aktivitas individu dalam membangun pengetahuan, berfokus proses berpikir, bukan hasil berpikir (Slavin, 1997: 44); sedang pola yang kedua dirumuskan oleh Vygotsky, yang menekankan pentingnya peranan masyarakat dalam mengembangkan individu (Paul Suparno, 1997: 43-48).

Data dan Pembahasannya Proses Belajar Mengajar (PBM) Untuk mahasiswa jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, PAD dilaksanakan dengan langkahlangkah sebagai berikut. Langkah a Mahasiswa diajak membangun pemahaman berdasarkan pengalaman, dengan menyimak satu fenomena aktual dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Fenomena itu misalnya: persoalan yang menimpa Kepolisian Republik Indonesia (Polri), Kejaksaan Agung, dan Komisi Pemberantasan Korupsi (KPK). Dengan menyimak fenomena itu, mahasiswa diajak melihat, bahwa sedemikian kompleks persoalan hidup bermasyarakat dan bernegara; sarat konflik. Mahasiswa melihat, di sana ada konflik berbagai kepentingan; ada kepentingan sosial, politik, ekonomi, budaya. Mahasiswa melihat, bahwa kehidupan seorang manusia terwujud dalam urutan peristiwa yang kompleks, penuh konflik, tidak lepas dari berbagai tokoh/manusia lain dengan karakter masing-masing, dalam lingkup sosial dan budaya yang sarat nilai. Berangkat dari pemahaman itu, mahasiswa diajak membedah kasus, melihat rincian, sampai akhirnya mahasiswa menyebutkan butir-butir penyebab kasus itu terjadi; mahasiswa tahu asal-usulnya dan kaitannya dengan kasus-kasus yang lain. Langkah ini sesuai dengan konsep Vygotsky—pencetus ide pengajaran konstruktivis—yang menyatakan sebagai berikut. … siswa seharusnya diberi tugas-tugas kompleks, sulit, dan realistik dan kemudian diberi bantuan secukupnya untuk menyelesaikan tugas-tugas ini (bukan diajar sedikit demi sedikit komponen-komponen suatu tugas kompleks yang pada suatu hari diharapkan akan terwujud menjadi suatu kemampuan untuk menyelesaikan tugas kompleks tersebut)… siswa mulai dengan masalah-masalah yang kompleks untuk dipecahkan dan selanjutnya memecahkan atau menemukan (dengan bantuan guru) ketrampilanketrampilan dasar yang diperlukan (Muhamad Nur & Prima, 2000: 6-7). Langkah ini dilakukan untuk mengintroduksi mahasiswa sebelum memasuki kegiatan inti PAD dengan pendekatan konstruktivis. Dengan introduksi ini, mahasiswa mengawali kegiatan belajar dengan menyimak kasus nyata dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, membedahnya, kemudian mendiskusikannya untuk mencoba

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang menyelesaikannya. Dengan introduksi ini, diharapkan mahasiswa mengalami bagaimana mencoba memahami sebuah fenomena dan menganalisisnya. Walaupun sebatas diskusi, di sini mahasiswa mendapat pengalaman, bagaimana menyikapi sebuah fenomena. Pengalaman inilah yang nanti ditindaklanjuti dengan mentransfer kondisi pembelajaran, dari kondisi semula: menyelami fenomena aktual, ke dalam kondisi: menyelami fenomena dalam film, yang berasal dari kisah nyata. Langkah b Mahasiswa diajak menonton film ―Anna and The King‖. Di sini, mahasiswa hendaknya menyimak film itu dengan sinergi tiga kemampuan: logika, emosi, nurani. Dengan demikian, mereka dapat menghayati setiap titik peristiwa dalam film itu. Bahkan, diharapkan mereka benar-benar larut dalam cerita. Mahasiswa diajak menyelami ceritanya. Persyaratan itu sesuai dengan hakikat mengapresiasi, yang menurut Gove ialah, ―… (1) pengenalan melalui perasaan atau kepekaan batin, (2) pemahaman dan pengakuan terhadap nilai-nilai keindahan yang diungkapkan‖ (dalam Aminuddin, 2002: 34). Dengan demikian, mereka diajak mengembangkan pemahaman melalui pengalaman belajar. Setelah pemutaran film selesai, mahasiswa diminta membedah, lalu mengidentifikasi hal-hal yang menarik, yang perlu disimak lebih lanjut dalam film itu. Di sini, mereka, ―… diajar untuk membuat pertanyaan-pertanyaan untuk diri mereka sendiri , ikhtisar, dan analogi tentang materi yang telah mereka baca‖ (Mohamad Nur & Prima, 2000: 9). Mahasiswa diberi waktu yang cukup untuk melakukan hal itu. Mereka dikondisikan, agar seolah-olah mereka menghadapi fenomena nyata, bukan sekedar film; lebih-lebih, karena film itu berasal dari kisah nyata. Setelah berdiskusi, mereka lalu menyebutkan dan menyepakati, bahwa hal-hal yang perlu disimak lebih lanjut dalam film itu ialah aspek-aspek berikut. 1) Konflik 2) Penokohan dan karakterisasi 3) Nilai budaya 4) Nilai religi 5) Nilai sosial 6) Nilai seni Ini langkah awal pembelajaran kontekstual: mahasiswa membuat keterkaitan-keterkaitan, melakukan pekerjaan yang berarti, melakukan pembelajaran yang diatur sendiri (Johnson, 2002: 65). Langkah c Berdasarkan 6 aspek yang sudah ditentukan, mahasiswa membagi diri menjadi 6 kelompok. Setiap kelompok mulai bekerja, mendalami satu aspek. Dalam kegiatan ini, mereka tidak hanya mendiskusikan hasil penyelaman individu, tetapi juga menyusun simpulan, sebagai hasil kerja kelompok. Di sini, mereka mengimplementasikan komponen-komponen pembelajaran kontekstual, yaitu: bekerja sama, berpikir kritis dan kreatif (Johnson, 2002: 65). Langkah ini sesuai dengan pandangan Piaget dan Vygotsky menyarankan, ―… penggunaan kelompok-kelompok belajar dengan kemampuan anggota kelompok yang berbeda-beda untuk mengupayakan perubahan pengertian atau belajar‖ (Mohamad Nur & Prima, 2000: 4).

Implementasi itu dipertajam ketika mereka juga harus mempersiapkan materi presentasi untuk diskusi kelas. Dalam kegiatan ini mereka dapat melakukan browsing, mewawancarai narasumber, menyiapkan makalah dan materi presentasi. Di sini, mereka mengalami, bagaimana, ―… belajar melalui interaksi dengan orang dewasa dan teman sebaya yang lebih mampu‖ (Mohamad Nur & Prima, 2000: 4). Mereka didorong agar berupaya menyiapkan yang terbaik. Pada kegiatan inilah tampak, betapa mahasiswa dikuasai semangat berkompetisi. Mereka aktif membagi tugas dan bekerja sama, berupaya agar kelompok mereka dapat menampilkan yang terbaik. Kelak, hasil pendalaman itu dipresentasikan dalam diskusi kelas. Langkah d Setelah diskusi kelompok selesai, dibuka forum diskusi kelas. Di sini, setiap kelompok mempresentasikan hasil diskusinya untuk ditanggapi segenap kelompok lainnya. Langkah ini perlu dilakukan karena dalam proses konstruksi diperlukan pengasahan atas kemampuan seperti: 1) mengingat dan mengungkapkan kembali pengalaman, 2) membandingkan dan mengambil keputusan (justifikasi) mengenai persamaan dan perbedaan, 3) lebih menyukai pengalaman yang satu dibanding yang lain (Paul Suparno, 1997: 20). Pada kegiatan ini tampak, bahwa mahasiswa memiliki kesempatan luas untuk menumbuhkembangkan kemampuan logikanya, kehalusan perasaannya, ketajaman dan kepekaan hati nuraninya. Hal itu tecermin dari serunya diskusi, kualitas dan kedalaman argumen yang mereka kemukakan dalam diskusi, lengkap dan bervariasinya materi presentasi setiap kelompok. Benarlah pandangan Piaget dan Vygotsky, ―… perubahan kognitif akan terjadi jika konsepsi-konsepsi yang telah dipahami sebelumnya diolah melalui suatu proses ketidakseimbangan dalam upaya memahami informasiinformasi baru‖ (Mohamad Nur & Prima, 2000: 3). Hal ini sesuai dengan pandangan Bruner (1966), bahwa siswa harus didorong untuk belajar melalui keterlibatan aktif mereka dengan konsep-konsep dan prinsip-prinsip, dan guru mendorong siswa untuk memiliki pengalaman dan melakukan percobaan yang memungkinkan mereka menemukan prinsip-prinsip mereka sendiri (Mohamad Nur & Prima, 2000: 10). Dengan demikian pula, kesempatan ini memungkinkan mereka mencapai standar pembelajaran yang tinggi (Johnson, 2002: 66). Hasil penelitian Ivany (1969), juga hasil penelitian Collins yang dilakukan pada tahun yang sama menunjukkan, bahwa metode konstruktivis bekerja optimal jika terdapat konfrontasi yang kuat dan eksplorasi materi diinstruksikan (Joyce & Weil, 1986: 57). Apa yang terjadi dalam PBM tidak menyimpang dari temuan itu. Berikut ini temuan setiap kelompok. Temuan setiap kelompok mereka presentasikan lengkap dengan hasil browsing, yang variatif dan menarik. Hal ini menunjukkan kreativitas mereka, sekaligus hasil pembelajaran ini.

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang 1) Konflik. Pada aspek konflik, mahasiswa menemukan cukup banyak konflik dalam film ―Anna and The King‖. Beberapa konflik yang dinilai menonjol ialah sebagai berikut. Konflik Pertama Film ―Anna and The King‖ menggambarkan konflik internal dalam diri Raja Mongkut, antara keinginan untuk menjadi seorang raja yang berkuasa dan memegang teguh supremasi negaranya, dengan keinginan untuk melihat negaranya maju menjadi negara modern. Pada akhirnya, impian yang kedua yang menang. Raja lalu mendatangkan seorang guru dari Inggris, yaitu Ana Leonowens. Ketika menyajikan temuan ini, mahasiswa menayangkan beberapa cuplikan film, antara lain gambar 1, 2 dan 3 berikut ini.

Gambar 4.

Gambar 5.

Gambar 1.

Gambar 2.

Gambar 1 selalu ditayangkan oleh setiap kelompok untuk mengawali presentasi mereka. Gambar 2 memerlihatkan Ana bersama anaknya, Louis, ketika baru tiba di Siam. Gambar 3 memerlihatkan Ana bertugas sebagai guru keluarga kerajaan.

Gambar 3. Konflik Kedua Ada benturan budaya antara Ana dengan Raja Mongkut. Ana menginginkan tinggal di luar istana, sedangkan Mongkut menginginkan Ana—sebagai tamu— patuh kepadanya dan tinggal di lingkungan istana. Konflik ini disusul beberapa konflik kecil, misalnya antara Louis dan Pangeran Chuulalongkorn, yang berakibat mereka berkelahi. Ketika membahas konflik ini, mahasiswa menayangkan gambar 4 dan 5 berikut ini.

Gambar 4 memerlihatkan sikap Raja Mongkut yang cenderung angkuh, menjaga citra. Sementara itu, gambar itu juga memerlihatkan sikap Anna yang penuh percaya diri. Gambar 5 memerlihatkan Anna menasihati Louis, beberapa saat setelah anak itu berkelahi dengan Pangeran Chuulalongkorn. Konflik Ketiga Konflik ini ditunjukkan oleh Tuptim yang terpaksa berpisah dengan Balad, kekasihnya, karena gadis itu diserahkan oleh orang tuanya kepada Raja agar diambil sebagai selir. Orang tuanya melakukan itu demi memburu status sosial, agar menjadi orang dekat keluarga kerajaan. Tuptim menjalani takdirnya dengan hati pedih. Konflik ini memuncak ketika diketahui bahwa Tuptin lari dari istana dan menjadi ―biarawan‖ (ia menggunduli kepalanya, lalu berbusana lelaki). Ia dinyatakan bersalah dan harus dihukum mati. Ini salah satu puncak konflik dalam film ini. Di sini, sisi humanisme yang mulai dimiliki Raja dan ajaran cinta kasih Alkitab yang dipercaya Anna, berhadapan dengan hukuman mati yang harus dialami Tuptim dan kekasihnya, Balat. Ini tragis. Ketika membahas konflik ini, kelas menunjukkan empati yang cukup kuat terhadap nasib Tuptin dan Balad. Ini tampak dari suasana kelas yang lebih banyak senyap, dihiasi wajah-wajah mahasiswa yang tegang, berekspresi sendu. Gambar-gambar yang ditayangkan oleh kelompok penyaji antara lain gambar 6 - 9 berikut ini.

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Gambar 10. Gambar 6.

Gambar 8.

Gambar 7.

Gambar 9.

Gambar 6 memerlihatkan Tuptin ketika menjadi selir Raja. Gambar 7 memerlihatkan Tuptin ketika ia berada di dalam kamar, tenggelam dalam kepedihan hatinya. Gambar 8 memerlihatkan Tuptin ketika sudah menjadi ―biarawan‖, berbicara dengan Ana, menjelang penghakimannya. Gambar 9 memerlihatkan ekspresi wajah Tuptin, beberapa saat sebelum dihukum penggal kepala, setelah kekasihnya, Balad, beberapa saat sebelumnya menjalani hukuman itu di depan matanya. Tampak, wajahnya yang terluka karena siksaan juga terkena cipratan darah Balad, menggambarkan ekspresi yang sulit dilukiskan.

Gambar 11.

Gambar 10 memerlihatkan Jenderal Alak, yang memimpin pasukan untuk merebut tahta Siam. Gambar 11 memerlihatkan Raja Mongkut, beserta dua orang kerabat istana, menyongsong pasukan Alak. Konflik Kelima Anna yang mulai jatuh cinta kepada Mongkut, berhadapan dengan rasa nasionalismenya. Konflik internal dalam diri Anna ini dibahas cukup intensif oleh mahasiswa. Mereka berpendapat, bahwa sebenarnya inilah lingkaran konflik dalam film ini. Berdasarkan hal itu, mereka berpendapat, bahwa film ini adalah film yang menggambarkan kisah cinta Raja Mongkut dengan Anna. Pada akhirnya, Anna memutuskan untuk kembali ke negeri asalnya, Inggris. Cukup banyak cuplikan film dan gambar yang ditayangkan mahasiswa dalam membahas hal ini, antara lain gambar berikut ini.

Gambar 12.

Gambar 13.

Konflik Keempat Jendral Alak yang berobsesi meneruskan kekuasaan Dinasti Cakri di kerajaan Siam, berhadapan dengan sikap Raja yang bersahabat dengan Eropa. Sang Jendral memanfaatkan konflik lama antara Siam dengan Burma sebagai kedok ambisinya merebut tahta Siam. Ini juga konflik puncak dalam film ini. Ketika membahas konflik ini, mahasiswa menayangkan beberapa cuplikan film, antara lain gambar 10 dan 11 berikut ini. Gambar 14.

Gambar 15.

Gambar 12 – 17 memerlihatkan kedekatan Anna dengan Raja. Kedekatan itu menunjukkan kisah cinta mereka. Di sini juga dibahas mahasiswa, bahwa Raja pun mengalami konflik dalam dirinya, yaitu pertentangan antara cintanya kepada Anna dan statusnya sebagai raja Siam. Berdasarkan pelukisan dalam film ini mahasiswa

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang berpendapat, bahwa cinta tidak harus diungkapkan secara vulgar. Tampaknya, melalui film ini mahasiswa bisa merasakan, bahwa cinta itu sesuatu yang agung, suci, lembut, tidak vulgar.

Gambar 20.

Gambar 16.

Gambar 20 memerlihatkan Anna yang sedang berdebat dengan seorang perempuan yang kaya, pemilik budak, Jo Jom Manda Ung, tentang pembebasan seorang budak, La Ore. Gambar ini berupaya menunjukkan tradisi perbudakan di Siam, yang merupakan sesuatu yang bersifat antagonistik dalam film ini.

Gambar 17.

2) Penokohan dan Karakterisasi. Ketika membahas aspek ini, mahasiswa menemukan halhal sebagai berikut. Tokoh Protagonis Tokoh protagonis dalam film ini Raja Mongkut dan Anna. Mereka satu ide dalam memajukan rakyat Siam. Anna seorang guru yang lembut, bijak, cerdas, namun lugas dan tegar. Mongkut seorang raja yang berwibawa, tegas, bijak. Dalam hal bagaimana bersikap ksatria, keduanya sepaham. Ketika membahas tokoh ini, mahasiswa menayangkan beberapa gambar, seperti gambar Raja Mongkut (Gambar 18) dan gambar Ana (gambar 19) berikut ini.

3) Nilai Budaya Film ini sarat nilai budaya, bahkan lintas budaya. Nilai budaya dalam film ini ditunjukkan dengan: tradisi Raja memiliki isteri dan banyak selir, tradisi perbudakan dan rakyat tidak boleh memandang wajah Raja, tradisi perayaan festival beras, tradisi perayaan gajah putih. Sementara itu, pada sisi lain juga sudah mulai dikenal budaya barat, yang ditunjukkan dengan penyelenggaraan makan malam dan pesta dansa di istana Siam. Ketika membahas hal ini, mahasiswa menayangkan beberapa gambar, antara lain gambar 21, 22, dan 23 berikut ini.

Gambar 21.

Gambar 18.

Gambar 19.

Tokoh Antagonis Tokoh antagonis dalam film ini Jendral Alak. Pada sisi lain, segenap tradisi Siam juga menjadi tokoh antagonis bagi nilai-nilai baru yang didatangkan Anna dari Inggris. Ketika membahas hal ini, mahasiswa menayangkan beberapa gambar, antara lain gambar Jenderal Alak dan gambar 20 berikut ini.

Gambar 22.

Gambar 23.

Gambar 21 memerlihatkan tradisi menghormat kepada Raja. Tradisi itu menyatakan, siapa pun tidak boleh menatap wajah Raja. Gambar 22 memerlihatkan tradisi

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang yang disebut Festival Beras di Siam. Gambar 23 memerlihatkan sisi lain dalam budaya di Siam, yaitu keberadaan alat transportasi manusia berupa gerobak mirip becak yang ditarik manusia. 4) Nilai Religi Nilai religi dalam film ini ditunjukkan dengan adanya wihara-wihara Budha, baik di dalam maupun di luar istana. Raja adalah sosok religius. Ia berdoa ketika menghadapi persoalan pelik yang mengangkut Tuptim. Ia membawa keluarganya mengungsi ke wihara di luar istana ketika negara terancam bahaya. Ketika membahas aspek ini, mahasiswa menayangkan beberapa gambar, antara lain gambar berikut ini.

Gambar 28.

Gambar 29.

6) Nilai Seni Nilai seni dalam film ini ditunjukkan dengan keberadaan seni arsitektur bangunan rumah, istana, candi dan wihara di Siam, bentuk lampu dan perahu. Ketika membahas soal ini, mahasiswa menayangkan beberapa gambar, antara lain gambar 30 – 32 berikut ini. Gambar 30 memerlihatkan arsitektur perahu Siam. Pada gambar 31 dapat dilihat bentuk lampu yang artistik. Gambar 32 memerlihatkan arsitektur bangunan di Siam.

Gambar 30.

Gambar 31.

Gambar 24. Gambar 25. Gambar 24 memerlihatkan bangunan wihara yang berhalaman sangat luas. Gambar 25 memerlihatkan patung Budha di tengah upacara peribadatan. 5)

Nilai Sosial Menurut mahasiswa, nilai sosial dalam film ini ditunjukkan antara lain dengan kedekatan Mongkut dengan para isteri dan anaknya, penerimaan yang baik keluarga Raja terhadap Anna, juga hubungan yang baik antara Anna dengan para pembantu di rumahnya. Ketika membahas aspek ini, mahasiswa menayangkan beberapa gambar, antara lain gambar 26 - 29 berikut ini.

Gambar 26.

Gambar 27.

Gambar 32. Langkah e Pada akhir diskusi kelas, dosen meriviu hasil diskusi. Pada kesempatan ini, proses pengajaran tidak hanya disimpulkan, tetapi juga ditekankan manfaatnya dalam kehidupan. Dosen bertugas memantapkan kemampuan mahasiswa dengan beragam kemampuan baru yang diperoleh dalam pembelajaran ini. Piaget dan Vygotsky menggambarkan, bahwa anak sedang bekerja dalam zona perkembangan terdekat (zone of proximal development) ketika mereka terlibat dalam tugas-tugas yang tidak dapat mereka selesaikan tanpa bantuan teman atau orang yang lebih mampu (Mohamad Nur & Prima, 2000: 5). Dosen bertugas memantapkan perkembangan mahasiswa. Di sini diyakinkan, bahwa dengan menyelami drama yang bermutu, bisa dilakukan pembelajaran menyeluruh yang terkait dengan penguasaan kemampuan bersastra sekaligus pengembangan karakter.

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Hasil Pengajaran Hasil PAD yang dilakukan ini dapat langsung diamati dalam proses pembelajaran. Mulai langkah introduksi, mahasiswa sudah menampakkan semangat yang tinggi dengan ketertarikan mereka terhadap isu atau fenomena yang diangkat dalam PBM. Rupanya, kondisi ini menjadi modal positif untuk memasuki tahap berikutnya. Ketika kepada mereka disajikan film, semangat itu ternyata tidak menyusut, justru berkembang. Kondisi ini sudah barang tentu mendukung kelancaran PBM secara umum. Evaluasi terhadap PBM tentu sudah bisa dimulai dari sini, karena di sini dilaksanakan penilaian otentik, yang bertumpu pada proses, bukan hasil (Johnson, 2002). Jadi, sebagian besar laporan tentang hasil pengajaran dapat dilihat dalam bab PROSES BELAJAR MENGAJAR (PBM) di atas. Lebih lanjut, proses pembelajaran yang telah dijalani mahasiswa dalam PAD ternyata tertanam kuat, bahkan berdampak positif pada sikap pribadi mahasiswa. Hal ini ditunjukkan dengan antara lain: makin kritisnya mahasiswa melihat persoalan, makin mampunya mahasiswa mengakomodasi perbedaan, makin tingginya semangat belajar. Tengara itu dapat diamati pada beberapa waktu setelah PAD dengan menggunakan film ―Anna and The King‖ sebagai media pengajaran. Fenomena itu menunjukkan, bahwa dengan mengekspos film ini kepada mereka, dosen telah membantu mahasiswa, ―… menemukan fakta, konsep, atau prinsip bagi diri mereka sendiri…‖ (Mohamad Nur & Prima, 2000: 3).

seperti: keterbatasan lembaga menyediakan sarana, keterbatasan dosen mengembangkan metode, keterbatasan perpustakaan menyediakan eksposur, keterbatasan media massa menyajikan eksposur. Tidak berlebihan kiranya jika pembelajaran sastra direkonstruksi menjadi lebih humanis, seperti yang ditulis di harian Kompas berikut ini. Untuk itu, tak ada pilihan selain peralihan kepada pembelajaran organis. Dalam sistem ini, jelajah nalar dioptimalkan, hati digerakkan, minat dan semangat didorong, serta motivasi dan kesadaran diri diberi ruang gerak luas. Melalui pendekatan ini, seseorang akan menjadi pribadi kian mandiri. Ia akan bebas berkreasi dan berinovasi. Ia punya intuisi sosial dan kontributif terhadap pembentukan masyarakat yang lebih baik (Maria FK Namang, 2009).

Daftar Pustaka Aminuddin. 2002. Pengantar Apresiasi Karya Sastra. Bandung: Sinar Baru Algensindo. Herman J. Waluyo. 2001. Drama Pengajarannya. Yogyakarta: Hanindita.

Teori

dan

Johnson, Elaine B. 2002. Contextual Teaching & Learning. Bandung: MLC. Joyce, Bruce & Marsha Weil. 1986. Models of Teaching. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Maria FK Namang. 2009. ―Transaksi‖ Pendidikan. Dalam Kompas. Selasa, 24 November 2009, halaman 6.

Simpulan Pengajaran apresiasi drama dengan pendekatan konstruktivis menggunakan film ―Anna and The King‖ ternyata efektif bagi upaya pencapaian target kurikulum dan memberikan dampak positif bagi upaya pendidikan karakter pembelajar. Boleh jadi, penayangan film ―Anna and The King‖ telah memotivasi mereka untuk memahami lebih baik hakikat kehidupan. Hasil pengajaran ini menguatkan pendapat Berlyne (1965), bahwa metode ini memacu keingintahuan siswa, memotivasi siswa untuk melanjutkan pekerjaan hingga mereka menemukan jawaban (Mohamad Nur & Prima, 2000: 11). Dengan pencapaian sedemikian, pengajaran sastra menunjukkan peranannya. Ke depan, kiranya perlu dilakukan pemberian tempat yang lebih memadai untuk bidang ini di dalam kurikulum, agar dapat mendorong pembenahan berbagai hal yang selama ini mengendalai,

Mohamad Nur & Prima Retno Wikandari. 2000. Pengajaran Berpusat kepada Siswa dan Pendekatan Konstruktivis dalam Pengajaran. Surabaya: Pusat Studi Matematika dan IPA Sekolah Universitas Negeri Surabaya. Paul Suparno, 1997. Filsafat Konstruktivisme dalam Pendidikan. Yogyakarta: Kanisius. Sanger, Keith. 2001. The Language of Drama. London: Routledge. Slavin, Robert E. 1997. Educational Psychology. Fifth Edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Woolfolk, Anita. 2005. Educational Psycology. Ninth Edition. Boston; Allyn & Bacon.

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Developing and Using Indonesian English: Challenges and Responses (In the Shadow of the First Proclamation) Tri Budhi Sastrio Irina Floretta Tunjung Sari Widya Kartika University Surabaya Abstract – American English, British English, Canadian English, and even Singaporean and Malaysian English, and so on are common terms recognized by all students who learn English. All of them are the most established genres of English so the issues do not become the issues any more. But Indonesian English is quite new and even controversial. The question such as ‗Is it possible to develop this kind of English without creating more problems in learning English as a foreign language?‘ is the main question always asked when this idea proposed. This paper tries to explore any possibilities to answer this question.

as a language of communication in Indonesia, but INDISH does exist and is used, at least by one Indonesian. The case is different in Singapore or Malaysia. In these two countries, English is a second language, i.e. it is widely used within the country, e.g. as a language of instruction at school, as a language of business and government, and every day communication by some people. English is not a foreign language in Malaysia and Singapore. It is a second language, so it is natural if in these two countries Singaporean English and Malaysian English do exist and are used by the people. Indish, even though it is still in the early stage but because it does already exist and is used, has a right to be introduced and proclaimed to the international and national community. This paper can be also considered as the formal proclamation for it. .

Key words: Indonesian English, characteristics and issues

American and British English

Aristotle grants that the relation between the written word and the spoken word and the relation between the spoken word and the psychological state the word signifies is determined by social practice. (Deborah K. W. Modrak, 2001: 19)

Introduction American English, British English, Canadian English, Australian English, Singaporean English, Malaysian English and so on are varieties (?) of English which are familiar and well known around the world. But Indish or Indonesian English? What is it? What is INDISH – Indonesian English? Is it a kind of January‘s Mop? No, it is not a mop. It is a proclamation that Indonesian English or INDISH – as I call it in this paper – is already here. It does exist and it is used by me, and now, on this international seminar, I proclaim to start developing and promoting this kind of English in Indonesia. For Indonesian, English is a foreign language because it is taught as a subject in schools but not used as a medium instruction in general education nor as a language of communication within the country. So it is quite logical if there is a strong opinion that there is no such Indonesian English or INDISH in Indonesia because English is not a general medium for general communication among the Indonesian. I do challenge to this opinion. The condition is probably right but the conclusion is not. English is indeed not a medium instruction in general education nor

In his classic text book entitled Mastering American English, Taylor (1956: i) states that language mastery is achieved through (1) awareness and understanding of the common sentence patterns of the language, and (2) constant and thorough practice with these patterns. This statement is based on the premise that awareness and understanding come naturally through practice; and the premise itself can also be interpreted as a certain condition in which repetition is extremely valuable and important in building automatic control over sentence structure. Then, in his text book, Taylor presents the full scale of exercises in the shadow of repetition paradigm. From the perspective of English Teaching and Learning at that time, in the 1950‘s of course, there is nothing wrong with this point of view. Repetition is the best way to master a foreign language. By repeating something more than three times – either by writing, speaking or memorizing -, there is a big hope that ‗the something‘ will be mastered by someone. Since Taylor doesn‘t say anything about American English – the English language as spoken in US - and British English – the English language as spoken in Britain -, he only discusses something relate to Mastering American English, it is quite logical if his premise and assumption can also be applied not only to American English but also to British English.6

6

We can compare this statement to what George Bernard Shaw states in Reader‘s Digest – England and America are two countries separated by the same language. (Merriam-Webster, 1995: 235)

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Azar (1989) gives some examples about the differences of American and British English. The followings are those examples: (1) The use of ‗shall‘ with I or we to express future time is possible but uncommon in American English; ‗shall‘ is used much more frequently in British than in American English (Azar, 1989: 44); (2) ‗I‘m accustomed to sleeping with the window open‘ is an American English because ‗to‘ is a preposition, not part of an infinitive form, so a gerund follows; but it is also possible in British English: ‗I‘m accustomed to sleep with the window open‘ (Azar, 1989: 151); (3) When the collective noun refers to a collection of individuals, the verb may be either singular or plural: ‗My family is or are loving and supportive‘; a singular verb is generally preferred in American English; a plural verb is used more frequently in British English, especially with the words ‗government‘ and ‗public‘ (Azar, 1989: 227); (4) The subjunctive is more common in American English than British English; in British English ‗should + simple form‘ is more usual than the subjunctive7 (Azar, 1989: 282); (5) In American English, ‗whomever‘ is rare and very formal; in British English, ‗whoever‘ (not ‗whomever‘) is used as the object form (Azar, 1989: 284); (6) In British English, a period is called a full stop (Azar, 1989: 294); Periods are used with ‗e.g.‘ in American English; periods are generally not used with ‗eg‘ in British English (Azar, 1989: 342); and (7) A form of ‗do‘ is usually used in question when the main verb is ‗have‘(especially in American English but also commonly in British English; using ‗have‘ without a form of ‗do‘ is also possible but less common; especially in British English but also in American English; the idiom ‗have got‘ is used to indicate possession instead of ‗have‘ alone (Azar, 1989: A12).

Canadian English In 1995 the Board of Education for the City of North York published the Language for Learning Policy (Goldstein, 2002: 288). The excerpts of the core assumptions about this policy are as follows: (1) Language, culture, and identity are closely linked; (2) First language-literacy is important for second-language learning; (3) For many children, the teacher is the most important model of language; (4) All languages and varieties of languages are equally valid forms of thought and communication; and (5) Student‘s first languages play an important role in the classroom, in the school program as a whole, and in communication with the home. Edith Lam, a math teacher, helps Veronica Hsueh and Tara Goldstein to observe, talk, record and talk to her students to find out how native Cantonese-speaking high school students chose to communicate with each other in a classroom where the language of instruction is English. The students are all bilingual to some extent. It is also a fact that Mrs Lam not only encourages her students to use languages other than English in her classroom, she herself sometimes uses Cantonese and Mandarin when she 7

Subjunctive is the form (or MOOD) of a verb that expresses wishes, possibility or uncertainty.

teaches. And the results of these multilingual teaching practices accommodate the Cantonese and Mandarin Speaking students‘ linguistic and cultural learning practices and add to the likelihood of the students‘ succeeding (Goldstein, 2002: 294-295). It seems that al least three roles are played by this math teacher, as a teacher, as a helper, and as counselor. But this role causes a concern for the Canadian students who do not speak Cantonese and who may alienated or angered by the use of language other than English in the classroom. Nevertheless, this condition influences the ongoing process of Canadian English for Cantonese people who were obviously not Canadian but stay and live in Canada.

Singaporean and Malaysian English The Wikipedia reports that the Singaporean government currently discourages the use of Singlish or Singaporean English in favour of Singapore Standard English as it believes in the need for Singaporeans to be able to effectively communicate with the other English users in the world. The government runs the Speak Good English Movement to emphasise the point. It is also reported that Singlish shares substantial linguistic similarities with Malaysian English (Manglish) in Malaysia, although many distinctions can be made, particularly in vocabulary. Manglish generally now receives more Malay influence and Singlish more Chinese (Mandarin, Hokkien etc.) influence. Theoretically, English as spoken in Malaysia and Singapore is based on British English and later they are called as Malaysian English and Singaporean English. British spelling is generally followed. However, the influence of American English modes of expression and slang is strong, particularly among Malaysian and Singaporean youths. Wikipedia also notes that since 1968, Malay, or Bahasa Melayu, has been the official language in Malaysia. While English is widely used in this country, many Malay words have become part of common usage in Manglish. An example is suffixing sentences with lah, as in, "Don't be so worried-lah", which is usually used to present a sentence as rather light-going and not so serious. The suffix itself has no specific meaning. However, Chinese dialects also make abundant use of the suffix lah and there is some disagreement as to which language it was originally borrowed from. There is also a strong influence from Mandarin, Cantonese, Hokkien, and Tamil, which are other major dialects and languages spoken in Malaysia. Manglish also uses some archaic British terms from the era of British colonisation. From the above facts a tentative assumption can be taken. Both governments realize that Singlish and Manglish are used by the people but they continously encourage the Singaporean and Malaysian to study and to use Standard English. So do for the Indonesians. Studying and using Standard English are the must, but those activities can be done and executed in the Indonesian Way.

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Indonesian English Indonesian English is English spoken by an Indonesian – by me to be precisely – either in Indonesia or outside of Indonesia. Since this attempt is still in the pre-early stage, the grammar and the vocabulary are not the focus to be developed. The focus will be given to the how to pronounce and utter the English words in the Indonesian way. There are 24 consonants and 23 vowels and diphthongs8 used in British and American English and in other varieties English in the world. Only 4 consonants cannot be found in Indonesian phonetic and phonemic systems. All vowels are used in Indonesian pronunciation; it means that there is no problem at all for Indonesian to use and to pronounce those vowels. If an Indonesian has to learn to pronounce the English words in an Indonesian way, he has only to learn to pronounce 4 (four) consonants. No more no less. Those 4 consonants are (1) ‗tʃ‘‘ as in ‗chain‘ /tʃein/; (2) ‗dʒ‘ as in ‗jam‘ /dʒæm/; (3) ‗θ‘ as in‘thin‘ / θin/; and (4) ‗ð‘ as in ‗this‘ /ðis/. Even though these consonants – even the symbols of them – are not available in Indonesian phonetic and phonemic9 system, but at glance there is no problem at all for Indonesians to pronounce them. The phonemic transcription of /tʃ‘/ can be pronounced easily by all Indonesians by using the Indonesian phonemic transcription /c/ or /tj/ as in the pronunciation of syllables10 of many Indonesian words as in the words ‗camar‘ (seagull), ‗banci‘ (gay), ‗cumi-cumi‘ (squid), ‗cepat‘ (fast), ‗bocor‘ (leak), etc. There is no single normal Indonesians cannot pronounce these syllables easily. Why? Because they pronounce those syllables in daily basis. The phonemic transcription of /dʒ/ can be pronounced by Indonesians in the way they pronounce /j/ as in ‗jamur‘ (mushroom), ‗jinak‘ (tame), ‗jurang‘ (canyon), ‗jelas‘ (clear), ‗jongos‘ (servant), etc. This pronunciation causes no problems for Indonesians. The phonemic transcription of /θ/ can be pronounced by Indonesians in the way they pronounce /t/ as in ‗taman‘ (park), ‗tinju‘ (boxing), ‗tuna‘ (tuna), ‗teman‘ (friend), ‗tombol‘ (button), etc. The phonemic transcription of /ð/ can be pronounced by Indonesians in the way they pronounce /t/ as in ‗tinta‘ (ink), ‗tidur‘ (sleep), ‗tulus‘ (sincere), ‗tepat‘ (precise), ‗tikus‘ (mouse), etc

8

See Oxford Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary (6th edition, 2000), edited by Sally Wehmeier 9 Phonemic is the study or description of the distinctive sound units (phonemes) of a language and their relationship to one another. (Richards, et. al., 1985: 215) 10 Syllable is a unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word. The syllable can be divided into three parts: (a) the beginning, called the onset; (b) the central part, called the nucleus or peak; and (c) the end, called the coda. (Richards, et. al., 1985: 282-283)

After these four (4) consonants have been practiced for a couple minutes, for the rest of his life an Indonesian can‘t forget them. This simple conclusion gives us another simple conclusion: From the perspective of pronunciation there is no problem at all for Indonesians to pronounce all English words correctly and easily. In other words by only pronouncing Indonesian words (or syllables) correctly, we also pronounce the English words correctly. We pronounce so many Indonesian words since our childhood. Indonesian words are similar to English words. So, unconsciously we have practiced to pronounce all English words since our childhood. Is there any reasons that we will fail to pronounce English words correctly? No reasons at all! Based on this opinion I dare to proclaim: The First Proclamation I, a humble Indonesian scholar, proclaim that pronouncing English words is easy because it is similar to that pronouncing Indonesian words; therefore any difficulties faced by Indonesians to pronounce English words have to be removed immediately, and any consequences of it will be handled properly as soon as possible. Surabaya, February 2009 On behalf of Indonesians, Tri Budhi Sastrio. If Indonesian English Grammar and Indonesian English Vocabulary are also possible to be developed later, the second and the third proclamations probably are possible to be proclaimed. In the case of vocabulary for example, there are still many words in Indonesia, especially if the origins of them are from local languages, have no terms in English. This fact gives an opportunity to ‗insert‘ those Indonesian words into the body of English words. The history of English words is full of this possibility. Durian /duəriən/ - a large tropical fruit with a strong unpleasant smell but a sweet flavor, orang-utan /ə‘ræŋu:tæn/ - a large monkey with no tail, with long arms and reddish hair, that lives in Borneo and Sumatra, sampan /sæmpæn/ - a small boat with a flat bottom used along the coast and rivers of China, are the examples how Indonesian words (or Malay words) enter the English canon. Tiffany and Carrell (1987: 23) also notes that a large number of French words came into English during a period of some 350 years after the beginning of Norman Conquest in 1066. Large numbers or words were also borrowed from Latin by scholars of the Middle English Period, and later on many of these imports became a part of the common language.

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Conclusion From the pronunciation point of view it is no doubt that INDISH – Indonesian English – does exist and is used in Indonesia. There are almost no challenges or obstacles to be overcome by Indonesians. Only four consonants are not available in Indonesian phonemic system, and for these four phonemes every single Indonesian can practice and master them easily. From the grammar and vocabulary point of view there are still so many challenges and obstacles to be overcome in the future. Introducing a new word, which has no parallel meaning in English, to the English world is not easy at all. The role of Indonesian scholars for introducing this and the vast publications for these ideas are the key either this idea can be a reality or not in the future.

Goldstein, Tara, 2002. ‗Teaching and Learning in Cantonese and English: Multilingual Classroom Practices and Equity in Education.‘ In Collin Barron, Nigel Bruce, and David Nunan (Eds.). Knowledge and Discourse: Toward an Ecology of Language. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, pp. 284-299. Merriam-Webster, 1995. Webster‘s Dictionary Quotations. New York: SMITHMARK Publishers.

of

Modrak, Deborah, K.W. 2001. Aristotle‘s Theory of Language and Meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Richards, Jack., John Platt, and Heidi Weber. 1985. Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics. Essex: Longman Taylor, Grant. 1956. Mastering American English. New York: McGraw Hill Book Co.

References Azar, Betty Schrampfer, 1989. Understanding and Using English Grammar. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents

Tiffany, Wiiliam R and James Carrell. 1987. Phonetics: Theory and Application. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company

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Pemanfaatan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi dalam Pembelajaran Bahasa Winarto Jangkang Research Institute Denpasar Bali Abstract – Nowadays, in globalization era, we are connected with other people in around the world. There are 2 (two) important keys that we can connect with other people; languages also information and communication technology (ICT). We will talk about the role of information and communication technology that can help people to learn language. There are some benefits if we use information and communication technology in language learning, but however, we have challenges on implementation of ICT. The objective of the research is to explain the role of information and communication technology in language learning. People can improve their language proficiency by using information and communication technology tools. We have research questions (a) what is the role of information and communication technology in language learning? (b) What are the challenges in implementation of information and communication technology in language learning? We use literature review as a design of methodology to answer the research questions. We utilize journals, books, articles, internet research, and other resources that can help to build the construction of knowledge. We found that in the globalization era, information and communication technology is an important aspect. It can help people in the world to be connected. We can use it to improve language proficiency. We can utilize online facilities for language learning and testing. Beside that we also can use blogging, micro blogging, social networking etc that we can join with people around the world and communicate with them. Information and communication technology can help people to train their skills; writing, listening, speaking, and reading. In Indonesia particularly, we have challenges on implementation of information and communication technology, especially in infrastructure, cost and human resources. Keyword: communication, English, globalization, ICT, information, internet, language, learning

Pendahuluan Dunia semakin menyempit. Kecepatan perkembangan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi (TIK) telah mengubah wajah dunia yang luas menjadi sangat kecil dan sempit. Batas-batas antar negara menjadi semu dan tidak kelihatan ketika dihadapkan pada revolusi dan inovasi di bidang Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi (Information and Communication Technology atau ICT).

Thomas Friedman telah menggambarkan keadaan tersebut melalui sebuah buku berjudul The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century yang menyajikan 10 tanda dunia yang datar dan masuk ke dalam era global, yaitu Collapse of the Berlin Wall, Netscape, Workflow software, Open Source, Outsourcing, Offshoring, Supplychaining, Insourcing, In-forming dan The Steroids (Wikipedia). Tidak hanya oleh Thomas Friedman, Ohmae (2005) juga memberikan ciri-ciri global economy yang ditandai dengan 4 hal yaitu borderless, invisible, cyber connected dan measured in multiples. Tanda-tanda dan ciri-ciri itu kini sudah kelihatan nyata. Dunia terus bergerak ke arah tanpa batas (borderless). Perkembangan teknologi informasi yang tak terbendung memungkinkan batas-batas wilayah negara tak lagi kelihatan. Pengaruhnya telah merasuk pada segala bidang seperti politik, ekonomi, sosial dan budaya, pertahanan keamanan hingga pendidikan. Kehadiran ICT telah mengubah sistem-sistem konvensional/tradisional menjadi sistem modern yang memungkinkan bisa diakses oleh siapapun, dimanapun dan kapanpun. Implikasi lain yang juga perlu diperhatikan dalam era globalisasi adalah penguasaan bahasa, terutama bahasa asing sebagai alat komunikasi. Penguasaan ICT serta bahasa menjadi syarat yang harus dimiliki agar mampu bersaing dalam era persaingan. Perkembangan ICT yang sangat signifikan telah merubah kehidupan masyarakat termasuk cara memperoleh pengetahuan. Perkembangan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi telah merambah pada dunia pendidikan dan pengajaran baik pendidikan formal maupun non formal. Kehadiran ICT dalam dunia pendidikan mampu menciptakan revolusi dan perubahan yang cepat dengan mendobrak sistem pendidikan yang konvensional menjadi pendidikan berbasis ICT. Oleh sebab itu, perlu disinergikan antara pemanfaatan ICT dalam pendidikan dan pembelajaran agar mampu menghasilkan hasil yang optimal. Secara umum terjadi perubahan dalam dunia pendidikan dengan adanya ICT yang terus berkembang. Kecenderungan yang terjadi (Muslim, 2007) adalah: 1. Bergesernya pendidikan dan pelatihan dari sistem berorientasi pada guru/dosen/lembaga ke sistem yang berorientasi pada siswa/mahasiswa/peserta didik. 2. Tumbuh dan semakin memasyarakatnya pendidikan terbuka/jarak jauh. 3. Semakin banyaknya pilihan sumber-sumber belajar yang tersedia 4. Diperlukan standar kualitas global dalam rangka persaingan global 5. Semakin diperlukannya pendidikan sepanjang hayat (lifelong learning) ICT perlu dimanfaatkan dalam dunia pendidikan terutama pada pembelajaran bahasa. Sistem pembelajaran

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang konvensional perlu didukung dengan pembelajaran berbasis ICT yang dapat membantu proses menguasai bahasa. Berbagai perangkat lunak (software) dan perangkat keras (hardware) telah tersedia dan terus dikembangkan untuk dapat dimanfaatkan dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa. Tidak hanya dimanfaatkan oleh pendidikan formal di sekolah-sekolah, ICT pun turut berkontribusi dalam pembelajaran non formal, termasuk kehadiran sosial media dan jejaring sosial. Meskipun pemanfaatan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi membawa dampak positif yang signifikan pada pembelajaran bahasa, namun masih perlu menghadapi tantangan dalam pengimplementasiannya. Artikel ini hendak menganalisis lebih dalam mengenai pemanfaatan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi (ICT) dalam pembelajaran bahasa. Peran ICT akan terus dominan di era globalisasi sebagaimana apa yang telah diutarakan oleh Thomas Friedman dan Kenichi Ohmae di atas. Pemanfaatan ICT dalam pembelajaran bahasa sangat relevan untuk menghadapi kompetisi terbuka di era global sebab ada banyak kelebihan yang bisa diperoleh jika dibandingkan dengan pembelajaran konvensional. Meskipun demikian, tidak sedikit pula tantangan yang akan dihadapi dalam implementasi pembelajaran berbasis ICT tersebut.

Persoalan, Tujuan dan Metodologi Dengan berpijak pada rumusan dan uraian di atas, maka tulisan ini hendak menjawab persoalan penelitian; (a) Bagaimana peran teknologi informasi dan komunikasi dalam penerapan pembelajaran bahasa? (b) Apa tantangan yang dihadapi dalam penerapan pembelajaran bahasa? Tujuan yang hendak dicapai adalah untuk menjelaskan peran ICT dalam pembelajaran bahasa termasuk tantangan-tantangan yang akan dihadapi. Untuk menjawab persoalan tersebut digunakan metodologi penelusuran literatur untuk mengumpulkan data dan informasi yang selanjutkan digunakan untuk menyusun informasi yang sistematis. Penelusuran literatur tersebut melalui jurnal ilmiah, buku, artikel, website serta media-media pendukung lainnya.

Batasan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi adalah suatu teknologi yang digunakan untuk mengolah data, termasuk memproses, mendapatkan, menyusun, menyimpan, memanipulasi data dalam berbagai cara untuk menghasilkan informasi yang berkualitas, yaitu informasi yang relevan, akurat dan tepat waktu, yang digunakan untuk keperluan pribadi, bisnis dan pemerintahan dan merupakan informasi yang strategis untuk pengambilan keputusan (Muslim, 2007). Menurut SpeedyWiki, Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi (TIK) merupakan istilah umum yang mencakup semua teknologi untuk manipulasi informasi dan komunikasi. Jenis-jenisnya dapat beragam meliputi

media untuk merekam informasi, teknologi informasi untuk penyiaran, berbagai jenis perangkat keras (hardware) dan lunak (software) komputer, teknologi untuk berkomunikasi melalui suara atau gambar dan suara termasuk teknologi internet. Karena pengertian Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi yang sangat luas, di artikel ini hanya ingin berfokus pada pemanfaatan teknologi internet. Secara harfiah, internet (kependekan dari interconnected-networking) ialah rangkaian komputer yang terhubung di dalam beberapa rangkaian (Wikipedia). Sebagai sebuah teknologi, internet terus berkembang luas dan memberi peluang terciptanya borderless world. Internet sebagai media komunikasi dan penyebaran informasi yang sangat populer saat ini merupakan bagian dari perkembangan sistem Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi, khususnya di bidang komunikasi jaringan komputer (Divisi Pendidikan Sekolah-LP3TNF). Walaupun secara fisik internet adalah interkoneksi antar jaringan komputer namun secara umum internet harus dipandang sebagai sumber daya informasi. Isi internet adalah informasi, dapat dibayangkan sebagai suatu database atau perpustakaan multimedia yang sangat besar dan lengkap. Bahkan internet dipandang sebagai dunia dalam bentuk lain (maya) karena hampir seluruh aspek kehidupan di dunia nyata ada di internet seperti bisnis, hiburan, olah raga, politik dan lain sebagainya (Lani Sidharta, 1996 dalam Divisi Pendidikan SekolahLP3TNF). Berdasarkan uraian di atas, internet sebagai salah satu Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi memainkan peran yang penting dalam era globalisasi sebab mampu membongkar batas-batas wilayah dan waktu yang selama ini tercipta. Oleh sebab itu, internet semakin banyak dimanfaatkan dalam banyak aspek kehidupan seperti ekonomi, politik, sosial, budaya, hiburan, pendidikan dan sebagainya. Dunia maya mampu mendobrak sistem-sistem konvensional dan dapat meruntuhkan tembok jarak dan waktu yang selama ini menjadi penghalang memperoleh informasi dan berkomunikasi.

Memanfaatkan Internet dan E-Learning Untuk Pembelajaran Bahasa Sebagaimana telah diuraikan di atas, internet adalah sebuah jaringan komputer global yang dapat memberikan informasi yang sangat luas dari belahan negara manapun, sekaligus dapat digunakan sebagai media berkomunikasi. Untuk bidang pendidikan, internet dapat dimanfaatkan untuk mendapatkan banyak referensi keilmuan secara online. Di samping itu, juga dapat dipakai sebagai media pembelajaran jarak jauh dengan memanfaatkan teleconference atau yang juga sudah mulai berkembang adalah pemanfaatan electronic learning (e-learning). Inilah bentuk revolusi pasca kehadiran internet yaitu belajar tidak lagi dibatasi oleh ruang dan waktu. Dalam pembahasan ini, pembelajaran bahasa akan difokuskan pada pembelajaran bahasa Inggris. Dengan memanfaatkan internet, pembelajaran bahasa Inggris dapat lebih banyak terbantu dan dipermudah sebab

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang internet menyediakan banyak fasilitas yang bisa dimanfaatkan untuk peningkatan kompetensi dan ketrampilan pada aspek membaca (reading), mendengar (listening), menulis (writing) dan berbicara (speaking). Secara umum, untuk meningkatkan keempat ketrampilan dalam pembelajaran bahasa Inggris, teknologi internet dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai media pendukung untuk penguasaan bahasa Inggris. Sistem pembelajaran elektronik (Electronic learning disingkat E-learning) adalah cara baru dalam proses belajar mengajar setelah internet maupun intranet berkembang. Sistem pembelajaran elektronik adalah konsekuensi logis dari perkembangan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi. Dengan e-learning, peserta ajar dan pengajar tidak perlu datang ke kelas untuk melakukan proses belajar mengajar. Husain (2004) mengatakan bahwa banyak institusi pendidikan di Malaysia yang memiliki komitmen untuk menggunakan e-learning karena efektivitasnya sebagai pendekatan alternatif atas pola pengajaran kelas yang tradisional. Tujuan e-learning adalah memberikan pelayanan kepada peserta ajar dan pengajar untuk dapat belajar dan berinteraksi tanpa ada batasan waktu dan tempat karena dengan media ini mereka bisa berinteraksi dari mana saja dan kapan saja. Fitur-fitur yang ada pada e-learning pun dimanipulasi dari sistem pengajaran tradisional di kelas seperti pemberian materi, tugas dan ujian, forum diskusi, hingga penilaian. Dalam kaitannya dengan pembelajaran bahasa Inggris, telah banyak website-website e-learning yang berkonten english course online yang mulai dikembangkan oleh institusi pendidikan. Pengajar memberikan materi-materi, ujian, tugas, forum diskusi melalui e-learning tersebut. Dengan media itu pula terjadi interaksi pembelajaran antara peserta dengan pengajar dan sebaliknya. Bagaimanapun, sistem pembelajaran dengan e-learning membutuhkan peran aktif dari peserta karena dituntut untuk belajar mandiri dan memanfaatkan setiap sumbersumber pembelajaran di internet. Berbagai fasilitas yang dapat membantu pembelajaran bahasa Inggris telah tersedia online dan dapat dimanfaatkan dalam pembelajaran bahasa Inggris. Inovasi inilah yang telah banyak membantu dan bermanfaat dalam penguasaan bahasa Inggris. Dibawah ini akan diuraikan beberapa jenis fasilitas yang dapat digunakan untuk mendukung pembelajaran bahasa Inggris.

website yang menyediakan layanan kamus online adalah:  http://www.kamus-online.com/  http://www.kamus.net/  http://dictionary.reference.com/  http://www.sederet.com/  http://dictionary.cambridge.org/  http://www.yourdictionary.com/ Belajar bahasa Inggris juga banyak terbantu dengan kehadiran online translator, di samping juga berkembang program-program komputer penerjemah seperti Transtool, Translator XP Rekso Translator, IndopreterCD dan sebagainya. Namun perlu tetap disadari bahwa tools tersebut hanya untuk membantu dan mempermudah seseorang dalam belajar bahasa Inggris saja karena bagaimanapun program-program tersebut masih memiliki kelemahan. Beberapa translator yang tersedia online seperti:  Google Translate (http://translate.google.com/)  Toggle Text (http://www.toggletext.com/) b) Online Material and Testing Buku-buku cetak sebagai materi pembelajaran bahasa Inggris pun kini telah banyak tersedia secara online. Pengguna dapat mengunduh dan mempelajari materimateri pengajaran bahasa Inggris yang tersedia di banyak alamat website. Selain materi, juga tersedia online testing yang mencakup materi speaking, reading, listening dan writing yang berguna untuk mengukur penguasaan bahasa Inggris. Beberapa alamat website yang bisa dikunjungi oleh user yang ingin memelajari grammar dan structure serta materi-materi pelajaran bahasa Inggris adalah:  http://www.elearnenglishlanguage.com/  http://pendidikan.net/english/  http://www.learnenglish.de/  http://www.englishclub.com/  http://www.ets.org/ c)

a) Online Dictionary dan Translator Dahulu, orang mengenal kamus sebagai buku yang sangat besar dan tebal. Namun, berkat inovasi dan perkembangan teknologi, telah tersedia kamus online yang bisa digunakan untuk menterjemahkan istilah (vocabulary) yang dianggap baru. Selain kamus online, juga telah banyak program-program komputer yang diciptakan yang bekerja sebuah kamus. Dengan kehadiran kamus online dan program komputer tersebut, tentu akan sangat bermanfaat dalam pembelajaran bahasa Inggris sebab pengguna telah banyak dibantu dan dipermudah dibandingkan dengan mencarinya di buku kamus. Beberapa alamat

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Memanfaatkan Search Engine dan Social Media Di era open source dan borderless, kehebatan dan keluasan informasi yang tersedia di internet perlu dimanfaatkan sebaik mungkin. Inilah peran penting Search Engine untuk membantu pengguna internet mencari materi-materi yang dibutuhkan. Dengan mengetikan keyword-keyword bahan-bahan yang dicari, maka search engine seperti Google dan Yahoo akan membantu mencari website-website yang memuat materi tersebut (Daftar search engine bisa dilihat di Wikipedia). Dengan bantuan mesin pencari tersebut, pengguna akan diperkaya dengan materi-materi yang membantu untuk penguasaan belajar bahasa Inggris. Banyak artikel, jurnal dan bacaan-bacaan yang bisa diakses untuk pengayaan belajar bahasa Inggris. Selain itu, ada banyak media-media dari seluruh dunia online yang bisa dimanfaatkan melatih penguasaan bahasa Inggris, selain untuk menambah wawasan dan informasi kejadian-kejadian penting di negara lain.

National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang Di samping mesin pencari, peran social media dalam proses belajar bahasa Inggris juga memegang peranan penting karena dengan internet dan sosial media sangat terbuka peluang untuk bergaul dan berjejaring dengan masyarakat di belahan negara lain. Dengan berinteraksi dalam jejaring sosial, blogging, microblogging, chatting dan memanfaatkan teleconference bisa membantu seseorang untuk berlatih 4 ketrampilan dalam bahasa Inggris, sebab dengan memanfaatkan social media tersebut, pengguna akan berlatih writing, listening, speaking dan reading . Melalui proses praktek dan berinteraksi dengan penduduk di seluruh dunia inilah, akumulasi pengetahuan dan ketrampilan berbahasa bisa dicapai. Dari uraian-uraian di atas, kehadiran internet telah menciptakan revolusi dalam pembelajaran, terkhusus untuk pembelajaran bahasa Inggris, sebab telah banyak course online yang bisa dimanfaatkan untuk membantu penguasaan ketrampilan berbahasa. Selain itu, di internet juga bisa menjadi online resources yang banyak menyediakan informasi dan pengetahuan untuk mendukung pembelajaran berbahasa, tergantung bagaimana pengguna mencari materi-materi yang diinginkan dengan memanfaatkan website-website penyedia informasi tersebut termasuk memanfaatkan mesin pencari. Pengguna pun bisa memanfaatkan mediamedia sosial sebagai tempat berlatih dan praktek langsung ketrampilan berbahasa Inggris.

ketinggalan dibandingkan negara-negara lain. Hal tersebut dikarenakan infrastruktur yang belum merata di semua wilayah Indonesia. Dari sisi jumlah pengguna internet di Indonesia, menurut data yang dikeluarkan oleh internetworldstats, jumlah pengguna internet di Indonesia hingga September 2009 diperkirakan mencapai 30,000,000 (tiga puluh juta) pengguna, atau bertumbuh sebesar 1.150 persen bila dibandingkan dengan pengguna internet pada tahun 2000. Berdasarkan data tersebut di atas, jika diestimasikan jumlah penduduk Indonesia pada tahun 2009 adalah sebesar 240,271,522 jiwa, maka pengguna internet di Indonesia tahun 2009 adalah sebesar 12,49 % dari total penduduk. Gambar di bawah ini menyajikan perbandingan jumlah pengguna internet negara-negara yang ada di Asia. Indonesia berada di peringkat ke 5 untuk jumlah pengguna internet, setelah China, Jepang, India dan Korea Selatan. Melihat data dan gambar di bawah ini, hal ini tentu sebuah tantangan bagi pemerintah dan masyakat untuk membangun infrastruktur ICT yang merata di Indonesia sehingga mendukung penerapan pendidikan berbasis ICT pada umumnya.

Tantangan-Tantangan Setelah membahas keunggulan-keunggulan belajar dengan memanfaatkan internet, tidak lengkap jika tidak disertai dengan tantangan-tantangan yang dihadapi dalam penerapan dan implementasinya, terutama di masyarakat Indonesia. Hal tersebut karena pembelajaran online adalah manipulasi dan revolusi atas pembelajaran di kelas, maka dibutuhkan usaha-usaha untuk mendesain dan membuat pola belajar yang menarik. Goi dan Poh Yen Ng (2009) mengungkapkan sejumlah faktor sukses dalam penerapan pembelajaran dengan memanfaatkan internet dan e-learning yaitu program content, webpage accessibility, learners‘ participation and involvement, website security and support, institution commitment, interactive learning environment, instructor competency, also presentation and design. Dari 8 hal yang diungkapkan oleh Goi dan Poh Yen Ng (2009) di atas, setidaknya ada 3 bagian penting yang bisa dipelajari jika dikaitkan dengan penerapannya di Indonesia, yaitu ketersediaan infrastruktur, biaya dan faktor sumber daya manusia. Untuk menerapkan pendidikan berbasis ICT dibutuhkan infrastruktur serta investasi yang tidak sedikit. Pembangunan dan pemeliharaan sistem-sistem yang mendukung penerapan e-learning dan course online membutuhkan investasi yang besar dan juga dukungan dan komitmen dari lembaga termasuk pemerintah. Terutama di Indonesia, sarana dan prasarana untuk mendukung penerapan pembelajar online masih

Gambar 1 Asia Top 10 Internet Countries-2009 Q2 Sumber: Internetworldstats, http://internetworldstats.com/stats3.htm Aspek lain yang juga perlu dilihat adalah sumber daya manusia. Internet dan ICT adalah teknologi yang senantiasa terus berkembang dan terus berinovasi. Aspek sumber daya manusia pun harus terus mengikuti perkembangan teknologi tersebut agar tidak ketinggalan. Berkaitan dengan pendidikan berbasis ICT, sebagaimana diungkapkan oleh Goi dan Poh Yen Ng (2009), bahwa perlu instruktur yang berkompeten sehingga mampu mendesain materi-materi dan sistem belajar yang interaktif dan menarik untuk peserta. Demikian pula pada sisi pengguna internet. Mereka dituntut untuk belajar mandiri dan menggali setiap sumber-sumber yang tersedia. Perubahan itulah yang seringkali menghambat proses belajar melalui e-learning dan pendidikan berbasis ICT karena masih terpaku pada budaya pendidikan

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang konvensional di kelas. Oleh sebab itu, perlu ada perubahan pola pikir dan budaya dari pendidikan konvensional di kelas ke pendidikan berbasis ICT.

Kesimpulan Berdasarkan uraian di atas, era borderless telah datang dengan didukung oleh perkembangan ICT. Dengan kekayaan sumber informasi tersebut, internet perlu dimanfaatkan dalam pembelajaran, terutama pembelajaran bahasa Inggris. Telah banyak sumber-sumber belajar yang tersedia, tinggal bagaimana pengguna memanfaatkan sumber-sumber tersebut secara optimal untuk mendukung penguasaan ketrampilan bahasa Inggris. Tantangantantangan yang dihadapi dalam penerapan pendidikan berbasis ICT di Indonesia adalah pada aspek pemerataan infrastruktur serta dibutuhkan investasi yang besar. Selain itu, pada aspek sumber daya manusia diperlukan perubahan budaya agar tidak hanya terpaku pada pendidikan konvensional di kelas saja namun perlu diarahkan ke pendidikan berbasis ICT.

Keterbatasan Dan Saran Penelitian Penelitian ini masih memiliki keterbatasan yang dapat melemahkan hasilnya. Penelitian ini menggunakan review literatur/artikel yang kemungkinan masih sedikit literatur yang digunakan, sedangkan pada sisi yang lain, penelitian mengenai perkembangan pendidikan berbasis ICT dan pembelajaran bahasa Inggris senantiasa berkembang. Oleh sebab itu, untuk penelitian mendatang disarankan untuk memperbanyak jumlah bacaan-bacaan yang digunakan sehingga akan membantu memperkaya informasi dan analisis yang dilakukan. Selain itu, disarankan untuk melakukan penelitian lapangan untuk melihat praktek dan penerapan e-learning dan pembelajaran bahasa berbasis ICT dengan melibatkan pengajar dan peserta sehingga diperoleh infomasi langsung mengenai hambatan dan tantangan yang dihadapi dalam penerapan pendidikan berbasis ICT terutama untuk pembelajaran bahasa Inggris.

Referensi Goi, Chai Lee dan Poh Yen Ng. 2009. E-learning in Malaysia: Success Factors in Implementing E-learning Program. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, Volume 20, Number 2, 237-246, diunduh dari http://www.isetl.org/ijtlhe/pdf/ IJTLHE357.pdf

Husain, Raja Maznah Raja. 2004. E-learning in Higher Education Institutions in Malaysia. Department of Curriculum and Instructional Technology, Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, diunduh pada 29 Maret 2010 di alamat http://www.ementor.edu.pl/_xml/wydania/7/102.pdf Muslim. 2007. ICT dalam Pendidikan, diunduh dari http://tutomu.files.wordpress.com/2007/02/ict-dalampendidikan.pdf pada 1 April 2010. Ohmae, Kenichi. 2005. The Next Global Stage: Challenges and Opportunities in Our Borderless World. Wharton School Publishing Divisi Pendidikan Sekolah-LP3TNF. Pengertian Internet dan Intranet. Diunduh pada tanggal 20 Maret 2010 dari alamat http://dps.nurulfikri.com/download/9smp-Bab1.pdf Internetworldstats,http://internetworldstats.com/stats3.htm Wikipedia. Internet, diakses dari alamat http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet pada 29 Maret 2010 Wikipedia. The World Is Flat diakses dari alamat http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_Is_Flat pada tanggal 1 April 2010. Wikipedia. List of Search Engine, diakses pada tanggal 29 Maret 2010 dari alamat http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_search_engines

Referensi Website             

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http://www.kamus-online.com/ http://www.kamus.net/ http://dictionary.reference.com/ http://www.sederet.com/ http://dictionary.cambridge.org/ http://www.yourdictionary.com/ http://translate.google.com/ http://www.toggletext.com/ http://www.elearnenglishlanguage.com/ http://pendidikan.net/english/ http://www.learnenglish.de/ http://www.englishclub.com/ http://www.ets.org/


The Destruction of The Tasmanian Aborigines in Mudrooroo‟s Doctor Wooreddy Yohanes Hartadi Atma Jaya Catholic University Jakarta

Introduction

Abstract – The extermination of the Tasmanian Aborigines has become one of the darkest moments in Australian history. However, some historians assert that the history was not a violent one. The mainstream historiography predominantly produced by the White historians is not entirely free from the vestiges of the hegemony of colonial discourse. The colonial discourse works in a binary opposition Europe/Other or White/Black. Europeans become the subject in the production of history knowledge of the colonial era. Mudrooroo‘s Doctor Wooreddy‘s prescription for enduring the ending of the world is a project of the revision of the history of Tasmanian Aborigines. In this masterpiece, Mudrooroo (Colin Johnson) chronicles the destruction of the Tasmanian Aborigines after the advent of the European settlers. This paper is framed in the postcolonial theories of the subaltern of Spivak and Chakrabarty since it discusses a historical novel composed by an Aboriginal author. From the beginning, the relation between the European settlers and the Aborigines is not symmetrical. The former, as represented by George Augustus Robinson, the Chief Protector of Aborigines, sees the latter, as represented by Woorreddy, as uncivilized creatures. Therefore, they needed to be civilized, among others by Christianizing them. Upon this reason, the Aborigines are compelled to succumb to the oppressive contract with the settlers. The first tool of the contract is the civilizing mission which consists of symbolic violence. The settlers forbid the Aborigines to observe their spiritual activities and their traditional customs. They also must change their names into European names. The second tool of the oppressive contract is the exertion of physical violence such as threats, killing and raping. Besides, the White settlers also trespass their sacred grounds where Aboriginal ceremonies are observed. As a result, the Aborigines are alienated; their relation to nature is destroyed. They suffer from the agony of colonization and, as a result, one by one perishes. The advent of the White settlers becomes the doom of the Tasmanian Aborigines. Mudrooroo‘s narrative is a perspective in the Australian historiography in which the history is written by the subaltern group. This kind of narrative restores to the subaltern group, in this case the Australian Aborigines, their historical being. Keywords: colonization, violence, ideology

In December 1642, a Dutch navigator Abel Janszoon Tasman anchored at the coast of an island which he named Anthoonij van Diemenslandt, later shortened as Van Diemen‘s Land, in honour of Anthony van Diemen, the Governor-General of the Dutch East India Company in Batavia. Although Tasman and his crew did not interact with the original inhabitants of the island, the landing marked the end of the indigenous people‘s thousands of years of isolation. The indigenous people of the island were hunter-gatherers who sustain their live with very basic tools. They did not have any knowledge or skill of land cultivation. They did not even invent bows and arrows. In 1803, the British government made the island a penal settlement. Van Diemen‘s Land became a massive convict settlement. A large number of convicts from England were transported to this island. In 1856, the name of Van Diemen‘s Land was officially changed into Tasmania in order to erase the stigma associated with the convict settlement. Tasman‘s landing off the west coast of Tasmania became the dawning of the British colonial settlement. The colonial settlement inevitably involved confiscation of land and its resources. The rights of the Tasmanian Aborigines over their land were denied, on the ground of the Law of Nations effective among the European nations. The horror of the exploitation and the termination of the indigenous people started. They were denied of their land they have occupied for thousands of years. The colonial settlers expropriated the land for their own private ownership like pastoral industry. The new land they arrived on was a terra nullius. The paradox of the Tasmanian history is that some noted historians try to erase the bitter encounter between the English settlers, and also the Irish convicts, with the Aborigines from the history of Australia. A Sydney professor Keith Windschuttle, in his three-volume series entitled The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One (Van Diemen‘s Land, 1803-1847), presents two arguments: first, that there was no genocide in Van Diemen‘s Land; second, that there was nothing that deserved the name of frontier warfare either (Windschuttle, 2010). Windschuttle denunciates the indigenous Tasmanians as pimps, murderers and thieves. He says that the Aborigines were faced with the choice of accepting the fruits of British civilization and British law, or rejecting them. They ―chose‖ to reject them which brought about the demise of their own society, and their final extinction (Beams, 2010). There is no justification for destroying the indigenous society. When the first British troops and settlers arrived on Van Diemen‘s Land, there were about 4,000 to 5,000 indigenous people on the island. By the early 1830s the number of these people had

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang been reduced to around 200. Professor Robert Manne of La Trobe University writes that ever since the 1830s what had happened in Tasmania has been considered by civilized opinion as one of the most terrible tragedies in the history of British colonization. It is in contrast to Windschuttle‘s statement in The Fabrication of Aboriginal History that the British settlement in Australia was ―the least violent of all Europe‘s encounters with the New World‖ (Manne, 2006). It should be noted also that many Australian conservatives receive Windschuttle‘s book with no critical attitude. In the middle of the ―History War‖ in Australia, Mudrooroo (Colin Johnson) writes his masterpiece Doctor Wooreddy‘s prescription for enduring the ending of the world. This novel is Mudrooroo‘s contribution to the revision of the history of Tasmania from the perspective of an Aboriginal author. Mudrooroo calls for committed literature. In Writing from the Fringe, Mudrooroo (1990) notes that the Aboriginal societies have a tradition of functionality and this shared value should continue to operate for modern Aboriginal writers. Aboriginal writers cannot create literary works in the doctrine of arts for art‘s sake; they should be open to the situation of their own people. Aboriginal writers should be socially committed and their works are not less than social acts. Against the majority of the conservative historians, in this historical novel Mudrooroo attempts to revise the history of the destruction of the Tasmanian Aborigines after the settlement of the English people on the island. The story centres on the life of Wooreddy who belongs to a tribe in Bruny Island. Differently from other historians, as an Aboriginal author Mudrooroo situates the novel in a pervasive atmosphere of Aboriginal mysticism. This atmosphere is an essential part of the macro-cosmos of the Aborigines which, unfortunately, many historians have failed to notice. This novel chronicles the history of the destruction of the Tasmanian Aborigines resulted from colonial practices and other effects of the colonial settlement. The main part of this essay is divided into two. The next part is a theoretical discussion of the phases of indigenous literature, more particularly the phases of the Australian Aboriginal writings and the concept of the subaltern in postcolonial writing. Afterwards, there will be a discussion of Doctor Wooreddy which will unfold the effects of colonial practices on the life of the Aboriginal tribes.

Committed Literature and The Aboriginal Literature Studying Aboriginal literature, we barely can escape from its proximity to the everyday life of the Aboriginal societies. Upon discussing the sociology of literature, Lucien Goldmann presents four important ideas, namely: first, the literary work is not the mere reflection of a real, given collective consciousness, but the culmination at a very advanced level of coherence of tendencies peculiar to the consciousness of a particular group, a

consciousness that must be conceived as a dynamic reality, orientated towards a certain state of equilibrium. Second, the relation between collective ideology and great individual literary, philosophical, theological, etc. creations resides not in an identity of content, but in a more advanced coherence and in a homology of structures, which can be expressed in imaginary contents very different from the real content of the collective consciousness. Third, the work corresponding to the mental structure of the particular social group may be elaborated in certain exceptional cases by an individual with very few relations with this group. Fourth, the collective consciousness is neither a primary reality, nor an autonomous reality; it is elaborated implicitly in the overall behaviour of individuals participating in the economic, social, political life, etc. (1996, p.212). Terry Eagleton (1996, p.7) points out that culture is not a neutral or a transcendent entity either. Language and its aspects, therefore, cannot be divorced from the social interaction. V.N. Vološinov (1996, pp.62-63) emphasizes that word is an ideological sign. The word is implicated in literally each and every act or contact between people-in collaboration on the job, in ideological exchanges, in the chance contacts of ordinary life, in political relationships, and so on. Countless ideological threads running through all areas of social intercourse register effect in the word. It stands to reason, then, that the word is the most sensitive index of social changes, and what is more, of changes still in the process of growth, still without definitive shape and not as yet accommodated into already regularized and fully defined ideological system. Raymond Williams (1977, p.26) gives an example of what happened in North America where hundreds of native American (Amerindian) languages were in danger of dying out after the completion of European conquest and domination. The case of North American native languages illustrates the complexity of the way the colonial discourse works on the native or the indigenous societies. Jean-Paul Sartre (cited in Adorno, 1996, p.190) says that the writer commits himself in the present, ‗dans le présent‘. A literary author should also commit themselves to the present, on-going dialogues on the social reality. With regard to Mudrooroo‘s novel, literature stands close to history. Etienne Balibar and Pierre Macherey (1996, p.279) emphasize the importance of ―locating‖ the production of literary effects historically as part of the ensemble of social practices. For this to be seen dialectically rather than mechanically, it is important to understand that the relationship of ―history‖ to ―literature‖ is not like the relationship or ―correspondence‖ of two ―branches‖, but concerns the developing forms of an internal contradiction. Literature and history are not each set up externally to each other, but are in an intricate and connected relationship, the historical conditions of existence of anything like literature. Very generally, Balibar and Macherey suggests, this internal relationship is what constitutes the definition of literature as an ideological form. To say that the ―historical‖ literary work must operate as fiction is not, Terry Eagleton (1996, pp.302-303) argues, of course, to suppress the relevance of the particular history with which it deals, as though this

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang might be any history. It is to claim that this particular history is being fictionalized—construed in terms of an ideological production of its agents‘ modes of ideological insertion into it, and so rendered as ideology to the second power. History, one might say, is the ultimate signifier of literature, as it is the ultimate signified. In Writing from the Fringe, Mudrooroo Narogin (1990) notes that the Aboriginal societies have a tradition of functionality and this shared value should continue to operate for modern Aboriginal writers. Aboriginal writers cannot create literary works in the doctrine of arts for art‘s sake; they should be open to the situation of their own people. However, White critic Adam Shoemaker says we need to recognize that Aboriginal poets have different backgrounds. Some poets consider themselves to be mouthpieces for their people, expressing grievances, and concerns felt collectively by the Aborigines. Others believe that poetry writing is an inherently political act. Other poets view poetry as a means of preserving impressions and appreciations of nature while others consider poetry writing as an emotional release and a salve for bitter experiences. In spite of the different aims and aspirations, Shoemaker claims that most Aboriginal poets reject the art for art‘s sake doctrine and feel that their work has at least some social utility (Shoemaker, 1989, pp.179-180). Mudrooroo Narogin also says that the Aboriginal society is calling for the writers‘ role in struggling for the people‘s rights. Therefore, Aboriginal writers should be socially committed and their works are not less than social acts (1990, p.24). Viewing the issue of committed literature in the postcolonial fashion, it will be useful to look at Frantz Fanon‘s theory of the phases of the evolution in ‗native‘ writing. Fanon (1963, p.222) divides this writing into three phases: the first phase is when the native writers write within the canon of the mother country and they follow the trends or the styles popular in the mother country. With this piece of writing, they mean to prove that they have been educated in Western institutions. The second phase is the time when the native writers gain consciousness and are able to identify themselves. They start to reinterpret the indigenous legends and myths by making use of the knowledge from the institutions of the Westernized metropolis. The third phase is what Fanon calls ‗the fighting phase‘. During this phase, the writers are trying to make people conscious of their predicament and to seek political redress by writing ‗fighting literature‘, and the natives who are not used to writing begin to write in order to speak out their heart. Mudrooroo Narogin (1990, p.29) claims that Aboriginal writing in Australia at the end of the twentieth century has entered Fanon‘s third phase. In that context, Aboriginal literature has become a medium of resistance against the forceful policy of assimilation. Adam Shoemaker (2010) suggests that a fundamental relationship exists between the socio-political milieu and Aboriginal creative writing in English. It is a complex relationship. It is not one in which the literature demonstrably operates as a direct reaction to sociopolitical events (although this is occasionally the case);

nor is it a relationship in which literature observably influences Aboriginal behaviour or political action. In the case of Aboriginal creative writing, Shoemaker asserts, the literature and actual events are very proximate: novels are extremely naturalistic, the inspiration for plays comes largely from the personal experiences of the playwrights, characters are modeled to a great extent upon individuals the author has personally known, and socio-political issues are faced squarely. In short, black creative writing in Australia cannot be studied in isolation: it must be examined and evaluated in terms of the social environment which surrounds it and the historical events which precede it. Aboriginal literature as exemplified by Mudrooroo‘s Doctor Wooreddy is a literature that is written from the periphery. The mainstream history accepted by most conservative Australians is written by the metropolis historians. These historians write from the outside of the Aboriginal society; the life of the Aborigines is outside their domain of enquiry. The result is the Aborigines are not regarded as thinking subjects. The Aborigines are the savages or the wild people who have no history whatsoever. Veena Das (2000, p.1480) asserts that in such a situation, we need a new perspective in the historiography, that is the perspective of the subaltern. The subaltern perspective establishes the centrality of the historical moment of rebellion in understanding the subalterns as subjects of their own histories. The subaltern perspective challenges the dominant conceptions about the tribes; in this context the Aboriginal tribes written in the metropolitan history. Das (2000, p.1481) says that the first emancipatory act a subaltern project performs in the understanding of tribes or other similar groups is to restore to them their historical being. The traces of the past that are left for the metropolis historians are, in fact, generated by the oppressive ―contract‖ that the tribe, caste or village is compelled to make with the modern institutions of domination. Examples of such records are bureaucratic reports, police accounts or proceedings of law courts. The important thing in the subaltern history, Das points out, is that the subjects of the metropolitan power are not treated as passive beings. Dipesh Chakrabarty (2000, p.1492) supports this opinion, saying that European historians are ignorant of the Non-Western histories while the third-world historians feel a need to refer to works in European history. Gayatri Spivak (2000, p.1428) writes that some of the most radical criticism coming out of the West today is the result of an interested desire to conserve the subject of the West, or the West as Subject. Spivak often emphasizes that to deny that we write as people whose consciousness has been formed as colonial subjects is to deny our history. However, the consciousness of ourselves as colonial subjects is itself modified by our own experience and by the relation we establish to our intellectual traditions (Das, 2000, p.1478). Therefore, Spivak concludes, that the subaltern or the colonial subjects cannot speak. Similarly, Dipesh Chakrabarty (2000, p.1510) argues that the indigenous history is tied with a double bind. On the one hand, it is both the subject and object object of modernity, because it stands for an assumed unity (for

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang example the Australian Aborigines). The assumed unity is always split into two—a modernizing elite and a-yet-tobe-modernized peasantry. It speaks from within the metanarrative that celebrates the nation state; and of this metanarrative the theoretical subject can only be a hyperreal ―Europe,‖ a ―Europe‖ constructed by the tales that both imperialism and nationalism have told the colonized. The mode of self-representation that is adopted here is what Homi Bhabha has called ―mimetic‖. Even the most dedicated nationalist indigenous history remains a mimicry of a certain ―modern‖ subject of ―European‖ history and is bound to represent a sad figure of lack and failure. It is always ―grievously incomplete.‖ On the other hand, maneuvers are made within the space of the mimetic to represent the ―difference‖ and the ―originality‖ of the indigenous people. The antihistorical, antimodern subject cannot speak itself as ―theory‖ within the knowledge procedures of the university even when these knowledge procedures acknowledge and ―document‖ its existence. Much like Spivak‘s ―subaltern‖, this subject can only be spoken for and spoken of by the transition narrative that will always ultimately privilege the modern (i.e., ―Europe‖). ―History‖ as a knowledge system is firmly embedded in institutional practices that invoke the nation state at every step. It can be seen in the conservative history of Australia written by universitybased historians like Keith Windshuttle and Geoffrey Blainey.

The Destruction of The Tasmanian Aborigines as Seen in Mudrooroo‟s Doctor Wooreddy The novel begins with the mysticism of the Aboriginal cosmos that most White writers miss. Wooreddy as a child and a young man belonged to Bruny Island. His island home is described as a utopia, a sort of Lost Paradise that many Europeans dream to re-discover at the age of the exploration. It is the Paradise before the fall of mankind; a place in which food resources are abundant and human beings do not need to spend the whole day everyday toiling in order to earn money for bread. This is in contrast to the life of most Europeans at that time that had to work hard everyday for a small wage. His island home abounded with wallaby and each tree held a possum. […] shell-and crayfish hung waiting to be gathered. Wooreddy belonged to a rich island […]. (p.1) As it is the Paradise before the fall of mankind, it is a garden which is peaceful under the law of the Supreme Spirit. The law guarantees the sustainability of mankind. Unlike the Western Christianity that covertly views women with suspicion—considering Eve being the first human being to fall into sin and bring the eternal curse upon human being in the evil world—the Aboriginal women in Tasmania are described as obedient ones. They observe the laws and they always try to maintain the equilibrium of their cosmos. Wooredy belonged to a rich island, but the surrounding sea was dangerous and filled with

dangerous scale fish. Not even women were allowed to gather these creatures. It was evil luck to see one. They were taboo, for unlike the denizens of the real world, they swam in a different medium and never needed to feel or touch the earth. To them the land was death, just as to the Bruny Islanders the sea was death. This belief lay in Wooreddy‘s mind as he wandered by himself in the direction of a beach. (p.1) The peace in the island is disturbed when some strange creatures come on their ship. Wooreddy and his people call these creatures num, because the complexion of these creatures is pale instead of black or deep brown like their own. Wooreddy well understands that the advent of the nums in the island, that is Europeans, brings the doom to his nation. The peace of their land will change permanently. This account explained the ships sailing past to form the first European settlement on the Derwent River, but it did not explain Wooreddy‘s enlightenment which he now endured. Nothing from this time on could ever be the same—and why? Because the world was ending! (p.4) When Wooreddy is growing toward adulthood, he witnesses the change even more noticeable. The world he lives in feels strange. There is something that is taken away from his world. He starts to feel alienated from the world from which he and his ancestors believe to have come. Many people die of unidentifiable reason. It appears that the many deaths are caused by the disease that the European settlers introduced. The bond of their tribal society has also been interfered; they fight to one another. They have been played and divided by the nums. Unity among the tribes falls apart, after the arrival of the nums : Now, it seemed that something had torn the present away from that past. Many people died mysteriously; others disappeared without trace, and once-friendly families become bitter enemies. (p.5) The nums are scary creatures believed to have been sent by Ria Warrawah, the Devil in Aboriginal spirituality. When the Aborigines saw the nums for the first time, they thought that the nums were the spirits of the dead that for some reasons returned to the world. Later, they knew that the nums were not the spirits of their dead ancestors. Probably they were spirits of their enemies. Since the time they arrived, the nums have scared the Aborigines. Whatever they are, the acts of the nums prove their evil nature. They rape women and murder Wooreddy‘s other people ruthlessly with their muskets. They are greedy creatures who will take whatever they want. These acts were the beginning of the violence that European settlers exert on the Aborigines in Van Diemen‘s Land. Mangana‘s wife had been raped and then murdered by the num (ghosts) that came from the settlement across the strait…‘Num‘ come; they see what they want; they take it. It is their way. They do not know Great Ancestor and his

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang laws. […] I did not know what they were, or perhaps I did because they scared me. They scared all of us and they still scare us. We have lived in fear since they came and can do nothing to put an end to that fear. […] They were under the dominion of the Evil One, Ria Warrawah. They killed needlessly. They were quick to anger, and quick to kill with thunder flashing out from a stick they carried. They kill many, and many die by the sickness they bring. (p.11) The most gruesome massacre took place in a cave when the Aborigines are celebrating their arrival in the place. In that massacre, the settlers barely spare anyone. The nums shoot dead man, women and children. Then, they fling the dead, the wounded and the young into the sea. ―In just a few dark hours their whole community had been destroyed. Only a few individuals were left to roam over the land like phantoms.‖ (p.96). When the relation between the settlers and the Aborigines were growing into open hostility, Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur appointed a man of friendly character to conciliate the Aborigines. This man is George Augustus Robinson, a major character in the novel besides Wooreddy. He was later known as the Protector of the Aboriginals. When he comes to meet the many Aboriginal tribes, he introduced himself as their protector from the violent acts of the European settlers as well as the convicts. As a matter of fact, Wooreddy had a good impression of Robinson in their first encounter: ‗I have come to protect you from such scum as these ruffians behind me [the convicts]—He [Wooreddy] suddenly realized that here was an ally. The self-assured, pompous little ghost before him could be used to help him survive until the end of the world. (p.31) At first, Wooreddy was happy to have a protector. However, the feeling does not last long because later he finds that Robinson does not want to be his friend, which assumes egalitarianism. Robinson creates an asymmetrical relationship between the White and the Aborigines. Robinson represents the White race that is superior over Wooreddy the Abogirines. He tested out the relationship by making a gesture and then walking off into the bush. He was happy to find the ghost following, but his happiness disappeared when the ghost marched past him and took the lead. Robinson was defining their relationship from the beginning. (p.31) Robinson feels certain that he has been chosen by God to bear the noble job of leading the poor, lost souls and lead them to salvation. Robinson‘s character to the indigenous people is a feudalistic one, colluded with the colonial project of conquering the New World in the South Sea. Robinson also views the Aborigines as people which can be exploited for some economic reason. At least he has an official post in the newly established colony. Besides doing his job, he is drowned in the romantic pictures of the South Sea islands brought by English navigators who have sailed the Pacific like William Dampier, Samuel

Wallis, James Cook, and Matthew Flinders. Their journals mostly describe the islands in the Pacific as the long-lost Paradise where life is easy and beautiful. George Augustus Robinson, destined by God to make the Aborigines the most interesting and profitable part of his life, leered at the forbidden fruits of the bare-breasted maiden who conjured up romantic visions of beautiful South Sea islands where missionaries laboured for the salvation of delightful souls. (p.32) Shortly, Wooreddy and his fellow Aborigines are aware of Robinson‘s feudalistic character. Robinson sees himself and wants to be called the ―father‖ while the Aborigines the ―children‖: ―The Aborigines soon discovered that their ally considered himself superior to them. They were to be ‗children‖ to Robinson who wants to be called ―father‖.‖ (p.33) In the sermon, he addresses Wooreddy as a ―child‖ of the darkness, a metaphor for an Aboriginal savage whose soul is sinful. Robinson‘s split view of Tasmania is revealed when he judges the island as a ―dark and hostile world‖ (p.40). While at the beginning of his post he had a romantic view of the South Sea, later on he views Tasmania a fallen world. Tasmania is a world upon which God‘s curse is cast after the fall of human being into sin. Consequently, the Tasmanian Aborigines must be saved and he undertakes the salvation mission to be a ―father‖ for them just as he himself ―have a father in heaven‖ (p.40). The quotation below reveals Robinson‘s spiritual reflection of the Tasmanian Aborigines. It becomes his justification to ―civilize‖ these ―wretched of the earth‖, using Fanon‘s phrase. This caused him to frown and stare at the members of the so-called child-race, supposedly primitive. He could almost picture them as the primordial parents, though this was absurd. These people had fallen from the heights of civilization which had begun the construction of the tower of Babel. Why had they fallen so low? (p.64) Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur‘s remark to Robinson uncovers the hegemonic strategy of the colonizer to subjugate the Aborigines through religion. The final goal is to produce them into the colonial subjects of the British Empire. The Aborigines should be taught how to behave like English people and they should be converted into Christianity. Finally, they are expected to become colonial subjects who are useful for the expansion of the British Empire. The purpose is essentially an economic one. The indigenous people must be reformed into a force of labour which supports the system of production: ―My intentions are first to pacify them, then to civilize and Christianise them into good subjects of Her Majesty. They are British subjects and thus entitled to the full protection of British law.‖ (p.51) Hence, it is revealed that colonialism also works through institutions, besides the physical repression. In modern capitalist societies, Althusser in his essay Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses argues that the (Repressive) State Apparatus functions massively and predominantly by repression (including physical repression), while functioning secondarily by ideology.

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang (There is no such thing as a purely repressive apparatus.) Inversely, it is essential to say that for their part the Ideological State Apparatuses function massively and predominantly by ideology, but they also function secondarily by repression, even if ultimately, but only ultimately, this is very attenuated and concealed, even symbolic. So, he believes that Gramsci‘s ‗force‘ [in his conception of ‗hegemony‘] is achieved by repressive state apparatuses, such as army and police, but they are also is enforced by what he calls the ideological state apparatuses such as schools, the church, the family, media and political system, and literature. The British colonial government in Tasmania works secondarily through the ideology of Christianity undertaken by Robinson as a missionary of the church. As a matter of fact, Robinson reserves a desire to ―civilize‖ the children of the Aborigines by firstly separating them from their ―savage‖ parents. The behaviours of their parents are considered wild and indecent. He wishes to reform the Aborigines into wellmannered people. ‗He wanted to separate the few remaining children from their heathen parents so that they could be educated free from bad examples.‘ (p.34) Robinson‘s desire to educate the Aboriginal children is the prototype of the later policy of educating the Aboriginal children by stealing them from their parents and put them in educational institutions, including the missionary schools, in order to be Europeanized. In his speech to the Parliament on 13 February 2008, usually known as the apology of the Australian Government to the Aborigines, Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd mentioned some fact about the stolen children. Between 1910 and 1970, between 10 and 30 per cent of Indigenous children were forcibly taken from their mothers and fathers; that, as a result, up to 50,000 children were forcibly taken from their families. This policy was taken to such extremes by some in administrative authority that the forced extractions of children of so-called ‗mixed lineage‘ were seen as part of a broader policy of dealing with ‗the problem of the Aboriginal population.‘ (Rudd, 2008.) Robinson as the colonizer feels the need to apply the policy of segregation because he sees the Tasmanian Aborigines as subhuman or the most inferior race of human being. They can sit with the Europeans only after they are ―civilized‖ and raised to a superior stage of Christian civilization (p.67). The English people generally believe that the Tasmanian Aborigines are ―almost human‖; they are merely useless savages (p.80). Thus the racist colonizers view the Aborigines. What the European settlers, including Robinson, exercise on the Tasmanian Aborigines is called symbolic violence by Pierre Bordieu. Symbolic violence is transmitted through common phrases like ‗sit up straight‘ or ‗don‘t hold your knife in your left hand‘ (cited in Gill, 2003, p.5). Symbolic violence works through family, the church or other social institutions other than the schools. What is important is the implicit power involved with the speaker being cast as the definer who must be obeyed. Robinson and the British colonial government have canonized which culture or knowledge is important and which is not important. In a colonial society the important and the

good values are only the colonizer‘s values. Robinson and the British colonial government use their cultural capital, which are religion and European civilization, in their efforts to ―civilize‖ the Tasmanian Aborigines. They define the values that the Aborigines must observe while completely ignoring the indigenous values that have been observed for thousands of years. Another practice of symbolic violence is when Robinson prohibits the indigenous people from practicing their traditional dance:‖ ‗I order you not to fight any more, and I order you not to take off your clothing and dance away the night. Dancing is evil and worse than fighting […]‖ (p.138). In another moment, Robinson who is later called ―commandant‖ by the Aborigines stopped giving them food because they practice their traditional ceremonies. Only after they really give up their ceremonies will he supply them with food again. Robinson even applies very strict measure to those who talk about practicing their traditional ceremonies. He even will put anybody in prison only because they talk about it (p.158). Raymond Williams has shown that the idea of ―civilization‖ itself has been attacked as being superficial; an ―artificial‖ as distinct from a ―natural state‖; a cultivation of ―external‖ properties—politeness and luxury—as against more ―human needs‖ and impulses (p.14). This attack was initiated by Rousseau on through the Romantic Movement in European philosophy and literature. Robinson goes further in his effort to reform the indigenous people by giving them names that he considers ―noble‖ and abolishing their Aboriginal names. For example, he names Wooreddy ―Count Alpha‖ and Trugernanna ―Lalla Rookh‖ (p.139). Language also plays another important role in the colonization of Van Diemen‘s Land. Wooreddy is aware of a number of words of the nums in their daily conversation as well as in his own vocabulary. He well understands the situation in which he does not have much of a choice, including the choice of the words they should speak (p.118). The Aborigines of Van Diemen‘s Land have become ―mimic man‖, using V.S. Naipaul‘s phrase. Robinson‘s project of ―civilizing‖ them changes them into ―mimic man‖ who must behave like the English people, including their standard accent. It can be seen in the talk between Robinson and an Aboriginal named Crow: ‗Thank you, Chief Protector,‘ he [Crow] said mimicking his accent so accurately that Robinson gave a start. He recalled that in Van Diemen‘s Land the people there too were good mimics and had used the ability to learn English so well that they often spoke it better than some of the convicts.‘ (p.175). The result of the brutal colonial practices in Van Diemen‘s Land is the destruction of the Aboriginal community. Only very few indigenous people survived the colonial carnage. In the end, only one Aboriginal woman of Van Diemen‘s Land survives, Trugernanna. Trugernanna refers to the last full-blooded Aborigine of Van Diemen‘s Land Truganini. She died on May 7, 1876. Her personal suffering—her mother was murdered, her sister kidnapped, and herself raped by White settlers—

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National Conference on Literature and Language Teaching (NACOLLIT) 2010 12 Juni 2010, Program Studi Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang represents the sufferings of the Aborigines of Van Diemen‘s Land.

Conclusion Mudrooroo‘s Doctor Wooreddy is an attempt to decentre the history of Tasmania (Van Diemen‘s Land) written by the conservative historians. Mudrooroo writes from the periphery, from the fringe. He has revealed to us through Doctor Wooreddy that the British colonialism in Van Diemen‘s Land is carried out through a complex strategy. The first and most obvious one is through violent acts exerted by the White settlers. This stretches from the confiscation of the sacred land, rape, torture and shooting. George Augustus Robinson is not exempted from this act despite his position as the Chief Protector of the Aboriginal People. It sometimes culminates with a deliberate massacre of an Aboriginal tribe. Colonialism also works through the transmission of ideology, as shown by the ―civilizing‖ mission led by Robinson and the abolition of Aboriginal name later replaced by Western name and English language. It is also obviously observed with the prohibition of the Aboriginal traditional ceremonies. Rather than addressing the more human needs, the ―civilizing‖ mission cultivates the external, superficial things. In writing this novel, Mudrooroo ironically relies heavily on the journal of George Augustus Robinson. He does it because of the limited accessibility of the other unofficial sources. This is a common problem for indigenous historians in other countries who want to write their own history. Mudrooroo also uses the genre of novel, an invention of European modernity, as the medium of telling the history of his people. With this fact, we share similar thought to Gayatri Spivak that we write as people whose consciousness has been formed as colonial subjects. Nevertheless, Mudrooroo has made the Australian Aborigines subjects of their own history, not only an object of historiography.

Das, Veena. 2000. Subaltern as perspective. In Brydon, Diana. Postcolonialism. Critical concepts in literary and cultural studies. Volume IV. (pp. 1478-1490) London: Routledge. Eagleton, Terry and Milne, Drew. 1996. Marxist literary theory. A reader. Oxford: Blackwell. Eagleton, Terry. 1996. Towards a science of the text. In Eagleton, Terry and Milne, Drew. Marxist literary theory. A reader. (pp. 296-327) Oxford: Blackwell. Fanon, Frantz. 2001. The wretched of the earth. London: Penguin Books. Gill, Judith. 2003. A feel for the game…of teaching? Bourdieu and a theory of pedagogy. A paper presented to the Collaborative Learning Group at Mawson Lakes Campus, University of South Australia, 28 May 2003. Goldmann, Lucien. 1996. Introduction to the problems of a sociology of the novel. In Eagleton, Terry and Milne, Drew. Marxist literary theory. A reader. (pp. 204-220) Oxford: Blackwell. Manne, Robert. 2006. Windschuttle‘s Whitewash. Retrieved on 18 June 2006. From http://www.eurekastreet.com.au/article. Mudrooroo. 2001. Doctor Wooreddy‘s prescription for enduring the ending of the world. Melbourne: Hyland House Narogin, Mudrooroo. 1990. Writing from the fringe. A study of modern Aboriginal literature. Melbourne: Hyland House Rudd, Kevin. 2008. Speech by Prime Minister Kevin Rudd to the Parliament. 13 February 2008. Shoemaker, Adam. Introduction: Australia‘s fourth world literature. Retrieved on 09 October 2009. From http://epress.anu.edu.au/bwwp/mobile_devices/pr03.html

References Adorno, T.W. 1996. Commitment. In Eagleton, Terry and Milne, Drew. Marxist literary theory. A reader. (pp. 187203) Oxford: Blackwell. Althusser, Louis. Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses. In Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. eText. Beams, Nick. 2010. What is at stake in Australia‘s ―History Wars‖. Retrieved on 06 February 2010. From http://www.wsws.org/tools/index.php Chakrabarty, Dipesh. 2000. Postcoloniality and the artifice of history. In Brydon, Diana. Postcolonialism. Critical concepts in literary and cultural studies. Volume IV (pp.1491-1518) London: Routledge.

Spivak, Gayatri. 2000. Can the subaltern speak? In Brydon, Diana. Postcolonialism. Critical concepts in literary and cultural studies. Volume IV. (pp. 1427-1477) London: Routledge. Vološinov, V.N. 1996. Concerning the relationship of the basis and superstructures. In Eagleton, Terry and Milne, Drew. Marxist literary theory. A reader. (pp. 60-68) Oxford: Blackwell. Williams, Raymond. 1977. Marxism and literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Windschuttle, Keith. 2010. Mabo and the fabrication of Aboriginal history. Retrieved on 06 February 2010. From http://www.samuelgriffith.org.au/papers/html/ volume15/v15chap11.html

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DATA PENYAJI NO

NAMA

JUDUL

INSTITUSI

E-MAIL

PLENARY SESSION 1

A. Effendi Kadarisman

2

Eugenius Sadtono

Literary Perfomance: Unravelling Hidden Potentials of Poetic Language The Suffering of Non_native Speaker : Vocabulary

Universitas Negeri Malang

[email protected]

Universitas Ma Chung

[email protected]

PARALLEL SESSION 3

Abdul Muth'im

4

Agnes Herawati

5

Barli Bram

Improving the Quality of Teaching English by Improving the Qualification of Teachers The use of multimedia in developing interesting English Syntax material Translating the Main Points of Newspaper Opinions and Editorials in Indonesian into English Literary Works in English Language Teaching: An Effort to Boost Young Learners’ Linguistic Skills and Cultural Knowledge The Study of Speech Acts in 419 Nigerian Advance Free Fraudss Spam Emails Strategi Pembelajaran dalam Program Pengajaran Bahasa Indonesia sebagai Bahasa Asing di Universitas di Australia Postcolonialism Ideology in Avatar’s Plot: A Literary Analysis on Movie

Universitas Lambung Mangkurat, Banjarmasin

[email protected]

Bina Nusantara University

[email protected]

Universitas Sanata Dharma

[email protected]

Muhammadiyah University

[email protected]

Universitas Ma Chung

[email protected]

Pusat Bahasa

[email protected]; [email protected]

UPH Surabaya

[email protected]

1. [email protected]

6

Condro Nur Alim

7

Daniel Ginting

8


9

Gracia Mary Sudargo

10

1. Harris Hermansyah Setiajid 2. Winda Adeputri D. 3. Simon Arsa M.

Portfolio and SelfAssessment in Translation Class

Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta

11

1. Indah Winarni 2. Rita Darmayanti 3. Moch. Aminullah 4. Afif Ikhwanul M

The Development of Teaching Materials for the Students of the Faculty of Engineering Universitas Brawijaya

1. Universitas Brawijaya 2. Pascasarjana, Universitas Negeri Malang 3. Universitas Brawijaya 4. Universitas Brawijaya

12

Indra Charismiadji

13

Indra Charismiadji

14

Joni Alfino

15

Kartika Nuswantara

Blended Learning: Best Practice in ICT-Based ELT Implementation Language Assessment Using Technology

2. [email protected] 3. [email protected] 4. [email protected]

HIGHER LEARNING, Jakarta

[email protected]

HIGHER LEARNING, Jakarta

[email protected]

Teaching Writing at Senior High School: A Challenge

Universitas Bung Hatta

[email protected]

New Words Encountered as the Results of Unpredictable Word Formation Processes

Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember Surabaya

[email protected]

x


DATA PENYAJI NO

NAMA

16


17

Lis Setiawati

18

Masnidar Tanjung

19

Meinarni Susilowati

20

Mierza Miranti

21


22

R.A. Noer Doddy Irmawati

23


24


25

Rohmani Nur Indah

26

Sudartomo Macaryus

JUDUL To be Global is Good, but to be Glocal is Perfect Peran dan Kepedulian Media Massa terhadap Penggunaan Bahasa Indonesia yang Baik dan Benar Developing KTSP in the Teaching of English Grammatical Structure The Students’ Perspective on Teacher’s Identity Representation in EFL Classroom Interactions Promoting Environmental Sustainability Awareness in the Classroom: Integrating Renewable Energy Issues in English Lessons based on KTSP English Competence Needed by Nursing Department Students The Improvement of Academic Reading Achievement by Using Task -based Leraning Engagement Strategy for Teaching Reading to Students of English A Marxist Feminist Reading of Nawal’s Women at Point Zero and Dewi Linggasari‘s Sali: Two Women from Vastly Different Civilizations at Vastly Different Point Zeros Discovering Student’s Expertise to Augment Claim Quality in Writing Classes at UIN MALIKI Malang

Memfungsikan Bahasa Inggris Dalam Kehidupan

INSTITUSI

E-MAIL

UIN Malang

[email protected]

Universitas Terbuka,Jakarta

[email protected]

The University of Muhammadiyah Prof. Dr. Hamka (UHAMKA) Jakarta

[email protected]

UIN Maulana Malik Ibrahim, Malang

[email protected] m

Sugar Group High School Lampung, Indonesia

[email protected]

Telkom Polytechnic Bandung

[email protected]

Universitas Ahmad Dahlan Yogyakarta

[email protected]

STKIP PGRI Blitar

[email protected]

Cenderawasih University Jayapura

[email protected]

UIN Maulana Malik Ibrahim, Malang

[email protected]

Prodi Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia, FKIP, Universitas Sarjanawiyata Tamansiswa Yogyakarta

[email protected]

xi


DATA PENYAJI NO

NAMA

26

Sudartomo Macaryus

27

Sugeng Hariyanto

28

Suko Winarsih

29

1. Susi Harliani 2. Endro Sutrisno

30

1. Tri Budhi Sastrio 2. Irina Floretta Tunjung Sari

31

Winarto

32

Yohanes Hartadi

JUDUL

MEMFUNGSIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS DALAM KEHIDUPAN

Teknologi Informasi dan Profesi Penerjemahan Pengembangan Bahan Ajar BIPA Berdasarkan “Authentic Materials” Pengajaran Apresiasi Drama dengan pendekatan Konstruktivis Menggunakan Media Film Teaching English in Indonesian Environment A Case Study: Developing Indonesian English Peran Strategis Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi dalam Pembelajaran Bahasa The Destruction of The Tasmanian Aborigines in Mudrooroo's Doctor Wooreddy

INSTITUSI Prodi Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia, FKIP, Universitas Sarjanawiyata Tamansiswa Yogyakarta Politeknik Negeri Malang

E-MAIL

[email protected]

[email protected]

Universitas Kanjuruhan Malang 1. Politeknik Elektronika Negeri Surabaya Institut Teknologi Sepuluh November (PENS-ITS) 2. IKIP PGRI Madiun

1. [email protected] [email protected]

Widya Kartika University

1. [email protected] 2. [email protected]

Jangkang Research Institute

[email protected]

The English Department, F.K.I.P. Atma Jaya Indonesian Catholic University

[email protected]

xii


SUSUNAN PANITIA

STEERING COMMITTEE: 1. Prof .Eugenius Sadtono,Ph.D; 2. Prof.Drs.Handiyo Kartawinata, M.A, Ph.D

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE : 1. Head of Committee

:

Daniel Ginting, SS., M.Pd

2. Secretary and Treasurer

:

Wike Asteria Lucas,S.S., S.P & Ni Putu Ayu Pramanasari, S.S

3. Proceeding Printing Division

:

Romy Budhi Widodo ST,.M.T Putu Indrajaya Lembut,S.E,M.Si (Ma Chung Press)

4. Abstract and Full Paper Reviewer

:

Dr.Patrisius Istiarto Djiwandono

5. Food and Beverages

:

Yudi Setyaningsih, M.Pd & Dra.Maria Lucia Luciana

6. Promotion and Sponsorships

:

Lilis Lestari Wilujeng,S.S, M.Hum

xiii

PROCEEDING 2010 NATIONAL CONFERENCE PROMOTING GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES IN LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE TEACHING ON LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE TEACHING

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