Pilgrimage. ilgrimage in Children s Land

Pilgrimage P ilgrimage in Children’s Land A Travel T Report of The Pilgrim’s Progress in Dutch Children’s Literature

MA Thesis by Peter Meeuse Translation English Utrecht University Supervisor: Dr. C. Koster Second reader: Dr. P.J.C.M Franssen

MA Thesis by Peter Meeuse

Translation English – Utrecht University

Contents CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................................. 1 PREFACE ................................................................................................................................................ 5 CHAPTER 1 PREPARATIONS FOR A WORLD TOUR ........................................................................ 6 1.1 HISTORICAL AND RELIGIOUS BACKGROUND ........................................................................................ 6 1.1.1 The Reformation ...................................................................................................................... 6 1.1.2 Puritanism ................................................................................................................................ 7 1.1.3 Presbyterians and Independents ............................................................................................. 9 1.1.4 Baptists .................................................................................................................................... 9 1.2 BUNYAN’S LIFE ............................................................................................................................... 10 1.2.1 Childhood............................................................................................................................... 10 1.2.2 Marriage ................................................................................................................................. 11 1.2.3 Conversion............................................................................................................................. 11 1.2.4 A Preacher ............................................................................................................................. 11 1.2.5 In Prison ................................................................................................................................. 12 1.2.6 Second Imprisonment, Liberty and Death ............................................................................. 12 1.3 LITERARY BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................. 13 1.3.1 Religious Literature ................................................................................................................ 13 1.3.2 Analogy and Simile ................................................................................................................ 13 1.3.3 Spiritual Autobiography ......................................................................................................... 13 1.3.4 Allegory .................................................................................................................................. 14 1.3.5 Dream Vision ......................................................................................................................... 14 1.3.6 The Emblem .......................................................................................................................... 15 1.3.7 Travel Literature..................................................................................................................... 15 1.4 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................. 15 CHAPTER 2 PILGRIMAGE AROUND THE WORLD .......................................................................... 17 2.1 PILGRIMAGE AT HOME ..................................................................................................................... 17 2.1.1 Influence on Literature and Culture ....................................................................................... 17 2.1.2 Proverbial............................................................................................................................... 17 2.1.3 Theater, Film and DVD .......................................................................................................... 18 2.1.4 English Editions for Children ................................................................................................. 18 2.1.5 Adaptations for Non-Protestant Target Groups ..................................................................... 19 2.2 W ORLDWIDE PILGRIMAGE ............................................................................................................... 19 2.2.1 The First Stage ...................................................................................................................... 20 2.2.2 The Second Stage ................................................................................................................. 20 2.2.3 The Third Stage ..................................................................................................................... 21 2.3 PILGRIMAGE IN THE NETHERLANDS.................................................................................................. 21

Pilgrimage in Children’s Land – Contents

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2.3.1 Eens Christen’s Reyse .......................................................................................................... 21 2.3.1.1 The Seventeenth Century .............................................................................................................. 21 2.3.1.2 The Eighteenth Century ................................................................................................................. 22 2.3.1.3 The Nineteenth Century ................................................................................................................. 22 2.3.1.4 The Twentieth Century ................................................................................................................... 22 2.3.1.5 The Twenty-First Century ............................................................................................................... 23

2.3.2 Other Works........................................................................................................................... 23 2.3.2.1 The Seventeenth Century .............................................................................................................. 23 2.3.2.2 The Eighteenth Century ................................................................................................................. 24 2.3.2.3 The Nineteenth Century ................................................................................................................. 24 2.3.2.4 The Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries..................................................................................... 25

2.3.3 Biographies ............................................................................................................................ 26 2.4 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................. 26 CHAPTER 3 BREEDING GROUND FOR A JUNIOR PILGRIMAGE ................................................. 27 3.1 HISTORY AND POSITION OF CHILDREN’S LITERATURE ....................................................................... 27 3.1.1 History of Children’s Literature .............................................................................................. 27 3.1.1.1 The Middle Ages ............................................................................................................................ 27 3.1.1.2 The Late Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries ................................................................................... 28 3.1.1.3 The Seventeenth Century .............................................................................................................. 28 3.1.1.4 The Eighteenth Century ................................................................................................................. 29 3.1.1.5 The Nineteenth Century ................................................................................................................. 29 3.1.1.6 The First Half of the Twentieth Century .......................................................................................... 30 3.1.1.7 The Second Half of the Twentieth Century until Today .................................................................. 30

3.1.2 Position of Children’s Literature............................................................................................. 31 3.1.2.1 Position in the Polysystem ............................................................................................................. 31 3.1.2.2 Double Canon ................................................................................................................................ 32 3.1.2.3 International Canon ........................................................................................................................ 33 3.1.2.4 Position of Translation in Children’s Literature ............................................................................... 33

3.2 HISTORY AND POSITION OF PROTESTANT-CHRISTIAN CHILDREN’S LITERATURE ................................. 34 3.2.1 History of Protestant-Christian Children’s Literature ............................................................. 34 3.2.1.1 Forerunners for ‘Little Adults’ ......................................................................................................... 34 3.2.1.2 A Full Genre ................................................................................................................................... 36 3.2.1.3 Fresh Literature .............................................................................................................................. 37 3.2.1.4 Decline ........................................................................................................................................... 38 3.2.1.5 Revival ........................................................................................................................................... 38

3.2.2 Position of Protestant-Christian Children’s Literature............................................................ 39 3.2.2.1 Position in Dutch Children’s Literature ........................................................................................... 39 3.2.2.2 International Canon ........................................................................................................................ 41 3.2.2.3 Translation ..................................................................................................................................... 41

3.3 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................. 42 CHAPTER 4 ONE PILGRIM, DIFFERENT FACES ............................................................................. 43 4.1 INTEGRAL TRANSLATIONS FOR ‘LITTLE ADULTS’................................................................................ 43


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4.1.1 Primary Materials ................................................................................................................... 43 4.1.2 Secondary Materials .............................................................................................................. 45 4.2 SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS FOR CHILDREN ............................................................................................. 46 4.2.1 Biographical Information ........................................................................................................ 47 4.2.1.1 Target Groups ................................................................................................................................ 47 4.2.1.2 Publishers ...................................................................................................................................... 48 4.2.1.2 Translators/Editors ......................................................................................................................... 51 4.2.1.3 Illustrations ..................................................................................................................................... 53 4.2.1.4 Series ............................................................................................................................................. 54 4.2.1.6 Other Publication Details ................................................................................................................ 55

4.2.3 Presentation........................................................................................................................... 56 4.2.3.1 Cover Types ................................................................................................................................... 56 4.2.3.2 Cover Pictures................................................................................................................................ 56 4.2.3.3 Cover Texts .................................................................................................................................... 58 4.2.3.4 Prefaces ......................................................................................................................................... 59

4.5 THE PILGRIM’S PROGRESS IN OTHER CHILDREN’S BOOKS ................................................................ 60 4.4.1 Stories .................................................................................................................................... 60 4.4.2 Biographies ............................................................................................................................ 61 4.4 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................. 62 CHAPTER 5 ONE PILGRIM, DIFFERENT CHARACTERS ................................................................ 66 5.1 MACRO LEVEL................................................................................................................................. 66 5.1.1 Division in Chapters ............................................................................................................... 66 5.1.2 Way of narration .................................................................................................................... 67 5.1.3.1 Relationship Plot-Related Dialogue and Monologue ...................................................................... 70 5.1.3.2 Form of Dialogue............................................................................................................................ 70 5.1.3.3 Content of Extensive Religious Discourse ..................................................................................... 71

5.1.4 Omitted or Changed Elements .............................................................................................. 71 5.1.4.2 Sexuality: Wanton .......................................................................................................................... 73 5.1.4.3 Violence: Suicide............................................................................................................................ 74 5.1.4.4 Racism: The Flatterer..................................................................................................................... 76 5.1.4.6 Final Passage: Triumph or Warning? ............................................................................................. 77

5.1.5 Explicit Educator .................................................................................................................... 78 5.2 MICRO LEVEL .................................................................................................................................. 81 5.2.1 Characters ............................................................................................................................. 81 5.2.2 Length of sentences .............................................................................................................. 82 5.2.3 Implicit Educator .................................................................................................................... 82 5.3 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................. 84 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................................... 87 BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................................... 88 PRIMARY MATERIALS ............................................................................................................................. 88


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English source text ......................................................................................................................... 88 Dutch integral translations .............................................................................................................. 88 Dutch adaptations ........................................................................................................................... 88 Other primary materials .................................................................................................................. 89 SECONDARY MATERIALS........................................................................................................................ 89 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................................ 91 APPENDIX A EXTENDED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION EDITIONS FOR CHILDREN................................. 91 APPENDIX B SUMMARY SOURCE TEXT .................................................................................................. 95 APPENDIX C SURVEY OF CHARACTERS ............................................................................................... 103 APPENDIX D DESCRIPTION OF CHARACTERS ....................................................................................... 109 APPENDIX E REVIEWS ........................................................................................................................ 115


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Preface The Bible is the most frequently printed and translated book in the world. However, this is not true for the English language area, in spite of what many people think. In the English world, The Pilgrim’s 1

Progress is number one. Since its initial publication in 1678, Bunyan’s masterpiece has been endlessly printed, reprinted, translated, adapted, painted, and turned into film versions. The allegoric dream vision has attracted, addressed and changed all kinds of people, from all over the world.

The Pilgrim’s Progress is the story of a pilgrim who flees from the city of Destruction to the Celestial City. His journey allegorically reflects a Christian’s life from a state of sin to eternal happiness.

One of the areas that have been visited by this globetrotting ‘pilgrim’, is the field of Dutch children’s literature. This study explores the position of The Pilgrim’s Progress in this literary field.

Chapter 1 deals with the historical and literary context of the original work and its author. Chapter 2 explores the allegory’s worldwide pilgrimage. Chapter 3 zooms in on the area of Dutch children’s literature. Chapter 4 describes the historical development and position of The Pilgrim’s Progress in this literary branch, by investigating preliminary data. Chapter 5 compares and contrasts all Dutch children’s editions on a macro and a micro level.

My wish is that this study may contribute to the understanding and appreciation of the hidden meaning of the original work.

This book will make a traveller of thee. If by its counsels thou wilt rulèd be: It will direct thee to the Holy Land, If thou wilt its directions understand: Yea, it will make the slotful active be; The blind also delightful things to see.

Peter Meeuse

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Nunspeet, 10 August 2007

Richard Clement, in: ‘Bijbel niet meest gedrukte boek in Engelse taal’. Reformatorisch Dagblad, 4 August 2007. Source text, p. 388.

Pilgrimage in Children’s Land – Preface

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Chapter 1 Preparations for a World Tour For a description of the ‘pilgrimage’ that The Pilgrim’s Progress made, some knowledge of the background of its original publication at home is indispensable. This chapter describes the pilgrim’s original character, by placing the original work in its context. Firstly, a description of the historical and religious background will be provided, followed by a description of John Bunyan´s life. Additionally, a description of the literary background of The Pilgrim´s Progress will be given.

1.1 Historical and Religious Background Politically and religiously speaking, The Pilgrim’s Progress was published in turbulent times. Its author, John Bunyan, was a Puritan with unambiguous opinions, and he made no secret of them, as is proved by his works. Therefore, acquaintance with the religious and historical situation of his days is necessary for the understanding of his work. This section depicts the historical and religious background of the original publication of Bunyan’s best-seller.

1.1.1 The Reformation A sketch of the historical and religious background of The Pilgrim’s Progress must start a few centuries before Bunyan’s birth, with the Reformation process, since his thoughts dwell on this movement. The Reformation is the sixteenth-century Protestant movement that protested against the Roman Catholic Church and its practices and doctrines. In the opinion of its followers, the church of Rome had grown away from the old path of the Scriptures and followed their own traditions. The Reformation slogans were ‘Sola Scriptura’ (Only the Scriptures), ‘Sola fide’ (Only faith), and ‘Sola gratia’ (Only grace). The most important defenders of the Reformation in Europe were Martin Luther (1483-1546) and John Calvin (1509-1564). England’s Reformation started differently than the Reformation of the other European countries. In many countries the Reformation started from below, but in England the break with Rome started with the king. King Henry VIII (reigned 1509-1547) was an absolute monarch. He could not endure any power higher than himself. Religiously, he initially seemed to be a true Roman Catholic. For example, he wrote a treatise denouncing the Reformation ideals, for which the Pope awarded him the title ‘Defensor fideï’ (Defender of Faith). However, because the Pope did not give him permission for divorcing Catharine of Aragon he renounced his faith in the Roman-Catholic Church and changed the national religion. In the Act of Supremacy (1534) he declared that the king was the supreme head of the Ecclesia Anglicana (Church of England). This is how England’s ties with Rome were officially broken, although the Roman doctrine had not disappeared at once: the church retained its Roman Catholic character. As Houtekamer puts it, it was ‘a papism without a pope’.

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Gradually the English grew more interested in the Protestant doctrine. Bibles were more and more frequently read in English by the common people. Under the reign of Edward VI (1547-1553) Protestantism flourished. During these years Thomas Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, played an 3

Houtekamer, Christopher Love: Een puritein op weg naar het schavot, 2000:22.

Pilgrimage in Children’s Land – Chapter 1

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important role in the Reformation process. He wrote and compiled the Book of Common Prayer, a liturgy with a Protestant character. Images disappeared from the churches. The mass was abolished. Church services were no longer in Latin but in English. Other Catholic traditions like hagiolatry and praying for dead people were forbidden. English Bible translations were published and widely spread and read. However, when Edward was succeeded by the Roman Catholic Mary Tudor (Bloody Mary, reigned 1553-1558), many Protestants were executed, including Thomas Cranmer. Moreover, in 1559 the Book of Common Prayer was revised again in the direction of the older practices. Elisabeth I (reigned 1558-1603) did not make a clear choice between Rome and Geneva: her doctrine was Protestant, but her liturgy remained Roman Catholic, whereas she persecuted and even executed some Protestants.

1.1.2 Puritanism During the reigns of Bloody Mary and Elisabeth I many Protestants fled to the mainland, to cities such as Geneva and Frankfurt, where they were confronted with a much more radical Reformation than was the case in England. On the mainland, they were highly influenced by Calvin’s doctrine.

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When Elisabeth allowed these refugees to come back (mainly for economic reasons), the refugees concluded that church and doctrine were far from ‘pure’. These Puritans, as they were called, under the guidance of John Knox, attempted to further the Reformation and purify the nominally Protestant church from within, by getting rid of all traces of the Roman Catholic Church. Their ideal was ‘a glorious church, not having spot, or wrinkle, or any such thing; but that it should be holy and without blemish’ (Ephesians 5:27). They were the founders of a highly influential movement. In Ernest Bacon’s words ‘the Puritans were a body of men of God who brought a Spiritual light to England, drew the nation back to moral values, and stamped a moral greatness upon her that no other group, religious or secular, has ever done’.

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As opposed to their contemporaries, Puritans only accepted the Bible as a source for their principles and views. Traditions could not be decisive, but only the Scriptures. This led to the following 6

ideas: Life is a war against sin , although man cannot fight this war in his own power: only through the atoning work of the Saviour, the vilest sinner can be reconciled to God, upon true repentance. Life has a purpose: every individual has a calling and talents or gifts to follow, and all vocations are holy vocations, since the primary duty of man’s life is worshipping God. Central to Puritan life were the preaching of the Scriptures, days of fasting, family worship and people’s individual relationships with God. Puritans have often been misrepresented as gloomy, sour-faced people, but according to Bacon, nothing is further from the truth. ‘They appreciated and enjoyed [recreation, drama, dancing, music etc.] where they were wholesome, but strongly attacked them for being debased and corrupting as 7

they often were’. Puritans highly stimulated science, and the examination and exploration of God’s creation. In addition, they highly appreciated art. Some of the greatest writers of the age were Puritans: the two greatest poets were Spenser and Milton, both Puritans. And what to think of John 4

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Tenets of Calvin’s doctrine include: the depravity of man, the sovereignty of God, salvation by faith in Jesus, God’s election of individuals to salvation, the irresistibility of God’s grace, and the centrality of the Bible in belief and in life. See Batson, The Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan, 1988:5-6. Bacon, Pilgrim and Dreamer: John Bunyan, His Life and Work, 1983:20. John Bunyan’s second famous allegory is called The Holy War. Bacon, Pilgrim and Dreamer: John Bunyan, His Life and Work, 1983:31.


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Bunyan with The Pilgrim’s Progress.

Translation English – Utrecht University 8

In 1571 an official Puritan confession was written (The Thirty-Nine Articles) and the translation of the Bible was revised. In 1572 the Puritans drew up the ‘Admonition’. Its dominant aim was ‘to purge the services of worship from all the remnants of Roman teaching, practice and superstition, and to 9

procure in every parish an earnest, spiritually-minded, preaching minister’. Queen Elisabeth feared and denounced most of the Puritan views. In 1585 she said to her Parliament: ‘I must pronounce them dangerous to a kingly rule, to have every man according to his own censure to make a doom of the validity and privity of his Prince’s government with a common vail and cover of God’s Word’.

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The

queen especially fought the separatist views of some Puritan groups. In February 1589 a sharp persecution of several groups of Puritans started. During the reigns of Elisabeth’s successors, James I (1603-1625) and Charles I (1625-1649), the persecutions of Puritans continued severely. These kings sympathized with Roman Catholic doctrines and practice. Moreover, James and Charles authorised the Sunday sports and rural festivals by issuing and reissuing the Book of Sports, much to the dismay of the Puritans. In their opinion, no celebration or sport should violate the Sabbath, which was meant for rest and worship. ‘Sunday was called “the market day of the soul”, a day to do business with God’.

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During these years many

Puritans fled to the Netherlands and the United States. When John Bunyan was born in 1628, Charles I was king. He was king of England, Scotland and Ireland. A big gap existed between the king and many common people, who regarded Charles as a tyrant. When Charles’ archbishop, Laud, desired that the English Common Prayer Book and its doctrines were used and practiced in Scotland as well as in England, the first Civil War arose. This was a war between the king with the nobility and the Catholic Irishmen on his side (the royalists), and many of his own people (the parliamentarians, mainly Puritans) on the other side. The crown had disappointed the common people not only religiously, but also economically. Now they had a chance to fight this regime that was functioning so badly in their eyes. It was a tragic war, in which friends fought against friends, and brothers against brothers, and fathers against sons. As a boy John Bunyan fought in this war, probably on the side of the Parliamentarians. Initially, the royalists were winning, but when the puritan Oliver Cromwell became the leader of the Parliamentarian army, things changed. 14 June 1645 was the last battle of the war, the battle of Naseby. 5.000 royalist soldiers surrendered and another 1.000 were killed. In 1646 the king surrendered to the Scottish. The Parliament offered to put him on the throne again on condition that the Presbyterian church order was reintroduced. Charles refused and was handed over to the Parliament. On 30 January 1649 the king was executed. In 1653 England became a Commonwealth, or a republic under their ‘Protector’ Oliver Cromwell. These were hard times for the Royalists and Anglicans, but they brought some relief to the nonconformist congregations.

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The description of the Puritan view in this paragraph is based on Batson, 1988: 6-7 and Sharrock 1954: 17, R. Bisschop in: Spijker et al. 2001: 46 and Bacon 1983: 31-32, 82. Bacon, Pilgrim and Dreamer: John Bunyan, His Life and Work, 1983:23-24. Ibid. Batson, The Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan, 1988 : 6.


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1.1.3 Presbyterians and Independents As the seventeenth century progressed, the Puritans were gradually divided into two groups: Presbyterians and Independents. The Independents were no longer inclined to reform the church from the inside, but continued their ideal of a church without a spot or a blemish outside the Church of England. Many of them wanted to abolish the monarchy. The Presbyterians, on the other hand, still wanted to change the Anglican Church from within, into a national church with a Presbyterian liturgy, without bishops and Prayerbook. They wanted to abolish the Episcopal church government of the Anglican Church and advocated Presbyterianism on the Geneva model of Calvin: they believed in a graded system of church courts, in the grouping of local churches in presbyteries, with the associated presbyteries joined in synods, and a General Assembly that consisted of ministers and lay elders as the supreme Church authority. They supported the continuation of the monarchy, on condition that the king was in favour of a Presbyterian liturgy. In their opinion the king or queen could never be the head of the church, which one and only Head was Christ. Many Independents gradually grew away from Calvin in one or more points. For instance, many of them came to doubt the church government by elders and national synods: they wanted to be entirely independent from any national institution. This is why they are called Congregationalists. Some other independent groups were: the Quakers, the Levellers, the Diggers, and the Ranters. Their ideas were often very different from the original Reformation doctrine. Some ministers thought they were a reincarnation of Melchizedek, or John the Baptist, or even Jesus Christ himself.

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1.1.4 Baptists Of all independent groups the Baptists probably remained closest to Calvin. They faithfully followed the ideal of a congregation without a spot or a blemish, as well as the Calvinistic views concerning the government and ordering of the Church. They differed from other Calvinists in that they held that only adult believers were to be baptized and not infants. Initially, they only baptized by pouring, but later also by immersion. They consisted of two parties: The General Baptists, who held Arminian views, i.e. that man could aid his own salvation. The Particular Baptists, on the other hand, were strongly Calvinistic and believed in ‘particular redemption’, i.e. redemption for the elect only. John Bunyan belonged to a Baptist church. ‘In Bedfordshire and some other places Independents and Baptists joined together in fellowship to found local churches, later called “Union Churches” and it was to one of these that Bunyan belonged.’

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Batson notes that Bunyan ‘is widely referred to as a

“Particular Open Communion Baptist”, one of a separatist group distinctly known for being broadminded about various methods of baptism and about church membership’, but admits that it is very difficult to label him as any particular separatist.

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Although Bunyan was a member of a Baptist church, he was certainly not narrow-minded. For example, contrary to many other Baptists, he never made a breaking point of infant baptism. A reader of his books will not easily find out that Bunyan was a Baptist. He also had an eye for Christians in 12 13 14

Huizinga, Het leven van John Bunyan, 1965: 30-32. Bacon, Pilgrim and Dreamer: John Bunyan, His Life and Work, 1983 :28. Batson, The Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan , 1988:7.


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other denominations. In his works he always addresses as many believers as possible, and avoids stressing unessential differences.

1.2 Bunyan’s Life

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1.2.1 Childhood John Bunyan was born somewhere between the cottages of Harrowden and Elstow, in the Autumn of 1628. Although his exact date of birth is unknown, his baptism in the Anglican Parish Church of Elstow on 30 November was recorded. His father Thomas was a moderate Anglican, and probably a Royalist, while most of Bedfordshire was Parliamentarian in sympathy. Originally, the Bunyans were a family of French immigrants that had possessed considerable land. Thomas’s father was a tinker, a mender of pots and pans, and so was Thomas himself. These tinkers were no vagabonds, but they had a settled occupation which involved regular tours of the neighbourhood. Margaret Bently, John Bunyan’s mother, was Thomas’ second wife. Thomas’ first wife had died without children. John was their firstborn; his sister Margaret was born 15 months later; and his brother William in 1635. Although his parents were not rich, John was sent to school, where he learned how to read and write: ‘But yet notwithstanding the meanness and inconsiderableness of my Parents, it pleased God to put it into their heart, to put me to School, to learn both to Read and Write.’

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Little is

known about the duration and place of his schooling. During his childhood John was far from religious: ‘Rbeing filled with all unrighteousness; the which also so strongly work, and put forth itself, both in my heart and life, and that from a childe, that I had but few Equals [R] both for cursing, swearing, lying 17

and blaspheming the holy Name of God.‘ Moreover, he writes in his autobiography that he was often troubled in childhood by fearful dreams and visions. During his youth John Bunyan had some fearful experiences which might partly account for his earnest attitude towards life. He described these experiences in Grace Abounding:

‘For once I fell into a crick of the Sea, and hardly escaped drowning: another time I fell out of a Boat into Bedford-River, but mercy yet preserved me alive: Besides, another time being in the field, with one of my companions, it chanced that an Adder passed over the High way, so I having a stick in mine hand, struck her over the back; and having stounded her, I forced open her mouth with my stick, and plucked her sting out with my fingers, by which act had not God been merciful to me, I might by my desperateness have brought myself to mine end. This also have I taken notice of with thanksgiving; when I was a Souldier, I with others were drawn out to go to such a place to besiege it; but when I was just ready to go, one of the company desired to go in my room, to which, when I had consented he took my place; and coming to the siege, as he stood Sentinel, he was shot into the head with a Musket bullet and died.’

15 16 17 18

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Main source: Van ’t Veld, Beminde broeder die ik vand op ‘s werelds pelgrims wegen. Bunyan, Grace Abounding, par. 3. Ibid., par. 4. Ibid., par. 12-13.


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1.2.2 Marriage In June 1644 John’s mother died, and in July his sister Margaret. His father remarried within a month. In November John enlisted in the army, probably on the Parliamentarian side. After the first Civil War (1644-1646) he returned to Elstow, but because of lack of money he enlisted for active service in Ireland in June 1647. When he came back in 1648 John married a poor girl, whose name is unknown. The only things she had were two books that would highly influence John’s life: The plain man’s pathway to Heaven by Arthur Dent and Practice of Piety by Lewis Bayly. They had four children, one of whom was their blind daughter Mary. The others’ names were Elizabeth, John and Thomas.

1.2.3 Conversion Reading the abovementioned books caused Bunyan to ‘go to Church twice a day, and that too with the foremost, and there should very devoutly both say and sing as others did; yet retaining my wicked life’.

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As he describes, Bunyan was gradually convinced of his wicked state by nature and his need of

Christ as a Saviour for his sin. It was very clear to him that if he was to be saved, it could only be by God’s sovereign grace and mercy. He was spiritually much afflicted sometimes, mostly about the question whether or not he was one of the elect. His spiritual experiences were much like Christian’s experiences in The Pilgrim’s Progress. One example is the direct way in which he heard voices from heaven: ‘But same day, as I was in the midst of a game at Cat, and having struck it one blow from the hole; just as I was about to strike it the second time, a voice suddenly dart from Heaven into my Soul, which said, Wilt thou leave thy sins, and go to Heaven? or have thy sins, and go to Hell?’

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Another

striking similarity to Christian’s experiences is found in Bunyan’s visions. ‘About this time, the state and happiness of these poor people at Bedford was thus, in a kind of Vision, presented to me: I saw as if they were set on the Sunny side of some Mountain, there refreshing themselves with the pleasant beams of some high Mountain, there refreshing themselves with the pleasant beams of the Sun, while I was shivering and shrinking in the cold, afflicted with frost, snow and dark clouds; etc.’

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1.2.4 A Preacher In 1650, an independent congregation was established in Bedford, mainly consisting of prominent citizens. John Gifford, a moderate Baptist, became their minister in 1653. In 1655 John Bunyan joined Gifford’s church and moved from Elstow to Bedford. Here he found much spiritual relief after his afflictions. Gifford died in September and was succeeded by John Burton in 1656. It was during this year that Bunyan started preaching too, at the congregation’s request. He had an outstanding knowledge of the Bible and much spiritual experience. In 1657 he was probably appointed a deacon. Bunyan’s first few works, Some Gospel Truths Opened and A Vindication of Some Gospel Truths Opened were directed against the Quaker movement, an Independent group. The Quakers highly relied on ‘an inner light’, whereas Bunyan’s approach to religion was literal and objective: he only dared to rely on God and His word as the objective revelation. In Bunyan’s days many universities, mainly Cambridge, played a large role in puritan theology. 19 20 21

Ibid., par. 15. Ibid., par. 22. Ibid., par. 53-55.


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Lecturers and writers tried to combine experience and knowledge. However, although Bunyan was celebrated as a gifted preacher, he was not a scholar. Van ‘t Spijker remarks that this might just 22

account for his authenticity and frankness. Bunyan preached the Gospel at Pavenham, Eaton, Gamlingay, Stevington, Ridgmont and other villages. Possibly he and his friends were followers of the Fifth Monarchists.

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These people expected that after the execution of Charles I in 1649 King Jesus

would directly take the matter in hand in English politics. In 1658 Bunyan’s wife died and in 1659 he married a girl called Elisabeth. During these years he published two of his works: A Few Sighs From Hell, or the Groans of a Damned Soul (1658) and The Doctrine of the Law and Grace Unfolded (1659).

1.2.5 In Prison Burton died in 1660 and the congregation left Bedford. Services were held in houses now. The congregation of Bedford was in these day referred to as ‘Bunyan’s people’. Unfortunately, Charles II prohibited preaching by those who had not followed official education. In 1662 he published the Act of Uniformity, compelling all Christians to conform to the Anglican Prayerbook. Bunyan was one of his first victims. In November 1660 he was arrested while preaching in the small village of Samsell. He was heard at Harlington and taken to the district jail at Bedford. Bunyan would spend the next twelve years in prison. Strangely enough, he had many means of communication: he was allowed to receive visitors, and to pay a visit every now and then. He even was allowed to address meetings, which was in fact repeating his crime. He had his own congregation in prison, for when a new strict legislation became effective (1664-68), the jail was filled with nonconformists. Bunyan was allowed to read, study, write and publish. It was during these years that he wrote his autobiography Grace Abounding for the Chief of Sinners (1666), including practically verbatim reports of his examinations before the justices during his imprisonment. He also wrote The Heavenly Footman. Allegedly, he also started writing his work that would become a world famous allegory: The Pilgrim’s Progress, First Part (1678). For generations, this book would be the most deeply cherished and most read book next to the Bible, throughout the world. In 1663 Christian Behaviour was published, on proper Christian relationships. I will Pray with the Spirit (1663) is a tract against the set forms of the Prayer Book. The Holy City (1665) is an exposition of the heavenly Jerusalem, described in the book of Revelation. Some less poetic works are Profitable Meditations (1661), One Thing is Needful (1664?) and Prison Meditations. In 1667 his daughter Sarah was born.

1.2.6 Second Imprisonment, Liberty and Death On 21 January 1672 the Bedford congregation called John Bunyan to be a pastor. He was released in March and on 9 May he was licensed to preach under Charles II’s Declaration of Indulgence. During the same year, Bunyan’s congregation became licensed as a Congregational meeting place. In 1675 the Declaration of Indulgence was repealed. Since Bunyan refused to visit the church services in the Anglican St. Cuthbert’s Church and celebrate the Holy Supper, he was summoned. He 22 23

Van ’t Spijker et al., Het puritanisme; geschiedenis, theologie en invloed, 2001:174. Greaves, cited in Van ’t Veld, Beminde broeder die ik vand op 's werelts pelgrims wegen, 2000:237.


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refused to go to court and was imprisoned again, from December 1676 to June 1677. Here he probably finished the first part of The Pilgrim’s Progress. During the following years The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680), The Holy War (1682), and The Pilgrim’s Progress, Second Part (1684) were published. Charles II’s death in 1685 was a relief to the separatist groups, especially since he was succeeded by his brother James II, who proclaimed two Acts of Indulgence, one in 1687 and one in 1688. Bunyan and his people took advantage of this tolerant attitude towards independents. Although Bunyan was prepared for it, he was not imprisoned again. On 19 August 1688, John Bunyan was on his way to preach in London. The severe rain caused him to catch a cold. He died as a result, in a friend’s house at Snow Hill, on 31 August 1688. He was buried in the cemetery at Bunhill Fields in London, a cemetery for nonconformists.

1.3 Literary Background

1.3.1 Religious Literature The Pilgrim’s Progress was published in a century when ordinary citizens were familiar with the Bible, theological doctrines and religious controversies. Works of religious literature pervaded seventeenth century England. Of course, different authors demonstrated different views, temperaments, emphases and genres in their writings. As will be shown below, John Bunyan had a very special style of presenting his religious views. It was, however, not as original as it might seem to be.

1.3.2 Analogy and Simile According to Batson (1988), Puritans had two books to base their religion on. The first book is the book of the Word (the Bible) and the second is the book of the world (God’s creation). In the Bible they read about God’s plans with the world, and especially His chosen people. In God’s creation they did not only read His majesty, His dealings with the world, but they also saw examples in the animal world for Christian behaviour. It is no surprise that they would often combine these two ‘books’. This was often done in analogies and similes. For instance, the sun manifests God’s glory. The labour of the ant and spider condemns sloth and idleness. Many things from real life were spiritualized by Puritans. They looked around them in the huge library of God’s creation and applied what they saw to their sermons. This figure of speech is seen throughout The Pilgrim’s Progress, which is in fact a series of related comparisons.

1.3.3 Spiritual Autobiography Although The Pilgrim’s Progress is not really an autobiography, it certainly is in some way autobiographical. It shows much similarity to his autobiography Grace Abounding. In this book he reveals God’s dealings with his soul in plain terms, without imagery. Many spiritual conflicts that are described there occur to the hero of The Pilgrim’s Progress too.


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During the seventeenth century the spiritual autobiography began to flourish in England. It is an art form in which authors describe how they were converted to God. These books do not give much information about the times when the authors lived. Van ‘t Veld writes that research has shown that these autobiographies tend to limit the outward vision, and only little information may be expected on the interaction between the author and their contemporary society, which is true for Grace Abounding: 75% of it deals with the psychology of Bunyan’s conversion.

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1.3.4 Allegory The Pilgrim’s Progress is an allegory. According to Abrams’ A Glossary of Literary Terms an allegory is ‘a narrative, whether in prose or in verse, in which the agents and actions, and sometimes the settings as well, are contrived by the author to make coherent sense on the “literal,” or primary, level of signification, and at the same time to signify a second, correlated order of signification’.

25

Abrams distinguishes two types of allegories: 1. the historical and political allegory; and 2. the sustained allegory of ideas. The central device for allegories of ideas is the personification of abstract entities. This is exactly what is seen in The Pilgrim’s Progress, where we encounter a man called Christian, who flees from the City of Destruction, meets characters such as Faithful, Goodwill, Mistrust, Timorous, etc. and finally reaches the Celestial City. The literal characters represent concepts and the plot allegorizes a Christian’s way to heaven. The allegory is filled with unattractive landscapes and beautiful terrain, persecutions and victories, etc. to represent the spiritual ups and downs in a Christian’s life. The allegory has been popular throughout the centuries, in different genres. There is the fable, the parable, the exemplum, and the proverb. These genres have been popular from time immemorial. However, the allegory as a narrative only became popular in the Middle Ages and is less popular in modern literature.

1.3.5 Dream Vision Batson (1988) places The Pilgrim’s Progress in a tradition of dream visions. The sustained allegory of ideas was a favourite form in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, especially in the versenarrative form of a dream vision. In these narratives the narrator falls asleep and has an allegoric dream. He is often led by a guide, human or animal. Examples are Dante’s (1265-1321) Divine Comedy, the French Roman de la Rose, Chaucer’s (c.1345-1400) Book of the Duchess and William Langland’s (c.1332-c.1400) Piers Plowman. A more recent example is Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (1865). The Pilgrim’s Progress is written in the form of a dream vision. On the first page of the book the narrator falls asleep and starts relating his allegoric dream. Bunyan reminds the reader all the time that it is a dream by using expressions such as ‘then I saw in my dream’ and ‘now I saw in my dream’. For an unknown reason the narrator wakes up in the end of chapter 8 and falls asleep again in chapter 9. In the end the narrator awakes and says: ‘So I awoke, and, behold, it was a dream.’

24 25

Van ’t Veld, Beminde broeder die ik vand op 's werelts pelgrims wegen, 2000:229. Abrams, A Glossary of Literary Terms, 1999:5.


14



1.3.6 The Emblem The story of The Pilgrim’s Progress is filled with emblems. According to Abrams an emblem is ‘an object whose significance is made determinate by its qualities and by the role it plays in the 26

narrative’. Writers of emblems use them to stimulate understanding of what one cannot literally see, by using a visible object. Christian is confronted with snares, nets, traps, pitfalls, while he still sees God’s candle shining on his head. This candle, this light, the rising sun etc. are objects that are seen, but that point toward the presence of the Spirit of Christ that guides him through darkness. We do not know where Bunyan acquired his notions of emblem. What we do know is that emblems were popular in most European countries during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and that Bunyan frequently used them throughout his works.

1.3.7 Travel Literature The Pilgrim’s Progress might in a way be regarded as part of travel literature. It is, after all, the story of a man who is travelling from the City of Destruction to the Celestial City. However, it is much different than its contemporary travel stories. According to Sutherland, these stories were often accounts of the author’s own travels through the real world.

27

Bunyan’s work, on the other hand, is a

spiritual and imaginative journey. Some travel stories were meant for entertainment. Sutherland notes that ‘to the late seventeenthcentury reader, [R] travel normally connoted voyages or journeys to remote countries, and the remoter the better’.

28

Most travel stories were partly or entirely educational. A number of the travel accounts published were clearly intended as guide-books for travellers. Some travel books were a warning against particular other views and countries. For example, Thephilus Dorringdon published in 1699 his Observations concerning the Present State of Religion in the Romish Church A Made in a Journey through some Provinces in Germany, in which he warned his readers against the ‘Popish superstition’ they would encounter in other countries. Despite the differences, The Pilgrim’s Progress is strictly speaking part of travel literature. Bunyan’s travel story is a spiritual and imaginary one, so in a sense it is a journey through a remote country, which is exactly what late seventeenth-century readers wanted to read. Additionally, The Pilgrim’s Progress is a guide book and a warning against other views. Bunyan is an experienced traveller since he has spiritually been in every place he mentions in the book (except for crossing the River in the end, for he was still alive). As an experienced traveller, he warns against snares and difficulties and unfolds the way to the Celestial City.

1.4 Conclusion The Pilgrim’s Progress was originally published in turbulent times. Religiously and politically, the Reformation process was still going on. Some Puritans wanted to further the Reformation within the 26 27 28

Ibid., 312. Sutherland, English Literature of the Late Seventeenth Century, 1969:290. Ibid., 1969:292.


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Anglican Church. Others continued their ideal outside the Church of England. One of their ministers was John Bunyan. This initially insignificant preacher became world famous, mainly as the author of The Pilgrim’s Progress. This book is not only part of its contemporary religious literature, but also stands in a tradition of allegories and travel literature.


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Chapter 2 Pilgrimage around the World The Pilgrim’s Progress was a bestseller from the very beginning. Reprint followed after reprint; its impressive international pilgrimage started only four years after the original publication and until today it has remained a highly valued piece of literature all over the world. This chapter explores this pilgrimage that The Pilgrim’s Progress made across the world. Firstly, its popularity at home will be described; secondly, an impression will be given of its world-wide spread; and finally, a description of the history of its publication in Holland will be given.

2.1 Pilgrimage at Home The Pilgrim’s Progress was and is and will most probably remain a highly influential book in English literature. It was a bestseller immediately after its first publication. Its initial popularity is obvious from the high number of reprints that followed the first publication in 1678 (Nathaniel Ponder, London): in the next decade reprints were published in 1678, 1679, 1680 (2 editions), 1681 (3 editions, one of which was an American edition), 1682, 1683, 1684, 1685 and 1688. As the book grew more and more famous all over the world, it retained its popularity in its home country. Even until today it is the most frequently printed or translated English book. Its popularity is not only proved by the high number of reprints, but also by its impact on literature, language, culture and theater as will be shown in this section.

2.1.1 Influence on Literature and Culture The Pilgrim’s Progress has given inspiration to many writers and artists. It forms the basis of many books and films and not a few writers have attempted to improve or imitate it. Some examples will be given here to illustrate this. In 1846 Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote ‘The Celestial Railroad’, a short story, based on Bunyan’s work. It is about a journey from the City of Destruction to the Celestial City. This story represents the progressive thinkers of the age: the old footpath was replaced by a railroad to heaven. It was certainly a lot faster, but not a safer journey. In 1869 the humorous narrative The Innocents Abroad by Mark Twain was published, subtitled The New Pilgrim’s Progress. It was based on some letters that Twain wrote during a visit to Europe, Egypt and the Holy Land. It is a satire on tourists who learn what to experience in a foreign country by reading guide books. In 2003 Traveling a Pilgrim's Path: Preparing Your Child to Navigate the Journey of Faith by Craig and Janet Parshall was published. In this book, taking The Pilgrim’s Progress as their example, they give practical advice to Christian children.

2.1.2 Proverbial The Pilgrim’s Progress not only formed the basis for the plots of many literary works and films, but


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in the English literature, culture and language there are also many smaller references to its text. Parts of the text are often referred to and cited in films and books. For example, Danzig's Mother video starts with the quotation ‘Then I saw there was a way to Hell, even from the gates of Heaven’. Not a few names that appear in The Pilgrim’s Progress have become proverbial in English. In 1976, Margaret Thatcher described Britain in one of her speeches as being in a ‘slough of despond’. Other examples of proverbial names are the ‘Hill Difficulty’, ‘Doubting Castle’ and the ‘Enchanted Ground’.

2.1.3 Theater, Film and DVD During the second half of the nineteenth century The Pilgrim’s Progress found its way into the theater, and during the second half of the twentieth century it was turned into film and DVD. •

In 1850-51 the "Panorama of Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress" consisting of large canvases was painted by theatrical painters Joseph Kyle and Jacob Dallas. The theatrical panorama show took approximately two hours and was accompanied by music and a lecturer. It attracted thousands of people.

•

Between 1945-1965 C.O. Baptista Films produced an animated film based on The Pilgrim’s Progress with the same name (ca. 60 minutes). Recommended for ages 5-10. A shortened version (35 min.) is still available on DVD. Languages: English, Spanish, German, Portuguese, Mandarin (China), Ukrainian, Japanese.

•

In 1951 an opera by Ralph Vaughan Williams was premiered, named The Pilgrim’s Progress, based on Bunyan’s work.

•

Animation studio Halas and Batchelor planned to produce a film version of The Pilgrim’s Progress in 1954, but the project was shelved and the film was never produced.

•

In 1972 Theater Roundabout produced a play called The Pilgrim’s Progress. It is still performed in theaters.

•

In 1977 Ken Anderson produced a (not animated) film version of The Pilgrim’s Progress, called Pilgrim’s Progress, not for any specific age (72 min.). In 1990 Intercomm continued its production. It has been available on DVD since 2005. Languages: Bahasa Indonesia, Bangla, Burmese, Czech, English, French, Hausa, Kannada, Kiswahili, Mandarin (Taiwan), Mongolian, Nepali, Sinhala, Spanish, Swahili, Telegu, Telugu, Urdu.

•

In 1985 Vision Video produced another film version of The Pilgrim’s Progress, called Dangerous Journey (2 hrs. 15 min.), recommended for ages 8 and up. It is available on DVD. Language: English.

•

In 2006 an animated DVD version for young children was produced by Cawthon Productions, named The Pilgrim’s Progress (65 minutes). Language: English.

•

Strikingly, and in contrast to the original purpose of the book, most filmed versions of The Pilgrim’s Progress are explicitly recommended for children.

2.1.4 English Editions for Children The Pilgrim’s Progress was primarily intended for grown-up believers, but it has also been popular among children since its initial publication. It was one of the first classics that was adapted for children,


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during the second half of the nineteenth century. Below some examples are given of publications throughout the years, that were explicitly adapted and abridged for children. Note that the list is only an illustration of its popularity among children throughout the years, not an attempt to provide a complete survey. •

1866. The Children’s Pilgrim’s Progress. New York: Sheldon and Company.

•

1869. The pilgrim's progress in words of one syllable by Mary Godolphin. London: George Routledge & Sons.

•

1899. Pilgrim’s Progress. New York: Gilbert H. McKibbin.

•

1913. John Bunyan's Dream Story: the Pilgrim's Progress retold for children and adapted to school reading by James Baldwin. New York: American Book Co.

•

1962. The Pilgrim’s Progress (Retold for Children) by Laurence G. Morris. London: Ward Lock & CO.

•

1979. Christian’s Journey by Rhoda Couldridge. London: Lutterworth Press. Ages 4-7.

•

1982. Little Pilgrim’s Progress by Helen Taylor. Chicago: Moody Publishers. Ages 8-12.

•

1985. Dangerous Journey by Oliver Hunkin. Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Ages 2-8.

•

1994. Pilgrim’s Progress Retold by Gary D. Schmidt. Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Ages 8-12.

•

1999. John Bunyan's a Pilgrim’s Progress Retold by Geraldine McCaughrean. London: Hodder Children’s.

•

2004. John Bunyan's Pilgrim’s Progress retold by Tim Dowley. Oxford: Candle Books. Ages 411.

2.1.5 Adaptations for Non-Protestant Target Groups Despite its highly religious and Protestant content, The Pilgrim’s Progress has found its way into non-Protestant target groups as well. Two of the publications mentioned in 2.1.4 are meant for or sold to other target groups than the original public. James Baldwin’s adaptation for children (1913) excludes all religious elements of the work. Tim Dowley’s version for children (2004) is recommended for children on Catholicmom.com, a catholic website. Moreover, Ampleforth online shopping presents the book along with catholic books. The description of the book includes that ‘The anti-papal elements of the original are omitted in this version’. Note that both adaptations are children’s literature. Since The Pilgrim’s Progress has found its way into secular and catholic children’s literature, it may be assumed that it has been read by secular and Catholic grown-ups prior to these publications. Apparently, they were impressed and considered it to be valuable enough to share (parts of) this classic with their children.

2.2 Worldwide Pilgrimage The Pilgrim’s Progress has not only been popular in the English-speaking world, but it has also


19



become a book of worldwide fame. Over the centuries, The Pilgrim’s Progress grew into an international success and was translated into more than 200 languages, some 80 of which are translations into African languages. There are internal as well as external reasons for this popularity. On the one hand, the text hardly contains any controversial subjects, such as baptism and the covenants. Its secret ingredient, the evangelical message, is marvellously conveyed without giving occasion to controversies among Christians. Nothing of John Bunyan’s own ecclesiastical background may be found in the book. Moreover, readers were not interested in the writer’s ecclesiastical background, as long as the works were devotional and edifying. The Pilgrim’s Progress is both, has high literary qualities and serves entertainment purposes. Missionaries have taken advantage of the text’s quality and relative neutrality to spread the gospel all over the world. On the other hand, external factors contribute to its world-wide spread. The Pilgrim’s Progress was published in a time when its readers were spreading all over the world because of persecutions in their home country. This section explores the worldwide spread of The Pilgrim’s Progress, describing the three different stages distinguished by Hofmeyr.

29

Firstly, it was taken to other parts of the world by persecuted

Puritans. Secondly, during the nineteenth century missionaries took it to the ends of the earth. The final stage was part of the emerging discipline of English literature.

2.2.1 The First Stage The first stage of migration took place in the seventeenth century, soon after its initial publication. Written by a Puritan, it was very popular among his followers. As described in the previous chapter, Puritans were often persecuted and many of them fled to other parts of the world, mainly to Protestant Europe and to English colonies in America, of course taking their highly valued book with them. In 1681, three years after its initial publication, it was reprinted in colonial America. It was published by Samuel Green in Boston, without frontispiece and pictures. The following publications serve as an illustration to show how The Pilgrim’s Progress conquered Europe during this stage of migration: •

In 1682 The Pilgrim’s Progress was published in Dutch by Johannes Boekholt in Amsterdam.

•

In 1685 the Dutch publisher Johannes Boekholt published a French translation.

•

In 1688 The Pilgrim’s Progress was translated from English into Welsh.

•

In 1703 the Dutch translation was translated into German.

•

In 1727 the German translation was translated into Swedish.

2.2.2 The Second Stage Next to the original work and the above-mentioned editions, other translations into European languages formed the basis of many translations that were produced during the second stage of migration. This stage was part of the Protestant mission movement during the nineteenth century. The Pilgrim’s Progress was translated into countless languages for missionary purposes. The first book that missionaries translated was usually the Bible, soon followed by The Pilgrim’s Progress. This is 29

Hofmeyr, The Portable Bunyan : A Transnational History of ThePilgrim’s Progress, 2004:1.


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how The Pilgrim’s Progress reached even the most illiterate societies. By the late 1700s, it had reached India and by the early 1800s, Africa. The book was translated into African languages some 80 times, most of which were for people in southern and Central Africa.

2.2.3 The Third Stage The third stage of migration was part of the emerging discipline of English literature. From the middle of the nineteenth century, Bunyan became canonized as the ‘father’ of the English novel. This qualification and renewed attention not only stimulated reprints at home, but also abroad.

Despite its worldwide impact, The Pilgrim’s Progress is not in the first place considered to be a piece of world literature today. It is primarily regarded as a typically English icon. According to Hofmeyr, The Pilgrim’s Progress was in academic research regarded as a piece of world literature for years, but nowadays it is considered to be the father of the English novel.

30

The focus has changed

from world-wide to country level research. Apparently, the English are proud of the fact that one of the first English novels has achieved such a high level of popularity and gladly emphasize its Englishness. The globe-trotter has come home again, but retains its influence all over the world.

2.3 Pilgrimage in The Netherlands The world tour that began with the first stage of migration as described in paragraph 2.2 started in Holland. The first translation of The Pilgrim’s Progress was a Dutch one, published in 1682 by Johannes Boekholt in Amsterdam. This paragraph is dedicated to the publication history of The Pilgrim’s Progress, other Bunyan titles and biographies in Holland. It helps to understand its place in Dutch children’s literature: this is the path on which the ‘pilgrim’ found his way to ‘children’s land’ in Holland.

2.3.1 Eens Christen’s Reyse

2.3.1.1 The Seventeenth Century It is no surprise that The Pilgrim’s Progress, of all languages, was first translated into Dutch. There has always been a close connection between England’s and Holland’s religious ideas. One of the stimulating factors was the refugees, who brought their English ideas, and took Dutch ideas back to England. Another factor is the wool and cloth trade between Britain and Holland. Traders did not only take their merchandise across the sea, but also their ideas and books, one of which was The Pilgrim’s Progress. This is how many English religious books found their way to Holland. The first translation of 1682, entitled Eens Christens Reyse, was a best-seller from the start. The name of the translator is unknown. Probably, it was not the translator’s aim to establish his name, but only to pass on the message of the book. In the seventeenth century and onward, most translators of religious works were not translators for the money, but on principle. Ministers and theologians 30

Ibid., 2004:12.


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produced the most, so the translator was probably one of these. According to Op ‘t Hof, some translators were very selective. For example, they were authororiented. Some translators only translated text from the Church of England, or only from nonconformists. Others based their choice on pietistic content rather than on ecclesiastical background. It must be noted that Dutch translations, and most probably The Pilgrim’s Progress too, passed the border. Dutch translations were read in Germany, and half of the German translations of puritanisca are based on a Dutch source text. They did not only pass geographical borders, but spiritual ones as 31

well. Puritanisca, although purely Protestant, were read by Roman Catholics too . The first Dutch translation of The Pilgrim’s Progress was followed by eight reprints before 1700. The fifth reprint was illustrated with nine copperplates by the famous Jan Luiken, which made it much more attractive.

2.3.1.2 The Eighteenth Century In the eighteenth century no new translations of The Pilgrim’s Progress were made. Many reprints were published, mainly during the first half of the century. The most notable eighteenth century reprint of Eens Christens Reyse was an edition annotated by Lambertus de Beveren, published by P. Bandsma, Groningen, in 1729. The notes were twice as long as the text itself.

2.3.1.3 The Nineteenth Century During the nineteenth century four new translations of The Pilgrim’s Progress were produced. The first one is an anonymous translation from a German adaptation. The third one is still well-known today, since an unrevised reprint was published in 1995 by Den Hertog. •

1833. Eens Christens reize naar de eeuwigheid. F.H. Ranke (ed.). Groningen: Barghoorn.

•

1853. Pelgrimstogt. Rev. J. de Liefde (transl.). Utrecht.

•

1868. De christen- en christinnereis naar de eeuwigheid. C.S. Adama van Scheltema (transl.). Amsterdam: Höveker.

•

1890. Des pelgrims reize van deze wereld naar de toekomende. J.L. Pierson (transl.). Nijmegen: Milborn.

2.3.1.4 The Twentieth Century In the twentieth century six integral translations were made: •

Ca. 1900. ‘s Christens reize naar de eeuwigheid. G.W. Stegmann (transl.). AmsterdamKaapstad: Hollandsch-Afrikaansche Uitgevers Maatschappij.

•

1905. Christen- en christinnereis. J.R. Bremer (transl.). Nijkerk: Callenbach.

•

1906. De Christen- en Christinnereize naar de eeuwigheid. A.J. Kers (transl.). Doesburg: J.C. van Schenk Brill.

31

•

1934. De christen- en christinnereis. Rev. A.G. Barkey Wolf (transl.). Delft: Meinema.

•

1949. De pelgrimsreis. Rev. C.M. van Endt (transl.). Utrecht: Erven J. Bijleveld.

For more information on Dutch translations of Puritansica, see Op ‘t Hof, in: Van ‘t Spijker et al., Het puritanisme; geschiedenis, theologie en invloed, 2001:320-328.


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•


1960. De christenreis. Rev. P. Visser (transl.). Kampen: Kok.

Nine adaptations of The Pilgrim’s Progress were published in the twentieth century, seven of which are explicitly meant for children. •

1930. Bunyan’s Christenreis. J.C. de Koning (ed.). Kampen: J.H. Kok.

•

1950. De christenreis naar de eeuwigheid. H. van den Brink (ed.). Amsterdam: Paulus Vereniging.

•

1950. De christenreis. P. de Zeeuw J. Gzn (ed.). ’s Gravenhage: G.B. van Goor Zonen.

•

1962. Bunyans Christenreis. T. Mateboer (ed.). Utrecht: Den Hertog.

•

1980. De christenreis. Rhoda Couldridge (ed.). M. Goedhart – Alberts (transl.). Kampen: J.H. Kok. Note: English adaptation that was translated into Dutch.

•

1980. Eens Christens reize naar de eeuwigheid. Retold by Jean Watson. Cornelius Lambregtse (transl.). Evert Kuit (ed.). ’s Gravenhage: Boekencentrum. Note: English adaptation that was translated into Dutch.

•

1993. De pelgrimsreis naar de eeuwigheid. J. de Jager (ed.). Utrecht: de Banier.

•

1996. Waar loopt deze weg naar toe? J. de Jager (ed.). Utrecht: De Banier. Note: for all ages.

•

1999. De christenreis. M.J. Ruissen (ed.). Goes: De Ramshoorn. Note: for all ages.

Since the above-mentioned adaptations form the main subject of this study, they will be profoundly contextualized, compared and discussed in chapters 3, 4, and 5. Additional information on some of the other translations will be provided under 4.1.

2.3.1.5 The Twenty-First Century No new translations or adaptations have been published yet in the twenty-first century. Two revised reprints of the Ruissen edition were published in 2001 and in 2004. The De Jager edition is in reprint presently.

2.3.2 Other Works

2.3.2.1 The Seventeenth Century In Holland the following Bunyan titles were published in the seventeenth century, next to Eens Christens Reyse: •

1683. Het Leven en Sterven van Mr. Quaadt (The Life and Death of Mr. Badman, 1680). Amsterdam: Boekholt.

•

1685. Den Heyligen Oorlogh (The Holy War, 1682). Amsterdam: Boekholt.

•

1689. Komst en Welkomst tot Christus (Come and Welcome to Jesus Christ, 1678). Amsterdam: Boekholt.


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•


1689. Overvloedige genade voor de Grootste van Alle Zondaren (Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, 1666). Amsterdam: Boekholt.

•

The counterpart of Eens Christens Reyse, Het Leven en Sterven van Mr. Quaadt, was a success, but for some unknown reason the other titles had no reprints in the seventeenth century. They had to wait for the centuries to come.

2.3.2.2 The Eighteenth Century In the eighteenth century many reprints of the above-mentioned titles were published by different publishers. New Bunyan titles that came out in Dutch translation are: •

1702. De Enge Poort (The Strait Gate, 1676). Amsterdam: G. de Groot.

•

1723. Eens Christins Reyse (Second Part of the Pilgrim’s Progress, 1684). Groningen: Seerp Brandsma.

•

1727. Verhandeling van de Ware Vreese Gods (A Treatise of the Fear of God, 1679). Dordrecht.

•

1730. Het Gezigt der Helle (A Few Sighs from Hell, 1658). Dordrecht.

•

1731. Salomons Tempel Vergeestelykt (Solomon’s Temple Spiritualized, 1688). Utrecht.

•

1735. Voorrechten en Voordelen der Heiligen (The Saint’s Privilege and Profit, 1692). Amsterdam.

•

1745. Parabel van den Onvruchtbaren Vygeboom (The Barren Fig-tree, 1673). Rotterdam: Hendrik van Pelt and Adrianus Douci.

•

1745. Parabel van den Pharizeus en den Tollenaar (A Discourse upon the Pharisee and the Publican, 1685). Rotterdam: Hendrik van Pelt and Adrianus Douci.

•

1746. De Leere der Wet en der Genade Verklaard (The Doctrine of the Law and Grace Unfolded, 1659). Groningen.

Eens Christins Reyse had several reprints in the eighteenth century. It was certainly not as popular as the translation of Part I of The Pilgrim’s Progress, but it was republished more often than the other titles, if they were republished at all. Some people in Holland doubted whether Part II was written by Bunyan, due to the relatively late publication in Holland and because of a supposed difference in style. However, this view was not commonly shared, as appears from the fact that both parts were even occasionally published in one volume. Strikingly, no new Bunyan titles were published in Holland during the second half of the eighteenth century and the number of reprints was much lower. Alblas supposes that the Enlightenment and Rationalism are partly responsible for this.

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2.3.2.3 The Nineteenth Century The first part of the nineteenth century remained silent as well. Only in the thirties the number of reprints started rising again. According to Alblas, the Réveil and Afscheiding are responsible for the revival of Bunyan’s work in Holland. He gives a material reason: in 1852-53 a three-volume publication 32

Alblas, in: Schutte et al, Bunyan in Nederland: opstellen over de waardering van John Bunyan in Nederland, 1989:27.


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of Bunyan’s works was issued by George Offor, which gave inspiration to Dutch translators. New titles that were published are: •

1854. De Jeruzalemsche Zondaar Gezaligd (Good News for the Vilest of Men / The Jerusalem Sinner Saved, 1688). Rotterdam: G.B. Poeschmann.

•

1856. De Kleine Catechismus of Onderwijs voor Onwetenden (Instruction for the Ignorant, 1675). Rotterdam: G.B. Poeschmann.

•

1856. De Voetganger op den Hemelweg (The Heavenly Footman, 1671). Rotterdam: G.B. Poeschmann.

•

1857. De Waarde der Ziel (The Greatness of the Soul, 1682). Rotterdam: G.B. Poeschmann.

•

1860. De Verwoesting van den Anti-Christ (Of Anti-Christ and his Ruin, 1692). Sneek: J. Campen.

•

1870. Geestelijke Zinnebeelden voor Jong en Oud (A Book for Boys and Girls, 1686). Utrecht.

•

1871. Gesprek tusschen eene Spin en eenen Zondaar (part of A Book for Boys and Girls, 1686). Rotterdam: H. Graafland.

•

1879-1885. The so-called Van Schenk Brill collection of all Bunyan’s works, including all works that had not been published earlier in Dutch (+/- 60 titles in total). Doesburg: Van Schenk Brill.

Until the middle of the nineteenth century Bunyan’s works were published in relatively cheap editions. During the second half of the nineteenth century more expensive editions were published: apparently, a more select public was addressed.

2.3.2.4 The Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries Many Bunyan pieces have been frequently reprinted during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. The most popular ones that survived the ages and are still integrally available in bookshops include: •

De Christinnereis (Second Part of The Pilgrim’s Progress, 1684)

•

Komen tot Jezus Christus (Come and Welcome to Jesus Christ, 1678)

•

Het leven en sterven van meneer Kwaad (The Life and Death of Mr. Badman, 1680)

•

De heilige oorlog (The Holy War, 1682)

•

Genade in overvloed (Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, 1666)

•

De wedloper naar de hemel (The Heavenly Footman, 1671)

•

Geloof jij dat? Leerzame levenslessen voor jong en oud (Instruction for the Ignorant, 1675)

Additionally, some (reprints of) adaptations and selections are available today under the following titles: •

1984. De heilige oorlog. M.J. Ruissen (ed.). Goes: De Ramshoorn. Adaptation of The Holy War for young people.

•

1992. Bunyan’s Christinnereis naverteld voor kinderen. Woerden: Bond van Zondagsscholen der Gereformeerde Gemeenten. Adaptation of Second Part of The Pilgrim’s Progress for children, ages 9-13. Reprints were published by Den Hertog, Houten.

•

1993. De christinnereis. M.J. Ruissen (ed.). Goes: De Ramshoorn.


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Adaptation of Second Part of The Pilgrim’s Progress for all ages. •

1999. Eén ding is nodig. Houten: Den Hertog. One-page quotations from Bunyan’s works.

•

2003. Langs Sions wegen. Houten: Den Hertog. Collection of poems by John Bunyan.

•

2005. Woorden van John Bunyan. Houten: Den Hertog. Quotations from Bunyan’s works.

2.3.3 Biographies Since the nineteenth century eight Bunyan biographies have been published in Holland, three of which are translations from the English. Below they are ordered by date of publication. •

1872-73. Hars(c)ha, D.A. Het Leven van John Bunyan. Met Aant. van Eenigen zijner Tijdgenoten en Enkele Proeven van zijn Stijl. Zaandam: Spanjen Koppenol.

•

1879-1885. The Van Schenk Brill collection. Doesburg: Van Schenk Brill. This famous collection included a Bunyan biography. It is a translation of the biography that was published in the above-mentioned George Offor edition (1852-53).

•

1889. Adema van Scheltema, C.S. John Bunyan. Uit zijn Leven en naar zijne Geschriften Beschouwd. Nijmegen: Milborn. Based on J.A. Froude’s English biography Bunyan (1880).

•

1899. Nes, H.M. van. John Bunyan. Nijkerk: Callenbach. This is the first Bunyan biography that was originally written in Dutch.

•

1938. P. de Zeeuw. De dappere Ketellapper; het leven van John Bunyan. Delft: Meinema. Biography for children.

•

1966. Huizinga, R.T. Het Leven van John Bunyan. Vianen: De Banier.

•

2002. Holten, F. van. Langs het levenspad van John Bunyan. Kampen: De Groot Goudriaan.

•

2003. Valen, L.J. van. Bunyan in beeld. Goes: De Ramshoorn. Pictorial introduction to Bunyan’s life.

•

2006. Karels-Meeuse, M.H. John, de schrijvende pelgrim. Houten: Den Hertog. Biography for ages 11 and up.

2.4 Conclusion Since its initial publication, The Pilgrim’s Progress has been widely popular. Firstly, it has been cherished in its home country, not only in its original form, but also in adaptations for specific target groups as well as in theatre and film. It has been highly influential on literature, culture and language. Additionally, the book has been translated into more than 200 languages, mainly for missionary and edifying purposes. All Bunyan’s works have at least one Dutch translation. Many of Bunyan’s works have been popular in Holland until today. The Pilgrim’s Progress has been reprinted and adapted most frequently. Integral translations, adaptations, selections of The Pilgrim’s Progress as well as Bunyan biographies have conquered The Netherlands, not a few of which are still available today.


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Chapter 3 Breeding Ground for a Junior Pilgrimage The focus will shift now from the original work and its worldwide pilgrimage, to a close-up of one of the countries that have welcomed the indefatigable pilgrim on his journey: the literary system of Dutch children’s literature. Since this study deals with the historical development and position of the ‘pilgrim’ in this ‘country’, the author’s first job is now to describe the position of the country involved on the literary map, with special attention to the areas that have been visited. Therefore, this chapter provides information and views on the history and position of the receiving system, Dutch children’s literature, with special attention to the genre of Protestant-Christian children’s literature. Firstly, a survey will be given of the history and position of Dutch children’s literature in general. Secondly, the development and position of the genre of Dutch Protestant-Christian children’s literature will be described. Chapters 4 and 5 will dwell on this descriptive chapter, in positioning The Pilgrim’s Progress as it conquered children’s land.

3.1 History and Position of Children’s Literature

3.1.1 History of Children’s Literature Children’s literature is a relatively young branch of literature. In the seventeenth century and earlier, hardly any literature specifically written for children existed. It was only in the eighteenth century that this type of literature developed into a separate branch of literature, and since then, it has grown into a large field. This paragraph provides a survey of the development of children’s literature, with special attention to the situation in The Netherlands, starting from the Middle Ages.

3.1.1.1 The Middle Ages Before printing was invented, written literature played no significant role. Most books were only read at schools. Predominant types of written literature in the Middle Ages are romances of chivalry, moralistic literature, and school books. These written texts were the follow-up of the tradition of storytelling, which was still widely popular in the Middle Ages. Many romances of chivalry around the legendary figure of King Arthur were produced. In this type of literature knights function as examples of good morals and behaviour. Other more explicit moralistic literature taught people and in some cases especially children good manners and etiquette. Among wealthy children Latin books were popular. These books contained Latin proverbs, and were used in Latin schools and monasteries. When public education became available to civilians, these books were published in their own languages as well. Next to written literature, there was much oral literature. There were travelling story-tellers, whose job it was to tell stories wherever they came, not only in houses and castles, but also in village squares. Many of these stories were popular fairy-tales and romances of chivalry. It must be noted that there was no clear division between literature for adults and children. The Pilgrimage in Children’s Land – Chapter 3

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main reason is that children were regarded as ‘little adults’. They read the same books and listened to the same stories as their parents.

3.1.1.2 The Late Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries The invention of printing around 1470 gave a great impulse to the production of books. However, the school retained its central position. The production of school books and chapbooks highly increased. Popular chapbooks include Van den Vos Reynaerde, Tijl Ulenspieghel and Malegijs. A world famous collection of fables is Esopet (1546). These books contained lessons to improve life. They were supposed to be like medicine, for man and society. Strikingly, sex and violence were not under taboo in those days. The moralistic texts were very explicit as far as violence and sexuality are concerned. Despite their popularity, these written stories were looked upon with contempt by humanists such as Erasmus. After the Council of Trent (1545-1563) many parish schools and Sunday schools were established. These schools played a large role in the distribution and growing popularity of religious literature, such as hagiographies, prayer books, and biblical picture books. These books were used as an important means of defence against heresy. During the same century, a new genre was added to West-European literature: the so-called ‘centsprent’ became very popular, especially in France, Germany and The Netherlands. These prints usually consisted of a one-sidedly printed sheet of paper, with one or more illustrations conveying a story. Commonly, some text accompanied the pictures, often in verse. The pictures were usually coloured. These prints were intended for poor people who could not afford to buy books. The subjects varied from chapbooks such as Tijl Ulenspieghel to hagiographies. The prints were initially made using woodblocks. Later on, people started to use copperplates and lithography. The centsprent grew in popularity and diversity after 1800, and remained popular until the end of the nineteenth century, when it had to compete with cheap children’s books and gradually developed into and was taken over by the comic.

3.1.1.3 The Seventeenth Century During the seventeenth century schoolbooks and religious works remained predominant. The most striking development is that novels found their way into families and homes. This shift from school to home stimulated protest from schools, moralists and especially churches against novels and fiction. They considered reading this type of literature to be a waste of time. Striking are the productions of Puritans and those who shared their ideas. Many moralistic religious texts were written as part of the Second or Further Reformation. for the education of children.

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34

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Religious texts were frequently used

34

In the opinion the followers of the Second or Further Reformation, the Reformation, the break with the Roman-catholic church had not been complete. Their main emphasis was on the way of life: how exactly does God want man to live and behave. One of the most imporant representatives of this movement is Jacobus Koelman. He did not only write many books himself, but also translated a great deal of Puritan works into Dutch, which shows the close connection between Puritan thought, of which John Bunyan is part, and the ideas of the Further Reformation. See 3.3.1.1: ‘Forerunners for “little adults”’


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3.1.1.4 The Eighteenth Century There was not much change during the first half of the eighteenth century. It was during the second half of this century that a new type of children’s literature came into being. This new approach to children was developed by eminent scholars such as the French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau, the English thinker John Locke and German philanthropists. Whereas children had been considered as ‘little adults’ until then, in his famous book Emile ou de l’Education (1762) Rousseau approached them as being essentially different from adults. In his opinion, the growth of children is a process consisting of four stages. The actual childhood is during the second stage, between ages two and twelve. At this stage adults have to protect them from bad influences. The stage between twelve and fifteen he called the Robinson age. In Rousseau’s view, the instruction of children should be based on their own experience and curiosity. Between ages fifteen and twenty-five a new birth takes place: this is the time for teaching morals. Moreover, Rousseau did not share the traditional thought that man is sinful by nature. He approached the children as being naturally good. His main message was: ‘let children be children’. Another scholar who more directly influenced children’s literature is John Locke. He regarded children as blank papers that were to be filled with good education and morals. His idea was to persuade children gently to reasoning. Additionally, German philanthropists, who were highly influenced by Enlightenment thoughts, advocated the following principles: ‘learning is playing’, and ‘knowledge is virtue’. In their view, children should learn to distinguish between good and evil from their own perspective. The highest objective in this process of learning is virtue. In reaction to these thoughts, a separate world was created for children. They were allowed to play, to be taken care of, just to be incapable infants. These new opinions stimulated and were stimulated by the production of a new type of children’s literature. The greatest and most popular Dutch representative of this new type of literature is Hiëronymus van Alphen. In 1778 his Proeve van kleine Gedigten voor Kinderen was published. In most of the poems contained in the book, a perfect and happy child narrates a story, teaching other children all kinds of virtues, such as diligence, obedience, and gratitude.

3.1.1.5 The Nineteenth Century The nineteenth century was a golden age for children’s literature. During the first half of the century, there was not much change yet. Enlightenment thoughts were still clearly present in new publications. There was no place for fantasy and fairy-tales, and virtue was the only thing that counted. After 1840, criticism against Van Alphen and his followers arose. New literature was written with characters who did good as well as bad things, however, still teaching virtue. Stories exemplified what happens to children who behave badly. Inspired by romanticism, popular writers started to write prose and poetry for children. These songs and stories were often very sensitive, and children were depicted as angels. Influenced by the Réveil movement, masses of religious children’s books were written. In The Netherlands, Jan de Liefde and Eduard Gerdes were well-known Protestant authors of children’s


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literature, and the German canon Von Schmidt was very popular among Catholics in Holland and Flanders. At the end of the century, starting from around 1870, a new view on children emerged, the socalled Vom Kinde aus movement. Educationalists based their ideas on Rousseau and other pedagogues such as Herbart, Pestalozzi and Froebel. In their opinion, children should be children as long as possible. They were to be kept on their own islands, to develop themselves. Much attention was paid to the nature of children. Not knowledge and virtues were central any more, but the questions, needs and emotions of the children. This new movement greatly influenced children’s literature. Children’s books were still supposed to contain lessons for children, but these lessons were less explicit than they used to be. Books were no longer in the first place intended to instruct children, but also to entertain them. Books had to be exciting, and contain adventures. A well-known example of a book that combines all the abovementioned ingredients is Kievit’s Dik Trom (1891). Finally, the layout of books changed. They were more and more frequently printed hard-covered and illustrated in colour.

3.1.1.6 The First Half of the Twentieth Century The publication of children’s books continued flourishing during the first half of the twentieth century. Factors that stimulated reading and writing books were compulsory education and increasing literacy. In Holland education was made compulsory in 1900 and in Belgium in 1914. At the beginning of the twentieth century there were three different approaches to children’s literature. The first one is the pedagogical approach. In this view, children’s literature had to be educational in the first place. The second one is the literary approach, which advocated the thought that authors of children’s literature are artists. A third group approached the children’s book Vom Kinde aus. For children’s literature it was a time of innocent characters, domestic realism, remembrance stories, girl’s books, excitement and adventure. Humorous stories for children went hand in hand with decent fantasy. The process of pillarisation

35

was unmistakably visible in children’s books. There was

a clear division between Protestant (with W.G. van der Hulst as figurehead), Catholic and socialdemocratic literature.

3.1.1.7 The Second Half of the Twentieth Century until Today In the fifties, a reaction against the literature of the previous decades emerged. The virtuous children were replaced with naughtier children, and moralistic literature was replaced with nonsense and humour, probably as a reaction to the Second World War. Gradually, children’s literature received more recognition. In 1952 the Bureau Boek en Jeugd (Office Book and Youth) was founded. In 1955 the first Kinderboek van het Jaar (Children’s Book of the Year) was awarded, and in 1959 the first children’s jury started in Rotterdam. 35

During the second half of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century, Dutch society slowly transformed into a pillared society. This process of ‘pillarisation’ (Dutch: verzuiling) had political, cultural as well as social aspects. Separate political parties, schools and societies were established for Protestants, Catholics and socialists. This process also found its expression in literature.


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Whereas the sixties were a calm period, the seventies were turbulent times. New educationalists were anti-authoritarian, which had repercussions on children’s literature. This movement rested on three pillars: the spontaneous pursuits of children, recognition of sexuality for children, and equality of parents and children. These reformists required that children’s books were realistic texts that made children critical. Children were confronted with all kinds of problems, such as pollution, addiction, poverty, political problems and violence. Classic novels remained in the background. The eighties and nineties were the most successful years ever for children’s literature. These were the years of success authors, a revival of classics, publication of historic and war stories as well as informative books. New problem books were less shocking than the previous ones. More attention was paid to the characters’ emotions. Picture books and fantasy stories were highly popular. There were fierce reactions against the awarding of prizes to some children’s books, since well-written books that were hardly understood by any children were awarded. At the end of the twentieth century, there was a revival of works from classical antiquity, in children’s literature as well as in adult literature. The Dutch publisher Querido and the Flemish publisher Averbode published many adaptations of classical works.

3.1.2 Position of Children’s Literature Until now, most attention has been paid to children’s literature itself, as it has developed throughout the ages. This paragraph combines this system with other closely linked systems, in an attempt to describe its position in the literary field. Firstly, the position of children’s literature in the literary polysystem will be described; secondly, the term ‘double canon’ will be explained; additionally, children’s literature will be placed in an international context; and finally, attention will be paid to the role of translation within the field of children’s literature.

3.1.2.1 Position in the Polysystem According to Rita Ghesquiere (2001), children’s literature has been a marginal subsystem in the literary polysystem

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since its origin. In the past, it used to be entirely overshadowed by adult literature.

Children’s books have remained peripheral until today, although interaction between the literary systems of grown-ups and children has increased during the last few decades. The system of children’s literature has often served as a refuge for adult literature, when texts lost popularity among adults, but were taken over by young people. Despite this growing interaction, the children’s system is still more vulnerable than the adult system. Why does children’s literature occupy this peripheral position? Ghesquiere argues that books for children are often judged on their pedagogic value rather than their literary quality.

37

Children’s books

are considered to be good books if they convey a good message, instead of being well-written.

36

37

‘Polysystem theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s, who had worked on literary historiography [R]. A literary work is here not studied in isolation but as part of the literary system, which itself is defined as “a system of functions of the literary order which are in coninual interrelationship with other orders” [quote J.N. Tynjanove ‘On literary evolution’, in Metejka and Pomorska (eds), 1927:7172]. Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework and the key concept is that of the system, in which there is an ongoing dynamic of “mutation” and strugge for the primary position in the literary canon.’ (Munday, Introducing Translation Studies, 2001:109). Ghesquiere, ‘Jeugdliteratuur: De positie van jeugdliteratuur binnen het literaire systeem’, 2001:79.


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Arguments that critics use when judging children’s literature are mimetic, ideological and emotional, rather than literary. The questions they ask are: Is the text recognizable, does it contain good values, how does it touch the young reader?

38

This dependence on the pedagogic system is the main reason

why children’s literature does not have the chance to develop into a fully recognized system. Its peripheral position is obvious from the less extensive mechanism of metatexts, the elite character of awards and the distance between adult trendsetters and young readers.

39

3.1.2.2 Double Canon Despite its peripheral position as compared to other literature, within the system of children’s literature there are books of outstanding quality. In adult literature, there is just one canon

40

of the

latter category. Children’s literature, on the other hand, has not just one, but two canons, due to the fact that there are two types of readers: educators and children. The first canon consists of books that are highly valued by educators. They stimulate children to read them, because of their pedagogic value, or simply because they remember them from when they were young and know what they are about. However, children do not always like them. The second canon consists of books that are popular among children, while educators may have their doubts or even very much dislike them, for pedagogic or literary reasons. The first canon is the educational one, which consists of the books that are praised and recommended by adult trendsetters. A book is added to this canon when trendsetters agree upon its pedagogic and literary value. In this canon, a large place is occupied by classics. Classics are the evergreens among books, ‘immortal’ pieces of literature that have survived the ages. Thanks to the pedagogue Rousseau, who stimulated adapting books for children, many classics found their way into children’s literature. The best-known classic that was adapted for children is Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe. Other titles include Gulliver’s Travels, Sans famille, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Les trios musquetaires, Notre Dame de Paris, and Ivanhoe. Throughout the years, many titles have been added to the list. One of them is The Pilgrim’s Progress, the subject of this study. Adapted classics are often very different from the original work. The reader is more important than the original text. This makes adaptations of classics an interesting subject of study. Adaptations tell how people thought about cultures, authority, beliefs, education. Moreover, they tell how people viewed children’s literature. The more seriously children’s literature is taken as a literary product, the closer the adaptation is to the original work.

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In Holland, many classics for children were published by Querido. Next to adaptations

of adult books, there is a network of adaptations and versions from children’s literature itself, such as Alice in Wonderland. The second canon is the commercial canon, which consists of the books that are praised and loved by children because of their humour, suspense, adventure, and straightforwardness. A book is added to this canon when high numbers of books are sold and many reprints are published. In Holland, numerous best-selling children’s books were published by Kluitman. These popular books, such as Pietje Bel, Dik Trom and Kameleon are often neutral as to religious content, which is one of the 38 39 40 41

Ibid., 98. Ghesquiere, ‘Hoe lang duurt klassiek?’, 2003:70. A canon is an open collection of highly appreciated books, that always changes. Ghesquiere, ‘Jeugdliteratuur: De positie van jeugdliteratuur binnen het literaire systeem’, 2001: 85.


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reasons why they were so popular. It is not always clear to which canon books belong. For a book like Jip en Janneke it is not easy to decide whether it reached the canon because of educators’ stimulation or thanks to children’s tastes.

3.1.2.3 International Canon Children’s literature is a very international system. There are many translations and there is much competition with children’s books and views in other countries. On the one hand, there is an international canon with international fame. On the other hand, each language area has its own canon. 42

According to Ghesquiere , the first core of the international canon of children’s literature was formed between 1880 and 1920, influenced by romanticism and the Vom Kinde aus movement. Numerous new translations and adaptations of classics were published and republished. Early children’s editions of Don Quixot, Gulliver’s Travels, Around the World in 80 Days, and Sans famille, date from 1842-1875. The second core of classical stories she mentions emerged after the Second World War, influenced by several emancipatory movements. These classics, written by authors such as Astrid Lindgren and Roald Dahl, often had one integral translation with many reprints. The language-bound canons are in a state of competition. Small language areas are in a peripheral position. The Anglo-Saxon language area is in ‘pole position’: if a book is written in English or has an English translation, it is most likely to be awarded literary prizes and reach the international canon.

3.1.2.4 Position of Translation in Children’s Literature 43

According to translation scholar Koster , translation occupies a peripheral position within the literary system. Like children’s literature, it is often regarded as the younger brother of adult literature, or even as its cripple brother. This is, he argues, not true for translation in the field of children’s literature. In this system, translation plays a more significant and integrated role due to its international status. Koster argues that translation is more assimilated in children’s literature than is the case in adult literature. Firstly, the same publishers publish original work as well as translations. Secondly, metatexts about translations of children’s literature are published together with metatexts about original authors, which is not true for metatexts about adult literature. Moreover, in written reading experiences there is not much distinction between translation and original work. Finally, in academic research translation is dealt with as an integral part of children’s literature. Koster agrees with Shavit that in children’s literature the translator has more leeway to manipulate the original text, due to its peripheral position. However, he writes that the main difference between translated adult literature and translated children’s literature is not this latitude, but the fact that there is much more variation in acceptable forms of translation within the field of children’s literature.

42 43

Ghesquiere, ‘Hoe lang duurt klassiek?’, 2003 :75-76. Koster, ‘En famille. De positie van vertaling in de Nederlandstalige kinderen jeugliteratuur’, 2005:58-68.


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3.2 History and Position of Protestant-Christian Children’s Literature

3.2.1 History of Protestant-Christian Children’s Literature This paragraph is dedicated to the description of the development of Protestant-Christian children’s literature throughout the ages. Firstly, some attention will be paid to the situation in the seventeenth century, when forerunners of the genre were published in the form of deathbed literature. Secondly, a description will be given of the birth of a separate branch of Protestant-Christian children’s literature, influenced by the Réveil movement and Sunday schools. Thirdly, the revival after 1920 will be described. Additionally, the decline after 1965 will be mentioned. Finally, attention will be paid to the recent revival of Protestant children’s literature.

3.2.1.1 Forerunners for ‘Little Adults’ Some scholars, such as Lea Dasberg, situate the origin of Protestant-Christian children’s literature in the seventeenth century, with the publication of so-called death-bed literature that served as examples for children.

44

Others, such as Heijs, argue that Protestant-Christian children’s literature is a

fruit of the Réveil movement.

45

I agree with Heijs that Protestant-Christian children’s literature did not

develop into a full genre until the nineteenth century. However, the importance of its forerunners should not be underestimated. This is the reason why this paragraph is dedicated to early pietist views on children’s literature.

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, religious books, such as hagiographies, prayer books, and biblical picture books, were predominant, as is obvious from paragraphs 3.1.2-3.1.3. However, hardly any Protestant books existed that were specifically written for children. In line with the spirit of the times, eminent Protestants regarded children as ‘little adults’. Children were supposed to read and study the same books as their parents. Next to these adult books, children read so-called death-bed stories. The man who was probably most influential in this pedagogic-religious field, is Jacobus Koelman, one of the most eminent representatives of the Further Reformation.

46

He is the author of De plichten der ouders; in kinderen voor Godt op te voeden (1679), a standard work for Protestant education. In this book, he instructs parents how to educate their children. A few quotations will illustrate how Protestant parents were supposed to expose their children to literature.

In Koelman’s view, education and reading in the first place served the purpose of religious instruction: ‘Leer hen lezen en zend hen naar school bij een vrome schoolmeester of schooljuffrouw, bij wie de kinderen de godzaligheid en de eerste beginselen van de religie worden geleerd. [R] Maar ook als u arm bent, moet u uw kinderen naar school laten gaan, opdat ze leren lezen en schrijven, want het is erg nuttig en nodig dat ze de Heilige Schrift en goede boeken kunnen lezen. Het is tevens

44 45 46

Dasberg, Het kinderboek als opvoeder, 1981:54. Heijs, Door ernstige drift geleid: protestants-christelijke jeugdboeken na 1920, 1987:9-10. See 3.1.3.


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een belangrijk hulpmiddel om goed onderwezen te kunnen worden tot hun zaligheid.’

47

Next to reading the Bible, which was to be read first and foremost, and studying religious questions, Koelman recommends reading other religious works: ‘Lees hun soms een sterk overtuigend boek voor, dat over de godzaligheid handelt en zeg daar dan iets over. Geef hun dan ook zulke boeken in handen die voor hen het geschikst zijn, zoals de Sleutel der devotie van Willem Teellinck en zijn Noord-Sterre, de Vuur- en Wolkkolom van Ewout Teellick, Schudder over De dagelijkse wandel met God. Laat ze ook de werken van Love, Hall, Hildersham, Dyke en Ridderus lezen, evenals het boek van Mr. Brown, getiteld Christus, de Weg, de Waarheid en het Leven, en andere. Verplicht hen die te lezen en geef hun daar ook tijd voor, naast de verplichting om dagelijks de Heilige Schrift te laten lezen. Vraag hen wat zij, toen zij alléén waren, gelezen hebben, wat ze hebben onthouden en of ze het hebben begrepen.’

48

Koelman especially recommends reading death-bed stories, about the death of godly children and grown-ups: ‘Laat hen vooral ook enkele boeken lezen, die vertellen over het leven en sterven van vrome mensen, die als voorbeelden dienen, zoals b.v. het Martelarenboek en de voorbeelden van bekeerde mensen, van de wijze waarop de bekering plaatsvond en van de kenmerken der bekering, die staan achterin het Groot Interest van William Guthrie. Maar geef hun vooral ter lezing en herlezing de Twintig Exempelen van jonge kinderen die vroeg bekeerd en gestorven zijn, welke hier achter aan toegevoegd zijn naast twee voorbeelden van jongens die al wat ouder waren. Spreek daarover met hen en laat u hen zeggen wat ze in die kinderen, in die jongens en in die anderen voor zeer opmerkelijks hebben waargenomen. Kom er zelf ook bij veel gelegenheden op terug. Hiertoe kan ook de beschrijving van het heilig leven en zalig sterven van Mr. Rutherford dienen, zoals dat vòòr zijn Brieven staat, en van Mr. Binning, wat te vinden is vòòr zijn Gronden der religie.’

49

On the other hand, he warns against light-hearted and superficial literature: ´Waak over uw kinderen, opdat ze geen R luchthartige liedjes lezen of zingen, evenmin als slechte en oppervlakkige liefdesverhalen. Op deze wijze immers wordt de slechtheid en onkuisheid er al vroeg bij hen ingebracht en als het ware door het lont aangestoken. [R] Waak er daarom ook over wat ze in het geheim lezen.’

50

Koelman lived in an age when novels found their way into homes. As a representative of the church of his days, he considered reading such books to be a waste of time. Time was simply too valuable to spend it on useless things: ‘Houd hen menigmaal voor hoe iedere dag van de morgen tot de avond heilig doorgebracht moet worden; doe dit net zo lang tot zij hiervan een degelijke kennis en een goed begrip hebben en zich daar ook rekenschap van kunnen geven.’

51

Historian Groenendijk explains why children were supposed to read religious books and death-bed literature: ‘De kindertijd werd door R strenge gereformeerden – die in dezen goede nazaten der humanisten waren – opgevat als de tijd die niet verspeeld moest worden, daar zij bij uitstek geschikt was om de deugd te leren. Men had geen tijd te verliezen; de dood had geen compassie met de 47 48 49 50 51

Koelman, De plichten der ouders; in kinderen voor Godt op te voeden, 1994:54. (Original ed. 1679.) Ibid., 171-172. Ibid., 172. Ibid., 84. Ibid., 170.


35



jeugd, zoals pestepidemieën dramatisch lieten zien. Hoe eerder men zich verzekerd had van de zaligmakende kennis des geloofs hoe beter.’

52

From these excerpts, it may be concluded that the church not only recommended the same books for children as for adults, but also that separate literature for the religious education of children existed, the so-called death-bed literature. This is the forerunner of the genre of Protestant-Christian children’s literature. However, it would not develop into a full genre until the nineteenth century.

3.2.1.2 A Full Genre During the eighteenth century, a separate literary system for children came into being, influenced by Enlightenment thinkers such as J.J. Rouseau.

53

Enlightenment thoughts were strongly rejected by

followers of the Further Reformation. However, these Protestants offered no alternative (except for their death-bed literature) until the first half of the nineteenth century. The alternative came in the form 54

of Sunday school books, influenced by the Réveil movement. The publication of the first Sunday school book in 1845 was the start of a separate branch of Protestant-Christian children’s literature. The Sunday schools, a new phenomenon in those days, played an important role in this process. In 1865, a new association was added to the Protestant pillar: the Nederlandse Zondagsschool Vereeniging (Dutch Association for Sunday Schools) was founded by followers of the Réveil movement. Moreover, in 1871 the so-called gereformeerden founded their own Sunday school society, called Jachin. The main objective of both rapidly growing societies was to teach children the principles of Christian culture and values. One of the ways in which Sunday schools conveyed these principles to the children, was the publication and distribution of gift books. In 1845 De diligence of de reis naar de stad der erfenis (Rev. J. de Liefde) was published, which is usually considered to be the first Protestant-Christian children’s book. It was followed by a long series of children’s books that were mainly distributed by Sunday schools. These books were intended to be handed out at Christmas, as rewards for good performance, and when older children left the Sunday school. Probably, distribution also took place via day schools (the first Christian primary schools were established around 1850), other clubs and bookshops. Not all Sunday school books were originally Dutch. During the second half of the nineteenth century, many English evangelical Sunday school books were translated from the English. Popular were the works of A.L.O.E. ( A Lady Of England, pseudonym of Charlotte Maria Tucker) and Hesba Stretton (pseudonym of Sarah Smiths). The best-known examples are Jessica’s First Prayer (1882) and Jessica’s Mother (1904). A.L.O.E wrote allegoric stories to teach children the principles of faith. One of them was The Young Pilgrim: a Tale Illustrative of “The Pilgrim’s Progress” (1857). It was

52 53 54

Groenendijk, ‘Een kinderboek uit de Gouden Eeuw: de “euthanasie” van Susanna en Jacob Bickes’, 1997:326. See 3.1.4. The Réveil movement is a revival movement that originated in Switzerland. It was highly influential in Holland between 1820-1870, and has retained its impacts until today in Protestant circles. It was a reactionary movement against Enlightenment thought, rationalism and liberalism. Crucial was the principle that children are received and born as sinners, and need personal conversion, in the first place in relation to their Creator, and in the second place practically in relation to other people, fellow-believers as well as non-believers. The efforts of the Réveil movement mainly resulted in a fight against social problems, such as alcohol abuse, prostitution, poverty, etc.


36



frequently printed in the Netherlands as De jonge pelgrim. According to Dane, the Réveil movement obviously influenced Protestant children’s literature. Protestant children’s books that were published, deal with social problems, while the gospel serves as the main solution. ‘Het kind komt in aanraking met een vertegenwoordiger van Gods Woords, raakt in de ban van de mooie verhalen over Jezus Christus, en bezoekt – niet zelden stiekem – de zondagsschool. Onmenselijke ontberingen, afgewisseld met momenten van ongekend zondaggsschoolgeluk, monden uit in een kindersterfbed – dikwijls door ondervoeding, kinderarbeid of enge ziektes – en in de laatste snik weet de stervende zoon of dochter de goddeloze vader en/of moeder te bekeren’.

55

According to Heijs,

56

these children’s books were not very child-centered. They contained many

quotations from the Bible and explicit moralistic instructions, while they were written in a very rhetorical manner. On the other hand, a new type of Christian children’s literature was introduced by Rev. Jan de Liefde. In 1849-1855 he introduced Timotheüs, a serial story, that was clearly not only intended for teaching morals, but also for entertainment. This new type of literature, made him the most popular author of Protestant children’s literature of the second half of the nineteenth century. Others, such a Eduard Gerdes and A. Hardenberg, followed his example. In summary, despite the publication of a few forerunners in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, it was not until 1845-1920 that Protestant-Christian children’s literature developed into a full genre.

3.2.1.3 Fresh Literature Around 1920, there was a breaking-point in the history of the development of the genre of Protestant-Christian children’s literature. On the one hand, heavy, moralistic texts continued to be published. On the other hand, a new, fresh type of literature emerged, influenced by W.G. van de Hulst. In this type of books, the authors were child-centred and addressed the children of the age. The books not only conveyed the importance of faith, but also contained an attractive and fascinating story. His debut Willem Wijchertsz (1907) was an immediate best-seller. In 1909 he was awarded a prize by the Nederlandse Zondagsschool Vereeniging for writing Ouwe Bram and Van een klein meisje en een grote klok. Thanks to his child-centred writing, he developed into the most successful Christian children’s author of his age. During the Second World War, it was Anne de Vries who advocated alternatives for moralistic conversion stories. Eminent representatives of Protestant-Christian children’s literature, such as Van de Hulst and De Vries occupied an important place, not only in their own Protestant pillar, but in the entire field of children’s literature. Because of their writing, even general bookstores could not do without Protestant-Christian children’s literature. The growing importance of Protestant-Christian children’s literature is not only obvious from the growing number of publications, but also from the increasing number of reviews that were published by Jachin, and appeared in Kind en Zondag, De Lectuurgids and Boekenkeur. In 1950, P. de Zeeuw Jgzn. states that this criticism has been crucial for the quality of the Protestant-Christian children’s 55 56

Dane, ‘Een veelzijdig evangelisatiemiddel. Protestants-christelijke kinderboeken, circa 1850-1925.’, 2000:243-243. Heijs, Door ernstige drift geleid: protestants-christelijke jeugdboeken na 1920, 1987:10.


37



book: ‘Dankzij de geregelde en eerlijke critiek is de jeugdlectuur van heden goed op peil en kan zij de vergelijking met de neutrale jeugdlectuur goed doorstaan. Ook de algemene boekhandel kan het tegenwoordig niet stellen zonder het christelijk kinderboek.’ Els de Jong-van Gurp

58

57

observes that the years after the Second World War are not only a time of

fresh Protestant-Christian children’s books, but also a time of a growing gap between Christian and secular literature, influenced by the growing antithesis between Christian and secular morals.

3.2.1.4 Decline According to Heijs,

59

the genre quickly lost ground when W.G. van de Hulst and Anne de Vries died

in 1963 and 1964. The number of authors decreased, as well as the number of critics. From 1965 onward, Protestant-Christian children’s literature lost its importance. The passing-away of Van de Hulst and De Vries took place in an age when neutral authors started writing about all kinds of taboos. Protestant-Christian authors, on the other hand, followed the ideas of Van de Hulst and De Vries, which created a new lacuna between Christian children and the books that were intended for them: a new generation was born, with new problems, with new questions and troubles, and this new generation did not find their answers in these books. Until the eighties, the main pillars of the genre are family stories, adventure stories and conversion 60

stories. Els de Jong-Van Gurp observes that there was a lack of quality, and artistic elements were more and more underexposed. However, there was some wheat among the chaff: leading figures were Piet Prins, K. Norel, P. de Zeeuw and Nanne J. Bosma. In 1987, Heijs writes that only a few Christian authors of children’s literature know how to address contemporary social problems. He states that the main part of Christian publications for children consists of reprints of works dating from earlier than 1965. Because of this lack of originality, Protestant-Christian literature had become a marginal genre.

61

3.2.1.5 Revival Els de Jong van Gurp writes in 2005

62

that Christian children’s literature started flourishing again in

the early nineties, after a long-lasting lack of quality. As a stimulating factor, she mentions the role of the Werkgroep Christelijke Kinderboeken that was established in 1994 to stimulate reading, writing and publishing Christian books for children. Additionally, Lolkema and Prins consider the Christian awards for children’s books to be an asset to the world of the Christian children’s book. ‘De groep auteurs die genomineerd is voor het Hoogste Woord is een verrijking voor de wereld van het christelijke kinderboek. Ze vormt een positief tegenwicht tegen de nog steeds gestage onderstroom van moralistische christelijke kinderboeken met nauwelijks of geen literaire pretentie.’

63

‘Het Hoogste Woord’ (since 1995), the ‘EigenWijsPrijs’ (since

1999), and ‘De Verwondering’ (since 2006) contribute to the positive image of the Christian children’s 57 58 59 60 61 62 63

Cited in: Heijs, Door ernstige drift geleid: protestants-christelijke jeugdboeken na 1920, 1987:40. In: Lolkema & Prins, Christelijke kinderboeken in beweging: Een overzicht (1995-2005), 2005:59. Heijs, Door ernstige drift geleid: protestants-christelijke jeugdboeken na 1920, 1987:41. In: Lolkema & Prins, Christelijke kinderboeken in beweging: Een overzicht (1995-2005), 2005:61. Heijs, Door ernstige drift geleid: protestants-christelijke jeugdboeken na 1920, 1987:42. In: Lolkema & Prins, Christelijke kinderboeken in beweging: Een overzicht (1995-2005), 2005: 64. Lolkema & Prins, Christelijke kinderboeken in beweging: Een overzicht (1995-2005), 2005:144.


38



book. Next to these external factors, Lolkema and Prins

64

observe that the revival of Protestant-Christian

children’s literature was also stimulated by the fact that the content of books actually changed. They summarize the latest development as a change from idealizing to more realistic fiction. Today’s authors know how to address and grip the attention of their young readers. However, this does not mean that older books, such as Bruun de Beer (W.G. van de Hulst) have disappeared entirely. A new generation is born, but the older ones still survive in a home for the elderly. Lolkema and Prins conclude their final observations as follows: ‘Het is gezellig geworden in het verzorgingstehuis met al die oude kinderboekenfiguurtjes. Bruun en zijn vriendjes krijgen vaak bezoek van de hoofdpersonen van nu en zo blijven ze een beetje op de hoogte van wat er allemaal gebeurt in de wereld van kinderboeken. Ze genieten ervan dat de mogelijkheden tegenwoordig zo 65

enorm zijn. En er is nog zoveel te lezen!’

3.2.2 Position of Protestant-Christian Children’s Literature A few pages have been devoted to the description of the historical development of the genre of Protestant-Christian children’s literature. This paragraph describes its position in the literary field. Firstly, the position of Protestant-Christian children’s literature within the Dutch field of children’s literature will be described. Secondly, a few words will be devoted to the international status of Protestant-Christian children’s literature. Thirdly, a conclusion will be drawn on the position of translation in this genre.

3.2.2.1 Position in Dutch Children’s Literature Secular critics often consider Protestant-Christian children’s literature to be a marginal subsystem. However, other voices can be heard from the side of representatives of the genre itself. In this section, both sides will be heard. One of the signs that indicate the peripheral position that secular critics assign to ProtestantChristian children’s literature is the fact that it is not taken seriously in studies on Dutch children’s literature. Dane

66

notes that Protestant-Christian children’s literature is virtually ignored in De hele

Bibelebontse berg (Querido, 1989), an extensive historical survey of the development of Dutch children’s literature from the Middle Ages. Lolkema and Prins

67

draw the same conclusion on

Encyclopedie van de jeugdliteratuur (De Fontein/Wolters-Noordhoff, 1994). The questions that arise now, are why Protestant-Christian children’s literature is rejected or ignored and whether this is appropriate. It is certainly not done on the basis of facts and figures, since its presence cannot be denied. For 1995-2005, Christelijke kinderboeken in beweging lists 17 publishers of Protestant-Christian children’s literature, 145 authors, 47 illustrators, and 601 titles next to 63 series.

68

These high numbers show that the genre is not overlooked because of its size. On the

contrary, it is rather strange that such a big genre is ignored. 64 65 66 67 68

Ibid., 42. Ibid., 49. Dane, ‘Een veelzijdig evangelisatiemiddel. Protestants-christelijke kinderboeken, circa 1850-1925.’, 2000:251. Lolkema & Prins, Christelijke kinderboeken in beweging: Een overzicht (1995-2005), 2005:7. Ibid., 167-198.


39



The main reason is probably that it is closely connected with a special pedagogic system: it is entirely embedded in religious ideas. The genre is treated in a stepmotherly way, most likely because of its pedagogic-religious content and function and - in the eyes of critics - distorted view of reality. Critics may like the aesthetics of authors such as Van de Hulst, but they usally reject their ethics. Educationalist and historian Groenendijk explains: ‘De moderne – kindesgemäsze – pedagogiek beklemtoont dat het ongeoorloofd is om kinderen te dwingen en te indoctrineren; zo hebben ze recht op beleving van de religie conform hun ontwikkelingsniveau en hun individuele geaardheid. Vanuit dit normatieve perspectief zijn (godsdienstige) opvoeding en kind-zijn in vroeger eeuwen kritisch beoordeeld.’ Dane

70

69

argues, in line with Groenendijk, that Protestant-Christian children’s literature is probably

rejected and ignored due to prejudicious views of secular critics. In his opinion, what scholars are doing wrong, is that they tend to read this type of literature from a modern point of view. They are asking the wrong questions. The position of literature does not in the first place depend on aesthetics and ethics, but on questions like: Who were the readers? How did contemporaries value them? What pedagogic aims did authors, publishers and (professional) educators have? In an attempt to replace secular biases with knowledge of what Christian children’s books really look like, Jaques Dane and George Harinck publised Bouwsel voor ‘t leven in 2003. ‘Ook de protestantse kinderliteratuur heeft een religieuze, economische en culturele ontwikkeling doorgemaakt, kent ongelofelijke bestsellers en afzichtelijke winkeldochters, steengoede naast saaie boeken. Het grootste probleem met de wereld van het protestantse kinderboek is dat we er zo weinig van weten. In deze leemte probeert dit jaarboek te voorzien.’

71

Next to Dane and Harinck, other scholars do not reconcile themselves with the situation. After the publication of the in their opinion incomplete Encyclopedie van de jeugdliteratuur, Lolkema and Prins tried to make up for the existing lacuna by writing Christelijke boeken in beweging (Mozaïek, 2005). ‘Het was voor ons duidelijk dat er een lacune gevuld moest worden.’

72

The book shows that

Protestant-Christian children’s literature is a full genre that should not be overlooked. The authors attempt to dismantle the prejudice that all Protestant-Christian is heavy, moralistic and droll literature. Although they admit that there is still an undercurrent of moralistic literature with no literary aspirations, they show that the genre in general contains fresh, contemporary literature. ‘De christelijke auteurs die met ons mee hebben gedacht en geschreven, geven aan dat een verhaal goed geschreven moet zijn, leesplezier moet bieden en dient te voldoen aan de kwaliteitseisen van een goed kinderboek. Daarmee geven ze aan dat het esthetische element voor de huidige schrijvers van kinderboeken minstens zo belangrijk is als het pedagogische aspect. De tijd dat kinderboeken vooral vanuit puur pedagogisch oogpunt geschreven werden, is voorbij. Er zijn nog wel sporen van te zien en een aantal auteurs schrijft dat de boodschap van het verhaal hun drijfveer is.’

73

In practice, Protestant-Christian children’s literature functions as a world that is more or less 69 70 71 72 73

Groenendijk, ‘Een kinderboek uit de Gouden Eeuw: de “euthanasie” van Susanna en Jacob Bickes’, 1997:327. Dane, ‘Een veelzijdig evangelisatiemiddel. Protestants-christelijke kinderboeken, circa 1850-1925.’, 2000:251. Dane & Harinck, Bouwsel voor ’t leven: de traditie van de protestantse kinderliteratuur, 2003:8. Lolkema & Prins, Christelijke kinderboeken in beweging: Een overzicht (1995-2005), 2005:7. Ibid., 139-140.


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separate from secular children’s literature. Lolkema and Prins


mention the conclusion of Mariëlle

Buys’ BA thesis. Buys concludes that Protestant-Christian children’s literature functions as a separate world with its own literary awards, and that in criticism, although Protestants do not ignore secular books, advances towards each other are not mutual. The separate world of Protestant-Christian children’s literature not only has its own awards, authors, publishers, bookshops and critics, but like all children’s literature it also has its own double canon. The presence of these two canons is obvious from the double awards. Since 1995, every year a book is awarded ‘Het Hoogste Woord’ by an adult jury, and two books are awarded the ‘EigenWijsPrijs’ by children (4-8 years and 9-14 years). The titles that win the ‘Het Hoogste Woord’ awards, are part of the first canon. The titles that win the ‘EigenWijsPrijs’ represent the second canon.

3.2.2.2 International Canon The genre of Protestant-Christian children’s literature is not a typically Dutch product, it is – or at least, was – part of an international movement. Marjoke Rietveld-van Wingerden

75

mentions several

indications for this international orientation. Firstly, she writes that Dutch followers of the Réveil movement were stimulated by foreign examples, especially by English authors. English Protestant-Christian children’s books found their way to Holland as early as 1840. These children’s books were written by authors such as Sarah Kirby Trimmer, Mary Maria Sherwood and Hanna Moore and published by English treaties. Countless stories and poems were translated from English and French, often without reference to the source, although no secret was made of its foreign origin. The interaction was mutual, since Dutch children’s books were translated into English too. For example, between 1854 and 1870 several children’s books by De Liefde were translated into English. Secondly, she observes some major similarities to foreign Protestant-Christian children’s literature. These works share a resistance against enlightened Christianity with its idolizing virtue. Alternatively, they stress that mankind is sinful by nature, and that only receiving Jesus Christ as a personal Mediator offers perspectives on a better life. Since this message is not for children only, there is no big gap between adults and grown-ups. Finally, the content of historical stories is not restricted to the Netherlands. The stories for children vary from repressed and persecuted Protestants in France to stories about American pioneers. As for the present place of Dutch Protestant-Christian children’s literature in the international canon, no facts and figures are available. My own experience is that the Dutch system of ProtestantChristian children’s literature occupies an insignificant place in the entire international canon. Moreover, it probably has a central position in the international field of Protestant-Christian children’s literature. However, these hypotheses can not be proved in this study, and need further research.

3.2.2.3 Translation More evidence is on hand for the supposition that Protestant-Christian children’s literature, at present, is less international than children’s literature in general. Or, if translations are influential in the 74 75

Ibid. 13-22. Dane & Harinck, Bouwsel voor ’t leven: de traditie van de protestantse kinderliteratuur, 2003:23-29.


41



genre, they are not fully recognised. This may be cautiously concluded from the fact that translations are assigned at least a secondary place in Christelijke kinderboeken in beweging. In this book, a survey is provided of all original Dutch children’s books written by Christian authors and published by Christian publishers in 1995-2005.

76

Translations are entirely ignored in the record. If translations were

central in Protestant-Christian children’s literature, they would have been listed without doubt. Another sign that indicates the peripheral position of translation within this field, is the absence of translations on the nomination list for the Het Hoogste Woord and EigenWijsPrijs awards.

3.3 Conclusion The system of children’s literature is a relatively young branch of literature, due to the fact that children were regarded as ‘little adults’ for centuries. It was only around the middle of the eighteenth century that this view changed, influenced by Enlightenment thinkers such as Rousseau. A special type of literature came into being, intended for children. Its main objective was to teach them virtue. Around 1870 the Vom Kinde aus movement emerged. This movement emphasized the nature and feelings of children rather than virtue. In the beginning of the twentieth century, the publication of children’s books was stimulated by compulsory education and increasing literacy. There was a clear division between Protestant, Catholic and social-democratic literature. As the twentieth century progressed, children’s literature received more recognition. Children’s books have always been peripheral, although interaction between the literary systems of grown-ups and children has increased during the last few decades. It has two canons, due to the fact that there are two types of readers: educators and children. Children’s literature is very international in scope. Translation plays a more significant and integrated role than in adult literature. Protestant-Christian children’s literature did not develop into a full genre until the second half of the nineteenth century, despite the presence of some early forerunners in the form of deathbed literature. Initially, mainly explicitly moralistic literature was published. A breakthrough came in 1920, with W.G. Hulst in front. Many new authors were child-centred and addressed the children of the age. Around 1963-64, there was a decline when Van de Hulst and De Vries died. Since the nineties, ProtestantChristian children’s literature has flourished once again, thanks to a new approach of authors and publishers. De genre of Protestant-Christian children’s literature is often rejected and ignored by secular critics, probably because of biased views on its moralistic content. Efforts are made to produce high-quality literature, but not much recognition is gained at present. Despite its international origin, for the present position of Protestant-Christian children’s literature in the international canon, no reliable conclusions can be drawn. Translation is ignored in the latest survey of Protestant-Christian children’s literature. The same thing seems to happen here that happens to Protestant-Christian children’s literature in the entire field of children’s literature. Perhaps this is another lacuna to fill?

76

Lolkema & Prins, Christelijke kinderboeken in beweging: Een overzicht (1995-2005), 2005:167-194.


42



Chapter 4 One Pilgrim, Different Faces Did Bunyan, when writing The Pilgrim’s Progress, reckon with the possibility of young readers? In line with the spirit of the times, he probably did. However, he did not think that children would be capable of understanding it. On the contrary, he was afraid that children and unwise people would extol the story, to throw away the message. In the conclusion of Part I he writes: ‘Take heed also that thou be not extreme / In playing with the outside of my Dream: / Nor let my figure or similitude / Put thee into a laughter or a feud; / Leave this for boys and fools; but as for thee, / Do thou the substance of the matter see.’

77

The author’s fear did not dissuade Dutch publishers, translators and educators

from recommending this book to children and even publishing special editions for them. This chapter reconstructs the journey that The Pilgrim’s Progress made in the field of Dutch children’s literature and the outward appearance of the different editions, by looking at preliminary data such as biographical details, covers and prefaces. Firstly, attention will be paid to editions that were in the first place intended for adults, but that indicate a younger public too. Secondly, Dutch editions of The Pilgrim’s Progress that are explicitly intended for children will be discussed. Thirdly, other closely connected children’s books will be considered.

4.1 Integral Translations for ‘Little Adults’

4.1.1 Primary Materials Prefaces and other primary materials indicate that integral translations of The Pilgrim’s Progress were read or at least supposed to be read by Dutch children, long before special adaptations were published. Strikingly, all integral translations have some reference to a younger public. The following quotations and observations will prove this.

1729. L. De Beveren (annotator) L. de Beveren: ‘Zoo is mij van mijne jeugd af aan, boven alle andere van die soort, dit werkje van den godvruchtigen BUNJAN bevallen.’

78

1833. F.H. Ranke (editor) In its preface, this edition is presented as a free reproduction of the original work (‘vrije navolging van het origineel’). ‘Om het evenwel meer naar de behoeften van onzen tijd in te rigten, zijn er vele duistere beelden en uitdrukkingen in weggelaten en elke afdeeling is met een’ zakelijken inhoud en een gezangvers voorzoen, welke als commentariën kunnen dienen.’

79

Although children are not

mentioned, the publisher obviously reckoned with a less educated public, perhaps including children.

77 78 79

Source text, 199. Preface, V. P. III-IV.


43



1853. J. de Liefde (translator) Rev. J. de Liefde (1814-1869) is the author of the first Dutch Protestant-Christian children’s book (De diligence, of de reis naar de stad der erfenis, 1845). Like The Pilgrim’s Progress, this book is an allegoric travel story with a religious meaning.

80

De Liefde is known as an eminent Réveil author, and

an opponent of fairy-tales and imaginative stories. Strikingly, eight years after the publication of De diligence, De Liefde made an integral translation of The Pilgrim’s Progress. Whether this book was intended for children, is not clear, since this is not explicitly stated nor did he specialize in children’s books. As for himself, he read the Pelgrimsreize when he was young, but he considered it to be too difficult. He starts the first chapter of De diligence with the words: ‘Ik weet niet vanwaar het komt, mijne vrienden! maar ik heb altijd een grooten lust in reizen gehad. Reeds in mijne jonkheid openbaarde zich deze neiging, daar ik Campe's Robinson en Bunyans Christenreize genoegzaam van buiten kende, schoon ik den eerste niet geloofde en den laatste niet verstond.’

81

1868. Adama van Scheltema (translator) In its preface, an adult public is addressed, but younger readers are welcomed too. Adama van Scheltema agrees with Sauthey: ‘Jeugdigen worden daardoor van geestdrift opgetogen, en naarmate men ouder wordt, gevoelt men dieper de waarheid van het schoone, en het heilige van het vernuftige.’

82

1890. J.L. Pierson (translator) J. van der Valk: ‘Bunyan is het boek voor alle tijden en leeftijden. De ervarene raapt er de moraal, het kind verslindt het verhaal. [R] Ouders, die de Christenreize niet in huis hebben, laten een talent – neen, het kost veel minder dan een talent – ongebruikt en renteloos, achteloos liggen. Vóór de meer of minder verderfelijke nieuwere en nieuwste romans, vóór de meer of minder belangrijke literatuur van den dag, vóór de actueele bladen en blaadjes van één dag verdient een blijvende plaats Bunyans boek “voor alle tijden”.’

83

H. Pierson: ‘Den eenvoud van Bunyan te bewaren, was ons doel. Hij spreekt of bijbeltaal of volkstaal, ja vaak kindertaal, een andere taal kent hij niet.’

84

85

1902 . G.W. Stegmann (translator) G.W. Stegmann: ‘Ook heb ik mij benaarstigd, wat den schrijftrant aanbetreft, eenvoudig en duidelijk te zijn, ten einde dit zoo leerrijk werkje van Bunyan ook voor de jeugd algemeen bevattelijk worde bevonden.’

80 81 82 83 84 85 86

86

See 4.4.1 De Liefde, De diligence, of de reis naar de stad der erfenis, 1845:9. Preface, VIII. Introduction, VII-VIII. Preface, IX. This is the date of the second edition, since the date of the original publication is unknown. Preface, IV.


44



1905. J.R. Bremer (translator) H.M. van Nes: ‘Een boek, waarmede kinderen zich vermaken, en waaruit ouden van dagen troost putten.’

87

1906. A.J. Kers (translator) On the title page, the translator of this book is introduced as: ‘A.J. Kers. In leven Hoofd der Chr. School, te Doesburg.’ This may indicate that this book was intended for Christian children in the first place. However, there is no preface or other evidence to prove this.

1934. A.G. Barkey Wolf (translator) The first page of the author’s own possession, is signed: ‘Willem v. Milgen, Kerstfeest 1934.’ Since Sunday school books were handed out at Christmas, this is probably one of them.

After the first publications of these editions, only two new integral Dutch translations have been published next to several reprints of earlier translations – one in 1949 by Rev. C.M. Van Endt and one in 1960 by Rev. P. Visser. The first one is a small-size publication. In its preface, Van Endt addresses an adult public and makes some critical notes about The Pilgrim’s Progress. It is in no way presented as a children’s book; children are not even mentioned. The same is true for the 1960 translation (Boeketreeks), introduced by Prof. dr. S. Van der Linde. Apparently, the age of ‘little adults’ had come to an end.

4.1.2 Secondary Materials The reviews included in Appendix E show that some integral translations of The Pilgrim’s Progress were taken seriously as children’s literature by the Sunday school movements. A summary of the reviews concerned will be provided here.

1916. Bredée (publisher) 1 In 1916, Jachin writes that its deep meaning will not be understood by children, but it is an attractive book for the more mature adolescents.

1917. J.R. Bremer (translator)

88

In 1917, Jachin highly praises this new edition and recommends it for older children.

1930. Bredée (publisher) 2 In 1930, the NHZ writes that they do not need to recommend this new edition, since ‘good wine needs no bush’. Even if children do not understand its meaning, just have them read it, is their opinion.

1934. A.G. Barkey Wolf (translator) 87 88

Preface The 1917 edition uses the same translation as the 1905 edition. However, in 1917 it is presented as a new edition, without mentioning the translator, and without the preface by H.M. van Nes.


45



In 1934, the NHZ concludes that the Barkey Wolf edition is a little difficult for younger children. However, it is recommended as a suitable farewell gift for the older ones.

Next to these recommendations by Sunday schools, an integral translation was recommended in 1938 by P. De Zeeuw in his Bunyan biography for children: ‘”De Christen- en Christinnereis” is een boek, dat in tientallen talen is vertaald en voor honderdduizenden tot een zegen is geweest. Een fraaie vertaling van Ds. A.G. Barkey Wolf verscheen er bij de N.V. W.D. Meinema te Delft. Het boek is versierd met prachtige platen van Isings en kost geboden f 5,90.’

89

This note was included at least

until the fifth edition that came out in 1958.

Moreover, the 1905 and 1917 editions are probably Sunday school books because they were published by Callenbach. This company was known for the Sunday school books and Christmas books they published.

90

4.2 Special adaptations for children Four years before the integral Barkey Wolf edition appeared, a new approach was introduced with the first publication of a Dutch adaptation for children. It has been followed by eight other adaptations that were either only intended for children or for all ages.

•

1930. Bunyan’s Christenreis. J.C. de Koning (ed.). Kampen: J.H. Kok.

•

1950. De christenreis naar de eeuwigheid. H. van den Brink (ed.). Amsterdam: Paulus Vereniging.

•

1950. De christenreis. P. de Zeeuw J. Gzn (ed.). ’s Gravenhage: G.B. van Goor Zonen.

•

1962. Bunyans Christenreis. T. Mateboer (ed.). Utrecht: Den Hertog.

•

1980. De christenreis. Rhoda Couldridge (ed.). M. Goedhart – Alberts (transl.). Kampen: J.H. Kok.

•

1980. Eens Christens reize naar de eeuwigheid. Jean Watson (Eng. ed.). Cornelius Lambregtse (transl.). Evert Kuit (Dutch ed.). ’s Gravenhage: Boekencentrum.

89 90

91

•

1993. De pelgrimsreis naar de eeuwigheid. J. de Jager (ed.). Utrecht: de Banier.

•

1996. Waar loopt deze weg naar toe? J. de Jager (ed.). Utrecht: De Banier.

•

1999. De christenreis. M.J. Ruissen (ed.). Goes: De Ramshoorn.

91

P. 64 Publishing company G.F. Callenbach was founded in 1854, as a publisher of sermons and theological works. It derived its principles from the Réveil movement, that emphasized personal conversion and practical piety. In co-operation with the Sunday schools and other evangelization organisations it developed into the leading publishing company of the so-called gift books or Sunday school books. Next to popular books, Callenbach published for a theological elite. After World War II, Callenbach was forced to find other publics due to the process of ‘depillarisation’ (Dutch: ontzuiling) and secularization. However, the publisher’s attempt to publish neutral books failed, due to the fact that Callenbach was identified with ‘Protestant-Christian’, and other publics did not buy them. On the other hand, Protestant-Christian bookshops refused to sell these books. The publisher had no choice, and continued serving its traditional public. Today, it is part of publishing company Kok at Kampen, where all children’s books are published under the imprint of Callenbach. (Dane, J. ‘”Hier komen de kerstboekjes vandaan”’, in: Dane et al. 2003:154-164.) For extensive biographical information on these editions for children and reprints, refer to Appendix A.


46



This section zooms in on the preliminary data of these adaptations,

92

firstly, by exploring each

edition’s biographical background, and secondly, by examining their presentation.

4.2.1 Biographical Information In Appendix A, extensive biographical information on the above-mentioned editions is recorded. Starting from these data, relevant conclusions can be drawn on the publication history of The Pilgrim’s Progress for Dutch children, by looking at target groups, publishers, translators, editors, illustrators, series, and so on, which will be done in this section.

4.2.1.1 Target Groups

1. De Koning, 1930: young people In this edition, no age is given. The declaration reads: ‘Voor de jeugd bewerkt’ (‘adapted for young people’).

2. V.d. Brink, ca. 1950: children No age is given again, but its target group is probably younger than De Koning’s, since the declaration says: ‘Voor kinderen bewerkt’ (‘adapted for children’).

3. De Zeeuw, 1950: 10/16 years The age is given on the ‘Oud goud’ serial page: 10/16 years.

4. Mateboer, 1962: young people No definite age is given, but the declaration says: ‘naverteld voor jonge mensen’ (‘retold for young people’).

5. Couldridge, 1980: younger children The pictures suggest a book for younger children, and this is confirmed by the text on the inside of the cover. ‘Zowel de eenvoud waarmee deze allegorie is verteld als de kleurrijke en spontane tekeningen zullen het voorstellingsvermogen van de jonge lezers prikkelen en zo een blijvende indruk op hen achterlaten.’ No definite age is given.

6. Watson, 1980: all ages In this edition, The Pilgrim’s Progress is probably retold for all ages. The inside cover text reads: ‘Eens Christens reize [R] heeft [R] een grote invloed gehad op het geloofsleven van ontelbare mannen, vrouwen en kinderen.’ The fairytale-like pictures suggest a younger public.

7. De Jager 1, 1993: young people The illustrations – paintings made by an artist – suggest an edition for older children and 92

This selection is based on the character of the texts: the editions that were chosen are adaptations for children (and in some cases for adults as well), not integral translations.


47



adolescents. They even would have perfectly suited an edition for adults. However, the front cover declares: ‘voor de jeugd verteld’ (‘retold for young people’).

8. De Jager 2, 1996: all ages The same illustrations are used in this edition. It is an abbreviated edition for all ages. ‘Voor jong en 93

oud, arm en rijk, gezond en ziek zijn er slechts twee wegen. [R] Lees er over in dit boek.’

9. Ruissen, 1999: all ages The back cover text indicates: ‘De auteur heeft zich als doel gesteld Bunyan’s werk voor jong en oud toegankelijk te maken.’ In an e-mail to the present author, Ruissen himself – teacher, publisher and author – writes that he initially wrote his adaptations of Bunyan’s works as preparatory materials for the stories he told to his students (ages 12 and up).

4.2.1.2 Publishers

Number of prints per publisher 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Number of prints per publisher

1. De Koning, 1930: Kampen: J.H. Kok n.v. In the beginning of the twentieth century, publishing company Kok had strong ties with the Gereformeerde Kerken, that were strictly orthodox in those days. It specialized in the publication of theological works. Through the years, its close connection with de Gereformeerde Kerken disappeared and the company developed into a broad platform for Dutch Christians, varying from liberal to orthodox. 93

Preface.


48



2. V.d. Brink, ca. 1950: Amsterdam: Paulus Vereniging and Stichting Moria

Amsterdam: Paulus Vereniging The name suggests a missionary organisation, since the apostle Paul was a missionary who spread the gospel among non-Jews. The few publications that can be retraced suggest that their main business was to publish books for children and perhaps adults as a non-profit organisation. Titles include Snavel by Joh. Stil (1939), Uit het leven van grote mannen. Johannes Calvijn by dr. O.C. Broek Roelofs, Dieren in nood, Mijn boek: verhalen voor de jeugd, Verdreven, Het laatste huis and De christenreis naar de eeuwigheid by John Bunyan, ed. H. v.d. Brink (ca. 1950). Some of these books (or perhaps all) have the imprint ‘Verkoop verboden’ (sale prohibited). Next to books, the Paulus Vereniging published prints and postcards.

Amsterdam: Stichting Moria Stichting Moria originated in the beginning of the 1960s as an interdenominational youth organisation that evangelised in The Netherlands, especially in Amsterdam. It published its own evangelization leaflets and brochures. Influenced by the rise of other evangelisation organisations, Moria stopped its direct evangelisation activities and only continued its publishing activities as a nonprofit organisation. Moria was incorporated in the non-profit organisation Importantia Publishing in 2002. Over the years, Moria has specialized in the publication of books and leaflets on religion, esoterism, culture, ethics, and Christian themes. More than 50% of the publications were written by J.I. van Baaren. Other books are written by E. Smit. The remaining books are translations from English, 94

one of which is the second edition of De christenreis naar de eeuwigheid (ed. H. v.d. Brink).

3. De Zeeuw, 1950: ’s Gravenhage: G.B. van Goor Zonen In 1839, Gerrit Benjamin van Goor settled as an independent bookseller, publisher and printer at Gouda. He specialized in dictionaries, children’s books and school books. After his death in 1871, the company was run by his sons Dirk Lulius van Goor and Jacob Meinhard Noothoven van Goor for a few years. They hived off the bookshop, later followed by the printer. From the beginning of the twentieth century they even more specialized in dictionaries and children’s books, next to some judicial works. In 1906 Jacob’s son, Isac, took over the company. Among other children’s books, Van Goor published De Zeeuw’s ‘Oud Goud’ series. School books remained predominant, next to dictionaries. After the Second World War, the company was taken over by Elsevier.

95

4. Mateboer, 1962: Utrecht/Houten: Den Hertog Publishing company Den Hertog was founded in 1912 and has remained active until today. Initially, its publishing list mainly consisted of theological works. Over the years, works on church history, fiction for children and adults, sheet music and CDs were added. Its main target group is the so-called 94 95

Information on Stichting Moria was provided by J.C. Stijns, former committee member of Stichting Moria. www.groenehartarchieven.nl


49



‘gereformeerde gezindte’ (people who belong to the Protestant-Christian pillar of reformed congregations). Several children’s books were awarded the EigenWijsPrijs or Het Hoogste Woord.

5. Couldridge, 1980: Kampen: Kok

96

6. Watson, 1980: ‘s Gravenhage: Boekencentrum Boekencentrum was founded in 1935 as N.V. Algemene Boekhandel voor In- en Uitwendige zending (general bookstore for internal and external mission). After 65 years, it is presented on its website as one of the most prominent publishers in the fields of church, religion and theology. The company publishes books, magazines, Bibles and CD-ROMs. Today, they are not only the publisher of the national church (Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk), they are also the publisher of the Protestantse Kerk in Nederland, a new denomination that claims to be its continuation. Publications appear with the following imprints: Boekencentrum, Meinema and Mozaïek.

7. De Jager 1, 1993: Utrecht: De Banier / Barneveld: John Bunyan Stichting On its website, De Banier is introduced as a company that has aimed at publishing Christian texts, ever since its foundation in the first half of the twentieth century. It started as the printer of the party newspaper of the Christian political party SGP. During World War II the Germans confiscated the building and forbade the newspaper. The company temporarily moved to Rhenen. After the liberation, De Banier moved to Utrecht. The company concentrated on publishing books, and started publishing De GezinsGids, a Christian family magazine that has survived until today. After some other removals, the company settled in Utrecht as N.V. uitgeverij De Banier, where it specialised in the publication of theological works, children’s books, novels, facsimiles, reference books and courses, next to De Gezinsgids and children’s magazine Bimbam (since 1995). De Banier often co-operates with the John Bunyan Stichting, an organisation that was founded during the second half of the 1980s. Its aim is to spread the gospel in The Netherlands and abroad, mainly by republishing Bunyan’s works in Dutch and other languages.

8. De Jager 2, 1996: Utrecht: De Banier / Barneveld: John Bunyan Stichting

97

9. Ruissen, 1999: Goes: De Ramshoorn Publishing company De Ramshoorn is run by M.J. Ruissen, the translator/editor of the latest Christenreis edition. The company was established in 1994 when Den Hertog and Groen refused to reprint Ruissen’s editions of Bunyan’s Holy War and The Pilgrims Progress Part II. Ruissen published the books on his own, after the publication of Bunyan’s Life and Death of Mr. Badman. Today, the publisher’s list is split up in a Bunyan series, Christmas books, children’s books, recreational reading, school publications and theological works. The company – both a publisher and a bookshop at present – aims at a Christian target group.

96 97

See no. 1. De Koning. See no. 7. De Jager 1.


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4.2.1.2 Translators/Editors

Number of prints per edition 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Number of prints per edition

De Koning: teacher Not much is known about J.C. de Koning. A few other titles he has to his name can be retraced: Op het verkeerde pad, Buiten jongens, Leven; leesboek voor de scholen met de Bijbel (co-author P. den Boer), and Kleine Bijbelsche geschiedenis. These titles suggest a teacher who wrote down his stories.

Van den Brink: No information has been found on H. v.d. Brink.

De Zeeuw: teacher Piet de Zeeuw (1890-1968) is one of the best-known storytellers and storywriters of his age. His father, J.G. de Zeeuw, was mayor of Ridderkerk from 1905-1923. The family was known as a confirmed antirevolutionary family. They belonged to the Gereformeerde Kerken. When he was twelve, he wrote his first book. Stimulated by his father, he decided to become a teacher. When he was fourteen, he was a teacher of forty pupils at Slikkerveer. For this job, much passion was needed, since it did not pay much due to the separation between public and special tuition. During the years that followed, he was a teacher in Giessendam, Barendrecht, Ridderkerk, and Holk. In 1925 he was appointed as principal of the primary school at Nijkerk, a job he maintained for thirty years. Many of his books were born in the classroom. In line with Gerdes, he mainly wrote historical children’s books that made him widely known in Protestant-Christian circles. The ‘Oud Goud’ series yielded him fame among a wider public. Moreover, De Zeeuw contributed to children’s magazines, such as Voor ’t jonge Volkje, Hou Zee, Meisjesleven, Voor de jeugd and Vrij en Blij, next to other periodicals.


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De Zeeuw frequently faced criticism from literary critics. They found his work substandard, took offence at his omissions and wrote that he did not pay enough attention to the psychological development of his characters. However, he continued his style of writing almost until his death. In his opinion, the best ingredient for books was a good message. ‘Kinderboeken zijn geen preekjes, geen handboekjes van christelijke ethiek, maar stukjes natuurlijk christelijk leven, zoals men die alle dagen kan aantreffen in het rijk-genuanceerde leven onder de mensen, maar dan gezien door het oog van een kind, overdracht in een geest als die van een kind, geschreven in een vorm bevattelijk voor het kind.’

98

T. Mateboer: teacher Tijmen Mateboer was born in 1917 and grew up in Genemuiden. His father was a carpet dealer. During the 30s he moved to Rijssen and started teaching, without certificate nor salary. In 1943, he moved to Meliskerke and later on to Staphorst, both as a teacher. 1946 he became a teacher at the college of education in Krabbendijke. After some time in Emmeloord, he moved to Nunspeet, where he was a teacher at a Christian school for advanced primary education. Then he moved to Rhoden, where he was a teacher at a nautical college. When he retired, he moved to Enter (Twente), where he died in 1988. Mateboer wrote many Christian books for children. Titles include: Ter koopvaardij – een verhaal uit onze Gouden Eeuw voor de jeugd (1938), Avonturen op de Polle (1959) and Wel en wee met de “Piraat” (1966). Next to children’s books, he wrote books for adults on religious themes, such as Israëls verleden, heden en toekomst (1975).

Rhoda Couldridge: mother The only available information is that she is the mother of her illustrator. She probably wrote her edition from the perspective of a mother rather than a teacher.

Jean Watson: historian and theologian The cover text tells that Jean Watson was born and grew up in China. She studied in London, where she received BA degrees in English history and theology. Meanwhile, she worked for a publisher of school books. At present, she is a freelance author.

De Jager: translator of ‘Puritanisca’ De Jager (died 2006) is known as a translator of many Puritan works. He is especially known for his Bunyan editions, for children and for adults, such as Genade in overvloed, De heilige oorlog, De christinnereis naar de eeuwigheid and Geloof jij dat? : leerzame levenslessen voor jong en oud. He provided some of his editions with explanation, and questions for discussion.

M.J. Ruissen: teacher and publisher René Ruissen is the editor and publisher of a Bunyan series, some volumes of which were initially 98

Kranendonk, ‘Geen preekjes, wél een boodschap’, Reformatorisch Dagblad, 22 May 2003.


52



published by other Christian publishers. As an experienced teacher and youth worker, he felt the need to pass on Bunyan’s works to the youth, in the form of close representations of the original works. Next to his publishing activities, Ruissen contributed to Het wonder van kerst (1999) and the series Van kind tot kind (2002).

99

4.2.1.3 Illustrations

1. De Koning, 1930: anonymous Some black/white sketches are present, but no illustrator is mentioned.

2. V.d. Brink, ca. 1950: anonymous The book contains some copperplats, but no illustrator is mentioned. They are different from the famous Jan Luyken copperplates that were often printed in integral translations.

3. De Zeeuw, 1950: Roothciv The books contains black/white pen drawings by Roothciv, an artist and art teacher from Breda. His real name was Victor van Schoonhoven van Beurden. He is known for his book illustrations, especially those of the “Oud Goud” series.

4. Mateboer, 1962: anonymous and Jaap Kramer Early editions contain anonymous illustrations that look like linocuts. Recent editions have new illustrations. The front cover picture was made by Jaap Kramer. According to the author information on the website of publisher Den Hertog,

100

Jaap Kramer (born in 1936) calls himself an autodidact. After a

correspondence course (LOI), he started working at an advertising agency when he was 16. During his time in military service, he wrote the comic Jim Burk. It was published in the Bolswards Nieuwsblad. Since 1962, he has worked as a freelance illustrator for publishers of school books (Jacob Dijkstra, Wolters-Noordhoff en Kok), Christian newspapers (Nederlands Dagblad and Reformatorisch Dagblad), Christian publishers of children’s books (De Vuurbaak, Den Hertog, Kok, De Banier and Koster), Christian magazines (Variant, Terdege, Gezinsgids and Onze eigen krant) and the broadcasting organisation Evangelische Omroep. He attempts to draw traditional and recognizable paintings. The illustrations of recent editions mainly consist of anonymous black/white portraits of characters.

5. Couldridge, 1980: Anna Couldridge The full-colour drawings are from Anna Couldridge. The cover text tells that Anna is the editor’s daughter. She made the illustrations when she was ten. Thirty-one ‘lively and colourful’ drawings were chosen to illustrate this edition.

6. Watson, 1980: Peter Wane 99 100

This information was provided by Ruissen himself in an e-mail to the present author. www.hertog.nl/Auteurs


53



The fairytale-like pictures are from Peter Wane. The cover text tells that he was born in Leeds in 1951, and spent his youth in the Yorkshire Dales. After a general graphic training, he specialized in book illustration at the Royal College of Art. Since then, he has worked for different media, including television, and has taught book illustration.

7. De Jager 1, 1993 and 8. De Jager 2, 1996: Albert Wessels The full-colour paintings of both editions were made by nature-loving artist Albert Wessels. He was born in Twente in 1938 and studied at the art academy in Groningen. After that, he was trained by Mrs. Brugman-De Vries. Since his youth, he has specialized in painting natural scenery. Many of his paintings are made on location.

9. Ruissen, 1999: Rino Visser The front cover picture and black/white sketches were made by Rino Visser. The author information on the Den Hertog website tells that Rino Visser was born in 1956. Advised by his art teacher, he studied at the art academy in Tilburg. However, he did not finish his training, and started his own business. His first order was to draw illustrations for a history book, published by De Ruiter in Gorinchem. For twelve years and a half he worked as an illustrator at a graphic company, but he did not like the technical illustrations. After a depression in 1992, when he was on sickness benefit, he started illustrating for publishers again. Since then, he has illustrated for Christian publishers (Den Hertog, Groen, Hardeman, Koster and De Ramshoorn), Protestant-Christian family magazine Terdege and the Jeugdbond Gereformeerde Gemeenten, the youth society of the Protestant denomination he belongs to.

4.2.1.4 Series

De Zeeuw, 1950: Oud Goud De Zeeuw’s edition is volume 17 of his Oud Goud series. P. de Zeeuw (1890-1968) wrote this series on his own. In abbreviated adaptations, he retold famous classic stories such as Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Don Quichotte, Huckleberry Finn, Robinson Crusoe, etc. Moreover, biographies of famous people such as Michiel de Ruyter, Willem van Oranje and Paul Kruger were published as part of this series. According to Kranendonk

101

, the Oud Goud series made him a well-known author, not only

among Protestant-Christian children, but also in other circles.

De Jager 1, 1993: De Pelgrimsreis De Jager’s Bunyan’s ‘Christenreis’ is the first volume of De Pelgrimsreis, a two volume series of part I and part II of The Pilgrim’s Progress. In contrast to other editors, De Jager decided to publish not only part I for children, but also part II (Bunyan’s ‘Christinnereis’).

101

Kranendonk, ‘Geen preekjes, wél een boodschap’, Reformatorisch Dagblad, 22 May 2003.


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4.2.1.6 Other Publication Details From the biographical information formation recorded in Appendix A, A the following lowing remaining information can be extracted.

2010 2000 1990 1980 1970 1960 1950

Time from first to last

1940

publication (years)

1930 Last publication

1920

Mateboer held out from 1962 to 2005, with 14 reprints. Van den Brink has the second longest line, with only two publications. De Zeeuw, De Jager 1 and Ruissen have about five years between their first and last publication. De Koning, Couldridge and Watson were granted a short life. Since they have no more than one edition, only a small dot is visible. The Mateboer, De Jager and Ruissen editions are most likely to be reprinted in the future, since they have been reprinted most recently.

Kinds of adaptation 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Kinds of adaptation

Dutch adaptation

Translation of English adaptation


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Seven out of nine editions for children were produced by Dutch editors. The Couldridge edition is an integral translation of an English adaptation, and the Watson edition is an edited translation of an English adaptation.

4.2.3 Presentation Next to background information, the way the different publications are presented tells a lot about the translators/editors, illustrators, publishers and target groups. This section deals with the differents cover types, cover texts and prefaces of the Dutch children’s editions of The Pilgrim’s Progress.

4.2.3.1 Cover Types At the end of the nineteenth century, the layout of books changed: they were more and more frequently published hard-covered and illustrated in colour. Like today, hard-covered and coloured books were more expensive than other books. The following table provides a survey of The Pilgrim’s Progress in Dutch adaptations for children.

Edition

Hard-cover

Picture

Cover in colour

1. De Koning (1930)

X

2. Van den Brink (1950)

X

X

X

3. De Zeeuw (1950)

X

X

X

4. Mateboer (1962)

X

X

X

5. Couldridge (1980)

X

X

X

6. Watson (1980)

X

X

X

7. De Jager 1 (1993)

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

8. De Jager 2 (1996) 9. Ruissen (1999)

X

De Koning is the only edition without text and picture on its front cover, probably due to its early publication. All but one are published in hard-back and colour, which suggests that these books were considered to be valuable content of children’s bookcases. They were not to be thrown away after one reading.

4.2.3.2 Cover Pictures Cover pictures are the eye-catchers of books. Therefore, publishers need to be very careful in selecting front cover pictures, and they probably usually are. Consequently, these pictures tell a lot about the publisher’s view of the story and the target group they aim at. There is much diversity in the way the front pictures present the various Dutch adaptations for children.


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Edition

Cover picture

Presented as

1. De Koning (1930)

No picture.

-


Christian, reading a book, and, in the

Moralistic

background, walking through the hills. 3. De Zeeuw (1950)

Christian, fighting Apollyon.

Adventurous

4. Mateboer (1962)

Christian, looking into the distance (in later

Moralistic

editions joined by Evangelist, pointing into the distance). 5. Couldridge (1980)

Christian, having a nice walk on a sunny day,

Peaceful journey

with peaceful surroundings. 6. Watson (1980)

Picture with elements such as an angry face, a

Adventurous

club and a clenched fist, probably derived from the story of Doubting Castle and Giant Despair. 7. De Jager 1 (1993)

Stained-glass window, in commemoration of

Moralistic

Bunyan’s death, depicting Christian and Faithful crossing the River to the Celestial City. 8. De Jager 2 (1996)

A burdened Christian, talking to Evangelist, who

Moralistic

points into the distance. 9. Ruissen (1999)

A burdened Christian, entering the Wicket Gate,

Moralistic

the Bible in his hand.

Eight out of nine Dutch adaptations for children have a front cover picture. From these cover pictures, interesting conclusions can be drawn as to the way these books are presented. Some covers contain an adventurous picture, while others give a different representation of the story. The front covers of De Zeeuw and Watson contain adventurous pictures, both viewing elements of danger and adventure. Thus, these books are presented as exciting and adventurous story books rather than guide books for life. The cover pictures of Van den Brink, Mateboer, De Jager 2 and Ruissen show a travelling Christian, either guided by a Bible or scroll, or by Evangelist. These pictures obviously convey the idea of finding the right way, aided by the Bible or the representatives of the Gospel. It may be concluded that these books are presented as moralistic, Christian guide books, rather than adventure stories. De Jager 1 has a mix of both. On the one hand, there is danger, since Christian is sinking, while crossing the river of death. However, Faithful is still on his feet and points into the direction of the Celestial City, the destination of their journey. Thus, it is not only presented as an adventurous and dangerous story, but the element of help and guidance is present as well. The illustration on the front cover of the Couldridge version is an outsider, since it neither suggests an adventurous story, nor a moralistic one. On the contrary, a smiling Christian is having a peaceful walk on a sunny day in a hilly landscape. This picture suggests an easy and peaceful journey, without much trouble.


57



4.2.3.3 Cover Texts Book cover texts contain information on what publishers considered to be important. The following elements are present on the covers of the objects of this study:

Edition

Title

Author

Translator/

Declaration

Illustrator

Publisher

Editor

Sale prohibited

1. De Koning (1930) 2. Van den

X

X

X

X

X

Brink (1950) 3. De Zeeuw

X

X

X

(1950) 4. Mateboer

X

X

X

X

X (early

(1962) 5. Couldridge

editions) X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

(1980) 6. Watson

X

(1980) 7. De Jager 1

X

X

X

X

X

X

(1993) 8. De Jager 2

X

(1996) 9. Ruissen

X

X

(1999)

Generally speaking, title, author, translator/editor and declaration were regarded as most important. The title is present on eight, the author and translator/editor on six, and the declaration on seven out of nine editions. De Zeeuw’s cover is most exceptional: author, translator, nor declaration are mentioned. What is even more striking, the name of the ‘Oud goud’ series is missing. Perhaps it was so obvious in his days that a book with this layout belonged to this series, that mentioning it would have been superfluous. On the other hand, unlike the others, the publisher is mentioned. Moreover, the name of the illustrator is visible in the form of a signature. On the Couldridge edition cover, the illustrator is mentioned as well. This can be easily explained, since her work is a co-project with her daughter: she wrote the text, her daughter made the pictures. Another interesting element are the words Verkoop verboden (sale prohibited) on the Van den Brink edition. Probably, it was intended as a Sunday school book to be handed out to children at Christmas. Anyway, its aim was not to make money, but to teach children morals.


58



4.2.3.4 Prefaces Prefaces provide a lot of information on target groups and intentions. The following quotes show whether they were intended as adventurous or moralistic stories for spiritual guidance. In some cases, these indications are different from what was concluded from the cover pictures.

1. De Koning, 1930: moralistic ‘Zijn moedeloosheid, zijn twijfelingen, zijn hoop, zijn verwachtingen, zijn moeiten en zorgen, zijn blijdschap en zijn stervensnood, zijn ingang in den hemel, álles, alles wordt in beelden beschreven. [R] Als je straks de Christenreis gaat lezen, denk daar dan om. Misschien zullen vele dingen je dan duidelijk worden; misschien zal je ook veel nog niet begrijpen, wat je later pas zult verstaan. En bid bovenal den Heere, dat je óók, als Christen, op dien weg reizen moogt, die dwars door den dood, uitloopt op de Hemelstad.’

102

2. Van den Brink, ca. 1950: adventurous and moralistic ‘Het is het verhaal van een reis vol avonturen: leeuwen en reuzen en grote gevaren. Maar R deze gehele reis heeft een diepere betekenis. Het is dus eigenlijk een grote gelijkenis, zoals Jezus dat vroeger ook vertelde.’

103

3. De Zeeuw, 1950: adventurous and moralistic ‘Het is een verhaal van een reis vol avonturen: leeuwen en reuzen en grote gevaren. MaarRR deze gehele reis heeft een diepere betekenis. Men zou het verhaal een gelijkenis kunnen noemen. [R] Het hele verhaal moet dus gelezen worden met een diepere betekenis voor ogen.’

104

4. Mateboer, 1962: moralistic ‘Dat worstelende leven van Gods kind heeft Bunyan beschreven in zijn Christenreis naar de Eeuwigheid. [R] En dat op een eigenaardige manier, namelijk in beelden. [R] Het lezen van deze geschiedenis moet ons wel oproepen tot een: Kom, ga met ons en doe als wijR’

105

5. Couldridge, 1980: adventurous and moralistic ‘Nog steeds wilde John graag de mensen helpen om de weg naar God te vinden en zo schreef hij 106

in de gevangenis zijn verhaal over de reiziger, die zulke geweldige avonturen beleeft.’

6. Watson, 1980: adventurous ‘Hier wordt ons voorgesteld, / in felle kleuren, / de loopbaan van een held, / die vaak moest treuren. [R] Geen vijand bleef bestaan, / zelfs reuzen viel hij aan, / terwijl hij voort bleef gaan / als moedig 107

pelgrim.’

102 103 104 105 106 107

P. 19. P. 2. P. 7. Pp. 10-12. Preface. P. 6.


59



7. De Jager 1, 1993: moralistic ‘Deze verkorte uitgave van de Christen- en Christinnereis naar de eeuwigheid laat zien dat er een weg tot behoud is. [R] Voor jong en oud, arm en rijk, gezond en ziek zijn er slechts twee wegen. Laten we ons haasten om door het geloof op de smalle weg ten leven te komen. Lees erover in dit boek.’

108

8. De Jager 2, 1996: moralistic ‘De uitgave van “De Pelgrimsreis” is een eenvoudige weergave van Bunyans boek, speciaal bedoeld voor onze jongeren. Het is immers van zeer groot belang dat het komende geslacht weet hoe de Heere Zijn kinderen bekeert en leidt.’

109

9. Ruissen, 1999: moralistic ‘Met deze hedendaagse vertelling is geprobeerd een getrouwe weergave van het origineel te bieden die zowel jongeren als ouderen aanspreekt. [R] Rmijn wens is, dat allen die dit boek lezen, aangespoord worden om een beschikbare Nederlandse vertaling ook ter hand te nemen. [R] Moge Gods zegen u geschonken worden bij het lezen van dit boek. Hij opene ook uw blinde ogen [R].’

110

4.5 The Pilgrim’s Progress in Other Children’s Books At least two early children’s books can be mentioned here that are based on Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress, next to two biographies of John Bunyan for children.

4.4.1 Stories

1845. De diligence, of de reis naar de stad der erfenis (Rev. J. de Liefde) The first Dutch children’s book based on The Pilgrim’s Progress, is De diligence, of de reis naar de stad der erfenis by Rev. J. de Liefde, published in 1845. It is considered to be the first ProtestantChristian children’s book after the seventeenth and eighteenth-century death-bed literature. De diligence was reprinted in 1853 and in 1873. Like The Pilgrim’s Progress, it is an allegoric description of the journey to man’s eternal destination. Marjoke Rietveld-van Wingerden writes: ‘Zoals Bunyan beschreef hij het leven van een christen als een reis met vele hindernissen en verleidingen en door onherbergzame oorden, waarvan de route niet de meest voor de hand liggende was, maar wel de enige die tot het einddoel leidde: het verkrijgen van de erfenis, het eeuwige vaderhuis, of de hemel.’

111

Telling a children’s story, the book teaches how to set course for an eternal heritage in heaven, rather than to a waiting judge. ‘Welk een onderscheid, Benjamin! of men een oordeel dan een erfenis, een rechter dan een vader tegemoet reist! Hier is het smart bij elke schrede voorwaarts — ginds is het hoop en verblijding. Hier rekt het bekommerd hart ieder uur en verschuift het oogenblik der aankomst met angst en vrees — ginds verlangt het blijde gemoed naar de laatste stonde. Hier treedt men

108 109 110 111

P. 3. Preface. Pp. 9-10. Dane & Harinck, Bouwsel voor ’t leven: de traditie van de protestantse kinderliteratuur, 2003:20.


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bevend des rechters huis binnen — daar valt men juichend in de armen des vaders!’

1879. De jonge pelgrim (A.L.O.E.) Probably influenced by De Liefde’s publication, the English author A.L.O.E ( A Lady Of England, pseudonym of Charlotte Maria Tucker) wrote The Young Pilgrim: a Tale Illustrative of “The Pilgrim’s Progress” (1857). A Dutch edition, De jonge pelgrim, was published in 1879. It had at least four reprints (the 5th edition dates from ca. 1913). The author uses a little boy, Mark, as a model for what a young Christian’s life should be like. In the story, he encounters the same problems and reliefs that Christian encounters in The Pilgrim’s Progress. For example, when he is employed by a pious shopkeeper after some adversities, Mark concludes: ‘”Ik heb een steilen heuvel van moeilijkheid beklommen”, dacht hij : “en nu heb ik de rustplaats bereikt. Hoe goed is de Heer, om aldus voor mij te 113

zorgen, en mij bij hen te brengen, die Zijne dienaren zijn!”’

Obviously, this is a reference to Hill

Difficulty that Christian has to climb, where he finds relief in a little arbour halfway the top. The author’s intention is to teach children, step by step, how to live as pilgrims. ‘En nu, lieve lezer, die met mij de voetstappen van den jongen Pelgrim door de verschillende toonelen van zijn aardsche leven zijt nagegaan, vergun mij een enkel woord, eer wij schijden. Kent gij iets van den pelgrimstocht, waarvan gij in deze bladen hebt gelezen?’

114

The book does not teach how to live as real pilgrims, but as spiritual ones – not as Roman-Catholic pilgrims, but as a Protestant ones: ‘Maar, Karel, in zekeren zin behoorden wij allen pelgrims te zijn, reizigers op den smallen weg, die tot de zaligheid leidt, met het kruis niet in onze handen, maar in onze harten; pelgrims niet naar het graf van de gekruisigden Zaligmaker, maar naar den troon van 115

dien Zaligmaker in Zijne heerlijkheid!’

Every chapter starts with a quote from Bunyan’s best-seller,

and builds the story around it.

4.4.2 Biographies Throughout the years, two biographies of John Bunyan have been published for children. The first one was written by P. de Zeeuw, and the other one by M.H. Karels-Meeuse.

1938. De dappere Ketellapper; het leven van John Bunyan (P. De Zeeuw) Twelve years before the publication of his children’s edition of The Pilgrim’s Progress, De Zeeuw’s De dappere Ketellapper; het leven van John Bunyan (1938) was published by Meinema. Six editions were published by this company between 1938 and 1962. Between 1982 and 1989, four republications appeared by Den Hertog. Using historical information, De Zeeuw describes John Bunyan’s life and the background of his works, in the form of a story: ‘[Bunyan to his wife:] “Kijk eens , Betty,” zei hij vrolijk, “ik heb hier in de gevangenis mijn tijd goed gebruikt, ik ben bezig om een boek te schrijven!” “Een boek?” Betty sloeg vol verbazing de handen ineen. John, de eenvoudige ketellapper, een boek schrijven? Hoe was het mogelijk! [R] “Als ik het boek af heb, laat ik het drukken. De mensen willen het misschien graag lezen 112 113 114 115

P. 110. P. 57. P. 236. P. 8.


61



en zodoende ben ik toch nog nuttig, Betty, al zit ik hier opgesloten! [R] Wacht, ik zal je eens een stukje voorlezen. [R] “O John, wat is dat mooi!” riep Betty uit. “Mag ik mee naar huis nemen, wat je af hebt?”’

116

2006. John de schrijvende pelgrim (M.H. Karels-Meeuse) After two republications of De Zeeuw’s biography, Den Hertog published a new biography for children in 2006, by M.H. Karels-Meeuse. Her approach is not very different from De Zeeuw’s: ‘[Bunyan to his wife:] “Ik wil nu ook eenvoudige verhandelingen schrijven, die iedereen begrijpen kan. Daarom heb ik de aantekeningen over de wedloper weer gepakt. Nu ik het weer in handen krijg, komen er telkens andere beelden en personen bij mij in mijn gedachten. Het is net of ik droom, zoals ik al zei. [R] Zal ik je een stukje voorlezen? Dan kun je gelijk zeggen hoe je het vindt.” John wacht het antwoord niet af en begint meteen te lezen. [R] “Spannend!” roept Betty. [R] Betty luistert ademloos. 117

“Lees verder, ik begrijp niet hoe je erbij komt om het zo te doen. Wordt het een roman?”

4.4 Conclusion Dwelling on the previous chapters, the following conclusions can be drawn. The Pilgrim’s Progress has been part of Dutch children’s literature since long before special editions for children were published. The line of the Further Reformation and Jacobus Koelman was followed at least since the eighteenth century until roughly the first half of the nineteenth century. Children were supposed to read the same editions of The Pilgrim’s Progress as their parents, preferably but not necessarily at an older age. Attempts were made to make the books more accessible to children by changing the language a little, but not the content. As for The Pilgrim’s Progress, the age of ‘little adults’ came to an end between 1930 and 1955. While integral translations lost their importance to children during those decades, with the first publication of a special edition for children in 1930, a new approach was introduced, that has survived until today. Since then, nine different children’s editions have been published, each one with its own characteristics.

Target

Editor

Illustration

Kind of

Cover

Presented

group

details

details

adaptation

details

as

1. De Koning

Young

Teacher?

Anonymous

Dutch

Hard, no

Moralistic

(1 ed, 1930)

people

2. V.d. Brink

Children

sketches -

(2 ed, ca. 1950-1978)

116 117

Anonymous copperplates

picture/text Dutch

Hard, colour

Adventurous and moralistic

P. 64-65. P. 88-89.


62


3. De Zeeuw

10/16 years


Teacher

Black/white

Dutch

Hard, colour

Cover:

(2 ed. 1950-

pen

adventurous;

1955, Oud

drawings by

Preface:

Goud series)

artist

adventurous and moralistic

4. Mateboer

Young

(15 ed., 1962-

people

Teacher

2005)

Initially:

Dutch

Initially:

anonymous

hard, red-

black-white

green;

pen

Later: hard,

drawings;

full colour

Moralistic

Later: front picture by well-known autodidact 5. Couldridge

Younger

(1 ed., 1980)

children

Mother

Colour

Translation

drawings by

of English

peaceful

10-year-old

adaptation

journey;

Hard, colour

child

Cover:

preface: adventurous and moralistic

6. Watson (1

All ages

ed., 1980)

Hard, colour

Adventurous

Dutch

Hard, colour

Moralistic

Dutch

Soft, colour

Moralistic

Dutch

Hard, colour

Moralistic

Historian

Black/white

Translation

and

fairytale-like

of English

theologian

pictures by

adaptation

artist 7. De Jager 1

Young

Translator/

Full-colour

(2 ed., 1993-

people

editor

paintings by

1999, De

nature-

Pelgrimsreis

loving artist

series)

8. De Jager 2

All ages

(2 ed., 1996-

Translator/

Full-colour

editor

paintings by nature-

1997)

loving artist 9. Ruissen (3 ed., 1999-

All ages

Teacher and

Black/white

publisher

sketches by

2004)


artist

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Historically speaking, the first adaptation of The Pilgrim’s Progress appeared relatively late, as compared to children’s editions of other classics. Whereas the first Dutch children’s adaptations of classics such as Robinson Crusoe, Gulliver’s Travels, Sans famille, Oliver Twist, Don Quixote and Around the World in 80 Days came out roughly between 1800-1875, The Pilgrim’s Progress had to wait until 1930. Moreover, it appeared late in comparison with the first English adaptation for children, that came out in 1866. The first Dutch adaptation did not only appear late, it was not successful either. It had no reprints, and integral translations continued to be recommended after its publication, while no reviews and recommendations of this adaptation have been found. Moreover, it remained the only children’s edition of The Pilgrim’s Progress for twenty years. The change came after World War II, as part of the second core of classical stories. Since 1950, a steady stream of children’s editions of The Pilgrim’s Progress has flowed through The Netherlands. These editions probably did not reach many parts of society. They were, nearly without exception, written by Christian translators/editors, published by Christian publishers, and probably invariably illustrated by Christian artists, mainly in order to provide Christian children and young people with spiritual guidance in a comprehensible way. The earlier editions were probably read by a wider public. The V.d. Brink edition was almost certainly published for evangelization purposes, and the Oud Goud series was probably read by non-Christians too. There are no such indications for the later editions. The Pilgrim’s Progress for children has never been a best-seller in The Netherlands, but still it can be considered as an evergreen. Although this may not be true for some editions, it is certainly true in general. Firstly, this is shown by the fact that children have read The Pilgrim’s Progress for centuries, without notorious interruptions, in different editions. Secondly, this is proved by the steady flow of publications after 1950. And finally, all editions appeared in hard-back: they were not to be thrown away after one reading. The Pilgrim’s Progress has not only been a steady ‘flier’ since centuries ago, it also started out as a highflier. This is, at least, true for the first canon of those days. The evidence that proves its central position in the first canon, is derived from prefaces, reviews and other publications. Integral translations were highly recommended, and some of the first Protestant-Christian books were even based on The Pilgrim’s Progress, which indicates the very special place The Pilgrim’s Progress occupied in children’s land, prior to the publication of adaptations for children. As to its place in a possible early second canon, no evidence has been found, and no conclusions can be drawn on the early children’s likes and dislikes. Today, The Pilgrim’s Progress no longer occupies a central positian in Protestant-Christian children’s literature, mainly because the views of literary critics and authors have changed. Since Protestant-Christian critics only applaud and award prizes to non-explicitly moralistic, originally Dutch children’s literature, the adaptations of The Pilgrim’s Progress, many of which are presented as explicitly moralistic texts for spiritual guidance, belong without doubt to the so-called undercurrent of moralistic children’s literature that is part of the genre of Protestant-Christian children’s literature. Although literary critics overlook The Pilgrim’s Progress, educators still continue to share this story with today’s children, which indicates a peripheral position in the first canon of Dutch Protestant-


64



Christian children’s literature. In the secular field of children’s literature, The Pilgrim’s Progress has perhaps shown its face in the form of early integral translations and probably as part of the Oud Goud series around 1950-1955. Its present position in the entire field of children’s literature is extremely insignificant, since secular literary critics do not fully recognize Protestant-Christian children’s literature, whereas today’s ProtestantChristian critics of children’s literature do not fully recognize books of foreign origin nor explicitly moralistic literature. Still, the pilgrim is there, and he shows no intentions of leaving.


65



Chapter 5 One Pilgrim, Different Characters Whereas the previous chapters focus on the pilgrim’s origin, his world tour, one of his new home countries, the places he visited in this country, and the different faces he showed in this country, this chapter turns inward and zooms in on the different characters that the pilgrim displayed in Dutch children’s land. Or, in other words, this chapter focuses on the characteristic differences between the 118

Dutch children’s editions of The Pilgrim’s Progress.

Rather than examining the outward appearance

of The Pilgrim’s Progress, which was done in chapter 4, this chapter digs into the text itself as it was published in different children’s editions. Since the objects of study are presented as adaptations, it may be assumed that virtually all changes were made for the benefit of their specific target groups. The question is now, how each editor changed the source text in order to reach this goal. This will be 119

explored by looking at the macro and micro structure

of the children’s editions of The Pilgrim’s

Progress. Based on this evidence, conclusions will be drawn on the historical development of the character of the Dutch children’s editions of The Pilgrim’s Progress.

5.1 Macro level This section deals with the macro structure of the children’s editions of The Pilgrim’s Progress. Firstly, the division into chapters will be discussed. Secondly, the way of narration will be examined. Thirdly, attention will be paid to the appearance of dialogue and monologue. Fourthly, some samples of omissions and changes will be considered. Finally, the presence and appearance of an ‘explicit educator’ will be explored.

5.1.1 Division in Chapters The original edition of The Pilgrim’s Progress is divided into eleven chapters.

120

All children’s

editions deviate from this original division: 1. De Koning (1930): 20 2. V.d. Brink (ca. 1950): 14 3. De Zeeuw (1950): 22 4. Mateboer (1962): 20 5. Couldridge (1980): 9 episodes

121

6. Watson (1980): 10 7. De Jager 1 (1993): 72 8. De Jager 2 (1996): 30 9. Ruissen (1999): 22 118 119

120 121

Integral translations will be left out of consideration. Only the children’s editions recorded in Appendix A will be discussed. After the exploration of preliminary data in chapter 4, Lambert and Van Gorp’s strategy (mentioned by Leuven-Zwart, 1992:92) will be followed in the present chapter in comparing and contrasting the primary texts on macro and micro level. See Appendix B. The Coudridge edition is not divided into chapters, although the text is divided into parts by little squares that indicate the start of a new episode. These episodes do not have titles, but on top of each page the subject of the page is printed. However, the division in pages and episodes does not exactly correspond to these headings.


66



Some editions have a lower number of chapters than the source text, while other ones have considerably more chapters. The higher the number of chapters, the more separate details are emphasized, since chapters are presented on an equal basis. Probably, most editors helped their young public to remember these details by presenting them on an equal basis. Strikingly, the editions that were most of all presented as stories rather than moralistic texts (Couldridge and Watson), have the lowest number of chapters. Most likely, in these editions the story is more important than the details.

5.1.2 Way of narration The Pilgrim’s Progress was originally written in the form of a dream, in which the dreamer functions as the first-person narrator. The story starts with somebody who walks through the wilderness, lies down to sleep and has a dream. He dreams about Christian’s journey and relates everything he sees. The narrator is often explicitly visible in the text, probably to remind the reader that what they read is not really what he wants to say, but that it is the second layer of the story that is important. These are the moments that the narrator is explicitly present in the text: 1. ‘As I walked through the wilderness of this world, I lighted on a certain place where was a den, and I laid me down in that place to sleep; and, as I slept, I dreamed a dream. I dreamed, and 122

behold, I saw a man [R]. I lookedR’ etc. 2.

‘I saw (in my dream)R’ (frequently repeated all over the book, varied with other expressions)

3. ‘Then I stepped to him that plucked him out [Help, APM], and said: [R]. And he said unto me: [R]’

123

4. ‘So I awoke from my dream.’

124

5. ‘And I slept, and dreamed againR’

125

6. ‘Now I beheld in my dream, that they talked more in their sleep at this time than ever they did in all their journey; and being in a muse thereabout, the gardener said even to me, “Wherefore musest thou at the matter?”’

126

7. ‘And after that they shut up the gates; which, when I had seen, I wished myself among 127

them.’

128

8. ‘So I awoke, and behold, it was a dream.’

It is interesting to see what happens to the dream notion and first-person story-teller in the adaptations for children. Therefore, these editions will be discussed in turn.

1. De Koning (1930) The way of narration in the De Koning edition is much the same as the original text. Firstly, De Koning presents the story as a dream. ‘Het was een zeer merkwaardige droom, maar ik zag en hoorde 122 123 124 125 126 127 128

P. 15. P. 14. P. 147. P. 148. P. 190. P. 198. P. 199.


67



alles zóó duidelijk, dat ik het later nauwkeurig kon opschrijven.’ Secondly, the story is told by a firstperson narrator. Finally, numbers 1,2, and 8 of explicit references to this narrator are present in the text. Number 2 is repeated frequently. However, there is one minor and one major difference. The narrator is just a little less explicitly present, since numbers 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 are missing. Moreover, De Koning identifies the narrator with Bunyan himself. The story starts as follows: ‘Bunyan vertelt: Ik trok de woestijn dezer wereld doorR’ 129

(25). This is repeated in chapter X: ‘Ik zag (zoo verhaalt Bunyan verder van zijn droom)R’

2. Van den Brink (1950) Interestingly, Van den Brink adds another layer to the way of narration. The story is told by an omniscient narrator, who cites the storyteller of the original text. This dreamer is identified with Bunyan. The first few lines of the book prove this: ‘Bunyan begint te vertellen hoe hij door de woestijn der wereld trok, tot hij kwam bij een grot, waar hij ging rusten. Deze grot is natuurlijk de cel, waar hij 130

gevangen zit. “Hier zag ik”, gaat hij verder, “een wonderlijke droom.”’

3. De Zeeuw (1950) As to the way of narration, De Zeeuw mainly follows Van den Brink: ‘Bunyan begint zijn verhaal aldus: Op mijn reis door de woestijn van deze wereld kwam ik op een plaats, waar een grot was. Ik 131

legde mij in die grot te slapen, doch nauwelijks was ik ingeslapen of ik begon te dromen.’

4. Mateboer (1962) The Mateboer edition is not written in the form of a dream, nor told by a first-person narrator. The story is told by an omniscient narrator.

5. Couldridge (1980) In contrast to the original author, Couldridge does not present the story as a dream, nor as a firstperson narrator. She presents the book as a story that he wrote to help other people on their quest for God: ‘Nog steeds wilde John graag de mensen helpen om de weg naar God te vinden en zo schreef hij in de gevangenis zijn verhaal over de reiziger, die zulke geweldige avonturen beleeft.’

132

6. Watson (1980) In the Watson edition, there is no dream nor first-person storyteller. These ideas are replaced with an omniscient narrator who tells the story of Christian’s life.

7. De Jager 1 (1993) The narrator in De Jager 1 is identified with John Bunyan himself. The story he relates, is not presented as a dream, but as a description of his own life in the form of a story, that looks like a dream, by an omniscient narrator: ‘Gevangen was hij om het Woord des Heeren. Nu kon hij nadenken. 129 130 131 132

P. 65. P. 3. P. 9. Preface.


68



Hij dacht over zijn eigen leven, wat de Heere in zijn leven had gedaan. Het leek een droom. [R] Hij zou het opschrijven. De Heere mocht het eens zegenen, ook aan vele kinderharten. Daarom vertelde Bunyan, zo heette die godvrezende man, zijn verhaal.’

133

8. De Jager 2 (1996) In this edition, De Jager presents the story as an omniscient narrator. The notion of a dream is absent.

9. Ruissen (1999) Ruissen follows Bunyan in his way of narration: the story is presented as a dream, told by a firstperson narrator. Numbers 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 and 8 of explicit references to this narrator are present in the text. Number 2 is repeated frequently.

In summary, the following information has been found:

Presented as a

First-person

Explicit presence of

Narrator/

Dream (D) or

(FP) or

first-person narrator

dreamer

Story (S)

Omniscient

(1=not present; 10=

identified with

(O) narrator

same as source

Bunyan

text) Original

D

FP

10

1. De Koning (1930)

D

FP

7

X


D

O

n/a

X

3. De Zeeuw (1950)

D

O

n/a

X

4. Mateboer (1962)

S

O

n/a


S

O

n/a

6. Watson (1980)

S

O

n/a

7. De Jager 1 (1993)

S

O

n/a

8. De Jager 2 (1996)

S

O

n/a

9. Ruissen (1999)

D

FP

9

These findings show how editors adapted the way of storytelling to their readers. The main deviation from the source text is that the first person-narrator is replaced with an omniscient narrator in seven out of nine editions. This way of narration probably gave them more elbow room to explain things, or they considered it to be better understandable to children. Additionally, only four editions follow the original text in presenting the story in the form of a dream. In both editions that have a first-person narrator, the storyteller is less explicitly present than in the source text, although Ruissen comes very close to the original. A reason might be that translators were afraid that children would consider it to be a fantasy story, with no relation to real life. 133

P. 8.


69



Finally, in three editions, the first-person narrator is identified with Bunyan, in contrast to the original text, that gives no such indication. As to this deviation, there is no reason to suggest that it was done for educational reasons. Probably, there is a historical reason, since it is commonly agreed upon that the den where the narrator has his dream, represents Bunyan’s prison.

5.1.3 Dialogue and monologue Dialogues play a significant role in the source text of The Pilgrim’s Progress, where they tend to go on for pages. There are two types of dialogue: conversations that are relevant for the development of the story, and dialogues to pass the time during the journey, mainly about religious topics. In this section, firstly the relation between the first type of dialogue and the monologue will be discussed; secondly, attention will be paid to the form of dialogues, and finally, the content of the second type of dialogues will be considered.

5.1.3.1 Relationship Plot-Related Dialogue and Monologue To show the relationship between dialogue and monologue, the first part of chapter 1 will be examined as a sample. The selection runs from the beginning until the section where Help delivers Christian from the Slough of Despond. It does not contain extensive religious discourse. The results are only an estimate, since they are often mixed up with other text.

Source text:

62% (167 / 268 lines)

1. De Koning:

50% ( 149 / 297 lines)

2. V.d. Brink:

58% (90 / 154 lines)

3. De Zeeuw:

62% (230 / 370 lines)

4. Mateboer:

37% (87 / 233 lines)

5. Couldridge:

67% (112 / 168 lines)

6. Watson:

50% (58 / 115 lines)

7. De Jager 1:

61% (117 / 192 lines)

8. De Jager 2:

55% (41 / 75 lines)

9. Ruissen:

59% (120 / 202 lines)

There is not much variation as to the relation between plot-related dialogue and monologue. Only the Mateboer edition contains considerably less dialogue, with ca. 37% dialogue in contrast to 62% in the source text.

5.1.3.2 Form of Dialogue In the source text, dialogues are presented as drama scripts: EVANGELIST: “Did not I direct thee the way to the little Wicket-gate?” CHRISTIAN: “Yes, dear sir.”

134

The drama form is absent from all children’s editions. Dialogues are interwoven in the story in a 134

(p. 20)


70



natural way. This is probably done because it looks much more familiar and story-like to children.

5.1.3.3 Content of Extensive Religious Discourse Next to dialogues that are relevant to the development of the story, The Pilgrim’s Progress contains extensive conversations on religious topics. For example, when Christian meets Faithful, they broadly discuss what happened to them on the road.

135

In order to find out what happened to this kind of

discourse in the editions for children, this discussion will be taken as a sample.

Elements in source text

1.

2.

3.

4.

What happened in Destruction after

D

D

D

D

What has become of neighbour Pliable

D

D

D

Wanton

D

D

D

D D

5.

136

6.

7.

8.

9.

D

S

D

Christian had left

Adam the First Moses striking Faithful

D

D

D

D

D

D

S

D

D

D

D

D

S

D

D

D

D

D

D

D

D

House Beautiful

M

D

Discontent Shame

D

D

Valley of the Shadow of Death

M

D

D

Estimated amount of words (orig. 2600)

700

1100

1000

D

D

S

D

D

D

S

D

D

M

D

300

60

1800

D 600

80

D

450

D = descriptive M = only briefly mentioned S = mentioned in summary

Whereas the plot-related dialogues are about as much present in children’s editions as in the source text, the extensive religious dialogues are in most editions significantly abbreviated, as is shown by the above sample. Especially Couldridge is very brief in her description of this dialogue, probably since she aims at younger children. De Jager 2’s description is even shorter, despite the fact that this edition is for all ages. He probably does not intend to raise discussion, but tempts his readers to read an integral edition. Ruissen, on the other hand, includes most of the dialogue, probably because it provides subject matter for further discussion. This is what he aims at, for in the end of each chapter discussion questions are provided.

5.1.4 Omitted or Changed Elements In order to fit the needs of the target group, some elements from the source text may be left out or changed in children’s editions. Based on the source text, five elements have been selected, and for

135 136

(p. 77-88) The numbers in the table correspond to the numbers under 5.2.3.1.


71



each element one sample has been taken, in order to find out how the editors approached these elements. Four elements (discrimination, sexuality, violence and racism) have been selected because they are likely to be changed in children’s editions for educational purposes. The last element (the final warning) has been chosen because it may have been changed to leave a more positive impression on the young readers.

5.1.4.1 Discrimination: Giant Pope In the end of chapter 4, when Christian comes to the end of the Valley of Humiliation, he sees two giants, Pope and Pagan. The first giant represents the Roman-Catholic church. Since he is depicted as a powerless, crazy, tyrannic old man, Roman-Catholics may feel discriminated against, or they will at least not feel invited to read the book.

Original (1678):

‘two giants, Pope and Pagan R by whose power and tyranny the men whose bones, blood, ashes, etc., lay there, were cruelly put to death. [R] Pagan has been dead many a day; and as for the other, though he be yet alive, he is, by reason of age, and also of the many shrewd brushes that he has met with in his younger days, grown so crazy, and stiff in his joints, that he can now do little more than sit in his cave’s mouth, grinning at pilgrims as they go by, and biting his nails, because he cannot come at 137

them.’ 1. De Koning (1930):

-

2. Van den Brink (ca. 1950): 3. De Zeeuw (1950):

-

4. Mateboer (1962):

‘boven de ene spelonk stond op een naambordje geschreven Paus en boven de andere Heiden. Van deze twee had Christen zeker niet veel goeds te wachten.’ / ‘die vele mensenbeenderen’ / ‘de laatste was al lang dood en de eerste was al zo oud dat hij weinig meer kon uitrichten, hoewel hij in zijn jonge jaren de pelgrims naar Sion heel wat overlast had bezorgd’

138 139

5. Couldridge (1980):

‘een reus in een grot’ / ‘vlak bij hem lag een geraamte’

6. Watson (1980):

‘twee reuzen, die er afzichtelijk uitzagen’ / ‘Heiden was al verscheidene jaren geleden gestorven en Paus was oud en machteloos’

7. De Jager 1 (1993):

140

‘Reen kleine grot waar R lang geleden de paus en de heidense keizer woonden. De beenderen die daar liggen behoorden aan de martelaren, die onder de macht en tirannie van deze wreedaards werden gedood R de heidense keizers zijn allang dood en de paus is oud en stijf van leden. Bovendien is hij door het oplopen van vele wonden krankzinnig geworden, zodat hij niet veel meer kan doen dan nagelbijtend in zijn grot

137 138 139 140

Pp. 75-76. P. 53. P. 37. P. 60.


72



zitten en naar de pelgrims grijnzen, als zij voorbij gaan; hij kan toch niet meer bij hen komen.’

141

8. De Jager 2 (1996):

-

9. Ruissen (1999):

‘bloed, as en beenderen’ / ‘In de loop van de eeuwen brachten deze twee heel wat mensen op een wrede wijze om het leven.’ / ‘Reus Heiden R was al jaren dood.’ / ‘Reus Paus R was tot niets in staat, want hij was oud en versleten. Dat kwam door het gruwelijke leven dat hij in zijn jeugd had geleid.’

142

Strikingly, the three earliest editions that probably had a wider public for evangelization or other purposes, and De Jager 2 that was most likely intended as an invitation to read the entire book, omit this episode. Mateboer, De Jager 1 and Ruissen include all elements of the episode, while Watson only omits the element of cruelty. The Couldridge edition mentions the giant, but without name, which removes the connection with the Roman-Catholic Church.

5.1.4.2 Sexuality: Wanton In chapter 5, when Christian and Faithful meet, Faithful relates his encounter with Wanton, a bad woman who tried to seduce him to carnal and fleshly things.

Original (1678):

Faithful: ‘one whose name was Wanton, that had like to have done me a mischief’ / ‘You cannot think R what a flattering tongue she had; she lay at me hard to turn aside with her, promising me all manner of [carnal and fleshly] content’

1. De Koning (1930):

143

Getrouwe: ‘een slechte, valsche vrouw’ / ‘Op allerlei manieren wou ze mij tot zonde verleiden’

144

2. Van den Brink (ca. 1950): Getrouw: ‘een slechte vrouw R die mij groot kwaad wou doen’ / ‘zij wou mij tot zonde verleiden’ / ‘Zij beloofde mij allerlei genot’ 3. De Zeeuw (1950):

145

‘een heel goddeloze vrouw’ / ‘onder allerlei voorwendsels had zij Getrouw tot heel lelijke dingen willen overhalen. / Getrouw: ‘Zij beloofde mij allerlei genot.’

4. Mateboer (1962):

146

Getrouw: ‘Reen zekere juffrouw Wellust, die mij wilde overhalen met haar mee te gaan. Zij beloofde mij allerlei genoegens.’ / ‘’t Waren alle wereldse genoegens die ze mij voorspiegelde.’

147


-

6. Watson (1980):

‘een ander soort verzoeking, in de schone gedaante van Wellustig, die getracht had hem tot vleselijk genot te verleiden’ / ‘Rhaar betoverende

141 142 143 144 145 146 147

P. 76. P. 76. P. 80. P. 71. P. 34. P. 52. P. 54.


73



vormenR’ 7. De Jager 1 (1993):

148

Getrouwe: ‘een slechte vrouw R die mij probeerde te verleiden’ / ‘Zij kon zo vleiend spreken met haar tong, zij drong zó bij me aan en beloofde me allerlei goeds.’

8. De Jager 2 (1996): 9. Ruissen (1999):

149

Getrouw: ‘een slechte vrouw’ / ‘Zij wilde me groot kwaad doen’ / ‘Zij smeekte me: “Ga met mij mee en u zult volop kunnen genieten”’ / ‘Rhaar verleidelijke blikkenR’

150

The Watson and Ruissen editions use sexual terms (Watson: ‘betoverende vormen’; Ruissen: ‘verleidelijke blikken’), while in other versions all sexual connotations are either absent or replaced with general words such as earthly pleasure (‘aardse genoegens’) and sin (‘zonde’).

5.1.4.3 Violence: Suicide In chapter 7, when Christian and Hope are locked in the dungeon of Doubting Castle, Diffidence advises Giant Despair to tell Christian and Hopeful to make an end of themselves. Christian even considers it as a real option.

Original (1678):

‘The next night, she, talking to her husband about them further, and understanding that they were yet alive, did advise them to counsel them to make away themselves. So when morning was come, he goes to them in a surly manner as before, and perceiving them to be very sore with the stripes that he had given them the day before, he told them, that since they were never like to come out of that place, their only way would be, forthwith to make an end of themselves, either with knife, halter or poison: “For why, said he, “should you choose life, seeing it is attended with so much bitterness?” [R] ‘CHRISTIAN: “Brother, what shall we do? The life that we now live is miserable. For my part I know not whether is best, to live thus, or die out of hand. ‘My soul chooseth strangling rather than life,’ and the grave is more easy for me than this dungeon.’”’


151

‘’s Avonds van dien dag vernam vrouw Wantrouwen, dat de pelgrims nog leefden, wat haar zeer verwonderde. “Dood moeten ze,” sprak ze, en zeg hun, daar de slagen niet geholpen hebben, dat ze toch nóóit, nóóit vrij kunnen komen, en ze dus niet beter kunnen doen, dan zichzelf maar van het leven te berooven.” [R] Christen scheen er wel oren naar te hebbenR’

152

2. Van den Brink (ca. 1950): ‘’s Avonds hoorde de vrouw van de reus, dat de gevangenen ondanks de 148 149 150 151 152

P. 66. P. 78. Pp. 80-81. P. 136-137. P. 96.


74



mishandeling nog in leven waren. Zij gaf haar man de raad de gevangenen aan te sporen zich zelf van het leven te beroven. De volgende morgen ging hij vroeg naar hun toe en zei, terwijl hij wees op hun striemen en wonden, dat zij wijs zouden doen op een of andere wijze een eind aan hun leven te maken. [R] Toen hij (Christen, APM) weer bij kwam, begon hij opnieuw te spreken over de raad van reus Wanhoop en of het niet beter was die op te volgen.’ 3. De Zeeuw (1950):

153

‘Toen de vrouw van de reus de volgende avond hoorde, dat de gevangenen nog leefden, zei ze dat Wanhoop hun moest aanraden zelf een eind aan hun leven te maken. Dit leek Wanhoop een verstandige raad en hij ging naar de cel, om die goede raad door te geven aan de gevangenen. [R] “Wat moeten we toch beginnen?” vroeg Christen. “Ons leven is zo ellendig, dat ik heus geloof dat we maar moesten doen, wat reus Wanhoop ons heeft gezegd. Als het zo moet blijven ben ik eerlijk gezegd liever dood.”’

4. Mateboer (1962):

154

‘De reus lachte: “Dat zou je wel willen hè. Je komt hier nooit weer uit. Deze donkere kerker zal je graf worden. Het ligt aan jullie zelf op welke manier je wilt sterven. Je kunt langzaam doodgaan van honger, maar je mag ook zelf een eind aan je leven maken. Ik heb een stuk touw en een mes meegebracht. Je kunt dan kiezen. Je kunt jezelf ophangen of doodsteken. Ik verwacht, mijne heren, dat jullie dankbaar gebruik van deze gunst zullen maken.” [R] Christen slaakte een zucht. “Ik zou de dood verkiezen boven het leven. Wat mij betreft maken we er een einde aan.”’


155

‘”Wij zullen hier sterven,’ zei Christen. “Ik maak nog liever zelf een eind aan mijn leven, dan dat ik nóg zo’n afstraffing moet ondergaan.”’

6. Watson (1980):

156

‘Tegen bedtijd vroeg de reus weer aan zijn vrouw wat hij met zijn gevangenen moest doen. Deze keer stelde Schroom voor: “Zeg tegen ze dat het maar is het beste dat ze zich van het leven beroven.” ’s Morgens bezocht de reus de gevangenis weer en gaf de gevangenen botweg de wrede raad om die dag nog een einde aan hun leven te maken door zich dood te steken, op te hangen of te vergiftigen, daar ze toch nooit ontsnappen konden. [R] Na het vertrek van de reus werd Christen zo vreselijk moedeloos dar hij voorstelde de reus maar te gehoorzamen en 157

een eind aan hun ellende te maken.’ 7. De Jager 1 (1993):

‘De volgende avond spreek Ongeloof weer met haar man over de twee gevangenen. Als zij hoort dat ze nog leven, raadt zij haar man aan om

153 154 155 156 157

Pp. 51-52. P. 69. P. 79. P. 47. P. 98.


75



hen maar voor te stellen dat zij er een eind aan moeten maken. De volgende morgen [R] raadt hij hun er maar een eind aan te maken, want zij komen toch nooit meer uit deze cel. [R] “Breng jezelf maar om het leven,” zegt Wanhoop. [R] “Wat moeten we toch?” zegt Christen. “Dit leven is zó naar en ellendig, misschien is het wel beter de hand aan eigen leven te slaan.”’ 8. De Jager 2 (1996):

158

‘De volgende avond zegt de vrouw van reus Wanhoop: “Je moet zeggen tegen die twee dat zij maar een eind aan hun leven moeten maken.” De volgende morgen doet de reus dat ook. “Je komt toch nooit meer uit deze cel”, buldert hij. “Maak er maar een eind aan.” [R] “Wat moeten we toch doen?”, zegt Christen. “Hier is het zo vreselijk. Misschien is het wel beter om onszelf te doden.”

9. Ruissen (1999):

159

‘”Spoor de gevangenen aan zichzelf van het leven te beroven”, raadde ze haar man aan. De volgende morgen ging hij naar hen toe, wees hen op de striemen en wonden die hij hun had toegebracht en zei op dreigende toon: “Waarom zouden jullie nog langer willen lijden, terwijl er toch geen schijn van kans bestaat dat jullie hieruit ontsnappen? Wees wijs en maak op één of andere manier een eind aan uw leven.” [R] “Is het niet het beste de raad van reus Wanhoop op te volgen?” vroeg Christen aan Hoop.’

160

Strikingly, the element of violence – in this case suicide – is partly or entirely included in all children’s editions. The reason is probably the moralistic lesson that follows. According to De Jager, Bunyan means that a Christian may be attacked by despair so vehemently, that they know no other way than suicide. The lesson is that this is never the right thing to do. ‘Wat bedoelt Bunyan nu? Gods kinderen kunnen door eigen schuld zó in het donker komen, dat zij vrezen dat het nooit meer licht wordt. Het ongeloof zegt dan in hun hart: “De Heere heeft u verlaten – er komt niets meer van terecht.” Dan worden ze moedelozer, ja komen zelfs nabij de wanhoop. Dan zegt de duivel in hun hart wel: “Maak er maar een eind aan.” Ja, zó ver kan het gaan, dat een kind van God zelfs verzocht wordt tot zelfmoord. We zullen horen dat de Heere, hoe donker het ook wordt, zijn kinderen toch niet loslaat.’

161

In the story itself, this lesson is taught by Hope, who tells Christian that suicide is always wrong.

5.1.4.4 Racism: The Flatterer In chapter 9, Christian and Hopeful come to a junction of two ways that both seem to be straight before them and doubt which one to take. A black man with a very light robe tells them to follow him because he has the same destination. He leads them into a net in which they get entangled. This person, whose name is the Flatterer, is described as a black man – his black skin representing his sin – wearing a light robe, to cover his blackness. This may seem a racist image, since a black 158 159 160 161

P. 114. P. 26. PP. 118-119. De Jager 1, p. 114.


76



man is used to convey the concept of sin. Therefore, it is interesting to see how this character is presented in children’s books. 162

Original (1678):

‘a man black of flesh, but covered with a very light robe’


‘iemand, die, zooals ze bemerkten, geheel zwart van huid was, maar die met een licht gewaad bedekt was’

163

2. Van den Brink (ca. 1950): ‘iemand R wiens gezicht zwart was, maar zijn kleed was helder wit’ 3. De Zeeuw (1950):

164

‘een man met een zwarte gelaatskleur, doch met een sneeuwwit kleed aan’

165 166

4. Mateboer (1962):

‘Het was een neger in een wit kleed.’


‘Hij droeg schone witte kleren, maar die verborgen zijn zwarte en zondige hart.’

167

6. Watson (1980):

‘een in een wit kleed gehulde man met een heel donkere huidskleur’

7. De Jager 1 (1993):

‘Het is een zwarte man, maar hij heeft een heel lichte mantel aan.’

8. De Jager 2 (1996):

‘Het is een zwarte man met een witte mantel aan.’

9. Ruissen (1999):

‘Hij had een zwart gezicht en droeg een blinkend, wit kleed.’

168

169

170 171

The man’s black flesh is present in the Mateboer, Watson and De Jager 1 and 2 editions. De Koning, V.d. Brink, De Zeeuw and Ruissen change the man’s black flesh into a black face. This can be traced back to Adama van Scheltema’s integral translation, where he is presented as a man whose face was black (‘wiens gelaatskleur zwart was’)

172

. Couldridge changes the man’s black flesh into a

black and sinful heart that is covered by his white clothes, thus removing the possible element of racism.

5.1.4.6 Final Passage: Triumph or Warning? The original text does not end with Christian’s entrance in the Celestial City, but with Ignorance, who tries to enter heaven in vain, because he came the wrong way, and accordingly has no license. The editors of the children’s editions are likely to have chosen for a triumphant ending instead of for a final warning.

Original (1678):

‘Then I saw that there was a way to hell even from the gates of heaven, as well as from he City of Destruction.’


162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173

173

‘Zij namen hem op, voerden hem door de lucht, brachten hem naar de

P. 159. P. 110. P. 61. P. 80. P. 86. P. 55. P. 118. P.132. P. 30. P. 137. P. 184. P. 199.


77



deur, die ter zijde van den hemel was, en wierpen hem daar binnen, in de 174

poel der hel!....’

2. Van den Brink (ca. 1950): ‘Zo bemerkte ik dat er een weg naar de hel is, even goed van de poort 175

des hemels als van de stad Verderf.’ 3. De Zeeuw (1950):

‘Toen werd mij duidelijk, dat er van de hemelpoort evengoed als van de stad des Verderfs een weg naar beneden loopt, die leidt naar de 176

ondergang en het eeuwig verderf.’ 4. Mateboer (1962):

‘Uit het vreselijke einde van Onkunde bleek dat er een weg naar de hel 177

was vanaf de hemelpoort maar ook vanaf de stad Verderf.’ 5. Couldridge (1980):

‘Klokken begonnen te luiden. Er verschenen nog meer engelen, met harpen, en overal was grote blijdschap omdat Christen en Hoopvol als overwinnaars de Hemelstad waren binnengegaan.’

6. Watson (1980):

178

‘Daarentegen beval hij twee Stralende Personen hem met touwen te binden en naar een uitgang te slepen, die vanaf de hemelpoort regelrecht naar de hel leidde.’

179 180

7. De Jager 1 (1993):

‘Er is dus zelfs een weg van de Hemelpoort naar de hel.’

8. De Jager 2 (1996):

‘Hij dacht in de Hemelstad te komen. Hij kwam er niet. Hij had geen nieuw hart. Hij was geen ware Christen.’

9. Ruissen (1999):

181

‘Zo bemerkte ik dat er verschillende wegen naar de hel zijn: er is een weg van stad Verderf rechtstreeks naar de hel, maar er is ook een weg van de hemelpoort naar de hel.’

182

In contrast to the hypothesis, all editors but one stick to the original text in concluding their edition with a warning. Only Couldridge omits the final warning and concludes the story in triumph.

5.1.5 Explicit Educator The source text is a highly religious and moralistic text, where lessons are presented in the form of images and conversations. The interpretation of these elements is left to the readers themselves. The concluding poem starts as follows: Now, Reader, I have told my dream to thee; See if thou canst interpret it to me, Or to thyself, or neighbour, but take heed Of misinterpreting; for that, instead Of doing good, will but thyself abuse:

174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182

P. 127. P. 74. P. 95. P. 99. P. 61. P. 142. P. 150. P. 34. P. 162.


78



By misinterpreting, evil ensues.

183

However, in many children’s editions an ‘explicit educator’ is added to the story, who explains and applies the story. In this section, the presence and appearance of this educator will be discussed for each edition in turn.

184

1. De Koning (1930) In the De Koning edition, there is no explicit educator added to the story. However, one of the introduction chapters is devoted to the explanation of the images: ‘Het is dus een verhaal van een reis. Zijn wij niet àllen op reis? Op reis naar de eeuwigheid? Ook Bunyan wist van die reis te verhalen.’

185

2. V.d. Brink (ca. 1950) Like De Koning, v.d. Brink firstly introduces the story as a kind of parable. Moreover, each chapter is concluded by an extensive explanation in which the story is applied to children. ‘De stad Verderf stelt de wereld voor en we lezen in de Bijbel, dat deze wereld eens door vuur zal verbranden. [R] Laat nu niemand van jullie denken: “Och ik ben zo klein, ik heb nog geen zonde gedaan.” Wees eens eerlijk en zeg dan of je nooit hebt gestolen of gelogen, ja misschien wel eens gevloekt. God zegt, dat Hij den vloeker geenszins onschuldig houdt. Ook zijn wij zeker alleen wel eens ongehoorzaam geweest aan onzen vader of moeder.’

186

3. De Zeeuw (1950) Only in the introduction De Zeeuw devotes some lines to explaining the meaning of the story.

4. Mateboer (1962) De introduction provides some information on the character of the story. The last chapter, ‘En nu?’, applies the story to the readers. ‘Christen is nu wel binnen de Poort van de Hemelstad, maar wij staan er nog buiten. Wij zijn nog op de weg. Of zijn we nog niet op de weg? Leven we nog in de stad Verderf?’

187

5. Couldridge (1980) Some explanatory words are found in the introduction, where the story is presented as a story that Bunyan wrote to help people find God. Not a single word is devoted to the second layer behind it.

6. Watson (1980) The introduction tells that the original work has highly influenced many people’s religious lives. However, the meaning of the story is not even mentioned.

183 184

185 186 187

P. 199. Next to this ‘explicit educator’, some editions have an ‘implicit educator’, who explains, simplifies, changes or interprets some images (see 5.2.3). P. 18. P. 7. P. 100.


79



7. De Jager 1 (1993) The preface introduces the spiritual meaning of the story. Moreover, each chapter (72 in total) is concluded by explanation and application. For example: ‘Ken je Valse Schaamte ook? Als je een ander hoort vloeken of spotten en je durft het niet te zeggen? Dan heeft Valse Schaamte je te 188

pakken!’

In some cases the explanation is even longer than the story itself.

8. De Jager 2 (1996) The preface shows that it is the second layer that is important. ‘Deze verkorte uitgave van de Christen- en de Christinnereis naar de eeuwigheid laat zien dat er een weg tot behoud is.’

189

9. Ruissen (1999) The preface introduces the story as a parable with a second layer, that is most important. Apart from the preface, the editor does not offer interpretation, but invites the readers to share their own opinions with others. For this reason, discussion questions are included in each chapter. These questions refer to the story itself (‘Hoe kwam het dat Gezeggelijk vlugger vooruit kon komen dan Christen?’), to the Bible (‘Geef voorbeelden uit de Bijbel van mensen die op buurman Gezeggelijk lijken’) and to the reader’s personal life (‘Wat zou jij antwoorden aan iemand die jou deze vraag stelt?’).

190

In summary, the following information has been found:

Reference

Reference

Explanation

Explanation

Discussion

to religious

to second

in preface

in the end

questions

importance

layer

or

of each

conclusion

chapter

Original (1678)

X

X

1. De Koning (1930)

X

X

X

2. V.d Brink (ca.

X

X

X

3. De Zeeuw (1950)

X

X

X

4. Mateboer (1962)

X

X

X


X

6. Watson (1980)

X

7. De Jager 1 (1993)

X

X

X

8. De Jager 2 (1996)

X

X

X

9. Ruissen (1999)

X

X

X

X

1950)

X

X

Strikingly, all Dutch adaptations for children contain more references to or explanation of the 188 189 190

P. 84. P. 3. P. 25.


80



second layer, than the original work itself. In four editions, an explanation of this second layer is given in the preface, while Bunyan left this to his readers. V.d. Brink and De Jager 1 (72 chapters) pay much attention to explanation at the end of these chapters. Ruissen does not play the role of an explicit educator, but of a guide to further study, by providing discussion questions. Both originally English adaptations (no. 5 and 6), on the other hand, do not even refer to a second layer. This may indicate an English tendency towards what Bunyan warns against in his concluding poem: ‘Take heed also, that thou be not extreme / In playing with the outside of my Dream.’

191

5.2 Micro level Three micro level elements have been selected to illustrate how editors changed the source text on this level, in order to fit the needs of their target groups. Firstly, the presence and appearance of characters will be discussed. Secondly some words will be devoted to the length of sentences. Finally, the presence and appearance of imagery will be examined.

5.2.1 Characters In the information recorded in Appendix C, the following division of characters has been found:

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Characters mentioned by name (%) Characters mentioned without name (%) Omitted characters (%)

As to the presence of characters, the Ruissen edition is closest to the original. The De Jager 2 edition, on the other hand, omits 60% of the original characters, while the remaining editions vary from 43% to 18,5%. The De Jager 2 edition only mentions 7,7% of the original characters by name, while four times as many characters are present without name. The remaining editions include between 38,8% and 78,6% of the original characters by name. From these micro level findings, a cautious macro level conclusion may be drawn. The sum of the blue and red column shows the level of completeness as compared to the original text. The Ruissen 191

Source text, p. 199.


81



edition is probably most complete, followed by Watson, De Zeeuw, De Jager 1, V.d. Brink, De Koning, Couldridge, Mateboer, and De Jager 2 (in this order).

5.2.2 Length of sentences For each edition, the first ten sentences of chapter 1 have been taken as a sample, to give an indication of the average length of sentences.

Average words per sentence Original (1678):

39,5


18,7

2. Van den Brink (ca. 1950):

17,5

3. De Zeeuw (1950):

16,1

4. Mateboer (1962):

10,4


12,4

6. Watson (1980):

20,6

7. De Jager 1 (1993):

9,4

8. De Jager 2 (1996):

6,9

9. Ruissen (1999):

10,8

These results prove that shortening the sentences has been one of the editors’ strategies of simplification, with some variation, probably depending on the age of the target group.

5.2.3 Implicit Educator Six images have been selected from passages that are present in all editions

192

, to find out how the

editors have adapted the imagery to their target group, or in other words, to explore the presence and appearance of an ‘implicit educator’.

193

Firstly, a brief description of the original images is given.

Secondly, a survey is provided of the way these images are presented in each edition. Thirdly, conclusions will be drawn, on the basis of this evidence.

1. In chapter 1, when Christian does not know where to go, he meets Evangelist. He gives 194

Christian a parchment roll. It says: ‘Fly from the wrath to come.’

The roll probably represents the

Bible, since this is is a quote from Matthew 3:7. 2. In chapters 1 and 2, Christian carries a burden on his back. It represents his sin. It is presented as a real burden that is tied to his shoulders: ‘So I saw in my dream, that just as Christian came up with the Cross his burden loosed from off his back; and began to tumble, and so continued to do, till it 195

came to the mouth of the Sepulchre, where it fell in, and I saw it no more.’

Its meaning is obvious to

Christian readers, despite the absence of explicit explanation. 192

193 194 195

Appendix C shows which characters are present in all editions. The words have been selected from the episodes where these characters play a role. The presence and appearance of an explicit educator is discussed in 5.1.5. P. 7. P. 41.


82



3. In chapter 3, Christian loses his burden when he comes near the cross. This empty cross is an image of Jesus’ suffering and death. Approaching it means believingly accepting what Jesus obtained for his children. 4 and 5. In chapter 4, the devil is depicted as a hideous monster, called Apollyon. ‘Now the monster was hideous to behold: he was clothed with scales like a fish, and they are his pride; he had wings like a dragon, feet like a bear, and out of his belly came fire and smoke; and his mouth was as the mouth of a lion.

196

Strikingly, the meaning of his scales is given, which rarely happens in The

Pilgrim’s Progress. 6. In chapter 7, Christian and Hopeful come across a silver mine. Demas tries to persuade them to come and dig for treasure. Anyone who comes too close to it, falls into it. It represents the luring riches of this world that may be dangerous.

NOTE: Changes in and explanation of the imagery are viewed in italics. Original

1. Parchment

2. Burden

3. Cross

roll

4. Foul fiend /

5. Scales like

Hideous

a fish

6. Silver mine

monster 1. De Koning

Perkamenten

(1930)

rol

Last

Kruis

Boosaardige

-

Zilvermijn

Geweldig sterk

Slangen-

Zilvermijn

gewapende

schubben

vijand / afgrijselijk

2. Van den

-

Last

Kruis

Brink (1950)

vijand 3. De Zeeuw

Perkamenten

(1950)

rol

Pak

Kruis

Vreselijke

Slange-

vijand /

schubben

Zilvermijn

verschrikkelijk monster 4. Mateboer

Opgerold

Last / pak

(1962)

papier

der

heel gevaarlijk

zonde /

uitzag / deze

zondepak

man

Kruis

Iemand die er

-

Zilvermijn

Vreselijk

(visible in

Zilvermijn

picture)

5.

Opgerold

Pak / het

Couldridge

stuk papier

leek wel

monster /

een soort

draak

(1980)

Kruis

rugzak / last 6. Watson

Perkament

Last

(1980)

Kruis

Vreselijke

-

Zilvermijn

duivel / torenhoge monster

196

P. 64.


83


7. De Jager

Oude

1 (1993)

boekrol


Pak / last

Kruis

Gemene vijand

Schubben als

/ monster

een vis; daar

Zilvermijn

is hij trots op 8. De Jager

Oude

Pak /

2 (1996)

boekrol

zondepak

Kruis

Gemene vijand

Schubben als

Put, waaruit

/ de duivel /

een vis

de mensen zilver van de

lelijk monster

bodem halen / zilvermijn 9. Ruissen

Perkamenten

(1999)

rol

Pak / last

Kruis

Geweldig

Slangen-

sterke vijand /

schubben

Zilvermijn

monster

These results can be divided into the following categories: interpreting language, simplified language, clarifying language, changed images, unchanged items and omissions. The first four categories can be considered as an ‘implicit educator’. Firstly, some images are interpreted: the editors mention what is behind them. For example, Mateboer and De Jager 1 change the burden into ‘zondepak’ (burden of sin), where the word ‘zonde’ refers to what is behind the image. Apollyon, originally presented as a monster, is called ‘duivel’ (devil) in the Watson and De Jager 2 editions. This is again the second layer of the image. Secondly, the parchment role image is simplified by three editors. It is replaced with ‘opgerold (stuk) papier’ (rolled piece of paper) or ‘oude boekrol’ (old scroll) by Mateboer, Couldridge and De Jager. Thirdly, Couldrige adds some clarifying text to the burden image: ‘het leek wel een soort rugzak’ (it looked like a kind of rucksack). Fourthly, two images are changed. Three editors change the ‘scales like a fish’ into ‘slangenschubben’ (scales like a snake). This change probably comes from an integral translation. Adama van Scheltema, for example, has: ‘Met slangenschubben, zijne fierheid en trots, over het 197

gansche lichaam bedekt.’

The other changed item is the monster image, that Mateboer replaces

with a man. He may have considered the image of a monster to be too terrifying. Fifthly, some images are presented just as the original images, without clarifications and interpretations. This is for example true for the image of the cross and in most cases the silver mine. Probably, the editors considered the meaning of these images to be clear enough. De Jager 2 is the only edition that takes over Bunyan’s explanation of the ‘scales like a fish’ image. Finally, the ‘scales like a fish’ are omitted by some editors. Changes like this are likely to occur in adaptations: it is only a detail that may be easily left out.

5.3 Conclusion No historical tendencies can be discerned unless the evidence is presented in chronological order. 197

P. 79.


84



For this reason, all relevant evidence found in this chapter is recorded on the next page, in chronological order. Starting from this evidence, the following conclusions can be drawn. 1. Deviations from the original number of chapters seem to have no historical reason, but an educational one. The higher the number of chapters, the more emphasis is laid on details, which helps children memorize the story. 2. The editions between 1930 and 1962 presented the story as a dream, whereas newer editions deviate from the dream concept. However, it has never disappeared from children’s editions, since the 1962 edition has been frequently reprinted, and in 1999 the dream concept appeared again in a new edition. 3. Only two early editions stick to the original first-person narrator. It disappeared from children’s land between 1950 and 1999 (except for the v.d. Brink reprint in 1978). 4. The editions that identify the narrator with Bunyan probably have no educational reason for doing so, but a historical one, since they follow a traditional opinion. 5. Only Mateboer (1962-2005) significantly reduces the plot-related dialogue in favour of the monologue. 6. All editions reduce the religious discourse. Some earlier editions nearly omit it, while Ruissen (1999) pays much attention to it. This is probably one of the gaps that he attempts to fill with his edition. 7. Not a single edition sticks to the original drama form of dialogue. 8. Controversial elements tend to remain present in children’s books, with some exceptions, especially the sexual element. However, these omissions are exceptions rather than rules. 9. The originally Dutch adaptations generally provide more explicit explanation and interpretation of the story than the originally English editions. Combined with the absence of reference to a second layer, this indicates an English tendency towards underexposing the second layer of the story. 10. Frequently applied translation strategies are the omission of characters and mentioning characters without name. The presence of characters indicates the level of completeness of the edition. Since these names often reveal the second layer of the story this rule is true: the higher the number of characters without name, the less is revealed of the meaning of the story. 11. The children’s editions occasionally tend to offer implicit explanation, interpretation and simplification of the imagery.


85



1678

1930

ca.

1950

1962

1950

1980

1980

(C)

(W)

1993

1996

1999

Chapters

11

20

14

22

20

9

10

72

30

22

Dream or Story

D

D

D

D

D

S

S

S

S

D

First-person or Omniscient

FP

FP

FP

O

O

O

O

O

O

FP

Narrator identified with

no

no

yes

yes

yes

no

no

no

no

no

Plot-related dialogue*

62%

50%

58%

62%

37%

67%

50%

61%

55%

59%

Religious discourse**

100%

27%

42%

38%

23%

3%

17%

12%

2%

69%

Dialogue drama form

yes

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

Discrimination Absent/Present

P

A

A

A

P

A

P

P

A

P

Sexuality Absent/Present

P

A

A

A

A

A

P

A

A

P

Violence Absent/Present

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Racism Absent/Present

P

P

P

P

P

A

P

P

P

P

Final passage

W

W

W

W

W

T

W

W

W

W

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

no

no

yes

yes

yes

no

yes

yes

yes

yes

no

no

yes

yes

yes

no

no

yes

no

no

no

no

yes

no

no

Discussion questions

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

yes

Characters mentioned by

96%

51%

65%

76%

40%

39%

79%

68%

8%

86%

4%

8%

6%

6%

17%

19%

5%

11%

31%

4%

Omitted characters***

0%

41%

29%

19%

43%

42%

17%

21%

61%

10%

Level of completeness

10

4

5

7

2

3

8

6

1

9

Length of sentences**

100%

47%

44%

41%

26%

31%

52%

24%

17%

27%

Explanation images

no

no

no

no

no

yes

no

no

yes

no

Interpretation images

no

no

no

no

yes

no

yes

yes

yes

no

Simplification images

no

no

no

no

yes

yes

no

yes

yes

no

Changed images

no

no

yes

yes

yes

no

no

no

no

yes

Bunyan

Triumph/Warning Presence of second layer mentioned Explanation in preface or conclusion Explanation in end of each chapter

name*** Characters mentioned without name***

*

In relation to monologue.

**

In relation to source text.

***

In relation to original total number of characters.


86



Conclusion The Pilgrim’s Progress was written in turbulent times. Its author was an independent minister who was twice imprisoned on the grounds of his non-conformist ideas. In spite of its unschooled writer, it stands in a literary tradition of religious literature, allegories and travel literature. The Pilgrim’s Progress is a natural born globe-trotter. Its international journey started only a few years afters its birth, when it was welcomed in Holland as a four-year-old traveller. Today, it has reached even the most illiterate societies, thanks to missionary institutions. After some centuries of international success, it was introduced to children in the form of adaptations. One of these welcoming systems is Dutch children’s literature. The Pilgrim’s Progress was read by Dutch children since long before the first children’s edition was published, in line with the concept of ‘little adults’. This line was roughly followed until the middle of the twentieth century. The first children’s edition (an unsuccessful edition) appeared relatively late as compared to adaptations of other classics and Dutch adaptations of other classics. Since 1950, a steady stream of children’s editions of The Pilgrim’s Progress has flowed through The Netherlands. All editions mainly aimed at Christian children. The earliest editions were probably read by a wider public. Whereas The Pilgrim’s Progress started out as a highflier in Protestant children’s land that occasionally showed its face in other circles, it has disappeared into the forgotten undercurrent of originally foreign, moralistic Protestant-children’s literature, mainly due to changed views of literary critics. Dutch children’s editions often deviate from the source text on preliminary, macro and micro level, in most cases for educational reasons, to help children understand the story’s meaning and memorize it. Originally Dutch adaptations tend to offer more explanation than the originally English adaptations that have been discussed. Combined with the presence of many film versions in the English world and the absence of these from the Dutch world, this indicates an English tendency towards playing with the outside of the dream, while Dutch adaptations for children tend to offer moralistic nourishment.

Pilgrimage in Children’s Land – Bibliography

87



Bibliography Primary materials

English source text Bunyan. J. The Pilgrim’s Progress. 1678. 2nd ed. New Kensington, PA: Whitaker House, 1981.

Dutch integral translations Bunjan, J. Eens christens reize naar de eeuwigheid. Trans. anonymous. Ed. F.H. Ranke. Groningen: P.S. Barghoorn, 1833. Bunyan, J. ‘s Christens reize naar de eeuwigheid. Trans. Stegmann, G.W. 2nd ed. AmsterdamKaapstad: Hollandsch-Afrikaansche Uitgevers Maatschappij v/h Jacques Dusseau & Co., 1902. Bunyan, J. Christen en Christinnereis. Trans. J.R. Bremer. Nijkerk: G.F. Callenbach, 1905. Bunyan, J. Christen- en christinnereize. Trans. A.J. Kers. 2nd ed. Doesburg: Van Schenk Brill. First ed. 1906. Bunyan, J. De Christen- en Christinnereis naar de eeuwigheid. Trans. Adama-Van Scheltema, Rev. C.S. 5th ed. Houten: Den Hertog, 1995 (first ed. 1868). Bunyan, J. De christenreis. Trans. Barkey Wolf, A.G. 2nd ed. Delft: Meinema, 193X. (first ed. 1934). Bunyan, J. De pelgrimsreis van deze wereld naar de toekomende. Trans. J.R. Bremer. Nijkerk: G.F. Callenbach, 1917. Bunyan, J. Des pelgrims reize van deze wereld naar de toekomende. Trans. Pierson, Rev. J.L. 4th ed. Neerbosch’ Boekhandel, 1908. (first ed. 1890). Bunyan, J. Eens christens reize naar de eeuwigheid. Trans. anonymous. Ann. Beveren, Rev. L. de. Utrecht: J.J.H. Kemmer, 1877. (first ed. 1729). Bunyan, J. Eens pelgrims reize naar de eeuwigheid. Trans. anonymous. Rotterdam: N.V. J.M. Bredée’s boekhandel en uitgevers-mij, 1930 (first ed. 1916).

Dutch adaptations Bunyan, J. Bunyan’s ‘Christenreis’. Ed. J. de Jager. Ser. De Pelgrimsreis, vol. 1. 2nd ed. Barneveld: John Bunyan Stichting, 1999. Bunyan, J. Bunyan’s Christenreis. Ed. J.C. de Koning. Kampen: J.H. Kok n.v., 1930. Bunyan, J. Bunyan’s christenreis. Ed. T. Mateboer. 11th rev. ed. Houten: Den Hertog, 1990. Bunyan, J. De christenreis naar de eeuwigheid. Ed. H. v.d. Brink. Amsterdam: Paulus Vereniging, ca. 1950. Bunyan, J. De christenreis. Ed. M.J. Ruissen. 3rd rev. ed. Goes: De Ramshoorn, 2004 (1st ed. 1999). Bunyan, J. De Christenreis. Ed. P. de Zeeuw J.Gzn. Ser. Oud Goud, vol. XVII. 2nd ed. Antwerpen: G.B. van Goor Zonen, 1955 (1st ed. 1950). Bunyan, J. De Christenreis; John Bunyans Pelgrimsreis. Rhoda Couldridge (ed.). M. Goedhart-Alberts (transl.). Kampen: Kok, 1979.


88



Bunyan, J. Eens Christens reize naar de eeuwigheid. Ed. Jean Watson and Evert Kuijt. Trans. Cornelius Lambregste. ’s Gravenhage: Boekencentrum, 1980. Bunyan, J. Waar loopt deze weg naar toe? Ed. J. de Jager. Utrecht: De Banier, 1996.

Other primary materials A.L.O.E. De jonge pelgrim. 5th edition. Nijkerk: G.F. Callenbach, ca. 1913 (1st ed. 1879). Karels-Meeuse, M.H. John de schrijvende pelgrim. Houten: Den Hertog, 2006. Liefde, J. de. De diligence, of de reis naar de stad der erfenis. Arnhem: J. Az. Doijer, 1845. Zeeuw, P. de. De dappere Ketellapper: het leven van John Bunyan. 5th ed. Delft: Meinema, 1958 (first ed. 1938) Bunyan, J. Grace abounding to the chief of sinners.

Secondary materials Abrams, M.H.. A Glossary of Literary Terms. 7th ed. Australia etc.: Heinle & Heinle, 1999. Bacon, Ernest W. Pilgrim and Dreamer: John Bunyan, His Life and Work. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1983. Batson, Beatrice. The Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan. Houndmills etc.: Macmillan Education Ltd., 1988. Coillie, Jan van. Leesbeesten en boekenfeesten. Hoe werken (met) kinderen jeugdboeken? Den Haag: Biblion, 1999. Dane, Jacques and Harinck, George (ed.). Bouwsel voor ’t leven: de traditie van de protestantse kinderliteratuur. Zoetermeer: Meinema, 2003. Dane, Jacques. ‘Een veelzijdig evangelisatiemiddel. Protestants-christelijke kinderboeken, circa 18501925.’ In: Dongelmans, Berry (ed.). Tot volle waschdom : bijdragen aan de geschiedenis van de kinderen jeugdliteratuur. Den Haag: Biblion, 2000. 239-252. Dasberg, L. Het kinderboek als opvoeder. Assen: Van Gorcum, 1981. Ghesquiere, Rita. ‘Hoe lang duurt klassiek?’ In: Literatuur zonder leeftijd 62 (2003). 69-85. Ghesquiere, Rita. ‘Jeugdliteratuur: De positie van jeugdliteratuur binnen het literaire systeem.’ In: Duyvendak, Lizet & Barend van Heusden (ed.). Literaire cultuur: Casusboek. Nijmegen: SUN, 2001. 79-100. Groenendijk, L.F. ‘Een kinderboek uit de Gouden Eeuw: de “euthanasie” van Susanna en Jacob Bickes. Bijdrage tot de kennis van het kind en de kinderliteratuur in de geschiedenis van het Nederlands gereformeerde Piëtisme.’ In: Nederlands tijdschrift voor opvoeding, vorming en onderwijs 13 (1997). 316-331. Heijs, Marten. Door ernstige drift geleid: protestants-christelijke jeugdboeken na 1920. Den Haag: Nederlands Bibliotheek en Lektuur Centrum, 1987. Hofmeyr, Isabel. The Portable Bunyan : A Transnational History of ThePilgrim’s Progress. Princeton, N.J.: Johannesburg: Princeton University Press; Wits University Press, 2004. Houtekamer, S. Christopher Love: Een puritein op weg naar het schavot. Houten: Den Hertog, 2000. Huizinga, drs. R.T. Het leven van John Bunyan. Utrecht: De Banier, 1965.


89



Koelman, Jacobus. De plichten der ouders; in kinderen voor Godt op te voeden. 2nd ed. Houten: Den Hertog, 1994. (first ed. Amsterdam: J. Wasteliers, 1679). Koster, Cees. ‘En famille. De positie van vertaling in de Nederlandstalige kinderen jeugliteratuur.’ In: Literatuur zonder leeftijd 67 (2005). 57-69. Kranendonk, W.B. ‘Geen preekjes, wél een boodschap.’ Reformatorisch Dagblad, 23 May 2003. Leuven-Zwart, K.M. van. Vertaalwetenschap: ontwikkelingen en perspectieven. Muiderberg: Coutinho BV, 1992. Lolkema, Marjolein & Prins, Annemarie (ed.). Christelijke kinderboeken in beweging: Een overzicht (1995-2005). Zoetermeer: Mozaïek, 2005. Matla, Hans. ‘Van centsprent tot album. De ontwikkeling van het stripverhaal 1800-2000.’ In: Dongelmans, Berry (ed.). Tot volle waschdom: bijdragen aan de geschiedenis van de kinderen jeugdliteratuur. Den Haag: Biblion, 2000. 57-58. Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies. London and New York: Routledge, 2001. Schutte, G.J. et al. Bunyan in Nederland: opstellen over de waardering van John Bunyan in Nederland. Houten: Den Hertog, 1989. Sharrock, Roger. John Bunyan. London: Hutchinson House, 1954. Spijker, prof. dr. W. van ‘t, et al. Het puritanisme; geschiedenis, theologie en invloed. Zoetermeer: Boekencentrum, 2001. Sutherland, J. English Literature of the Late Seventeenth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969. Veld, H. van 't. Beminde broeder die ik vand op 's werelts pelgrims wegen: Jan Luyken (1649-1712) als illustrator en medereiziger van John Bunyan (1628-1688). Utrecht: De Banier, 2000.


90



Appendices Appendix A Extended Bibliographical Information Editions for Children

1. Koning (1930) Declaration:

voor de jeugd bewerkt met korte levensbeschrijving door

Editor:

Koning, J.C. de

Title:

Bunyan’s Christenreis

Series:

n/a

Illustrator:

Anonymous

Pages:

127

–

Edition

Year

Publisher

1st

1930

Kampen: J.H. Kok n.v.

2. Van den Brink (ca. 1950) Declaration:

voor kinderen bewerkt door

Editor:

Brink, H. v.d.

Title:

De christenreis naar de eeuwigheid

Series:

n/a

Illustrator:

Anonymous

Pages:

75

Edition

Year

Publisher

1st

ca. 1950

Amsterdam: Paulus vereniging

2nd

1978

Amsterdam: Stichting Moria

3. De Zeeuw (1950) Declaration:

bewerkt naar het Engels door

Editor:

P. de Zeeuw J. Gzn

Title:

De christenreis

Series:

Oud goud

Volume:

17

Illustrator:

Roothciv

Pages:

96

Pilgrimage in Children’s Land – Appendices

91



Edition

Year

Publisher

1st

1950

’s Gravenhage: G.B. van Goor Zonen

2nd

1955

’s Gravenhage: G.B. van Goor Zonen

4. Materboer (1962) Declaration:

naverteld voor jonge mensen door

Editor:

Mateboer, T.

Title:

Bunyans Christenreis

Series:

n/a

Illustrator:

anonymous, and in later editions Kramer, Jaap (cover picture)

Pages:

103

Edition

Year

Publisher

1st

1962

Utrecht: Den Hertog

2nd

1964

Utrecht: Den Hertog

3rd

1969

Utrecht: Den Hertog

4th

1973

Utrecht: Den Hertog

5th

1975

Utrecht: Den Hertog

6th

1977

Utrecht: Den Hertog

7th

1979

Utrecht: Den Hertog

8th

1983

Houten: Den Hertog

9th

1985

Houten: Den Hertog

10th

1988

Houten: Den Hertog

11th (rev.)

1990

Houten: Den Hertog

12th

1992

Houten: Den Hertog

13th

1995

Houten: Den Hertog

14th

2000

Houten: Den Hertog

15th

2005

Houten: Den Hertog

In 1987, a Hungarian translation of this edition was published: Bunjan zarándokútja.


92



5. Couldridge (1980) Declaration:

opnieuw verteld door

Editor:

Couldridge, Rhoda

Title:

De christenreis

Series:

n/a

Illustrator:

Couldridge, Anna

Original title:

Christian’s Journey

Original Publ.: London: Lutterword Press, 1979 Translator:

Goedhart – Alberts, M.

Pages:

63

Edition

Year

Publisher

1st

1980

Kampen: J.H. Kok

6. Watson (1980) Declaration:

naar een verhaal van John Bunyan

Editor:

Evert Kuijt

Title:

Eens Christens reize naar de eeuwigheid

Series:

n/a

Illustrator:

Wane, Peter

Original title:

The Pilgrim’s Progress

Original Publ.: London: Scripture Union Press, 1978 Translator:

Lambregtse, Cornelius

Pages:

142

Edition

Year

Publisher

1st

1980

‘s Gravenhage: Boekencentrum

7. De Jager 1 (1993) Declaration:

verteld voor de jeugd

Editor:

Jager, J. de

Title:

De pelgrimsreis naar de eeuwigheid

Volume:

1/2

Series:

De pelgrimsreis naar de eeuwigheid

Illustrator:

Wessels, A.

Pages:

152


93



Edition

Year

Publisher

1st

1993

Utrecht: De Banier / Barneveld: John Bunyan Stichting

2nd

1999


8. De Jager 2 (1996) Declaration:

Uit de Christenreis en de Christinnereis naar de eeuwigheid

Editor:

de Jager, J.

Title:

Waar loopt deze weg naartoe?

Series:

n/a

Illustrator:

Wessels, Albert

Pages:

63

Edition

Year

Publisher

1st

1996


2nd

1997


9. Ruissen (1999) Declaration:

naverteld door

Editor:

Ruissen, M.J.

Title:

De Christenreis

Series:

n/a

Illustrator:

Visser, Rino

Pages:

175

Edition

Year

Publisher

1st

1999

Goes: De Ramshoorn

2nd (rev.)

2001

Goes: De Ramshoorn

3rd (rev.)

2004

Goes: De Ramshoorn


94



Appendix B Summary Source Text

Chapter 1 Christian Falls Christian, a married man with some children, who lives in the City of Destruction, carries a burden on his back, and he desperately wants to be delivered of it. He got the burden by reading a book. He tells everyone he is informed that everything and everyone will be burnt with fire from heaven unless some way of escape can be found. His family do not believe Christian and are only hardened. He retires to his room to read and to pray. Once he is walking in the fields, crying: ‘What shall I do to be saved?’ Then Evangelist approaches him, and asks what he is crying for. Christian tells that he fears to come to judgement en has no escape. Then Evangelist gives him a parchment roll, with the text: ‘Fly from the wrath to come’, and points across a field to the Wicket-gate. Christian at first only sees a light, but Evangelist tells him to go there for further instructions. Christian starts running, crying: ‘Life! Life! Eternal life!’ His family and neighbours watch him run. Obstinate and Pliable try to fetch him back by force. Christian tells them that he is travelling towards an endless kingdom and everlasting life. Obstinate decides to go back, but Pliable joins Christian. A little later they fall into the Slough of Despond. Christian starts sinking because of his burden. Pliable gets out of the mire but is so much discouraged that he goes back. Then Help comes, and draws him out upon sound ground. A conversation follows with the storyteller about the reason why Despond is there. When Pliable comes back home they first deride him for his cowardliness, and then also chide Christian behind his back. Christian meets Master Worldly-Wiseman. He had heard of Christian. He advises Christian to get rid of his burden, however not by following the way Evangelist told him, because of all the fears and sorrows he will encounter there. He directs Christian to a village called Morality, to a gentleman called Legality or his son Civility where he will be delivered of his burden with much safety, friendship and content. He also advises him to invite his family to come and live there with him. Christian follows the advice. He needs to climb a steep hill which is impossible, because it hangs over the way and flashes of fire come out of it. Then Evangelist comes up to him again. Christian tells him what happened. Evangelist encourages him: ‘Be not faithless, but believing’ and explains why Worldly-Wiseman is so dangerous. Then he calls to the heavens for confirmation and words and fire come out of the mountain. Christian begins to cry and asks if there is still hope. Evangelist tells him that he will still be received at the Wicket-gate and warns him not to turn aside again.

Chapter 2 Christian Finds Grace Christian goes back to the way he left and gets up to the gate, over which is written: ‘Knock and it shall be opened unto you.’ He knocks more than once or twice and says a poem. Then Goodwill opens the gate. Christian tells where he comes from and that he is going to mount Zion to be delivered of wrath. When Christian steps inside Goodwill gives him a pull, because Beelzebub and his men are shooting arrows. A conversation about Christian’s adventures follows. Goodwill tells him only to follow the ways that are straight and narrow. He tells that his burden will fall of by itself at the place of


95



deliverance. He also advises him to visit the house of the Interpreter. When he reaches this house, the Interpreter shows him many things that will be profitable to him: •

A picture of a very grave person: the eyes lift up to heaven, the best of books in his hand. It shows Christian that he should only follow a guide like this on his way.

•

A large parlour full of dust. Someone is sweeping it, and Christian almost chokes. It is swept again with some water being sprinkled and then it is cleansed with pleasure. It means that the heart of a sinner cannot be cleansed by the law, but by the gospel.

•

Two little children, each one in his chair, called Passion and Patience. The governor had promised them many presents. Passion cannot wait, but Patience can. When Passion gets all he wants, he very soon has nothing but rags. Passion is like the men of this world, but Patience is like the men of the world which is to come, because he stays for the best things.

•

A fire burning against the wall; someone casts water upon it but it only burns higher. It is the devil who tries to quench grace. It is not extinguished because someone is secretly casting oil into the fire. It is the Lord who is maintaining his work.

•

A stately palace. Someone tries to enter it, but many armed people try to prevent this. Still he succeeds and he is welcomed with glad voices and clothed with nice garments. An image of heaven.

•

A man in an iron cage, sighing. He once was an honoured man, but he hardened his heart so much that he cannot repent. There is no hope for him anymore. This is a warning for Christian.

•

A man rising out of bed, shaking and trembling while putting on his raiment. He dreamed that the day of judgement was come and that he was not ready. Another warning. These things put Christian in hope and fear. He continues his way.

Chapter 3 Pathway to House Beautiful Christian’s way is fenced on either side with a way called Salvation. He reaches a Cross, and loses his burden there. It tumbles down till it comes to the mouth of a Sepulchre where it falls in. As he stands looking and weeping three Shining Ones come to him. The first one says: “Thy sins be forgiven.” The second one clothes him with raiment, and the third one sets a mark in his forehead and gives him a sealed roll, which he is to give in at the Celestial Gate. He goes on and sees three men fast asleep, with fetters upon their heels: Simple, Sloth and Presumption. He awakes them because they are in danger to be found by the evil one. But they do not listen to his warnings. Then two men come tumbling over the wall: Formalist and Hypocrisy. People from their country never take the Wicket-gate, but make a short cut of it. It has been a habit for over a thousand years. Christian tell them that they do not walk by the rules of his Master, and that they are thieves and robbers. They come to the foot of Hill Difficulty. There are three ways: one to the left hand, one to the right hand and one right up the hill. Christian takes the middle one, called Difficulty. The other men take the left and right hand roads, which has a bad ending for them. About the midway to the top of the hill is a pleasant arbour, where Christian takes some rest. He


96



falls asleep and his roll falls out of his hand. Then one comes to him who rebukes him and tells him to go on. When he gets up to the top, two men come running against him: Timorous and Mistrust. They are going back because of the danger they have met with. But Christian decides to go forward. He discovers that he lost his roll. He goes back and bewails his sinful sleep, because this place was only meant for the relief of the spirit, and not of the body. He finds the roll in the arbour and is very joyful, as it was the assurance of his life. When he goes back, he sees a stately Palace called Beautiful. As the sun is set, he tries to get lodging there. He enters a very narrow passage and sees two lions there. They are chained, but he does not see the chains. The Porter sees his doubt and cries: “Keep in the midst of the path and no hurt shall come unto thee.” So Christian safely reaches the house, which was built for the relief of pilgrims. The porter calls out one of the virgins, named Discretion. After they talk together, she calls out Prudence, Piety and Charity. They have him into the family and these three virgins are appointed to discourse with Christian. They have a long conversation about his pilgrimage, feelings and family. During their meal they continue talking about the Lord of the House, who loves pilgrims and even died for them on the cross, in order to live with them in Mount Zion. Christian sleeps in the room called Peace. Before he leaves, they show him the rarities of the place: •

In the study, they show him antique records about the Lord, read some acts that some of his servants had done and read another part of the records of the house

•

The next day they show him the armoury which the Lord provides for his pilgrims, and some of the engines with which some of his servants had done wonderful things

•

The morning he gets up to go forwards they want him to stay one more night. The next day they show him the Delectable Mountains, which is Immanuel’s Land, from the top of the house. These are near the Celestial City. Then they harness him from top to foot and he goes on.

The porter tells him that Faithful, one of his former neighbours, just passed the house. The four damsels accompany him into the Valley of Humiliation. At the bottom they give him some food and he goes on alone.

Chapter 4 Through the Valley of Humiliation and Death Christian sees a foul fiend coming to meet him, named Apollyon. He is afraid but decides not to flee. It is a hideous monster. He tries to persuade Christian to return to him, since he was his former king. But Christian, in a long conversation, defends his new Prince. Then Apollyon attacks Christian. He throws many darts at him and Christian is wounded in his head, hand and foot. After half a day Christian’s sword falls out of his hand. While Apollyon is fetching of his last blow, Christian reaches out his hand for his sword, catches it and gives Apollyon a deadly thrust. The monster flees away, yelling and roaring. Christian thanks Michael for the delivery. A hand comes to him with some leaves of the tree of life. When he applies them his wounds are healed immediately. At the borders of the Valley of the Shadow of Death Christian meets two men. They are fleeing


97



back because of what they have seen in the valley: hobgoblins, satyrs, dragons. But Christian is not discouraged. He continues along the very narrow path. The midst of the valley is like the mouth of hell. He hears doleful voices and dreadful noises. Sometimes he has half a thought to go back. He is so confused that he even cannot tell his own voice from the others. Then at once he thinks he hears someone say: ‘ Though I walk through the Valley of the Shadow of Death, I will fear none ill, for thou art with me.’ He is hopeful again. In the light he comes to the end of the valley. He looks back and sees what dangers he has been delivered of, because the last part of the way was also full of snares, traps, gins and nets. At the end of the valley are many bones of men, even pilgrims. There is a cave where the giants Pagan and Pope used to live. But Pagan has been dead many a day and Pope is, because of his age sitting by the wayside, grinning. He cannot do harm any more. So Christian goes on without being hurt.

Chapter 5 Christian Meets Faithful Christian suddenly sees Faithful in front of him and he overruns him. They go on together very lovingly, talking together. Faithful tells that everybody in Destruction talked about its destruction being at hand, but only he had followed Christian. He also tells that Pliable is seven times worse than if he had not gone out of the city. He says that he met Wanton on his journey, who tried to catch him in her nets of carnal desires. Just before Hill Difficulty he met an old man called Adam the First, who asked him to work for him. His wages would be that he would be his heir and he could marry his daughters if he would, but he would not. When Faithful left, Adam gave him a deadly twitch. Halfway the top Faithful was run over by Moses, a servant of Adam the First, who knocked him down thrice. He would have killed him, had not the Lord saved him. Then Faithful passed by House Beautiful. In the Valley of Humility he met Discontent, who tried to make him go back because it would be without honour to pass the valley. After that he met Shame, who tried to make Faithful feel ashamed of his religion. He shook off these people with a biblical answer. Christian and Faithful meet Talkative who is also on his way to heaven. He can talk about any religious subject one could think of. Christian points out to Faithful that he is a deceiver: a saint abroad and a devil at home. Faithful then starts talking to Talkative about the power of religion in the heart of a sinner, but when it comes too close, Talkative will not answer any questions anymore. Talkative leaves, which he prefers to reforming his life. Christian and Faithful go on talking about what they have seen so far.

Chapter 6 Vanity Fair Evangelist comes up from behind them. They tell him what happened to them on their journey. He warns them that the devil is still powerful and tells them to persist to the end. He also warns them against what will happen in the town of Vanity. When Evangelist is gone, they see the town. It was built thousands of years ago by Beelzebub, Apollyon and Legion on the way to heaven. A fair is held all year long in which all kinds of vanity are


98



present in order to distract pilgrims from their way. When they enter, the entire fair gets confused and everybody gazes at them because of their clothes and speech, and because they neglect all the merchandise. They are examined by the great one of the fair. After they are heard, they are beaten and besmeared with dirt and put into the cage, that they might be a spectacle. The men remain quiet. Fights arise because some people think they are guilty while others do not think so. They are examined again and charged with being guilty of the late hubbub. They beat them pitifully, hang irons upon them and lead them in chains up and down the fair. Christian and Faithful behave themselves yet more wisely. This enrages many people again and they are put into the cage again. They are examined by Judge Hate-good. Envy, Superstition and Pickthank witness against Faithful. He reacts to the words of each of them. Then the judge says he deserves to die the death, according to their laws. Everyone of the jury gives in his private verdict against him and they conclude he is guilty. They bring him out, scourge him, buffet him, lance his flesh with knives, stone him with stones, prick him with their swords and burn him to ashes. Then Faithful is taken into a chariot and carried to heaven. But Christian has some respite and escapes.

Chapter 7 Hopeful Joins Christian Hopeful lives in Vanity, but he sees Christian and Faithful and decides to join Christian. A little later, By-ends overtakes them. He does not say his name, but when he tells who his relatives are, they know him. Christian tells him that he can go with them on condition that he will go with them against wind and tide; and he must own religion in its rags. Then he leaves. Mr. Hold-the-world, Mr. Moneylove and Mr. Save-all catch up with him and they talk together about the men in front of them. They think Christian and Hopeful are fools. They all agree that it is lawful to change one’s principles to become richer and decide to ask the gentlemen in front of them what their answer is to that. Christian answers that it is abominable to make of Christ and religion a stalking-horse, and we only find heathens, devils, hypocrites and witches of this opinion. They have no answer to his reply and stay behind. Christian and Hopeful cross a plain and then see a silver mine. Demas asks them to come and dig for treasure. But they do not consent. When By-ends and his companions arrive, they do as Demas asks. They are never seen again on the way. Then they come to the pillar of salt into which Lot’s wife was turned when she looked back with a covetous heart to Sodom. Now they are grateful that they did not listen to Demas’ voice. Their way lays now upon the banks of the river of life. There is much fruit for them to eat and there are many other pleasant things. They sleep and rest there for several nights. Then the river and the way part and the road becomes rough. They see a better way along the rough one and choose to take the easiest one. This is where they meet Vain-confidence. He will go before them. But when night falls, he walks into a deep pit which was made there by the prince of the grounds as a trap for pilgrims. They try to go back to the highway, but cannot because of the floods, and sit down under a little shelter. This happens in the grounds of Giant Despair. He finds them asleep


99



the next morning. The giant puts them into a dungeon in his castle, called Doubting Castle. He asks his wife, Diffidence, what to do with them and follows her advice. The first day he beats them and the next day he advises them to make an end of themselves. At night he finds them still alive. Then Christian seems to be for taking the giant’s advice, but Hopeful tells him to be patient. Diffidence advises Despair to take them into the castle-yard and show the bones of their fellows before them, and to tell them that he will do the same thing to them within ten days. But after praying Christian suddenly remembers he has a key called Promise. He can open all doors now. The last door makes such a creaking that Despair awakes. He pursues them but falls into one of his fits. When they are back on the King’s highway they erect a pillar to warn other pilgrims against the giant.

Chapter 8 The Shepherds and Delectable Mountains They come to the Delectable Mountains and meet some shepherds. Their names are Knowledge, Experience, Watchful and Sincere. They agree that they will stay for a while. The next morning they show them some wonders: •

A hill called Error, at the bottom of which are several men dashed to pieces because they followed a false doctrine

•

A mountain called Caution. Afar off they see some blind people walking among tombs. Their eyes were put out by giant Despair.

•

A door in the side of a hill. It is a by-way to hell that hypocrites take. Together they walk to the ends of the mountains. The shepherds show to them the gates of the

Celestial City. They can see them from a hill called Clear. When they depart, one shepherd gives them a note of the way, another bids them beware of the Flatterer, the third bids them take heed that they sleep not and the fourth bids them God-speed.

Chapter 9 Wayward Travelers Confront Christian Christian and Hopeful leave the mountains. Below the mountains lies the Country of Conceit. From there a little way comes into the highway. Here they meet Ignorance, who comes from Conceit. He says he is going to the Celestial City. The pilgrims, however, have their doubts since he did not come in by the wicket-gate. They leave him a little behind them. Then, in a very dark lane, they meet a man who is bound by seven devils with seven strong cords. The devils lead him into a door in the side of the hill. Christian thinks it is Turn-away from Apostasy. It makes Hopeful think of the story of Little-faith, who was robbed by Faint-heart, Mistrust and Guilt. They beat him and take his money, but flee when they think that Great-grace is coming. Little-faith had to beg all the rest of his way to heaven. He had lost everything, except his certificate of admittance to heaven. The pilgrims have a large conversation about him and the robbers, and about how to be prepared to meet enemies. They come to a junction of two ways that both seem to be straight before them and doubt which one to take. Then a black man with a very light robe tells them to follow him because he has the same destination. He leads them into a net in which they get entangled. At last a Shining One comes towards them with a whip of small cord in his hand. He tells them the black man is Flatterer and lets


100



the men out. He commands them to lie down and chastises them sore, to teach them the good way wherein they should walk. They thank him for his kindness and go on, singing. Back on the highway they see a man coming from the direction of Zion to meet them. His name is Atheist. He tells them Mount Zion does not exist. They do not believe him and go on. They go till they come into a country which air naturally tends to make strangers drowsy. These are the Enchanted Grounds. Hopeful gets sleepy and suggests to take a nap, but Christian refuses lest they never awake. To prevent drowsiness they start talking about how God revealed himself unto Hopeful. They have a long conversations about this.

Chapter 10 Ignorance Ignores Christian When Hopeful looks back he sees Ignorance loitering behind them. They decide to tarry for him. Ignorance tells them he does not care for their company. But Christian starts a long conversation with him about how it stands between God and his soul. Ignorance thinks it stands well between God and his soul because his heart tells him so. Christian points out that this is no ground to hope, but that one’s life should be approved of by the Scripture and that no man can know Jesus but by the revelation of the Father. Ignorance hates this kind of talk and stays behind again. Since they are still on the Enchanted Ground, Christian and Hopeful continue their long conversation. They talk about people like Ignorance and about people like a man called Temporary, who after some conviction of sin turned back to his former life.

Chapter 11 Crossing the River to the Celestial City After the Enchanted Ground the pilgrims enter the sweet country of Beulah. Everything is pleasant and they have no want of anything. They have a more perfect view of the Celestial City. They meet the gardener, who bids them refresh themselves with dainties. They talk a lot in their sleep. When they awake they go up to the city. There they meet two angels, in raiment shining like gold. They go together to the city. They reach a very deep river. The men tell them they must go through, but that they shall find it deeper or shallower as they believe in the King of the palace. Christian has much trouble in the river because of his doubts, but Hopeful strengthens him. On the other side the two angels await them. In the river they leave their mortal garments behind them. The angels tell them about the place they are heading for. Several trumpeters salute the pilgrims with ten thousand welcomes. The angels compass them around, continually sounding. They very joyfully reach the gate. They call at the gate. Then Enoch and Moses and Elijah look over the gate. They give in their certificates. When the King reads these, he orders to open the gate. When the men go in, they are transfigured end have raiment put on shining like gold. The city shines likes the sun, the streets are paved with gold and in it walk many men with crowns on their heads, palms in their hands and golden harps to sing praises. Then Ignorance is taken to the other side of the river by Vain-hope, a ferryman. He knocks, but nobody opens. He has no certificate. The angels bind him hand and foot and take him away to the door in the hill and put him in there: there is a way to hell even from the gates of heaven, as well as from the City of Destruction.


101



The story is concluded by a poem in which the storyteller asks the reader to interpret the dream, but also to take heed of misinterpreting.


102



Appendix C Survey of Characters NB. Italics and the X-sign indicate characters who are present in the text, but whose names are not mentioned. Original

1. De Koning

2. v.d. Brink

3. De Zeeuw

4. Mateboer

5. Couldridge

6. Watson

7. De Jager 1

8. De Jager 2

9. Ruissen

Christian

Christen

Christen

Christen

Christen

Christen

Christen

Christen

Christen

Christen

Christian’s wife

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Evangelist

Evangelist

Evangelist

Evangelist

Evangelist

Evangelist

Evangelist

Evangelist

Evangelist

Evangelist

Obstinate

Hardnekkig

Halsstarrig

Halsstarrig

Halsstarrig

Halsstarrig

Halsstarrig

Koppig

X

Halsstarrig

Pliable

Plooibaar

Gezeggelijk

Plooibaar

Gezeggelijk

Volgzaam

Inschikkelijk

Plooibaar

X

Gezeggelijk

Help

Helper

Helper

Helper

Helper

Helper

Hulp

Helper

X

Helper

Worldly-

Wereldwijze

Wereldwijs

Wereldwijs

Wereldwijze

Wereldwijs

Wereldwijs

Wereldwijze

X

Wereldwijs

Fatsoenlijkheid

Wettisch

Wettisch

Wettisch

X

X

Hoffelijk

Hoffelijkheid

an children Christian’s neighbours

Wiseman Legality Civility

Wettigheid

Wettisch

Burgerlijkheid

Burgerlijkheid

Wettisch Hoffelijk

Goodwill

Welbehagen

Welbehagen

Welbehagen

Goede Wil

Welbehagen

Welwillendheid

Welbehagen

X

Welbehagen

Interpreter

Uitlegger

Uitlegger

Uitlegger

Uitlegger

Uitlegger

Uitlegger

Uitlegger

Uitlegger

Uitlegger

Hartstocht

Hartstocht

Hartstocht

Hartstocht

Passie

X

Hartstocht

Passion Patience

Lijdzaamheid

Lijdzaamheid

Geduld

Geduld

Patiëntie

X

Lijdzaamheid

Simple

Dwaas

Dwaas

Onnozel

X

X

Onnozelheid

Simpel

X

Dwaas

Sloth

Luiaard

Luiaard

Luiaard

X

X

Vadsigheid

Luiaard

X

Luiaard

Presumption

Vermetel

Verwaand

Verwaand

X

X

Veronderstelling

Vermetel

X

Verwaand

Formalist

Vormelijkheid

X

Vormelijkheid

Formalist

X

Plichtmatig

Formalist

X

Formalist

Hypocrisy

Geveinsde

X

Geveinsde

Huichelaar

X

Huichelarij

Hypocriet

X

Hypocriet

Timorous

Bangerd

Vreesachtig

Vreesachtig

Vreesachtige

X

Bedeesd

Vrees

X

Vreesachtig

Mistrust

Mistrouwen

Mistrouwen

Wantrouwen

Wantrouwende

X

Wantrouwen

Ongeloof

X

Mistrouwen

Watchful

Waakzaam

Waakzaam

Waakzaam

Waakzaam

Waakzaam

Waakzaam

Waakzaam

X

Waakzaam

Discretion

X

Bescheidenheid

Bescheidenheid

Kiesheid

X

Bedachtzaamhei

Bescheiden

X

Bescheidenheid

d


103



Piety

Godsvrucht

Godsvrucht

Godvruchtigheid

Godsvrucht

Prudence

Voorzichtigheid

Voorzichtigheid

Voorzichtigheid

Voorzichtigheid

Charity

Liefde

Liefde

Liefde

Liefde

Vroomheid

Vroomheid

X

Godsvrucht

Voorzichtigheid

Voorzichtig(heid)

X

Voorzichtigheid

Beminnelijkheid

Liefde

X

Liefde

Faithful

Getrouwe

Getrouw

Getrouw

Getrouwe

Getrouw

Getrouw

Getrouwe

Getrouw

Getrouw

Apollyon

Apollyon

Apollion

Apollyon

Apollyon

Apollyon

Apollion

Apollyon

Apollyon

Apollyon

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Heiden

X

Heiden

(Verderver) Two men

X

coming back from the valley Pagan

Heiden

Pope

Paus

X

Paus

Wellust

Wellust

Wellust

Paus

Wellustig

X

Wellust

Adam the First

De Oude Mens

Eerste Adam

Adam

Adam de Eerste

Adam de Eerste

De Oude Mens

Lust of the

Begeerlijkheid

Begeerlijkheid

X

Vleselijke Lust

Lust van het

Begeerlijkheid

Flesh

des Vleses

des vlezes

vlees

des Vleses

Lust of the

Begeerlijkheid

Begeerlijkheid

X

Ogenlust

Lust van de

Begeerlijkheid

Eyes

der Ogen

der ogen

ogen

der Ogen

Pride of Life

Grootsheid des

Grootsheid des

X

Levenstrots

Grootsheid des

Grootsheid des

Levens

Levens

levens

Levens

Ontevreden

Ontevreden

Wanton

Wellust

X

Discontent

Ontevreden

Pride

Trots

Arrogancy

Aanmatiging

Self-conceit

Eigenwaan

Zelfbedrog

Wereldse

Wereldse Eer

Wordly-glory

Hoogmoed

Heerlijkheid Shame

Schaamte

Schaamte

Mondchristen

Mondchristen

Mondchristen

X

Deugdhater

Talkative

Mond-Christen

Say-well

Schoonspreker

Mooiprater

Hate-good

Deugdhater

Deugdhater

Prater

Welbespraakt Hater van het

Schaamte

Valse schaamte

Schaamte

Praatziek

Prater

Mondchristen

Welgezegd

Mooipraat

Haat het Goede

Haat-het-Goede

Mooiprater X

Deugdhater

goede Oldman


Oude mens

104



Carnal Delight

Zingenot

Luxurious Desire-of-Vain-

IJdele Eer

Glory Lechery

Wellustig

Having Greedy

Schraapzuchtig

Envy

X

Nijd

Nijd

X

Afgunst

Nijd

Nijd

Superstition

X

Bijgeloof

Bijgeloof

X

Bijgeloof

Bijgeloof

Bijgeloof

Pickthank

X

Vlijtong

Vlijtong

X

Flemer

Pluimstrijker

Vlijtong

Blindeman

Blindeman

Blindman

Kwaadaardig

Boosheid

Blindman

Blinde

No-good

Nietgoed

Deugniet

Malice

Kwaadwillig

Boosaardigheid

Love-lust

Lichtzinnig

Wellust

Live-loose

Losbandig

Losbandigheid

Lichtzinnig

Heady

Stijfhoofdig

Opvliegend

Stijfhoofd

High-mind

Hoogmoedig

Hoogmoed

Enmity

Vijandschap

Vijandschap

Liar

Leugenaar

Leugenaar

Cruelty

Wreedheid

Wreedheid

Hate-light

Lichthater

Haat het Licht

Implacable

Onverzoenlijk

Nietgoed

Vijandschap

Wreedheid

Wreedheid

Onverzoenlijk

Onverbiddelijk

Hopeful

Hopende

Hoop

Hoop

Hopende

Hoopvol

Hoopvol

Hopende

Onverzoenlijk

By-ends

Bijbedoeling

Bijbedoeling/

Bijbedoeling

Bijbedoeling

Bijdoel

Bijbedoeling

Bij-einde

Bijbedoeling

Hopende

Hoop

Bijoogmerk Turn-about

Overloper

Draaibord

Draaibord

Draaier

Draaibord

Draaibord

Time-server

Tijddienaar

Weerhaan

Weerhaan

Weerhaan

Tijdsdienaar

Weerhaan

Fair-speech

Schijnheilig

Mooipraat

Mooiprater

Schoonspraak

Mooipraat

X

Dubbelhartig

Smooth-man Facing-both-

Gladman Dubbelhartig

Dubbelhartig

Dubbelhartig

Allemansvriend

Allemansvriend

Allemansvriend

ways Anything


Allemansvriend

Allemansvriend

105



Two-tongues

Tweetongig

Tweetongig

Tweetongig

Feigning

Veinzerij

Schoonschijn

Schoonschijn

Hold-the-world

Wereldliefhebbe

Wereldvriend

Wereldvriend

Houd-de-wereld

Wereldliefhebbe

Tweetongig

Tweetongig

Tweetongig Schoonschijn

r

Houd-de-wereld-

Wereldvriend

r

vast

Money-love

Geldzuchtig

Geldwolf

Geldwolf

Geldlief

Geldzucht

Geldwolf

Geldwolf

Save-all

Gierig

Vrekkig

Vrekkig

Houdvast

Schraper

Vrek

Vrekkig

Grijpvogel

Grijpvogel

Grijper

Grijpgraag

Demas

Demas

Demas

Demas

Demas

X

Demas

Demas

X

Demas

Vain-glory

IJdel Vertrouwen

IJdel-

IJdel-

IJdelvertrouwen

IJdel-

Valse

IJdele Hoop

X

IJdel-

Zelfvertrouwen

Zelfvertrouwen

Vertrouwen

Gerustheid

Wanhoop

Wanhoop

Wanhoop

Wanhoop

Wanhoop

Schroom

Ongeloof

X

Ongeloof

Gripe-man

Grijpvogel

Zelfvertrouwen

Despair

Wanhoop

Wanhoop

Wanhoop

Wanhoop

Diffidence

Wantrouwen

Ongeloof

X

X

Knowledge

Kennis

Kennis

Kennis

X

X

Waakzaam

Kennis

X

Kennis

Experience

Ervaring

Ervaring

Ervaring

X

X

Oprecht

Bevinding

X

Ervaring

Watchful

Waakzaamheid

Waakzaam

Waakzaam

X

X

Kennis

Wakende

X

Waakzaam

Sincere

Oprechtheid

Oprecht

Oprecht

X

X

Ignorance

Onkunde

Onkunde

Onkunde

Onkunde

Little-faith

Kleingeloof

Kleingeloof

Faint-heart

Lafhartig

Lafhartig

Mistrust

Mistrouwen

Guilt

Schuld

Great-grace

Groote Genade

Flatterer

Verleider

Vleier/Verleider

Vleier/Verleider

X

Atheïst

Godloochenaar

Godloochenaar

Godloochenaar

Atheïst

Afwijker

Afwijker

Afwijker

Ervaring

Oprecht

X

Oprecht

Onkunde

Onkunde

Onkunde

Onkunde

Kleingeloof

Kleingeloof

Kleingeloof

Kleingeloof

Lafhartig

Lafheid

X

Lafhartig

Mistrouwen

Wantrouwen

Wantrouwen

X

Wantrouwen

Schuld

Schuld

Schuld

X

Schuld

Grote Genade

Grote Genade

Grote Genade

Grote Genade

Grote Genade

Vleier

Vleier

Vleier

X

Vleier

X

Atheïst

Atheïst

X

Godloochenaar

Temporary Turn-back

Tijdelijk

Tijdgelovige

Draler

Afwijker

Afwijker /

Afwijker

Afvallige Save-self

Red Uzelf

The gardener

X

X

X

Vainhope

IJdele Hoop

IJdele Hoop

IJdele Hoop


X

Zelfhulp

Zelfredder

X

X

X

X

IJdele Hoop

IJdele Hoop

106



Present in all books: Original

1. De Koning

2. v.d. Brink

3. De Zeeuw

4. Mateboer

5. Couldridge

6. Watson

7. De Jager 1

8. De Jager 2

9. Ruissen

Christian

Christen

Christen

Christen

Christen

Christen

Christen

Christen

Christen

Christen

Christian’s wife

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Evangelist

Evangelist

Evangelist

Evangelist

Evangelist

Evangelist

Evangelist

Evangelist

Evangelist

Evangelist

Obstinate

Hardnekkig

Halsstarrig

Halsstarrig

Halsstarrig

Halsstarrig

Halsstarrig

Koppig

X

Halsstarrig

Pliable

Plooibaar

Gezeggelijk

Plooibaar

Gezeggelijk

Volgzaam

Inschikkelijk

Plooibaar

X

Gezeggelijk

Help

Helper

Helper

Helper

Helper

Helper

Hulp

Helper

X

Helper

Worldly-

Wereldwijze

Wereldwijs

Wereldwijs

Wereldwijze

Wereldwijs

Wereldwijs

Wereldwijze

X

Wereldwijs

Legality

Fatsoenlijkheid

Wettisch

Wettisch

Wettisch

X

Wettigheid

Wettisch

X

Wettisch

Goodwill

Welbehagen

Welbehagen

Welbehagen

Goede Wil

Welbehagen

Welwillendheid

Welbehagen

X

Welbehagen

Interpreter

Uitlegger

Uitlegger

Uitlegger

Uitlegger

Uitlegger

Uitlegger

Uitlegger

Uitlegger

Uitlegger

Simple

Dwaas

Dwaas

Onnozel

X

X

Onnozelheid

Simpel

X

Dwaas

Sloth

Luiaard

Luiaard

Luiaard

X

X

Vadsigheid

Luiaard

X

Luiaard

Presumption

Vermetel

Verwaand

Verwaand

X

X

Veronderstelling

Vermetel

X

Verwaand

Formalist

Vormelijkheid

X

Vormelijkheid

Formalist

X

Plichtmatig

Formalist

X

Formalist

Hypocrisy

Geveinsde

X

Geveinsde

Huichelaar

X

Huichelarij

Hypocriet

X

Hypocriet

Timorous

Bangerd

Vreesachtig

Vreesachtig

Vreesachtige

X

Bedeesd

Vrees

X

Vreesachtig

Mistrust

Mistrouwen

Mistrouwen

Wantrouwen

Wantrouwende

X

Wantrouwen

Ongeloof

X

Mistrouwen

Watchful

Waakzaam

Waakzaam

Waakzaam

Waakzaam

Waakzaam

Waakzaam

Waakzaam

X

Waakzaam

Discretion

X

Bescheidenheid

Bescheidenheid

Kiesheid

X

Bedachtzaamhei

Bescheiden

X

Bescheidenheid

an children Christian’s neighbours

Wiseman

d Faithful

Getrouwe

Getrouw

Getrouw

Getrouwe

Getrouw

Getrouw

Getrouwe

Getrouw

Getrouw

Apollyon

Apollyon

Apollion

Apollyon

Apollyon

Apollyon

Apollion

Apollyon

Apollyon

Apollyon

Deugdhater

X

Deugdhater

Hater van het

Haat het Goede

Haat-het-Goede

X

Deugdhater

(Verderver) Hate-good

Deugdhater


107



goede Hopeful

Hopende

Hoop

Hoop

Hopende

Hoopvol

Hoopvol

Hopende

Hopende

Hoop

Demas

Demas

Demas

Demas

Demas

X

Demas

Demas

X

Demas

Vain-glory

IJdel Vertrouwen

IJdel-

IJdel-

IJdelvertrouwen

IJdel-

Valse

IJdele Hoop

X

IJdel-

Zelfvertrouwen

Zelfvertrouwen

Vertrouwen

Gerustheid

Wanhoop

Wanhoop

Wanhoop

Wanhoop

Wanhoop

Despair

Wanhoop

Knowledge

Kennis

Kennis

Kennis

X

X

Waakzaam

Experience

Ervaring

Ervaring

Ervaring

X

X

Oprecht

Watchful

Waakzaamheid

Waakzaam

Waakzaam

X

X

Sincere

Oprechtheid

Oprecht

Oprecht

X

X

Flatterer

Verleider

Vleier/Verleider

Vleier/Verleider

X

Atheïst

Godloochenaar

Godloochenaar

Godloochenaar

Atheïst


Wanhoop

Zelfvertrouwen Wanhoop

Wanhoop

Kennis

X

Kennis

Bevinding

X

Ervaring

Kennis

Wakende

X

Waakzaam

Ervaring

Oprecht

X

Oprecht

Vleier

Vleier

Vleier

X

Vleier

X

Atheïst

Atheïst

X

Godloochenaar

108



Appendix D Description of Characters

Christian Main character. Man, burdened with sin, wants to be delivered. Follows Evangelist’s advice to go to the Wicket-gate. Encounters much trouble on the way, but always turns back. At House Beautiful he says: My name is Christian, but my name at the first was Graceless. I came of the race of Jafeth, whom God will persuade to dwell in the tents of Shem.

Christian’s wife and children Deride, chide and neglect Christian.

Evangelist Tells Christian where to go. Is the voice of heaven.

Obstinate Neighbour of Christian’s. Tries to fetch Christian back. Does not follow Christian’s advice to join him but goes back immediately.

Pliable Neighbour of Christian’s. Tries to fetch Christian back. At first he follows Christian, but decides to go back at Despond.

Help Helps Christian out of the slough of Despond.

Master Worldly-Wiseman Dwells in the town of Carnal-Policy, goes to church in the town of Morality. Is dangerous, according to Evangelist, because of his turning Christian out of the way; his labouring to rendering the Cross odious to Christian, and his setting Christian’s feet in that way wich leadeth unto the administration of death.

Legality Worldly-Wiseman sends Christian to Legality. According to Evangelist, he is a cheat and cannot save. Represents salvation by obeying the law, which is impossible.

Civility Worldly-Wiseman sends Christian to Legality, or to his son Civility. A cheat, according to Evangelist.

Goodwill The man who opens the Wicket-gate. He also tells Christian where to go.


109



Interpreter A man who shows many things to Christian that will be profitable on his journey.

Passion A child in the house of the Interpreter who cannot wait. He wants everything now, like the men of this world.

Patience A child in the house of Interpreter who can wait, like the men of the world which is to come.

Simple A man who Christian finds sleeping. He says: ‘I see no danger.’

Sloth A man who Christian finds sleeping. He says: ‘Yet a little more sleep.’

Presumption A man who Christian finds sleeping. He says: ‘Every vat must stand upon his own bottom.’

Formalist and Hypocrisy Two men who come tumbling over the wall of Salvation. Born in the land of Vain-glory, heading for Mount Zion. Christian tells them they are thieves and robbers because they do not obey the Master’s rules.

Timorous and Mistrust Two men who Christian meets at the top of Difficulty. They are going back because of the increasing danger.

Watchful The Porter of House Beautiful.

Discretion A virgin in the House Beautiful who is asked to talk to Christian.

Piety A virgin in the House Beautiful who is asked to talk to Christian. She asks many questions about what happened during his pilgrimage.


110



Prudence A virgin in the House Beautiful who is asked to talk to Christian. She asks many questions about how Christian feels about his past and future.

Charity A virgin in the House Beautiful who is asked to talk to Christian. She asks many questions about Christian’s family.

Faithful One of Christian’s former neighbours who becomes a pilgrim.

Apollyon A monster that attacks Christian, clothed with scales like a fish, having wings like a dragon, feet like a bear, and out of his belly comes fire and smoke. His mouth is the mouth of a lion.

Pagan and Pope Two giants who used to threaten and kill passers-by at the end of the Valley of the Shadow of Death. Pagan is dead and Pope is too old to hurt anybody.

Wanton A woman who tries to catch Faithful on his pilgrimage in her nets of carnal and fleshly content.

Adam the First An old man who asks Christian to work for him. He lives in the town of Deceit. His work is many delights and his wages that he should be his heir. His house is maintained with all the dainties in the world and his servants are those of his own begetting. He has three daughters.

Lust of the Flesh, Lust of the Eyes and Pride of Life Adam the First’s three daughters, who Faithful could marry if he would.

Discontent A man who tries to make Faithful go back before he enters the Valley of Humility, because passing it would be altogether without honour.

Pride, Arrogancy, Self-conceit, Worldly-glory People who would be very much offended if Faithful passed the Valley of Humility, according to Discontent


111



Shame A man who tries to make Faithful ashamed of his religion, Christian and Faithful think he has the wrong name, for he is so bold as to follow them everywhere.

Talkative A man who Faithful and Christian meet. He can talk about anything, but especially about highly religious subjects. But Christian knows him: he says, but does not. He is the son of Say-well, and lives in Prating Row. He is a saint abroad, and a devil at home.

Say-well Talkative’s father.

Judge Hate-good The judge in the town of Vanity.

Lord Oldman, Lord Carnal Delight, Lord Luxurious, Lord Desire-of-Vain-Glory, Lord Lechery, Sir Having Greedy Some of the nobility of Vanity.

Mr. Envy, Mr. Superstition, Mr. Pickthank, Mr. Blindman, Mr. No-good, Mr. Malice, Mr. Love-lust, Mr. Live-loose, Mr. Heady, Mr. High-mind, Mr. Enmity, Mr. Liar, Mr. Cruelty, Mr. Hate-light and Mr. Implacable The members of the jury in the Vanity court.

Hopeful A man from Vanity fair who is impressed by Christian and Faithful. He is Christian’s companion for the rest of the way.

By-ends A man who Christian and Hopeful meet when they have just left Vanity. He comes from Fair-speech. People from there do not strive against wind and tide, and they are always most zealous when religion goes in his silver slippers.

Lord Turn-about, Lord Time-server, Lord Fair-speech, Mr. Smooth-man, Mr. Facing-both-ways, Mr. Anything, Mr. Two-tongues, Lady Feigning By-ends’ relatives and friends.

Mr. Hold-the-world, Mr. Money-love and Mr. Save-all Three friends of By-ends’.


112



Mr. Gripe-man A schoolmaster in Love-gain (county of Coveting) who taught By-ends and his friends the art of getting, either by violence, cozenage, flattery, lying or by putting on a guise of religion

Demas A man who asks Christian and Hopeful to come and dig for treasure in a silver mine.

Vain-glory A man who Christian and Hopeful meet at the By-path Meadow. He goes before them, but walks into a deep pit, a trap made by the prince of the grounds.

Giant Despair A giant who lives near the By-path Meadow. Christian and Hopeful are almost killed by him. He sometimes falls into fits and looses the use of his limbs.

Diffidence Giant Despair’s wife, who advises him how to deal with the pilgrims

Knowledge, Experience, Watchful and Sincere The shepherds in the Delectable Mountains.

Ignorance A brisk lad from the country of Conceit. Christian and Hopeful meet him when they have just left the Delectable Mountains.

Little-faith A man who was robbed by Faint-heart, Mistrust and Guilt. They took all his money, but not his jewels that gave him a right to his inheritance in heaven. He continues his way begging and complaining, and does not make much use of his jewels.

Faint-heart, Mistrust and Guilt The men who robbed Little-faith.

Great-grace A man from the city of Good-confidence. The three robbers flee when they think he is coming.

Flatterer A black man with a white robe who leads Christian and Hopeful into a net. He is a false apostle who has transformed himself into an angel of light.


113



Atheist A man who tells Christian and Hopeful that Mount Zion does not exist.

Temporary A man who lived in Graceless, a town about two miles off of Honesty. He lived next door to Turn-back. He was convinced of sin, but when he grew acquainted with Save-self, he turned back to his former life.

Turn-back Neighbour of Temporary’s.

Save-self Acqaintance of Temporary’s.

The gardener The gardener in the country of Beulah.

Vain-hope A ferryman who takes Ignorance and other people to the other side of the river.


114



Appendix E Reviews 198

1. De Christenreis : vertaald en ingeleid door A.G. Barkey Wolf 191 pages, [2nd edition] Illustrator J.H. Isings jr. Publisher W.D. Meinema N.V., Delft Annotation: First print, 1934;

‘Jongens- en meisjesboek; geschikt voor een leeftijd van boven 14 jaar; bekend. Korte inhoud: De inhoud van dit boek is overbekend. Het is een nieuwe vertaling, waarvoor we erg dankbaar moeten zijn. Vanzelf zijn er verschillen met de vorige vertalingen. Dit geldt ook de liederen. Vlot laat deze vertaling zich lezen. Algemeene op- of aanmerkingen: Enkele aanmerkingen blijven altijd over. Zoo b.v. op blz. 153, in het lied, dat Christen zong. Is het wel juist, dat "kleingeloof" sterven moest? De vraag is nu echter, of dit boek voor de leerlingen geschikt is. Het lijkt ons niet juist, dit boek als gewoon Zondagsschool boekje uit te deelen. Zouden de kinderen het lezen en kunnen begrijpen? Beter lijkt het om b.v. bij het verlaten van de Z.S. mee te geven. Want ongetwijfeld zullen zij er later nut van hebben. Conclusie: warm aanbevolen voor Z.S.’

Boekbeoordeling van de Ned. Hervormden Zondagsscholenbond op Geref. Grondslag, 1934

2. De Pelgrimsreis van deze wereld naar de toekomende : voorgesteld in den vorm van een droom

199

158 pages, [1st edition 1917] Illustrator Harold Copping Publisher G.F. Callenbach, Nijkerk Annotation: Second print, 1923;

‘De bekende, onovertroffen schoone allegorie van Bunyan behoeft geen nadere aanwijzing. Wij verblijden ons zeer over deze keurig verzorgde uitgave. De illustratie's munten door hun aangrijpende teekeningen uit. Zij hebben een titel en een onderschrift en spreken daardoor in nog voller kracht. 't Zijn illustraties om er lang en met ernstig nadenken op te zien. Onze aandacht werd bijzonder geboeid door: Evangelist wijst den weg. De poel moedeloosheid. Christen beklimt den heuvel moeilijkheid. De heuvel dwaling. Verward in het net. En niet het minst door: De bekeering van Hoop. Een rijke verluchting gaf de Uitgever aan dit boek. In één woord prachtig. Bunyan is een schrijver voor alle tijden en hij is het ook voor onzen tijd. De Christenreis is een magistraal boek, dat verwarmt, verkwikt en kracht geeft; dat vooral in onzen veelvuldig verstrooienden tijd, onder den zegen des Heeren een groote roeping kan vervullen. Wij prijzen de uitdeeling van dit boek met name aan de oudere leerlingen onvoorwaardelijk en met warmte aan. 't Is een boek voor hun leven, waar ze niet uitgroeien, gelijk bij de meeste andere boekjes het geval is, maar waar zij, als 't goed is, steeds meer ingroeien. Het boek van Bunyan kan een heerlijk medicijn wezen tegen de geestesmatheid en zielemoeheid, die 198 199

Source: www.achterderug.nl Ibid.


115



steeds meerderen in onzen gejaagden en bangen tijd aangegrepen heeft. "Bunyans beroemden pelgrimstocht", zoo lazen wij onlangs in een paedagogisch geschrift, "moest ieder lezen." Dit boek van den heer Callenbach neemt onder de verschillende uitgaven van de Christenreis een plaats der eere in!’

Boekbeoordeeling van Kinderlectuur voor de Zondagsschool door de Commissiën van "Jachin", 1917

3. Eens Christens reize naar de eeuwigheid

200

155 pages, [1st edition 1916] Met 4 zwarte plaatjes tusschen den tekst Publisher J.M. Bredée, Rotterdam

‘Den inhoud van Bunyan's Reize mededeelen, is water in de zee dragen. Al ruim twee eeuwen leest Gods volk over heel de wereld "The pilgrims progress", na den Bijbel het meest gelezen boek. 't Is overbekend, dat de Schrijver in een droomgezicht hier een allegorische voorstelling geeft van het strijdende leven eens Christens van het oogenblik af, dat hij het verderf ontvliedt en zijn voeten op den weg des levens zet, totdat hij aanlandt in het hemelsche Jeruzalem. Een goedkoope volksuitgave van Bunyan's meesterwerk. De plaat op den omslag verraadt haar Engelsche herkomst. Ofschoon de illustratiën goed te noemen zijn, vinden we ze niet zoo teekenend als wij ze menigmaal in oudere uitgaven hebben gezien. We denken b.v. aan het bezoek van Uitlegger, den doorgang door de doodsrivier, en andere, die in deze uitgave niet voorkomen. De druk is duidelijk en net. Is "Christens reize" te rangschikken onder de lectuur voor de jeugd? Hoewel eenerzijds erkend moet worden, dat de diepe zin door een kind niet geheel zal worden verstaan, kan toch andererzijds worden getuigd, dat het voor de rijpere jeugd een aantrekkelijk boek te noemen is. Wat van de Heilige Schrift geldt, n.l. dat het kind veel daarin leest, wat het eerst na dezen kan verstaan, geldt evenzeer van dit werk, dat in den loop der tijden tot zulk een rijken zegen werd gesteld. In de voorrede eener Engelsche uitgave van "The Pilgrim's Progress from this world to that which is to come (Pelgrimsreize uit deze wereld naar de toekomende) vonden wij het volgende: (Wij vertalen): "Bunyan bracht 12 jaren in een ellendige gevangenis door, alwaar hij de "Pelgrimsreize" schreef, een boek, dat evenzeer geliefd is in de kinderkamer als in het studeervertrek, en het goedkeurend oordeel heeft ontvangen van geleerden van den eersten rang. Het is overgezet in zeer vele talen, waarvan sommige onbekend waren in Europa in den tijd, waarin Bunyan leefde. Zendelingen hebben dit boek gebracht naar bijna elk deel der aarde en nu wordt het gelezen door de Chineezen in het Oosten, door de Negers in het Westen, door de Groenlanders in het Noorden en door de bewoners der eilanden van den Stillen Oceaan in het Zuiden. Het Engelsche godsdienstig Tractaatgenootschap (Religious Tract. Society) heeft het werk in ongeveer 28 talen doen overzetten." Bunyan is een schrijver voor alle tijden, en hij is het ook voor onzen tijd. De Christenreis is een magistraal boek, dat verwarmt, verlicht en kracht geeft; dat vooral in onzen veelvuldig verstrooienden tijd een groote roeping kan vervullen onder den zegen des Heeren. Wij leven zoo zelden meer met onszelven alleen. Allen leven het leven van allen en van 200

Ibid.


116



overal en van ieder oogenblik. Hier is een zuivere spiegel, die het schoone beeld van het waarachtig geestelijk leven weerkaatst en ons toeroept: "Denk aan uzelven, beproef uzelven!" Zoo'n boek kan een heerlijk medicijn wezen tegen de geestesmatheid en zielemoeheid, die steeds meerderen in onzen gejaagden tijd heeft aangegrepen. Wij achten Bunyans Christenreize ter uitdeeling aan de oudere leerlingen der Zondagsschool zeer geschikt: het kan daardoor weder in vele huisgezinnen komen, waar het misschien nog onbekend is. Wij troffen dezer dagen in een brochure van den heer R. Casimir deze uitdrukking aan: "Bunyans beroemde pelgrimstocht moest ieder lezen". Met warmte aanbevolen. Moge deze uitgave er goed ingaan.’

Boekbeoordeeling van Kinderlectuur voor de Zondagsschool door de Commissiën van "Jachin", 1916

4. Eens pelgrims reize naar de eeuwigheid

201

160 pages, [1st edition 1930] Publisher J.M. Bredée, Rotterdam

‘Goede wijn behoeft geen krans. Zoo behoeft Bunyans boek geen aanbeveling. Of onze kinderen den diepen, geestelijken zin verstaan zullen van alles wat in dit boekje verhaald wordt, is een tweede vraag. Toch zullen we ze daarom dit boek niet onthouden. Als we ze alles onthouden moesten, wat ze nog niet verstaan kunnen, bleef er weinig voor onze Zondagsschool over. Wij strooien het zaad en de Heere zal te zijner tijd den wasdom geven. Laten we ze daarom met gerustheid dit boekske in handen geven.’

Boekbeoordeling van de Ned. Hervormden Zondagsscholenbond op Geref. Grondslag, 1930

5. Bunyan’s Christenreis 92 pages, [5th edition 1975] Publisher Utrecht: Den Hertog

‘De talrijke en verschillend uitgevoerde vertaling, drukken en herdrukken van de Christenreis van Bunyan vormen het bewijs van de grote plaats, die dit boek onder alle stichtelijke boeken inneemt. Boeken over Bunyan en over de Christenreis bevestigen dit. Naast deze boeken zijn er in Nederland ook twee pogingen gedaan om het verhaal van de Christenreis voor kinderen na te vertellen. Het boekje van P. de Zeeuw is uitverkocht. Te meer een reden tot blijdschap over de herdruk van het boekje van T. Mateboer. Want hoezeer sommigen ook komen met bezwaren tegen het ‘navertellen’ – de schrijver voelt die bezwaren blijkens zijn naschrift ook wel aan – toch meen ik, dat dit streven, nl. het vereenvoudigd navertellen, ten aanzien van dit boek gerechtvaardigd is. Immers wat Bunyan voorstaat: te vertellen wat een Christen in zijn geestelijk leven zoal overkomt, dat mogen (en moeten!) wij ook aan onze kinderen vertellen. En al zal alles van de beeldspraak van Bunyan aan de kinderen niet duidelijk zij, is 201

Ibid.


117



het dan niet aan te bevelen om er gespreksstof van te maken, b.v. bij het voorlezen van ouders aan hun kinderen, of ook wel bij de leesles in de hoogste klas van de lagere school? Daarom: van harte aanbevolen, als leesboek voor de leesles, bibliotheekboek, of geschenk bij de uitdelingen op het Kerstfeest. Het zijn er altijd teveel, die het leven van de Christen niet kennenRR.’

Rev. C.J. Meeuse in De Reformatorische School, August 1976


118

Pilgrimage. ilgrimage in Children s Land

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