Interaksi antara tumbuhan dan hewan di hutan hujan tropis. Andrew J. Marshall

Interaksi antara tumbuhan dan hewan di hutan hujan tropis

Andrew J. Marshall Kuliah Lapanagan Taman Nasional Gunung Palung 23 May-3 Juni 2016

Interaksi antara tumbuhan dan hewan • Tipe interaksi antara hewan dan tumbuhan • Fenologi di hutan tropis • Bagaimana habitat mempengaruhi hewan

Interaksi antara tumbuhan dan hewan > Tipe interaksi antara hewan dan tumbuhan • Fenologi di hutan tropis • Bagaimana habitat mempengaruhi hewan

Interaksi antara tumbuhan dan hewan CO2

Daun: sumber energi untuk tumbuhan sumber makanan untuk hewan

O2

Tumbuh-tumbuhan “mau” hindari jadi makanan untuk hewan. Masukkan beberapa tipe racun dalam daunya, jadi pemakan daun perlu adaptasi tertentu untuk melawan rancun-racunan.

Interaksi antara tumbuhan dan hewan Biji: anak pohon makanan hewan Tumbuh-tumbuhan “mau” hindari anaknya jadi makanan untuk hewan. Masukkan beberapa tipe racun dalam biji atau bikin biji keras sekali, jadi pemakan daun perlu adaptasi tertentu untuk melawan rancun-racunan.

Interaksi antara tumbuhan dan hewan

Buah: strategi untuk penyebar biji sumber makanan untuk hewan Tumbuh-tumbuhan “mau” buah dimakan hewan (asal biji tetap utuh). Kerja sama!

Dibawa… Burung kecil buah kecil, tidak berbau berkilauan, merah atau hitam daging manis, kulit lembek biji kecil, licin

sumber: Phillips & Phillips 2016

Dibawa… Burung kecil

Burung enggang tidak berbau kulut tebal dan keras pecah belah kulit merah, berlemak



Burung enggang

Primata wangi masak warna tua/tidak berkilau kulit tebal daging manis, tempel ke biji biji agak besar (~2 cm)



Burung enggang

Primata

Tikus biji besar, keras, berkilau biji agak beracun kulit tebal tanpa daging sumber: Phillips & Phillips 2016


Burung enggang

Primata

Tikus

Gajah sumber: Phillips & Phillips 2016

sangat wangi dan besar berbuah di pohon kecil kulit tebal warna tua/tidak berkilau

Banyak berdasarkan ukuran biji










Dibawa mamalia besar

Kalau punah, gimana? sumber: Phillips & Phillips 2016

Dibawa air

Vatica resak

Barringtonia sarchostachys


Dibawa angin

Dipetrocarpaceae

Uncaria sp.

Interaksi antara tumbuhan dan hewan • Tipe interaksi antara hewan dan tumbuhan > Fenologi di hutan tropis • Bagaimana habitat mempengaruhi hewan

Fenologi hutan tropis

Jul 91

Apr 91

Jan 91

Oct 90

Jul 90

Apr 90

Jan 90

Oct 89

Jul 89

Apr 89

Jan 89

Oct 88

Jul 88

Apr 88

Jan 88

Oct 87

Jul 87

Apr 87

Jan 87

Oct 86

Jul 86

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Apr 86

Jan 86

TFA (patches/ha)

A

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 # taxa with fruit


Marshall (2004)

% of diet

Jan-Mar 88 (40)

time

Jan-Mar 91 (11)

Oct-Dec 90 (13)

Jul-Sep 90 (13)

Apr-Jun 90 (15)

Jan-Mar 90 (15)

Oct-Dec 89 (25)

Jul-Sep 89 (11)

Jan-Mar 91 (8)

Oct-Dec 90 (13)

Jul-Sep 90 (17)

Apr-Jun 90(27)

Jan-Mar 90 (28)

Oct-Dec 89 (29)

Jul-Sep 89 (26)

Apr-Jun 89 (4)

Jan-Mar 89 (12)

Oct-Dec 88 (21)

Jul-Sep 88 (12)

Apr-Jun 88 (49)

time

Apr-Jun 89 (8)

Jan-Mar 88 (45)

Oct-Dec 87 (57)

Jul-Sep 87 (25)

Apr-Jun 87 (14)

Jan-Mar 87 (28)

time time

Jan-Mar 89 (18)

Oct-Dec 88 (24)

Jul-Sep 88 (24)

Apr-Jun 88 (37)

60%

Oct-Dec 87 (45)

70%

Jul-Sep 87 (71)

80%

Apr-Jun 87 (320)

90%

Jan-Mar 87 (49)

Oct-Dec 86 (35)

30%

Oct-Dec 86 (35)

40%

Jul-Sep 86 (19)

Apr-Jun 86 (36)

Jan-Mar 86 (31)

% %Feeding Observations total feeding observations 50%

Jul-Sep 86 (26)

Apr-Jun 86 (57)

Jan-Mar 86 (38)

% total feeding observations

% of diet

100% 90%

80%

70%

kelempiau

60%

Leaves Figs Fruit pulp+ seeds Flowers

20%

10%

0%

100%

Seeds Leaves Figs Fruit pulp Flowers

kelasi

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%


Perbandingan antara lokasi dan tipe hutan Musim buah raya di Borneo



Sumatra

Borneo Borneo

Marshall et al. (2009); Wich & Marshall (2012)

Satsiun Penelitian Cabang Panti % tree species shared with another habitat types max mean min

PS

FS

11 9.5 8

Tujuh tipe hutan

AB LS LG UG MO 19 22 22 15 14 10 15 16.5 16 11.5 10.5 8.5 11 11 10 8 7 7

tanah, ketinggian, cuaca -> jenis tumbuhan berbeda UB Ridge Average STDEV 30.13404255 1.454735728 SK 2-max 22.84042553 0.738273871 SK 2-min 143.0340426 118.8802679 SK 2-hujan

DT 5-max DT 5-min DT 5-hujan DR 11-max

% tree DR 20 11-min species DR 11-hujan shared with !&"# UB 15-max other habitats 15-min (max, mean,UB 15 !$%# & min; UB 15-hujan pairwiseDT 5-max !!"# NB13-max comparisons DT 5-min "'%# NB13-min 10 among DTNB13-hujan 5-hujan habitats) DR UB11-max 53-max DR UB11-min 53-min DR UB11-hujan 53-hujan

5 !&"#!"#$

avg rainfall 73-max (10 day UBUB15-max UB UB15-min 73-min !$%# period, mm)

UB UB15-hujan 73-hujan

!!"#

UB 88-max NB13-max UB 88-min"'%# NB13-min min UB 88-hujan NB13-hujan

max, ()# temperature ("# (10 day UB 53-max period, C)UB 53-min $&#

!+#

UB 53-hujan

"'%#

UB 73-max UB 73-min UB 73-hujan UB 88-max

30.10638298 22.23404255 130.2404255

1.317340682 SC 7-max 3.138836518 SC 7-min 102.4921281 SC 7-hujan

30.26702128 2.364840334 GP 35-max 21.72340426 1.58693336 GP 35-min UB Ridge 143.3744681 128.8278397 GP 35-hujan Average STDEV 30.13404255 1.454735728 SK 2-max 28.00106383 1.373386185 TK 22-max 22.84042553 SK !'%# $'%# 0.738273871 ('%# &'%# %'%# 21.17021277 0.890434948 TK 2-min 22-min 143.0340426 126.7765957 118.8802679 87.91246055 SK TK 2-hujan 22-hujan

30.10638298 28.60957447 1.317340682 9.626065472 SC MR 7-max 2-max 22.23404255 20.91489362 3.138836518 0.722398715 SC MR 7-min 2-min 130.2404255 117.9940426 102.4921281 85.10232875 SC MR 7-hujan 2-hujan

%"#$

&"#$

GP ridge Average STDEV 30.65558621 2.3872342 22.71551724 1.314934689 121.8651724 100.1716091

'"#$

("#$

#"#$

31.23684211 22.66896552 121.4806897

2.232281951 0.855161193 105.3540278

30.60344828 25.6637931 GP ridge 113.3768966 Average 30.65558621 29.37931034 22.71551724 )'%# *'%# 21.56896552 121.8651724 101.96

1.541128035 26.39367746 95.06716228 STDEV 2.3872342 1.897159337 1.314934689 1.95216541 100.1716091 85.65333369

31.23684211 0.922143076 2.232281951 27.69827586 22.66896552 1.490365307 0.855161193 21.73275862 121.4806897 105.3540278 121.477931 93.26856545

)"#$

*"#$

30.26702128 24.9787234 2.364840334 1.929180948 GP 35-max 80-max 21.72340426 1.58693336 GP 35-min 19.28723404 1.025814158 80-min 143.3744681 131.5978723 128.8278397 96.87636705 GP 35-hujan 80-hujan

30.60344828 2.065014805 1.541128035 28.74655172 25.6637931 1.060802753 26.39367746 20.95689655 113.3768966 85.38255683 95.06716228 107.7993103

26.92391304 28.00106383 !'%# $'%# 17.35869565 21.17021277 126.1630435 126.7765957

26.3362069 1.292311716 29.37931034 1.897159337 )'%# *'%# 1.268451238 19.47413793 21.56896552 1.95216541 107.3596552 84.9438494 101.96 85.65333369

2.216020937 TK GP 90-max 1.373386185 22-max ('%# &'%# %'%# 1.319356087 GP 90-min 0.890434948 TK 22-min 91.1153856 TK GP 90-hujan 87.91246055 22-hujan

28.60957447 9.626065472 MR 2-max 27.69827586 0.922143076 20.91489362 0.722398715 MR 2-min 21.73275862 1.490365307 FS 2-hujan AB 121.477931 LS93.26856545 117.9940426 PS 85.10232875 MR Max temp 30.39481438 30.67161254 30.43523478 28.69018709 !'%# $'%# 22.77797139 ('%# &'%# %'%# )'%# *'%# Min temp 23.69359868 24.9787234 1.929180948 GP30.43523478 80-max 28.74655172 21.36958914 2.065014805 19.28723404 1.025814158 GP 80-min 20.95689655 1.060802753 133.9043432 127.1778983 130.7405227 131.5978723 96.87636705 GP 80-hujan 107.7993103 85.38255683 rainfall 132.4496075 125.8605576 128.3756823 114.3682979 130.9948718 122.7217211 -0.452157413 26.92391304 2.216020937 GP 90-max 26.3362069 1.292311716

PS

FS

AB

LS

LG

FOREST TYPES

UG

MO

Jumlah tipe makan yg tersedia per bulan Musim buah raya Bulan dgn banyak buah Bulan dgn sedikit buah

Jul 91

Apr 91

Jan 91

Oct 90

Jul 90

Apr 90

Jan 90

Oct 89

Jul 89

Apr 89

Jan 89

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Oct 88

Pegununungan 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Rawa gambut

Musim kelaparan

# taxa with fruit

Jul 91

Apr 91

Jan 91

Oct 90

Jul 90

Apr 90

Jan 90

Oct 89

Jul 89

Apr 89

Jan 89

Oct 88

Jul 88

Apr 88

Jan 88

Oct 87

Jul 87

Apr 87

Jan 87

Oct 86

Hutan dataran rendah

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

# taxa with fruit

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

# taxa with fruit

Jul 91

Apr 91

Jan 91

Oct 90

Jul 90

Apr 90

Jan 90

Oct 89

Jul 89

Apr 89

Jan 89

Oct 88

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Jul 88

Apr 88

Jan 88

Oct 87

Jul 87

Apr 87

Jan 87

Oct 86

Jul 86

Apr 86

Jan 86 A

Jul 88

Apr 88

Jan 88

Oct 87

Jul 87

Apr 87

Jan 87

Oct 86

Jul 86

Apr 86

Jan 86

TFA (patches/ha) 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Jul 86

Apr 86

Jan 86

TFA (patches/ha)

TFA (patches/ha)

Jumlah sumber makan kelempiau



1986

Jan 87

Oct 86

Jul 86

1987

Apr 88

1988

Apr 89

Jan 89

Oct 88

Jul 88

1989

Waktu (tahun) 1990

0 Apr 91

Jan 91

Oct 90

Jul 90

1991 Jul 91

musim buah raya

Apr 90

16

Jan 90

Oct 89

Jul 89

6

Jan 88

Oct 87

Jul 87

Apr 87

14

Apr 86

Jan 86

Jumlah pohon makanan per ha

Sumber makanan kelasi, Jan. 1986 - Okt. 91 musim buah raya

12

10

8

musim kelaparan

4

2

Marshall 2004

expected across all months is indicated by the solid black line while 95% confidence (b) limitsLetter are shown by the dashed black lines. The thin grey line illustrates a single replicate of random fruiting behaviour. Frequency distribution of reproductive levels by month (n) (d) follow: (h) montane; (i) upper granite; (j) lower granite; (k) lower sandstone; (l) alluvial (c) bench; (m) freshwater swamp; and (n) peat swamp. Barcharts illustrate observed levels of reproduction. Black curves assume a single season, grey curves assume a mixed model with two seasons. (e)

(i)

Landscape lev

(g)

(a) behaviour over (g) (k) 68 months in a Bornean rainforest for different forest types. (a) montane (mean (j) N month)1 = 283, min = 266, max = 301); (b) upper granite (mean N month)1 = 640, min = 504, max = 678); (c) lower granite (mean N month)1 = 673, min = 572, max (b) = 696); (d) lower sandstone (mean (l) Figure)14 =Fruiting N month 1023, minbehaviour = 911, maxover = Pegunungan (k) (d) 68 (e) months in bench a Gambut Bornean for 1049); alluvial (mean rainforest N month)1 different forest types.= (a) montane (mean = 646, min =)1 578, max 671); (f) freshwa)1 = 301); = 283, min = 266, max N month ter swamp (mean N month )1= 870, (b) upper granite (mean month =in640, reproductive prolowN(g) variability reproductive productivity as the and in reproductive (c) granite climbers (Fig. S3),mean variability prolow variability in reproduct min = 676, max = 922); and peat swamp min = 504, max = 678); (c) lower granite )1 andstone, climbers maximum values foris the lowland are (mean N month = 688, minproductivity = 610, ductivity quite high.sandstone In the lowland sandstone, climbers maximum productivity valu (mean N month)1 = 673, min = 572, max ,max ranking substanquite are low.shown The freshwater swamp (f) climber community was = 701). Observed values in consistently reproductive, ranking substanquite low. The(m) freshwater = 696); (d) lower sandstone (mean were the most (e) (l) the second most consistently reproductive of the seven cross the observa)1 The average level of fruiting thickNgrey line. the second most consiste month = 1023, min = 911, max = tially higher than all other forest types across the observaforest types examined. ely due to the very )1 expected across all months is indicated by 1049); (e) alluvial bench (mean N month forest types examined. tion period. This high relative rank is largely due to the very the = solid 646,black min =line 578,while max =95% 671);confidence (f) freshwaFigure 4 Fruiting behaviour over )1 lines. limitsterare swamp shown by(mean the dashed black N month = 870, (d) ! months 2007 Blackwell 68 in aPublishing BorneanLtd/CNRS rainforest for The min thin =grey illustrates a single replicate 676,line max = 922); and (g) peat swamp ! different forest types. (a) montane (mean )1 (mean fruiting N monthbehaviour. = 688, Frequency min = 610, of random )1 = 283, min = 266, max = 301); N month(g) (f) (m) (n) max = 701). Observed values are shown in distribution of reproductive levels by month (b) upper granite (mean N month)1 = 640, thick(h) greymontane; line. The (i) average of fruiting follow: upperlevel granite; (j) min = 504, max = 678); (c) lower granite expected across all months is indicated lower granite; (k) lower sandstone; (l) alluvialby (mean N month)1 = 673, min = 572, max the (m) solidfreshwater black line swamp; while 95% bench; and confidence (n) peat = 696); (d) lower sandstone (mean (e) limits are shown by the dashed black lines. N month)1 = 1023, min = 911, max = swamp. Barcharts illustrate observed levels The thin grey line illustrates a single replicate 1049); (e) alluvial bench (mean N month)1 of reproduction. Black curves assume a of random fruiting behaviour. Frequency = 646, min = % pohon dengan (n) buah (g)= 578, max = 671); (f) freshwasingle season, grey curves assume distribution of reproductive levels abymixed month )1 ter swamp (mean N month = 870, model with (h) twomontane; seasons. (i) upper granite; (j) follow:

Figure 4 Fruiting

lower granite; (k) lower sandstone; (l) alluvial bench; (m) freshwater swamp; and (n) peat

min = 676, max = 922); and (g) peat swamp Dataran rendah (mean N month)1 = 688, min = 610,

Cannon, Curran, Marshall & Leighton 2007 Ecol. Lett.

Ficus

Liana

(rata-rata) tidak

Pohon kecil

berbuah raya

Pohon besar

Cannon, Curran, Marshall & Leighton 2007 Ecol. Lett.

Marshall & Leighton (2006)

time

Porterandia sessiliflora Aug 91

May 91

Feb 91

Nov 90

Aug 90

May 90

Feb 90

Nov 89

Aug 89

May 89

Feb 89

Nov 88

20

Aug 88

25

Aug 91

May 91

Feb 91

Nov 90

Aug 90

May 90

Feb 90

Nov 89

Aug 89

May 89

Feb 89

Nov 88

Aug 88

May 88

Feb 88

Nov 87

time

Neoscortechinia kingii

Aug 91

May 91

Feb 91

Nov 90

Aug 90

May 90

Feb 90

Nov 89

Aug 89

May 89

Feb 89

Nov 88

Aug 88

May 88

Feb 88

Nov 87

Aug 87

20

May 88

time Aug 87

May 87

Feb 87

Nov 86

Aug 86

May 86

Feb 86

Food/ha 25

Feb 88

May 87

Feb 87

Nov 86

Aug 86

May 86

Feb 86

Food/ha 20

Nov 87

Aug 87

May 87

Feb 87

Nov 86

Aug 86

May 86

Feb 86

Food/ha

30

Musim buah raya

15

10

5

0

30

25

15

Musim berbuah biasa

10

5

0

Rourea major

30

Musim buah sedikit

15

10

5

0

Berbuah raya v. musim-musim tertentu

Average rainfall, Davis, CA 1930–2010 weather.com

Konjup, Southwest Australia Hill & Donald 2003

musim-musim tertentu

New South Wales, Australia

Berbuah raya v. musim-musim tertentu musim-musim tertentu

Average rainfall, Davis, CA 1930–2010 weather.com

tidak bermusim

Average rainfall, Ann Arbor, MI 1930–2010 weather.com

Berbuah raya v. musim-musim tertentu

Figure S1. Annual reproductive behavior of all woody plants. Monthly observations are plotted for each year of the percentage of the reproductive stems. Each year is indicated by a different type of line, as shown in the legend.

persen tumbuhan yg berbuah

4%

1991

1987

1990

1986

3%

1990

1989 1986 1987

1988

2% 1991 1989 1988

Feb

Apr

Jun

Aug

Oct

Dec

Monthly observations (excluding masts)

tidak begitu bermusim

Landscape level Bornean plant reproduction, Cannon et al. figures

Cannon, Curran, Marshall & Leighton (2007) Ecology Letters

Seed exports (millions of kg of dry mass)

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) years

Year

June–Sept rainfall (mm)

Data hutan dari Pontianak, Kalimantan Barat

Non- ENSO

ENSO

Year

Interaksi antara tumbuhan dan hewan • Tipe interaksi antara hewan dan tumbuhan • Fenologi di hutan tropis > Bagaimana habitat mempengaruhi hewan

Kelempiau  (Hylobates albibarbis)

• Berat badan 5-6 kg • Menjaga wilayah sebesar 30-40 ha

T. Laman

• 2-7 individu per kelompok • satu laki-laki kawin sama satu betina

T. Laman

Kelasi   (Presbytis rubicunda rubida)

• Berat badan 5.5-7 kg • Wilayah sebesar 70-85 ha

T. Laman T. Laman • 2-11 individu per kelompok • satu laki-laki bisa kawin sama lebih dari satu betina

Dua jenis ini merupahkan contoh bagus untuk meneliti pertanyaan ekologi karena: • banyak informasi tentang jenis2 binatang ini sudah tersedia dari SPCP dan tempat lain • hewan2 tersebut mentempati beberapa macam hutan • berat badan hampir sama, tapi makanan dan sistem sosial jauh beda • hewan2 ini menjaga wilayah, dan tidak merantau ke tempat lain untuk cari makanan (seperti orangutan), jadi efek-efek kwalitas habitat lebih jelas dan mudah dilihat • kepadatan cukup tinggi, berarti dapat ambil sampel yang cukup besar untuk analisa statistik

Population density +/− SE (in Population density +/− SE (individ Population density +/− SE (indiv

Kepadatan (individu/km2)

30 15 0 2 1 0 3 1.5 0 4 2 0 4

0

4

Pongo Pongo CV 0.59 SPACE==0.59 Pongo CV CVSPACE = 0.59

4

Kwalitas habitat berbeda

2 2 0 2

SPACE

15

Hylobates CVSPACE = 0.58

0 7.5 0 150 15

Kelempiau

15

7.5 7.50

SPACE

7.5

B. rhinoceros

3

0 0

1.5

CVSPACE = 0.55

A.J. Marshall et al. Macaca CVSPACE = 1.55

0

153 15

A.J. Marshall et al.

Kelasi

Macaca CVSPACE = 1.55 Callosciurus CVSPACE = 0.80

Presbytis Presbytis CV SPACE = 0.57 CVSPACE = 0.57

Anorrhinus CVSPACE = 0.51

1.5

7.50 7.5

0.5

Ratufa CVSPACE = 0.66

Callosciurus CVSPACE = 0.80

A.J. Marshall et al. Sus CVSPACE = 0.65

0 0

Hylobates Hylobates CV SPACE = 0.58 Presbytis CV CVSPACE==0.57 0.58

Macaca CVSPACE = 1.55


B. vigil CVSPACE = 0.37

0.25

Pongo CVSPACE = 0.59

Sus CVSPACE = 0.65

A.J. Marshall et al.

0

Callosciurus CVSPACE = 0.80

B.MO.II rhinoceros B. rhinoceros Habitattipe partitions Bagian hutan CVSPACE = 0.55 Fig. 3 Spatial variation in frugivore population densities at the Cabang Panti Research Station, Gunung CVSPACE = 0.55 Palung 1.5National Park, West Kalimantan from October 2007 to February 2013. Mean (±SE) model averaged 1.5 density (individuals/km2) for each vertebrate frugivore by habitat partition (DSPACE). Note that the population warna = tingkat kepadatan 3 3

AB.II

Hylobates CVSPACE = 0.58

Presbytis CVSPACE = 0.57

B. rhinoceros

CVSPACE = 0.55

AB.I Macaca

Pongo = 1.55 CV SPACE CVSPACE = 0.59

LS.II

FS.I

LS.I

PS.I

LG.II

LG.I

UG.II

UG.I

MO.I


Hylobates CVSPACE = 0.58 Callosciurus CVSPACE = 0.80

Sus

Presbytis Ratufa

Pongo CV

CVSPACE = 0.65

= 0.59

Marshall, Beaudrot & Wittmer (2014) Inter. J. Primatol.

kepadatan kelempiao log (indiv/km2)

Kepadatan kelempiau tergantung kepadatan Ficus 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0

0.25

0.5

0.75

Kepadatan Ficus log (fig stems per ha) R2 = 0.70, p = 0.01, n = 7 habitats

1

Studi banding telah konfirmasikan ini juga benra di beberapa lokasi di seluruh Asia

Gibbon biomass log (kg/km2)

2.4 2.2 2

n= 11 sites, r2 = 0.82 p= 0.0001

1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0

0.25 0.5 0.75

1

1.25 1.5 1.75

Kepadatan Ficus log (fig stems per ha)

Reproduksi dan kwalitas habitat: kelempiau 5

jantan = betina 4

R2 = 0.58

p < 0.0001

n = 33 kelompok

3

Jumlah anak per kelompok

2

1

0

0

2

4

6

8

10

Kwalitas wilayah (individu/km2) Marshall (2010) Indonesian Primates Supriatna & Gursky-Doyen (eds)

Reproduksi dan kwalitas habitat: kelasi 5

jantan 4

R2 = 0.70

p = 0.0004

n = 13 kelompok

3


● ●

2

● ● ● ● ● ● ●

●

1

●

●

betina R2 = 0.04

p = 0.53

n = 13 kelompok

●

0

0

2

4

6

8

10


Jumlah betina per kelompok 5

kelasi 4

R2 = 0.83

p < 0.0001

n = 13 kelompok

3

Jumlah betina per kelompok

2

kelempiau

1

tidak ada efek

n = 33 kelompok

0

0

2

4

6

8

10


Kwalitas habitat sangat mempengaruhi kelempiau dan kelasi, tapi efeknya beda berdasarkan sistem sosial.

Dinamika populasi sumber-saluran (“source-sink”) • Variasi antara tipe hutan dan angka perkembangan populasi (“r”) tergantung populasi, sehingga: r > 0 = sumber r < 0 = saluran • Dalam daerah dengan beberapa tipe hutan, populasi dapat bertahan di saluran jika ada immigrasi dari sumber.

2

4

(individu/km2)

Dinamika populasi sumber-saluran kelempiau

6

Kepadatan

8

10

n = 7 tipe hutan

0

R2=0.72, p = 0.015

2

(individu/km2 dalam wilayah)

4

Kwalitas wilyah

6

8

10

n =33 kelompok

4 0

R2=0.83, p < 0.0000001

Hutan pungunungan saluran untuk kelempiao

2


3

n =33 kelompok

1

(di dalam 8 tahun)

0

R2=0.54, p < 0.0000001 0

200

400

600

800

d3$Altitude..m.asl. Ketinggian (m apl)

Marshall 2009 Biotropica

1000

Kelasi juga? 9 Effect of Habitat Quality on Primate Populations in Kalimantan

169

r2 = 0.77, p < 0.0004, n=11

Kwalitas wilayah (individu/km2 dalam wilayah)

tipe hutan lain rawa gambut

Ketinggian (m apl)

Fig. 9.5 Territory-specific population density (individuals/km2, defined as the territory specific Marshall (2010) habitat-quality, as in Fig.9.3) of gibbons (a) and leaf monkeys (b) plotted against altitude (meters Indonesian Primates Supriatna & Gursky-Doyen (eds) 2

Kepadatan menurun di atas gunung max

Hylobates

Presbytis

Pongo

mid

R2=0.59, p = 0.003

min max

R2=0.81, p = 0.00001

R2=0.48, p = 0.013

Macaca

Ratufa

Callosciurus

Kepadatan (individu/km2)

mid

R2=0.32, p = 0.053

min max

R2=0.69, p = 0.0008

R2=0.63, p = 0.002

Sus

Buceros

Anorrhinus

mid

R2=0.68, p = 0.0009

min

n=12 bagian hutan primata mamalia lain burung

0

200

400

R2=0.48, p = 0.013 600

data$elevation

800

0

200

400

R2=0.92, p = 0.00001 600

800

0

data$elevation

Ketinggian (m apl)

200

400

600

data$elevation

800

Dinamika populasi sumber-saluran (“source-sink”)

1,000

– “r” (reprod uctive rate)

r < 0 = saluran

meters apl

0 +

r > 0 = sumber 0

Implikasi dari dinamika populasi sumber-saluran • kebanyakan habitat yg dihilangkan oleh penebangan, kebakaran, dan konversi hutan adalah habitat sumber (dataran rendah) • semakin banyak hutan tersisa adalah habitat saluran • semakin banyak habitat yang tersisa dalam kawasan konservasi bukan “viable habitat”, jadi populasi dalam kawasan lebih kecil daripada dipikirkan • hasil dari survei cepat bisa jadi berbahaya

Ucapan terima kasih • Kementerian Riset, Teknologi dan Pendidikan Tinggi • Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia • Kementerian Sumber Daya Alam dan Ekosistem • Balai Taman Nasional Gunung Palung • Universitas Tanjungpura, U Michigan • Yayasan Palung • Lande, Mi’an, Surya, Zakaria • Tim Laman (untuk foto2 yg hebat)

Interaksi antara tumbuhan dan hewan di hutan hujan tropis. Andrew J. Marshall

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