Human - Machine Interface in car using ADAS and IVIS KAREL SCHMEIDLER, ed.
BRNO, JANUARY 2011
HUMANIST Project An objective of this project is to build a top European workplace that will gather and integrate the outcomes of research of leading European transport institutions, and act as an intermediary in mutual information sharing and reducing the so-called knowledge gaps among individual countries in the whole area of the interaction of the user (driver) and technology, communication assistance systems in particular. The goal of the HUMANIST Network of Excellence (NoE), was to promote a Human centred design approach and also to federate research in its scientific domain, by creating a European Virtual Centre. The creation of the virtual centre has been an answer to the scattering of research capacities in Europe. This has been done by setting up strong connections between partners inside the NoE. The relationship with Universities and Academic World outside the NoE were not set aside, and were enhanced through training programmes and welcoming young researchers. Outputs from NoE were also targeted toward other relevant stakeholders such as National and European public authorities, Standardisation Bodies, National and European RTD Projects. Diffusion and transfer of knowledge, in addition to common partnerships between NoE and these entities, ensured flow of information in order to disseminate the concept of Human centred design outside the Network. Such a diffusion of information ensured the effectiveness of the expected impacts. The HUMANIST Network of Excellence ended in February 2008 and is now continuing its activities under the status of a Virtual Centre of Excellence created as an international association with four new task forces: - HUMANIST Road Map Task Force (inputs for FP7 and FP8, ERTRAC, eSafety) - Task Force “Driver training and ITS” (TFD) - Task Force “Long time impact and effect on ITS” (TFE) - Task Force “Human error management system to improve road safety” (TF Ȗ). The HUMANIST VCE members are involved in twelve FP7 projects (DG TREN, DG RTD, DG INFSO).
More information about HUMANIST at: http://www.humanist-vce.eu
-
COST 352 Project The main objective is to establish a scientific base for the legislation related to road, traffic, and vehicle equipment, methodology for evaluation of safety, and regulations for training and education of drivers with regard to the correct use of vehicle information systems (IVIS) in order to enhance safety of road traffic.
ADVISORS Department of Applied Human Sciences of the Transport Research Centre Brno, Czech Republic takes part in Europe-wide research project ADVISORS. ADVISORS is a project cofunded by the European commission, in which governmental and other research institutes, a transport company, insurance companies, and industries of ten different European countries participate. eIMPACT Project This project focuses on socio-economic analysis of the effect of using intelligent transport systems in vehicles on accident rate. The Transport Research Centre has a task to collect relevant data from the areas in which accident rate could be reduced by introducing intelligent transport systems, such as accidents under bad visibility conditions, under the condition of aggravated road surface, or accidents resulting from failure to keep a safe distance between vehicles.
CONSENSUS CONSENSUS aimed at developing a Network of Excellence in order to systematically exchange information on the driving ability assessment of disabled people and promote
relevant technology transfer within the European Union. It supports access to expertise and resources of highly specialised centres to other, less specialised ones, using state of the art Telematic tools and procedures, as well as experimenting with new IT support tools. Ultimately it aims to promote standardisation of the relevant disabled people driving ability assessment procedures and tools, thus enhancing their mobility and safety. One of the aim of CONSENSUS project is to share a classification of different in-vehicle technology systems ADAS and IVICS) available nowadays. A classification of such systems may help to identify most suitable ones for PSN drivers. Moreover, it’s a tool by which it is possible to share technological competence towards different backgrounds partners.
Doc. PhDr. Ing. Arch. KAREL SCHMEIDLER, CSC. ed. (1951) Architect, urban designer and sociologist; he currently works in the Transport Research Centre and is involved in international research and coordination of transportation planning, mobility, road traffic safety and greening of urban trasport. Collaboration: Prof. Annabela Simoes, Dr. Corrinne Brusque, Dr. Michael Bernhart, PhDr. Vlasta Rehnová, PhDr. Jan Weinberger, Mgr. Iva MackĤ, Mgr. Aleš Zaoral, Mgr. JiĜí Vašek, Ing.Pavel Skládaný, Romana BĜezinová and Mgr. Veronika Zehnalova
List of abbreviations used ABS Anti Blocking System ACC Adaptive Cruise Control ADA Advanced Driving Assistance ADAS Advanced Driving Assistance System AF Alternative Frequencies AHS Advanced cruise-assist Highway System AHSRA Advanced cruise-assist Highway System Research Association AICC Autonomous Intelligent Cruise Control AIDE Adaptive Integrated Driver-vehicle InterfacE APS Auto Pilot System ARIB Association of Radio Industries and Businesses ASL Application Sub-Layer ASR Acceleration Skid Control ASV Advanced Safety Vehicle ATIS Advanced Traveller Information Systems BUA Back Up Aid CA Collision Avoidance CAN Controller Area Network (bus) CCD Charge Coupled Device CD-ROM Compact Disc – Read Only Memory CEM Consumer Electronics Manufacturers CEMVOCAS Centralised Management of Vocal Interfaces aiming at a better Automotive Safety CEN Comité Européenne de Normalisation CMOS Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor CWA Collision Warning and Avoidance DAB Digital Audio Broadcasting DDS Drowsiness Detection System DGPS Differential GPS DSP Digital Signal Processor DSRC Dedicated Short Range Communication (technology) DSRU Driver Situation Recognition Unit DVB Digital Video Broadcasting EBU Electrical Business Unit EPS Electric Power Steering EPS Electric Power Steering ESP Electronic Stability Program ETC Electronic Toll Collection ETS Electronic Traction System FCW Forward Collision Warning FLR Forward Looking Radar FMCW Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (radar) GPRS General Packet Radio Service GPS Global Positioning System GSM Global System for Mobile Communications GUI Graphics User Interface HDD Head Down Display 6
HMI Human Machine Interface HRR High Resolution Radar HUD Head Up Display ICC Intelligent Cruise Control IDIS Integrated Driver Information System IDSS Intelligent Driver Support System IP Integrated Project IRDA Infrared Data Adapter ISA Intelligent Speed Adaptation ITS Intelligent Transportation System IVHS Intelligent Vehicle Highway System IVI In-Vehicle Information IVICS In-Vehicle Information and Communication System IVIS In-Vehicle Information System LANEX Lane Exceedences LCD Liquid Crystal Display LCT Lane Change Test LDW Lane Departure Warning LED Light Emitting Diode LK Lane Keeping LKAS Lane Keeping Assistance System MMIC Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits OBU On Board Unit OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer OIP Open Integrating Platform PB Pre-crash Brake PBA Pre-crash Brake Assist PCS Pre-Crash Safety (system) PDA Personal Digital Assistant PSB Pre-Crash Seat Belt PSN Programme Service Name RDS Radio Data System RESCU Remote Emergency Satellite Cellular Unit RF Radio Frequency RPA Reversing / Parking Aid SDK Smart Distance Keeping SDLP Standard Deviation of Lateral Position SMS Short Messaging System SP Sub-project SWT Sidewall Torsion Sensor TA Traffic Announcement TLC Time to Line Crossing TMC Traffic Message Channel TPEG Transport Protocol Expert Group TPMS Tire-Pressure Monitoring System TTC Time To Collision TTI Travel and Traffic Information UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System VE Vision Enhancement
7
VES Vision Enhancement Systems VODIS Voice Operated Driving Information System VRU Vulnerable Road Users VSC Vehicle Stability Control WAP Wireless Application Protocol WP Workpackage
8
INTRODUCTION The political economical and social changes in the Czech Republic in the last decades have led to increasing mobility, mostly in the private sector. Some European countries achieved substantial reduction in fatalities in the turn of the century, while others, saw road safety worsen.$ Beyond such variations, the overall European downward trend in fatalities demonstrates that targeted car and road safety measures which include Advanced Driver Assistance Systems /ADAS/ can help to avoid road accidents in spite of increasing level of car ownership and motorization. In different ADA systems there are various functions (such as ACC, ISA etc.) that are designed to reduce crash risk and enhance driving comfort. In addition, in individual ADA functions it is very common that different levels of intervention exist, ranging from informative to intervening systems. In other word, some systems are designed to reduce crash risk by providing support to drivers in a number of ways, by even taking over control of the driving task and intervening in situations of increased crash risk to eliminate or et last reduce risk to an acceptable level. Some systems aim at reducing crash risk by informing or warning drivers of imminent hazards, like following the vehicle in front too closely, hazards to be expected ahead on the route or incidents blocking the road or causing some time delays. The expectation concerning these informing or warning systems is that road users utilise this information by adapting their behaviour to account for the hazard and thus decrease the crash risk and avoid a collision. To gain the best safety effects of ADA systems, it must be ensured that the drivers understand the technical capability and the level of intervention that the system he or she is using is capable to offer. This is possible only if the functions and level of intervention of different ADA systems are described with terms that are understandable to the user. Members States representatives
Final users
Relevant European DGs Training actions European Universities Scientific productions
Insurance companies
Setting up of a User Network
Exchange and interact with the outside world
RTD Projects in the area
eSafety initiative
Electronic dissemination tools
Events Organisation
Transport Service Sector
Dissemination material Automotive industries
Standardisation Bodies
HUMANIST initiative $ Provisional estimates of road fatalities in 19 OECD countries show an average overall reduction of 3%, continuing the downward trend of the past few years. However, this modest improvement masks the facts that even greater improvements could be within all countries reach.
9
According to recent OECD research, if all known road safety measures were adopted by all member countries, the number of deaths on roads in OECD countries could be cut, not just by a few percentage points, but as much as 50%. ADA systems may help to make the entire driving experience safer for consumers. They gear to reduce vehicle collision, to enhance occupant protection and to assist post event (crash etc.) rescue. However, it is common knowledge that the implementation of a lot of ADAS is not based on users expressed wishes but rather on the manufactures considerable technological push. Furthermore misunderstandings between developers´ technical terms and users expectations and assumptions are making the conversation between the providers and the users irrelevant and even impossible. Acceptation of common EU transport law, and in the other hand the negative impact of transport like environmental pollution, congestion and fatalities make it possible, that the introduction of Telematics aids and services in standard cars in the Czech Republic is no longer a distant prospect – it is reality. The introduction of co called Advanced Driver Assistance Systems /ADAS/ into traffic is expected by authorities to enhance safety and comfort of driving to optimise the traffic flow in the Czech Republic and to decrease fuel consumption. However, will such expectations be fulfilled? For example, is it really safe to attend to warnings about exceeding the speed limit, being to close to the vehicle ahead and drifting slowly off the white line, when you to overtake but only forgot to use your indicator lights?
HUMAN – MACHINE INTERFACE RESEARCH FOR TRAFFIC EFECTIVITY AND SAFETY Human factors and cognitive engineering competencies exist in Europe but are scattered. For addressing this fragmentation of research capacities, HUMANIST1 gathers the 1
HUMANIST is a Network of Excellence gathering the main research institutions from 15 European countries. The partners involved in this network are working in the area of new technologies in Transport: with a specific concern on human centered design, to ensure matching between provided systems and services, and users needs and requirements, in addition to concern with road safety improvement.
10
most relevant European research institutes involved in Road Safety and Transport to contribute to the eSafety initiative and to improve road safety by promoting human centred design for IVIS and ADAS. The development of new information and communication technologies is transforming the uses and practices in transport. Through various systems, a certain number of functions are proposed to the driver with the aim to facilitate one’s driving task and to improve the safety on the roads (navigation aid, traffic and meteorological information in real time, adaptive cruise control for maintaining a safe headway with the car ahead, intelligent speed adaptation etc.). These technologies create an opportunity to help both mobility and road safety. However, they also raise numerous questions about their acceptability by various groups of drivers and about their potential effects on behaviour and attitudes. An objective of this project is to build a top European workplace that will gather and integrate the outcomes of research of leading European transport institutions, and act as an intermediary in mutual information sharing and reducing the so-called knowledge gaps among individual countries in the whole area of the interaction of the user (driver) and technology, communication assistance systems in particular. EU road safety targets are using a set of road safety measures: 1. Driver behaviour and enforcement 2. Road infrastructure (layout, signing, marking, safety audits) 3. Passive safety system compliance and real use 4. Advanced passive system 5. Active and preventive system 6. Post impact system 7. Advanced passive system The goal of HUMANIST is to create a European Virtual Centre of Excellence on HUMAN centred design for Information Society Technologies applied to Road Transport (IVIS and ADAS), with a coherent joint program of activities, gathering research, integrating and spreading activities. Research work is carried out in scientific task groups: x x x x x x x
Identification of the driver needs in relation to ITS Evaluation of ITS potential benefits Joint-cognitive models of Driver-Vehicle-Environment for User-Centered Design Impact analysis of ITS on driving behaviour Development of innovative methodologies to evaluate ITS safety and usability Drivers´ education and training for ITS use Use of ITS to train and to educate drivers
11
Task Analysis Behaviour Checklist
Identify potential behaviours Generate Hypothesis
Does not exist Some Ideas Available
Hypothesis generation tools HUMANIST Matrix
Select measurement methods Measure, Analyse, present
SUITABILITY Framework
Integrate results
MultiCriteria Analysis
Integrating Activities permit to manage and to consolidate the NoE structure by promoting the mobility of researchers, by optimising the pool of existing experimental infrastructures, by setting up electronic tools (common database, web-conference, e-learning) for knowledge sharing.
Pic. 1: Identification of the driver needs in relation to ITS This integration will allow increasing Societal Benefits of ITS implementation, to harmonise ITS approaches among State Members, to react quickly to any new technological developments and to face international challenges by producing state of the art research, identifying knowledge gaps, avoiding redundancy of research activities. Spreading Activities allow to spread widely the knowledge from HUMANIST, by organising debates with RTD projects on eSafety and relevant stakeholders, by promoting harmonisation
12
with standardisation and pre-normative bodies, by setting up training programmes, and by promoting and disseminating research results to a wide audience.2 Mobility program HUMANIST Centre of Excellence enables close co-operation among European research institutions, which is especially important for young researchers – PhD students and post-docs. This program gives opportunity to share expensive and unique infrastructure of collaborating institutions, usually not available at home. Task force division: Task Force 1: Mobility improvement Task Force 2: Research infrastructure sharing and development Task Force 3: Electronic means for knowledge sharing by the network Task Force 4: Transfer of knowledge Task Force 5: Training programs Task Force 6: Diffusion of knowledge Task Force 7: Management of the NoE Task Force 8: Internal review, assessment and monitoring of self-sustainability But the greatest benefit of the program is creation of the opportunity to be involved in important international projects and gain the unique professional experience in very quick and efficient way. They can present, share and defend their ideas, thesis, hypotheses and methodological approaches with international scientific community, professors and PhD students from other countries, with different scientific approaches and cultural background. They can learn the scientific procedures on site and get so much unique information, which is not available in single institution or university at home. The latest experiences show many advantages compared to the other PhD students without this unique experience and give proof of scientific maturity of HUMANIST youth.
Pic. 2: Impact analysis of ITS on driving behaviour
2
eIMPACT Project This project focuses on socio-economic analysis of the effect of using intelligent transport systems in vehicles on accident rate. The Transport Research Centre has a task to collect relevant data from the areas in which accident rate could be reduced by introducing intelligent transport systems, such as accidents under bad visibility conditions, under the condition of aggravated road surface, or accidents resulting from failure to keep a safe distance between vehicles.
13
COOPERATION WITH PARTNERS HUMANIST Network of Excellence has good web page. The Project as whole is divided to the work tasks that are also called work packages (Different work packages deal with specific research). There are about 8 work packages that focus on the scientific research. The research deals with HMI - human machine interface, it means human/machine relation. The project deals with IVIS and ADAS, which are information systems (IS) in cars. The difference between IVIS and ADAS is that ADAS can intervene while IVIS are mostly information systems. For example one of the work packages we participate in deals with psychological research. The focus is in which way those IVIS/ADAS systems effect on drivers. Besides the positive effects (as increasing of safety) those can also have negative effects (decreasing safety). As for example, the drivers can have a feeling that they are out of the danger when they have some sophisticated safety system in their car and drive too fast. Thus, we collaborate with partners on simulators researches. Every partner has some special field in which he is strong, by which he contributes to the project. As for example: Swedish simulators are more sophisticated then ours. France has a good statistical software engine. France and Austria have good evaluation software and evaluation methodologies. So the cooperation works the way that each of the partners provides the knowledge or technological equipment they have.
Pic. 3: Evaluation of ITS potential benefits Transport Research Centrum participates on various work packages. As an example, we work with identification of drivers’ needs of ITS instruments, evaluation of those ITS advantages or from the psychological field developing the cognitive models. Another project is about ITS impact on the drivers’ behaviour. We also participate on one work package that develops new methodologies for evaluation of ISC instruments. It is very important, because there are appearing many of those on the market and within the EU whole legislation referring to those means is going to change. It means to work on those tasks with ten years lead. There are regular summit meetings, usually twice a year. Those are very important as for the discussion and explanation. As example: now we work on the naturalistic study (as it is impossible to make everything on the simulators) with Factum form Austria, Chemnitz University from Germany. Our research question is in which way those instruments have impact to the drivers. We provide a car to this research, Factum from Austria provides an evaluation method, and Chemnitz provides software. So this is mostly cooperation in the frame of central Europe. Both Chemnitz and Vienna are close to the Czech Republic, which enables close cooperation.
14
All the members of the consortium are research partners. But the network is broadening, because we need for example technical equipment, so companies producing simulators also participate. They provide us with simulators and we give them knowledge about how to produce the simulators in order to match the requirements. We make simulators in cooperation with JKZ and JRM Olomouc, who produces them. They receive ideas for innovation of simulators, in order to make them usable both for teaching and tests in the research. Also, we cooperate with ECOM Slavkov on information systems in cars. We make something similar to black box. Within EU, there are speculations about putting those to all cars, to record for disquisition of accidents, feedback on the driver, who knows that he is in some way recorded. Even the biggest Czech car manufacturer Skoda participates on this research. And of course, through HUMANIST there are proposals for FP7, there are 8-9 new projects, which emerge from HUMANIST.
Pic. 4: Drivers´ education and training for ITS use
Pic. 5: Simulator used for evaluation of negative aspects of ADAS and IVIS
15
Assessment of drivers' characteristics and its importance for predicting performance patterns related to ITS use There is an increasing conviction among researchers that personal variables should be taken in higher consideration in the researches studying effect of in-vehicle informational systems (IVIS) on safety driving. Drivers' characteristics and features are inadequately, or not systematically, evaluated in behavioral research, especially in performance studies, which may confound research results. In fact there is sufficient scientific evidence that driving is a result not only of maximum drivers' capabilities, but also of drivers' features, attitudes and motives determining how drivers use their cognitive-motor skills. It could be useful for the specific research to make use of a miscellaneous of different methodologies that take into account the complexity of drivers' behavior. In particular the possibility to discriminate a priori between careful and risky drivers when evaluating certain behavioral patterns should be employ both in laboratory and real traffic experiments, to evaluate the impact and the weight of those variables on the observed behavior when IVIS is in use. To overcome those current difficulties, several levels of work was carried out in CDV, Transport Section of Social and Human Aspects in Brno, Czech Republic: a review of existing psychological and sociological knowledge on personal features, attitudes and motives influential for driving was confronted and integrated with the research run in CDV on the development of a 'reference model' of typical driving behavior that can be used as a reference case in simulator trials or in real road observational studies. The input consists in the recognition of personal variables influencing performance as well as in the individuation of existing assessment tools that could be appropriate for research requirements on this topic.
behaviour of the driver Crucial role in driving a vehicle in traffic situation plays the behaviour of the driver. But driver’s behaviour is determined by his/her personality characteristics, competence, abilities, skills, experience or mental functions. Behaviour and feelings of individual in traffic environment is examined by traffic psychology. Traffic psychology is interested in relationship between personality and perception of traffic situation, tries to find way the driver process perceived information, investigates way the driver reacts on changing traffic situation. Personality of each man is singular and unalterable, which means that each driver’s personality has such qualities. People differ in various personality traits, in volume of these traits, in their mental functions level. Thus, each individual creates singular structure of personality traits, which establish the basement for all mental processes going on during the whole lifetime. Biological characteristics also shouldn’t be forgotten. Sex, age or health conditions of the driver also plays significant role in driving a vehicle. Our task is to focus on individual traits of driver’s personality, describe and examine them. It is necessary to consider the way in which these characteristics will be affected and or will affect the use of intelligent traffic system (ITS). Particular characteristics of the personality are required to accomplish driving tasks successfully. Whole structure of personality is projected in the driving tasks, not only isolated personality components.
16
Other factors as the vehicle, road and traffic affecting driving tasks will be also investigated. Main causes of the traffic accidents related to driver’s personality will be examined. Recommended psychological tests for examining driver’s capability to drive a vehicle will be issued in the conclusion. One of the crucial areas this work is aimed at is the co-impact of personality characteristics and ITS on traffic safety. Body of knowledge from various sources will be established; different phenomenons related to ITS use will be introduced.
17
DRIVER – VEHICLE – TRAFFIC SITUATION SYSTÉM
Other road user
Driver
Vehicle
Infrastructure
Not only the particular mean of transport influences the transportation, but transportation is also influenced by the personality of the driver. The way in which is transportation influenced by the personality of the driver is studied by traffic psychology. Traffic psychology is concerned in investigating reasons of traffic accidents, driving processes and driving conditions. Traffic psychology tries to increase road safety, to analyze and maintain optimal performance of the human element in the driver – vehicle – traffic environment. 3 It is obvious, that drivers` personality is the key factor in transportation. All other factors as vehicle equipment, traffic situation and traffic environment are subordinate.4 It is necessary to keep in mind, that not the specially equipped vehicle but the way in which it is about to be used to facilitate the road safety is important. Hence, increasing the safety and driving comfort is the key factor. Safety of driving depends on 3 systems integration: mean of transport (vehicle), traffic and human factor. 5 These systems should be efficient in cooperation and performance, so that there won`t be any unnecessary accidents and incoveniences. Driving of the vehicle includes such elements as sensomotoric coordination, reaction time, decision-making, emotions, motivation, learning ability, driving skills, orientation (navigation, sense of direction), planning (route planning, actions planning), personality traits, attitudes, beliefs and previous experience. 6 Each personality individually differs and its characteristic traits are included in each personality on different level (i.e. people differ in level of disposition for aggresive behaviour, 3
Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 21 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 13 5 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 17 6 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 21 4
18
but aggressive traits are present in every individual). Hence, each individual drives in different way and differs in way he/she responds to traffic situation. When driving a vehicle, one is expressing his/her personality and attitudes towards other road environment participants. Psychosomatic state and dispositions play significant role in driving. Any deflections from optimal psychosomatic state may lead to driving failure. Given that preventive measures decreasing accident rate needs to be proposed, cause of the negative variation in psychosomatic state are about to be minimized. 7 The capability to drive may be impaired by i.e. hunger, fatigue and illness. These possible threats will be discussed further on. Driver doesn`t operate as an isolated element and therefore shouldn`t be perceived as a such one. Driving needs to be perceived as an interaction of various systems. The driver – vehicle system is open, interacts with environment. One element failure may cause whole system failure. Traffic situation perceived by driver is basic information influencing driver`s decisions for changing direction or speed of the vehicle. Driver detects and notices information about other influences affecting ride (road condition). When processing these information, driver is operating steering wheel, throttle and brake pedals, changes gear and hands on the information to the vehicle. This results in vehicle reactions. The driver-vehicle system won`t experience any problems until the information circulation speed exceeds capability of one system part. It is important to anticipate possible changes in drivers` reactions while driving in order to maintain safety. It is impossible to create an “ideal” vehicle, which would satisfy all drivers` needs. Vehicle reactions involve many factors: its load, speed, lateral forces, tires adhesion coefficient etc. Driver needs to know which factors are crucial for vehicle reactions and to gain skills to cope with dangerous situations for safe, successful and efficient driving. 8 Present road situation is very complicated. It is estimated that on 2 km, driver encounters 600 traffic events, makes 240 observations, 80 decisions, 40 acts of activity and makes 1 mistake.
9
When driving, it is necessary to make effective decisions, anticipate other drivers` behaviour and restrain own competitive behaviour. 10 On one hand is necessary to provide only a well equipped vehicle to the driver, but on the other hand a learning sessions for operating the vehicle is needed. Driver should be able to operate the technical instruments without being distracted, driver should not be overloaded by information, information should be displayed in easily registrable locations, its visual aspect shouldn`t be distractive, particular attention should be paid for displaying information to people with special needs – physically, aurally or visually impaired (i.e. people wearing glasses won`t experience any problems when observing objects in front, but when registering objects on side need to turn their head and is not able to register road in front)
DRIVER`S PERSONALITY AND ITS IMPACT ON TECHNOLOGY USE Personality can be understood as integration of individual psychic reality. Personality integrate psychic processes, states and qualities, it is a summary of feeling and behaviour determinants. 11 7
Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 17 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 18 9 Kolegium autorĤ. IX. World Congress…, page 95 10 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 17 8
19
Smekal suggests 6 basic personality components: Physical constitution, temperament, extroversion-introversion, abilities, character and life career. 12 Human personality is a continuous process of self-forming and self-reconstruction. 13 There are several characteristics important for a driver as serenity, emotional stability, adjustability, self-control, self-confidence and resistance against stress/workload, conscientiousness, reliability, altruism and anticipation. Additionally good mental and physical condition is required. Road safety depends on people’s responsible attitude towards driving. Significant role also plays quality of perception, vigilance, attention (intensity, firmness, seperation, distribution, selectiveness, capability to perceive, assess situation, making decisions and react correctly and quickly), psychomotoric coordination, reaction time, self-control, intelligence, thinking, memory, concentration and reacting. Other factors as skills, abilities, experience and moral qualities (self-discipline, rules respecting, civilized behaviour, courtesy and tolerance) also play important role.14 Peck & Kuan, 1983; Norris, Matthews, & Riad, 2000) reviewed the variables that best predict crashes for the driving population in general, and revealed a number of demographic (e.g., age, sex), psychological (e.g., aggression), situational (e.g., city size), and behavioural (e.g., risky driving practices, road violations) factors that increase an individual’s crash risk.15
11
Smékal, V. PĜehled psychologie osobnosti, page 26 Smékal. O lidské povaze, pages 20–21 13 Smékal, V. O lidské povaze, page 21 14 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, pages 13-14 15 Peck, R.C., Kuan, J., (1983). A statistical model of individual accident risk prediction using driver record, territory and other biographical factors, Accident Analysis & Prevention, 15, pages 371-393 12
20
MOTIVATION AND CONTROL OF TECHNOLOGY “Motivation is an incentive to act, meaning doing what one wants or not, what privileges or rejects.” 16 Internal and external motivation is distinguished. Internal motivation is more productive for the driver, because it arises out of his/her own belief. External motivation is given to the driver by other external authority. Favorable result of motivation process is internalisation of external motives. Motivation includes various incentives, needs, wants and values. Motive is a source of acting, leads to achievement of some goal. On the ground of identifying motives of individual, one can be influenced in various ways. Hence when we are able to identify drivers` motives, we can estimate his/her further decisions, behaviour and the way he will act in certain life situations. 17 Car is not only a mean of transport. Some people spend too much time washing, polishing and or refining a car. Car fills a symbolic function with all associated deeper motives. 18 Professional driver motivation can be observed in exceptional maintenance of a car, excellent technical condition of a car, reliable fulfilling professional duties, driving without offences, crashes or accidents, better capability to overcome difficulties, positive attitudes to drivers` profession. 19 Motives for driving a car are various. People don`t drive a car these days just because they need to, but driving brings with itself some kind of satisfaction. 20 Best motivation is the internal motivation, but external motivation should not be underestimated. ITS is capable to provide feedback to the driver in many ways (i.e. when driving through a residential areas and not exceeding the speed limit, system could thank the driver for driving safely, responsible driving, courtesy to other road users, observing rules etc.
Driver can be informed by the ITS about saved amount of money when driving economically (adhering rules at the same time) in comparison with fast and reckless ride. The difference should be sufficient to motivate driver for safe and economic driving. Negative motivation can be used by informing, that i.e. during this fast ride you have pointlessly spent 3l of petrol; such exceed of speed limit can be fined by 2000 kc. Motives of professional drivers were investigated pilot study of CSAD Plzen. Motives for driving of unblemished drivers were pleasure from driving, appreciation and income. In motives of drivers with increased accidents number were money, success and performance connected with material reward, traveling and hunger for sensation dominating. 21 Two motivational agents were identified by Strandling, Meadows and Beatty (1999): effort to be independent and effort to gain personal identity by driving a car. 22 Ditmar (1992) implies, that material property as ownership of car is, represents on one hand instrumental values and symbolic values on the other. Symbolic values refer to personal
16
Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 20 Nop, D. Psychologie v dopravČ, page 41 18 Huguenin, R. a Rothengatter T. Traffic & Transport Psychology, page 443 19 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 20 20 Huguenin, R. a Rothengatter T. Traffic & Transport Psychology, pages 437 – 441 21 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 21 22 Huguenin, R. a Rothengatter T. Traffic & Transport Psychology, page 437 17
21
identity. Ownership of material values fulfills three basic functions: instrumental, symbolic and affective. 23 Three theories of social motives are important from psychological and social point of view. First is the theory of social comparison. That theory implies that people constantly compare their property, behaviour and opinions with others (Festinger, 1954). People want to be better than others, but don`t want to differ too much in the same time. Individual variance in tending to interindividual comparing exists. 24 Second is theory of self-presentation. Implies that people present themselves in such way, which corresponds with their self-image (Schlenker, 1980). This theory is important, because people can experience personal identity when driving a car. 25 Third one is a normative management theory (Cialdini, Kallgren, Reno, 1991). This theory emphasis the impact of social norms on human behaviour. Two types of social norms can be distinguished: dictating (perception of others expectations) and descriptive (perception of what others are really doing). 26
BEHAVIOUR AND TECHNOLOGY USE Behaviour is an external effort of internal psychic reality; behaviour gives evidence of internal state of individual in the same time. Drivers` behaviour influences indirectly all road users, can be divided using various criteria (i.e. safe/dangerous, foreseeable/unforeseeable etc.). 27 Safe driving requires drivers` attention, visibility, view, optimal traffic signing, smooth ride, number of road lines… 28 Negative impact on driving behaviour has long, straight and boring (monotonous) track. Systematic researches have shown that reaction time is not important as it was presumed. Very slow reaction time but can result in accident. Average reaction time ranges from 0,8 to 1s. 29 Two basic types of behaviour can be identified while driving: adapted and not adapted one. Adapted behaviour is defined as perceiving, thinking and reacting, which correspond with traffic situation. Anticipation of possible changes of traffic situation is necessary as well as ability to assess drivers` own skills. Not adapted behaviour is characterized by long reaction time, tending to quick and inadequate reactions. Shock, fatigue, distraction etc. are considered to be risk factors. 30
MENTAL ABILITIES AS PREREQUISITY FOR PROPER USE Mental abilities are qualities necessary for successful accomplishment of certain activity. Endowment is a basis of mental abilities (inborn anatomic-physiological exceptionalnesses of individual). Mental abilities creates basement of personal dispositions, which are essential to perform certain activities. They create preconditions for performing certain activities. Mental abilities are created on the inborn base and can be cultivated by learning and training. 23
Huguenin, R. a Rothengatter T. Traffic & Transport Psychology, page 437 Huguenin, R. a Rothengatter T. Traffic & Transport Psychology, page 437 Huguenin, R. a Rothengatter T. Traffic & Transport Psychology, page 437 26 Huguenin, R. a Rothengatter T. Traffic & Transport Psychology, page 437 27 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 30 28 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 31 29 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 24 30 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 24 24 25
22
Mental abilities: Mental powers - cogitation, cognition, memory, decision making, creative processes Psychomotoric – dexterity, eye-hand coordination, reacting Perfunctory – understanding relations between objects and manipulations with their parts31 Aptitude is a summary of abilities that make dispositions to perform specific activity. Endowment is positive summary of connection between abilities that allow creative approach in some activity and allows achieving excellent results in some activity.32 Abilities required for driving: perceptional abilities – perceiving, visual, auditive, kinesthetic abilities, concentration of attention, spatial orientation; psychomotoric abilities – celerity and accurateness of reactions, motion coordination, flexibility; mental powers – cognition, appraisal, logical, analytic, practical and critical cogitation, visual memory etc.; physical condition, resistance of the organism, quality of sensory organs, way of motion habits and automatic responses are developing, estimation speed and accurateness of driving, mobility, stability and distribution of attention, capacity, speed and accurateness of memory, level of memory, speed and accurateness of decision making, hazardousness, hardiness, relation to technology, technical thinking, interest to drive a car, emotional stability, discipline, selfcontrol, enterprise and sagacity.33 Hierarchical management model was elaborated for driving. Lowest level includes skills necessary to master the vehicle technically (management of direction and speed). Second level includes planned processes as diagnostic scenarios and decision making, while driver is considering speed of the vehicle. Third level encompasses questions connected with drivers` preparedness to make strategic decisions: i.e. how is he going to travel, what is he about to do during to route etc. Questions on the third level influence driving only indirectly.34 Factors influencing ability to drive a vehicle were determined: constitutional variable of the driver, personality of the driver, training, learning abilities and experience, qualification (capability to drive) and human factors.35 Many variables play its role when driving a vehicle and influence the difficulty of driving. Among these variables belong control of the vehicle and displayed information parameters, physical parameters of environment, other road users presence and behaviour, speed of the vehicle. Each of these variables can influence the difficulty of driving independently and influence each other as well. Human factor variables can affect speed and this can result in such changes of the human factor as arousal etc. Difficulty will be positively correlating with speed of the vehicle when all other variables are constant.36
ATTENTION PROCESSES AND DISTRACTION Attention is a tool of the consciousness.37
31
Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 22 Nop, D. Psychologie v dopravČ, page 42 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 22 34 Kolegium autorĤ: IX. World Congress, Madrid, pages 92 – 105 35 Kolegium autorĤ: IX. World Congress, Madrid, pages 92 – 105 36 Fuller, J. Control and affect: Motivational aspects of driver decision-making. European Commision, Joint research Centre, Institute fot the protection and security of the citizen, Ispra, Italy, 2005, page 46 37 Smékal, V. Psychologie osobnosti, page 11 32 33
23
While driving these parameters of attention are significant: capacity, intensity, distribution, oscillation, mobility, delay, vigilance. It was found out in experiments, that healthy and rested individual is able to notice in 0,1 – 0,2 s approximately 6 stimulus in the same time, but while driving about 2 – 3 stimulus. Cinema effect: increased accident frequency caused by reduced number of stimulus. Various deviations of attention were identified (i.e. driver perceives expected visual stimulus prematurely or neglects it). Attention process oscillates within the day. Concentration of attention is influenced by lack of experience, emotions, imaginings, tension, fatigue, lack of sleep, weather changes, frost, heat, biorhythm, anxiety, aggression, bad mood, conflicts, stress (workload), alcohol, drugs, smoking, pain, etc…38 Individual is flooded by 3 million bits of information every second, brain processes only 16 bits of information in one second. Inattention is one of the main causes of traffic accidents. Attention is an ability to focus and concentrate mind on an object, action or situation. Attention can be unintentional or intentional; both types are required for driving.39 Inattention while driving means, that divers` attention process is focused on other subject than on traffic situation. Driver has to be able split and transmit attention. Problems with distribution of attention are mostly connected with beginners-drivers.40 Inattention plays main role in traffic accidents, often is disguised with fatigue. „Distracted driver may be able to perceive dangerous situation, but may be not able to interpret the situation as dangerous. Previous focus of mind and experience significantly affects situation interpretation correctness.“41 These errors could be corrected by automatic road obstacles recognition, animal or pedestrians recognition in low visibility, automatic weather conditions detection, fatigue detection, dynamic and autonomous vehicle navigation, automatic safe distance keeping, automatic cruise control, speed monitoring related to speed limit etc. Attention process should be taken into account in ITS design. Number of stimulus driver is exposed to should be considered (not permit to flood driver with information; support driver with ITS, but not allow driver to rely on ITS completely). It is necessary to consider which way of information providing is the most suitable (visual, auditive, haptic) and do not cause distraction of the driver; consider if the driver is capable to monitor all information on the control board provided by ITS and monitor traffic situation at the same time (i.e. elderly are slower in oscillation of attention). Impaired eyesight of number of drivers needs to be taken into account. Long-sighted people may experience difficulties when monitoring information on the control board; font size and shape, size of pictograms should be considered. ITS provided information may help the driver to manage problem with attention on long, monotonous roads with low traffic. Information given by ITS shouldn`t be too surprising or intensive otherwise it can cause shock to the driver. High-risk factor is a driver-beginner. Beginner can be also supported by ITS (i.e. to help her/him estimate distance between vehicles, estimate position of the vehicle on the road etc…).
38
Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, pages 24 – 25 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 23 40 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 23 41 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 23 39
24
PERCEPTION Perception includes information collecting, intake, comprehension and cognition. Perception provides connection between internal/external reality and individual. The term perception shouldn`t be reduced to simple sensory register, because perception encompasses information selection and processing. Experienced drivers, professionally motivated drivers, drivers with balanced personality structure; healthy and concentrated drivers have usually better perception of traffic situation. 42 There can be two types of perception identified while driving: perception related to traffic situation - route planning, vehicle location monitoring. Route planning encompasses: collecting, organizing, saving, recalling and processing of information. Individual conception of the route can differ for reality. Driving safety depends orientation ability in traffic situation.43 Especially drivers-beginners need help with vehicle navigation. Automatic safe distance keeping, speed limit monitoring, dynamic vehicle navigation can facilitate start of driving a car. Information about traffic situation is mostly provided by visual perception. Speed of perception, attention, focus of mind, memory, field of view and color sense plays significant role. It was shown in research, that driver is not able to see a pedestrian for a certain short time period after light blinding by other vehicle.44 It is necessary to keep appropriate speed, estimate vehicle speed, to perceive light signals correctly, to be able to adapt eyes for dark or fog in order to drive safely.45 Beginning drivers, elderly drivers and aggressive drivers experience such problems as mentioned above. Beginners and elderly drivers probably won`t reject such ITS, which facilitate orientation on the road. Aggressive drivers do not adapt to traffic regulations, do not want to be restricted, tend to violate the rules. These drivers may be shaped by appropriate motivation or education. When serious personality disorder is diagnosed, driving licence should not be issued. It was proven in research, that aurally impaired drivers are able to compensate their deficiency compensate very well. Hypacusia increases accident risk when driving in for, dense traffic, on close ground crossings, grade crossings with tone bleep etc…46 It is better for impaired people mobility to drive a car on their own, but the vehicle should be equipped with vehicle obstacle warning system, automatic obstacle recognition, automatic traffic signing recognition or fatigue warning system. It is supposed that impaired people will benefit from these systems, which allow them to drive a vehicle safely, became more autonomous and independent.
PERCEPTION ERRORS, DECISION-MAKING AND ACTING Error is defined as deviation form optimal state. 4 types of errors can be identified: intentional/unintentional, subjective/objective.47
42
Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 27 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 19 44 Šikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 21 45 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 22 46 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 23 47 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 25 43
25
Eligibly presented ITS information may help driver to perceive traffic situation and not to fall under fallacy (i.e. bright vehicle seems to be closer, darker seems to be further; when is not possible to see how road continues, it evokes anxiety or stress in beginning drivers etc…).
26
Drivers` decision-making comes out of information about traffic situation and is influenced by his/her experience, knowledge or skills. Driving includes basic conflict: speed vs. safety. Awareness is also important. Current decision is affected by former results and choices. Other factors as magnitude of decision, environment and circumstances play an important role. Decision quality is lower in time pressure, in contrary conditions, inconvenient individual situation.48
INTELLIGENCE Intelligence is mental ability of an individual to reasonably think, sensibly act and effectively cope with the environment. Average intelligence seems to be ideal for such activity as driving is. Arthur Schopenhauer wrote once: “Genius mind is for common life convenient as astronomical refractor for watching the theatre performance”. If driving is considered to be a common activity, then incredibly high intelligence can make driving difficult. People with high intelligence may be potentially dangerous when driving a vehicle because of their increased mental powers. They may be focused on very small details, looking on the world from different point of view and may be fascinated by various objects. On the other hand the low intelligence is a handicap to anticipate development of traffic situations, sensomotoric coordination or to master the vehicle technically. Emotional intelligence is ability to perceive, process, regulate emotions and using them to better understand and influence reality. Emotional intelligence encompasses ability to regulate, control and use emotions, self-cognize, empathize, understand others emotions, cooperate, act responsibly, handle with emotions reasonably, curb own anger or “think with own head”.49 Ethically developed personality is able to act responsibly, thoughtfully and wants to act like this at the same time. Such individual has adequately sensitive conscience, regularly evaluates impact of his/her acting on other people, investigates feelings he/she invokes in others and tries to maintain good-fellowship.50 People without ability of empathy, ruthless, egoistic are extreme danger for traffic safety. They don`t respect rules, create their own ruler and believe, they act in the right way.
TEMPERAMENT Temperament is defined as summary of all mental characteristics of the personality. Temperament is determined by speed and oscillation of mental processes/states of the individual, also is determined by in behaviour. Four basic types of temperament were identified: phlegmatic, sanguine, choleric and melancholic.51 Particular personality components are required for safe driving. Not only isolated elements of personality, but its whole structure are projected into the driving activity. Precondition of a good driver is strong, active and balanced type of nervous system, which is represented by sanguine type of temperament. Such driver is able to react quickly and to switch between
48
Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 23 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 39 50 Smékal, V. O lidské povaze, page 44 51 Nop, D. Psychologie v dopravČ, page 43 49
27
processes of irritation/inhibition without delay. Weakness and lability of nervous processes are decreasing ability to drive vehicle safely.52 Eysenck suggests to differ types of temperament based on the lability/stability, extroversion/introversion criteria.53 Extroverts experience more tension, seek for arousal, sensation while driving. Introverts don’t suffer from lack of stimulus, they can be attracted by their own internal stimulus and marginalize external ones.54 It was confirmed by research, that extroversion is general factor for traffic accident prediction.55
EMOTIONS Emotions and feelings are basic regulation mechanisms, which play a significant role in perceiving a judging danger (Damasio, 1994). Our whole body is a monitoring device, which perceives possible threats and reacts on it. Internal components of this monitoring system are all elements and processes (including physiology, anatomy, personality characteristics, motives, thinking etc…). Monitoring of incoming dangers is far from being perfect.56 Extremely sensitive people have problems with concentration of attention. Melancholic, anxious, pessimistic and choleric people have slower performance, distracted attention, slower reaction speed, lower memory capacity – they can overlook a traffic signing, don’t keep safe distance form a vehicle, etc…57 AGGRESSION Overall aggressive/hostile traits of personality don’t increase the risk of fatality just by themselves. They rather show us, that road aggression or road rage behind the steering wheel refer deeper than to individual disposition to aggressive behaviour.58 Aggression is basically a defensive mechanism. Aggression can be defined as intentional act, with its motive of open or symbolic attempt to cause damage, harm or pain to someone.59 Swearing, threatening, sarcasms, laughter, vandalism, violence or terror can be considered as aggression variants.60 Almost all people experience some aggressive reactions. Real or imaginary error of other driver can cause inappropriate reaction. Aggressive driver is not able to perceive situation correctly?. Aggression can be expressed in such excited behaviour as “sport” ride or “road rage” in extreme cases is. Violating traffic rules and traffic accidents are often related with people labeled as “sensation-seeking”. Such individuals need to experience new sensations continually and they are ready to take over physical and mental risks to achieve their goal. These traits of personality are related to drunk driving, driving over speed limit and driving
52 53 54
Bena E., Hoskovec J., Štikar J., Psychologie a fyziologie Ĝidiþe, page 85 Smékal, V. Psychologie osobnosti, page 128
Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 18 Clarke, S., Robertson, I., T. Meta-analytic review of the Big Five personality factors…, pages 355-376 Vaa, Truls, Modelling driver behaviour…, pages 55-63 57 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 56 58 Nabi, H., Consoli, S., M., Chiron, M., Lafont, S., Chastang, J., F., Zins, M., Lagarde, E., Aggressive/hostile personality traits…, page 365-373 59 Smékal, V. Psychologie osobnosti, page 219. 60 Smékal, V. Psychologie osobnosti, page 220 55 56
28
below safe distance to the car ahead. It is know from research, that drivers violating speed limits are often violating other traffic rules too.61 Examples of aggressive behaviour in road environment Table 1. Mean scores and standard deviations for extended the DBQ violation items62 Violation type Normal Aggressive Normal Normal Aggressive Aggressive Aggressive Normal Normal Aggressive Aggressive Aggressive
Item wording Disregard the speed limit on motorway Drive especially close to the car in front as a signal to its driver to go faster or get out of the way Disregard the speed limit on a residential road Overtake a slow driver on the side Have an aversion to a particular class of road user and indicate your hostility by whatever means you can Become angered by another driver`s behaviour, and give chase with intention of giving him/her a piece of your mind Sound your horn to indicate your annoyance to another road user Drive even though you realize that you may be over legal blood-alcohol limit Cross a junction knowing that traffic lights have already turned against you Pull out of a junction so far that the driver with right of way has to stop and let you out Stay in a motorway lane that you know will be closed ahead until last minute before forcing your way into other lane Get involved in unofficial “races” with other drivers
There is a suggestion that the interpersonally aggressive violation of traffic rules consists of two subtypes. First sub-type is related to anger/hostility and may reflect a general personality characteristic.63 Second sub-type is related to attempts of driver to gain advantage over other road users and maintaining progress. These violations are more likely to occur in areas of high traffic density, where motorist comes across unexpected hold-ups and delays.64 Research in Great Britain (Lajunen, Parker and Summala, 1999) hasn’t shown, that traffic obstacles like traffic jams or road constructions provoke anger among British drivers. These kinds of impediments may be so common in todays`s traffic in Britain that drivers can expect them to occur and therefore do not become unduly frustrated. Hence, the frustrationaggression hypothesis (Dollard and Doob, 1939) might be rather related to situations, where drivers` goals are dramatically blocked by sudden and unexpected event.65 Moreover, situations invoking anger or aggression in drivers were identified. Such situations are: discourtesy (i.e. driver is dazzled by other car`s lights), situations when drivers are threatening other drivers by risky/dangerous drive style (i.e. driver is changing lines 61
Kolegium autorĤ: IX. World Congress, Madrid, pages 92 – 105 Parker, D., Driver error and crashes…, page 136 Parker, D., Driver error and crashes…, page 136 64 Parker, D., Driver error and crashes…, page 136 65 Parker, D., Driver error and crashes…, page 136 62 63
29
constantly in congestion), impeaching other driver`s skills (i.e. by sounding the horn, gesture, swearing), progress of a driver is impeded by other driver`s hesitance or sluggishness (i.e. driver can feel thwarted, impeded and may be tempted to believe that the other driver is doing it purposely)66 ITS may help in first and fourth situation. They can warn driver in first case, that he/she is blinding others with distance lights. In fourth case may fitting navigation system help to improve driver`s orientation and prevent traffic from congestions.67 Studies suggest, that driver cope with difficulties well, if they are informed about impediments on the road in advance. Problems are mostly connected with unexpected situations, which invoke stress, drivers react with anger, tend to risky behaviour, violate rules in order to gain advantage over other road users. Elimination of such behaviour can be secured by providing relevant information to drivers. COMPLEXED AGGRESSOR Takes others as rivals. Such driver is constantly comparing himself/herself with other drivers, he/she is not able to drive smoothly, often drives fast, runs in a street-race, violates traffic rules, endangers other vehicles, ruthlessly drives a hard bargain, acts impulsively.68 HOSTILITY This term express malice. Malice can be manifested or latent, self oriented or outwards oriented. Hostility is considered to be affiliation opposite. Hostile individual seems to be badtempered, frequently blames others as a cause of his anger. DEPRESSION People suffering from depression are a time bomb in traffic situation. Depressive mood significantly increases reaction time.69 Sad and depressive people act slower than others. This is not such a problem (elderly people reaction time is also slower), higher risk carries decreased attention level or attention focused on internal state of individual instead of attention aimed on traffic situation. As it is not possible to suppress (forbid) driving of a motor vehicle for pessimistic of depressive people, it is more fitting to lead them to use tools enabling safe driving. Recommendation of automatic road obstacles recognition, automatic traffic signs recognition or automatic distance keeping devices seems to be convenient. ANXIETY Anxious, over-sensitive driver drives a car in choppy, uncertain way. Mostly drives on the outside of the carriageway, is indecisive and nerveless.70 Anxious drivers need to be reassured. If driver knows what’s coming next, he/she feels comfortable and relieved. Because of that it is appropriate to provide driver information about traffic situation, obstacles on the road etc… ITS may provide convenient support of anxious driver. Anxiety is very uncomfortable feeling, one tries to remove it by any means necessary. Stress and workload plays role in traffic accidents, one third of motorist experience chronic stress or workload before the accident.71 66
Parker, D., Driver error and crashes…, page 136 Parker, D., Driver error and crashes…, page 136 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 110 69 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 109 70 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 110 67 68
30
EXPLOSIVE CHOLERIC Driver with these characteristics blinks with his spotlights, honks the horn, swears, others consider to be his enemies, who need to be punished.72 People with low frustration tolerance don’t like to be overtaken, honk the horn often, are aggressive behind the wheel, gesture aggressively, dazzle others with cars lights, lose selfcontrol often.73 Individuals with low frustration tolerance need to avoid too stressful situations. Unexpected stimulus often evokes tension. Providing relevant route information to such drivers may contribute to overall road safety and forgiving road environment. Anti-crash systems seem to be useful for these drivers. Explosive choleric should never be a professional driver?.
AGE OF THE DRIVER Most of the traffic accidents occur to drivers with age under 25 years and with age above 55 years. Fewest accidents occur to drivers between 35 and 45 years. Men crash 3x frequently than women. More accidents happen during the night than during the day.74 Young drivers tend to drive in risky way, have lack of experience with driving. In-vehicle speed limit for beginner-drivers may be helpful as well as a sensor monitoring traffic lanes distance or other vehicles distance etc… Night accident rate may be lowered by automatic pedestrians or animals recognition, automatic obstacle detection, automatic distance keeping device. These devices contribute to overall driving comfort. On the other hand drivers shouldn’t rely on these systems too much, because the feeling of too much security can lead to speeding, which is very dangerous especially during the night. YOUNG DRIVERS Their sensory functions, physical condition and mental capacity are very good. Such driver on the other hand are frivolous, tend to ruthless and impulsive behaviour, aren’t self-critical, are more aggressive, hasty, over-sensitive, anxious. Young drivers who violate other social rules and norms too often violate traffic rules.75 Most of the traffic accidents occur to young drivers under 25 years, in most cases it is collision with pedestrian, driving on the wrong side of the lane, speeding. Young drivers risk and compete more with others. They are impulsive, do not adjust speed to the road conditions, overtake uncautiously, are drawn by their emotions easily, need to experience new sensations.76 Errors in perception, errors in decision-making, distraction or fatigue are main causes of traffic accidents.77
71
Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 66 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 111 73 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 56 74 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 51 75 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 134 76 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 57 77 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 58 72
31
ELDERLY DRIVERS Aged drivers suffer from physical and mental abilities worsening, blood pressure is unstable, visual sense or hearing is decreasing, reaction time is longer, need more time to make decision and to process information, their ability to learn new information is worsening etc…78 Elderly people are able to anticipate, their technical skill of driving car is fully automated, don’t risk very much and drive slowly.79 V nČkterých zemích EU jsou autoškoly pro seniory – motoristy, kde je uþí o správné jízdČ, záludnostem stáĜí, životní styl…80 Elderly drivers have often problems with estabilishing positive relationship to modern technical devices. Aged drivers needs be tought how to operate such devices otherwise they will be frightened to use ITS technology. Automatic obstacle recognition, fatigue warning, dynamic vehicle navigation, automatic distance keeping or lane monitoring seems to help these drivers.
SEX OF THE DRIVER Women drive every sixth vehicle these days. Male`s brain is about 10% bigger, female`s brain has about 100 grams heavier. Brain of a female has higher count of neurons and they master to use both hemispheres better. Brain of a male in quiescent state shows activity in approximately 2/3 of its content, brain of the femail in 90%. Females can combine rational operations with emotions easily, but emotions affect their traffic behaviour and reactions. Females` ability to anticipate is worse, but they are capable to compensate this disadvantage. Male abstract thinking is better, but their communicating capabilities are worse. Males have better spacial perception, females better interpersonal relations and emotional intelligence, females are able to understand moods and motives of other people better.81 About just 30% females were capable to distinguish various sounds in comparison with 60% males. In laboratory dangerous traffic situations differentiation test were females better than males, but in real situations males estimate speed and distance between vehicles better, males are capability to overtake and park a car better.82 Reaction speed on visual and auditive stimulus of males is faster. Female drivers achieve same results when driving on shorter distances (up to 100 km), on longer tracks become tired faster. Competing between drivers females consider to be a childish risky behaviour. Female drivers percieve objects in red part of color spectrum better, but they experience problems in recognizing objects in traffic. Males` visual sense is better in farseeing so they feel more comfortable to drive in the night. Both males and females fail in stressful traffic conditions, but these situations have more fatel consequences for male drivers.83 Males feel comfortable when driving in cities, where there are able to turn round and achieve outstanding performance in mastering the vehicle.84 Females usually drive more responsibely and reasonably in spite of not masterig the vehicle tchnicaly in perfect way. Females study traffic rules thoroughly and memorise driving theory
78
Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 58 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 135 80 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 138 81 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, pages 117 – 118 82 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 118 83 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 119 84 Groszová, S. Za volantem žena aneb breviáĜ Ĝidiþky – zaþáteþnice, page 13 79
32
even although they don`t undestand it. Males underestimate the rules more often on the other hand.85 It was discovered that males perceive a vehicle as an express of their personality and have stronger emotional relationship with their vehicle. Females rather than males consider the car to be a more stresful object.86 Females register a lot of stimulus and are experiencing problems with selecting relevant ones. Decision-making takes them longer time, they are less self confident, their driving anticipation and spacial orientation is worse. ITS could help females to compensate these disadvantages. Dynamic vehicle navigation or lane monitoring seems to be appropriate and helpful for them. The goal of male driving a car is to enjoy the ride, show his skills and compete with others. The goal of female is to transport without problems form one pace to another.87 Male assumes: “If I am goin to be all right my family is all right.” Female assumes: “If my family is going to be all right I am all right.” Females suffering from unfavourable emtions are distracted, do not perceive good, they experience problems with decision-making. Their capability to distinguish visual objects is worse; also capability to distinguish relevant things from irrelevant is slower. In spite of these less accidents occur to female drivers than to male drivers.88 Factors that predicted at least one or more of the risky male-driver behaviour outcomes were the personality trait of low constraint (i.e., low score for control, harm avoidance, and traditionalism), aggressive behaviour and cannabis dependence. Risky driving behaviour during young adult years is predominantly a male activity and it is predominantly males who go on to become persistent risky drivers.89 Male drivers are usually more aggressive than female drivers. However, while male drivers tend to become less aggressive with increasing age, females drivers tend to become more aggressive with age.
Other factors WORKLOAD Several types of workload were formely identified: informational, time, material, moral, social, risk and emotional workload. Source of the workload can be in work conditions, nature of work etc…90 „NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) has investigated workload of personal vehicle drivers in crowded city streets and has found out, that tension, blood pressure and heartbeat frequency is increasing in unexpected situations (pedestrian appear suddenly on the road etc…)91 Unexpected situations invoke stress, increase irritability, fatigue, can lead to aggressive or risky behaviour. 85
Groszová, S. Za volantem žena aneb breviáĜ Ĝidiþky – zaþáteþnice, page 18 Huguenin, R. a Rothengatter T. Traffic & Transport Psychology, page 437 – 441 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 119 88 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, pages 120 – 121 89 Begg, D.J., & Langley, J.D. (2004). Identifying predictors of persistent non-alcohol or drug-related risky driving behaviours among a cohort of young adults. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 36, pages 1067-1071 90 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 41 91 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 12 86 87
33
ACTIVITY MEASUREMENT Activity measurement means measuring number of driver`s movements, brain activity and brain activity monitoring etc…92 Particularly beginning drivers make many purposeless movements. That’s because their driving movements aren`t fully automated. Driving exhausts them more than experienced drivers. They should be making more pauses during the driving. Beginning drivers more often overlook relevant objects in traffic situation, because their attention is focused on technical aspect of driving (gear changing, steering wheel etc…).
MONOTONY Fog, constant sound, speed up to 60 km/h and familiar track are worse conditions invoking feeling of boredom. Knowing biorythms and counting with their impact is required when driving a vehicle.93 Monotonity contributes to fatigue of a driver. Conversation with co-driver, music helps driver to keep attention better when driving in the night or long distances on the highway.94 Road hypnosis is a phenomon, which is connected with driving on modern highways. Driver is exposed to minimum stimulus, which results in overall deterioration of the performance, slump and eventually increased risk of traffic accident.95
HUNGER AND DIETS Proffessional drivers of long-distance coaches suffer from extreme weight most, because they experience lack of move. Driver of personal car burn about 90 calories in one hour, driver of a lorry about 130 calories more. Gluttony or starving is not healthy and harms the organism. The nervous system is very sensitive on nutrition supply. Without energy gained from food mental functions are decreasing. Hungry or bloated driver reacts more slowly.96
FATIGUE Fatigue is a state of organism, which eventually leads to increased risk of traffic accident. Several types of fatigue were identified. First type is natural fatigue. It is common and its signs are disappearing within the day. Second type is an idle fatigue. It develops because of the wrong work organization and bad work conditions. Third type is a noxious fatigue. Signs of noxious fatigue won’t disappear even after taking a rest and such fatigue may become chronic.97
92
Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 21 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 44 94 Nop, D. Psychologie v dopravČ, page 38 95 Nop, D. Psychologie v dopravČ, page 38 96 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 125 97 Nop, D. Psychologie v dopravČ, page 38 93
34
Fatigue manifests in progressive performance decrease. Driver experience pain, drowsiness, bordeom, lethargy, eyes burning or closing, headache etc…98 Driver should be informed by ITS of distance driven (how long is actually driving), ITS could inform driver about his/her body being exhausted and needs to rest (in spite of driver not feeling tired). ITS could recommend suitable resting place, restaurant, roadhouse etc… Two thirds of all traffic accidents are caused by fatigue. Fatigue is natural physiological phenomenon and subjective feeling, which is typical by metabolism decrease. Fatigue is dangerous, because it may come undetected, causes perception errors, impulsive reactions, delayed reactions, concentration decrease, decreased visual perception sharpeness, slowed breathing, pressure in head, decrease of movement coordination, back pain etc…99 Drivers need to be educated about fatigue and its prevention.
SHORT-TIME DISORDER IN CONSCIOUSNESS Such state (fomerly called microsleep) is state between sleep and vigilance, encompasses mental blocks of 0,5 – 3s duration. Within this time period covers a vehicle moving 60 km/h distance of 40 m, vehicle moving 90 km/h distance of 70 m. 100 Driver traveling on long distances should be using fatigue monitoring as automatic microsleep prevention. Especially when driving in the night is such protection needed.
ROUTE AND TRAFFIC Traffic safety is also influenced by route and traffic. Roads netowork condition or traffic management also play significant role. Appropriate view distance is required for safe driving. Drivers are forced to choose between two basic conflicts - time acquisition vs. safety. Driver needs reliable information about road continuation.101 Such information could be provided by ITS (i.e. GPS). Traffic signis should be supporting and attracting one`s attention. Some traffic signs are properly perceived by one fourth of all drivers.102 Vehicle`s lights should be reliable and appropriate so no unnecessary dazzling of driver occures. Human eye needs some time for dark/light adaptation (i.e. when driving in the tunnel).103 Driving comfort is also formed by traffic environment. Traffic environment can significantly contribute to pedestrian safety, noise filtering, exhaust decrease or dazzle prevention. Positive impact has bushes, trees or overall vegetation close to the road network.104
98
Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 43 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 68 100 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 72 101 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 31 102 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 33 103 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, pages 33 – 34 104 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, pages 34 – 35 99
35
PSYCHOLOGICAL PRIORITY It means that one driver on the crossing paies his priority during his drive and puts the priority to another driver who does not have the priority according to the rules. 105 The passive psychological priority – driver gives up his priority he has according to the rules. Sometimes it is caused by the considerateness to another driver, but it can lead to doubts, uncertainty and traffic accident as a result.106 Active psychological priority – driver exacts his priority, knowingly or subconsciously. Aggressive drivers do it usually. Sometimes this is caused by the bad traffic notation.107
IMPACT OF ITS USE ON TRAFFIC SAFETY The theory called “Theory about hazard homeostasis” is interesting if concerning road safety. Theory supposes that people have a tendency to keep the risk on constant level during driving. Any device or system originally designed in order to reduce danger on roads, will not bring the desirable effect because of this.108 The use of antiblock system is the classical sample of risk compensation. At the moment when the driver adapts upon this system, he drives with higher risk than at the time when he did not have the system yet. The research showed that drivers with the ABS were involved in traffic accidents on the same level as drivers without the ABS (Biehl et. Al., 1987). At the same time drivers in vehicles with systems that do not participate on driving (passive securiy systems – air cushions) do not embody any change in their style of driving. The ABS system retrenched the number of accidents with revolving vehicles and accident with pedestrians, bikers or animals. The expected accidents decrease with moving or static objects did not occur.109 There exist three different hypotheses that try to explain why the ABS system did not bring the decrease in the accident frequency. The drivers with ABS system behave unlike the drivers without the ABS. The system influences the driver in some areas. At vehement braking the brake pedal vibrates and pushes back. Some drivers let go the brake pedal and the accident happens. The Antiblock system reduces the friction during the vehement braking whereto would happen during the braking without this system. So, the braking distance prolongs.110 The common hypotheses concerning about loading the ITS in connection with the Theory of hazard homeostasis are: Suggested incidences of ITS may be scotched and compensated by changes in driver´s behaviour. Possible incidents of particular ITS are depended on our konwledges about these. The insufficient or missing knowledge may decrease the effectivity of ITS or may be directly harmful. 105
Nop, D. Psychologie v dopravČ, page 83 Nop, D. Psychologie v dopravČ, page 83 107 Nop, D. Psychologie v dopravČ, page 83 108 Vaa, Truls, Modelling driver behaviour …, pages 55 - 63 109 Vaa, Truls, Modelling driver behaviour …, pages 55 - 63 110 Vaa, Truls, Modelling driver behaviour …, pages 55 - 63 106
36
The possibilities included in the risk analysis that anticipate the ITS development may be insufficient, some areas could be overlooked The technologies we can comprehend like the superstructure of the human organism, therefore the technology is able to bring the man to the situation, which he will not be able to cope. It can be dangerous.111 What could the ITS improve in the future: Reduce high speeds in particular situations, especially by the young inexperienced drivers that depreciate the hazard connected with high rates in the turnings. Monitor the physiological state of driver (prevention of momentary drowsiness, fatigue etc.). Monitor the speed of the other cars, especially cars closely ahead of the driver (mantainancing the safe distance). Warn the driver against overtaking at the moment when another object moves in the dead angle of the backward speculum, so the object is not behelded by the driver. Warn the driver on the pedestrians and bikers on the crossings. Monitor other vehicles on the crossing shaped T and X.112
The main causes of the traffic accidents The research in sources of human faiture in trafic running was carried in 50.´s 20. century. The causes of failures are: 70 % troubleshooting traits, 22 % insufficient abilities, 3 % others.113 “The traffic safety is dependent on: 1. Possibilities of human performance (traffic qualification): personality traits (responsibility in traffic situations), readiness (knowledges and experiences), physical, sensational and mental conditionals; 2. Requests of transport: the kind of attendance in transport, traffic situation, highway code, other factors like the contruction of vehicle etc.”114 The driver can be informed by the posters, booklets, magazine, radio, television, film, agitprop actions, courses for inadaptible drivers.115 Successful drivers have more flexible nervous system, mental equanimity, adaptability, readiness, deliberation, cicumspection, patience, forethought, and decisiveness. Unstable individuals with low frustration tolerance, anxious, stiff, moody, choleric, irritable and impulsive drivers fails.116 The most important causes of mistaken actions: disturbed health condicions, the lack of judgement ability, the lack of knowledges, the lack of skills, deficient traits, alcohol abuse or another drug abuse, chronic or acute abnormal state of mind and neuroses, stress.117 Three types of behaviour unadapted the drive are: impulsive reactions, prolonged reactions, reactions sequent upon the expectation signal and his unappearing. Impuslive reactions miss the correct evaluation of impurtant circumstances.118
111
Vaa, Truls, Modelling driver behaviour…, pages 55 - 63 Vaa, Truls, Modelling driver behaviour…, pages 55 - 63 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 52 114 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 69 115 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, pages 62 – 64 116 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 18 117 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 69 118 Nop, D. Psychologie v dopravČ, page 33 112 113
37
We discriminate three types of dangerous driving manners: racer, convenient and carelesspenetrative.119 The risk of traffic accident grows because of unequal or disturbed personality structure, insufficient psychosomatic capacity, excessive fatigue, impair mental or physical condition, questionable traffic road or traffic notation, inadaptability on weather changes, non respecting of bio-rhytmes, short practice, insufficient knowledges and skills, the lack of sleep, neglecting of the age specialities of pedestrians and drivers, medicine, alcohol or drug abuse, technical troubles.120 Drivers with following characteristics mostly fail on roads: Unadaptable, impulsive, pessimistic, choleric, emotional, unscrupulous, oversensitive, moody, anxiety, rigid, free-minded, faithless, irresponsible, dependent, careless, emotionally labile, incursive, hostile, drivers with low self-importace, drivers unable to anticipate, exhibitionists, people that depend on randon, that need continuous fever, that refuse rules.121 It is possible to suppose, that these drivers drive in a reckless way, they do not respect any traffic limitations, they have a tendency to drive with aggression, they do not express the empathy and toleration to other road users. It is necessary to develop the way to motivate these drivers to change their acces to drive the vehicle. We can expect that they will not accept the ITS instructions which may limit them. For example the alcohol detection is convenient for them – sence organ in the driver box notes the presence of alcohol and prohibitive the start of the vehicle or the sence organ notes that the driver does not use his safety belt etc. The vehicle that driver would had be equipped by the automatic maintainance distance (those drivers have not the tendency to keep the safe distance), by the taking speed of the car considering maximum speed limit and by the anti-collision system in the car.
ACCIDENT FREQUENCY AND DRIVERS CHARACTERISTICS According to the police investigators the main causes of traffic accidents are: stress at work, fatigue, momentary drowsiness, the lack of sleep, unrespected roles, inattention, speeding, wrong driving style, safe distance disobedience, skid, alcohol abuse. External findings: inadaptability, inclination to risk behaviour, affectivity, impulsivity, irresponsibility, glassines, extemporaneousness, exaggerated confidence, low self-control, aggressiveness, lowered visual discrimination and inadequate reactions.122 The intelligent traffic systems are good servant but bad mister. We want to tell that the ITS can improve our driving comfort, they can help us, they can increase the road safety. On the other hand we can´t remember that driver is the one who plays the most important role. ITS can´t shelter him by the omnipotent magic before the accident when he does not have enought responsibility, experience and his bio-psycho-social-spiritual well-being is impaired. It is necessary to driver develop his driving skills without the dependence on the ITS. It is necessary to teach the driver how to use the information which the ITS can provide to scale up the effectiveness of these systems, too. Expecially the old age people can find using the deck computer too difficult.
119
Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 57 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 44 121 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 47 122 Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe, page 53 120
38
People who are closed on the road accidents: drivers with low responsibility, low anticipation, drivers who look for some fever, adventure, exhibition, who feel inferior, who have high aspiration, unreal self-confidence and assured, frivolty, dependence on random, alcohol abuse, fatigue, emotional fever.123 The results of studies about drivers with the higher number of accidents reflect that these drivers are largely eccentric, impulsive and psychopathic. Expecially self-destructive or aggressive tendencies may be extremely dangerous in the traffic.124 It is impossible to suppose that we can refuse the apllicant about the driving licence only because of he is irresponsible. It is better to inform him about the risks. By this information his motivation could increase and he could drive safely and use benefits from the information technology responsibly for the drive improvement. Insufficient anticipation can be compensated by the crash avoidance, crash detection/warning, Emergency Braking System, Lane Change Assistance, Lane Departure Warning and Adaptive Maximum Speed of the car. Drivers that search the fever during their driving incline to adventure, have high aspiration, high tendency to finick, unreal confidence, assured, they are easy-going, they are depend on random, probably they will not to be willig to use the tehnical instruments which can limit their speed. Drivers who suffer from inferiority should be care for using the instruments, which should increase their self-confidence. The driver drowsiness monitoring or automatic keep-distance warning should monitor tired or wrought drivers.
MENTAL CAPABILITY FOR DRIVING VEHICLES It is important to put one's mind to personality traits during the selection procedure. The most important characteristics are for example aggressiveness, emotive stability and social conformity and postures (to roles, to causes of accidents, to traffic authorities).125 In the case when the person is able to obtain the diving licence, his inteligence does not play any role in traffic safety. The recommended psychological tests are: Actual State Test, Test d2, Bourdon Examination, Comprehension Mechanical Relations Test, Opinion Series (Dunajevskij – Vonkomer), Test D-48, eventually Raven, Numerical examination (Kalivoda), Verbal Memory Examination (Šmíd), Visual Memory Examination (Meili), Numeral Rectangle, Cubic Orientatnion and Attention Examination (Doležal), Reactionary Ability Examination, Adaptability in face of Mental Stress – Viennese Determiner Apparatus. Another: Eysenck – Personality Questionnaire, IHAVEZ.126 Tests that are used at our place: Anamnestical Questionnaire, Misumi Questionnaire to Detect Driver Satisfaction, Technical Understanding, Numerical Examination, Bourdon, ýO Examination, Right Yawing Examination, Instructions, Symbols, Raven, Ostrava´s Nonmandatory, Viennese Determiner Apparatus, Beck Apparatus T 96, Taylor – Johnson PersonalQuestionnaire. 123
Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 39 Bena E., Hoskovec J., Štikar J., Psychologie a fyziologie Ĝidiþe, page 88 125 Bena E., Hoskovec J., Štikar J., Psychologie a fyziologie Ĝidiþe, page 227 126 Štikar, J. a Hoskovec, J. PĜehled dopravní psychologie, page 37 124
39
ACCEPTANCE OF ADVANCED ASSISTANCE SYSTEMS BY CZECH DRIVERS ADVISOR project attempts to resolve the expected problems by undertaking the following actions: The project focuses on the assessment of driver behaviour changes due to implementation of various types of ADAS. Questionnaires, laboratory tests, driving simulator and on-road tests were used performing in parallel a thorough cost-benefit assessment of each tested scenario, to allow the relevant authorities to select not only reliable, but also affordable evaluation means for ADAS assessment. ADVISORS developed a common framework for the evaluation of ADAS, using an integrated traffic environment approach, considering impact and benefits throughout the traffic chain and not localised only to one type of infrastructure for which the system might be developed.
ADVISORS conclude with recommendations for methods of type approval and standardisation of actions for ADAS marketing, as well as legislative, organisational and institutional recommendations for their applications. This will bring the relevant technology one step further, to the service and benefit of the Czech and European citizens. Project innovations include the development of a new common, user-friendly ADAS terminology, enhancement of user acceptance, public awareness and avoidance of the creation of false assumptions and expectations to the end users. In addition, the project will provide definitions of ADAS priority application scenarios, which will have the census of all bodies involved (industry, national and European authorities and Czech society as a whole).
40
Traffic safety The accident reduction of ADAS, estimated to be up to 20% of all accidents, will be distributed between different systems. Economic gains ADVISORS PROJECT aims to speed up the implementation of ADAS by recognising and overcoming their implementation barriers as well as to reduce unnecessary costs by avoiding duplication efforts and errors in their evaluation, by devising a unique ADAS evaluation scheme. Standardisation ADVISORS PROJECT provides type approval and draft standardisation schemes for selected ADAS, thus promoting their standardisation. Furthermore, by recognising the necessary legislative, organisational and institutional actions in each country for their implementation, the proposed implementation schemes will be applicable to every European country. Indeed, ADVISORS PROJECT results are expected to provide the necessary scientific basis for an ADAS implementation at European level. Environmental impact ADAS improved implementation, through ADVISORS PROJECT results, will promote environmental protection both through less road accidents and road network efficiency improvements. The new tools for such impact evaluation will allow amore objective and reliable environmental impact assessment and thus promotion of future ADAS implementation schemes. Working conditions and quality of life Embattling ADAS implementation barriers and speeding-up ADAS diffusion, the creation of new jobs and better working conditions in the transportation sector is also supported. Furthermore, less traffic bottlenecks through ADAS implementation would mean better quality of life and better working conditions for the Czech population. RESULTS In the Czech Republic the data was collected by personal interviews (CDV psychological laboratory in Prague and S15 section CDV in Brno) with very limited assistance from personnel. The professional drivers were questioned when they did their routine professional evaluation for their employers. Price was expected to be especially important in the Czech republic, as the Czech motor vehicle fleet is older and cheaper as compared to this study's other countries. In addition, in SARTRE 2 and 3 a trend of Finnish, Greek and Italian drivers indicating the new technology as more useful than the Czech, German and Dutch drivers was noticeable. Therefore, one might presume that the drivers in the first-mentioned countries would be more technologyoriented, and that price on the other hand might play a bigger role in the Czech, German and Dutch drivers' acceptance of the systems in this survey.
41
Greece Czech Republic Italy Germany Netherlands Finland
All drivers
Car / van drivers
179 195 90 145 120 182
109 189 86 145 87 94
Heavy vehicle drivers (Truck / bus) 70 6 31 88
In the Czech Republic both private and professional car drivers indicated the navigation function as being the most important function in all three environments. Only the speed limiting level of the ISA function on motorways was considered more important by professional car drivers. Price was unexpectedly mostly considered only the third most important attribute. 3. RESPONDENT CHARACTERISTICS Table 1. Social characteristics of the Czech respondents. All drivers
Car / van drivers
Heavy vehicle drivers (truck / bus)
gender: male female n
80.5% 19.5% 195
79.9% 20.1% 189
100.0% 0% 6
mean age: (std) n
32.6 (14.0) 193
32.3 (13.9) 187
43.0 (13.8) 6
Table 2. Driving characteristics of the Czech respondents.
years driving license mean (std) n annual kilometrage mean (std) n mean kilometrage on ... on motorways (std) on rural roads (std) on urban roads (std) 42
All drivers
Car / van drivers
Heavy vehicle drivers (truck / bus)
13.3 (13.4) 195
12.9 (13.1) 189
27.0 (14.6) 6
16119 (22717) 194
15255 (21957) 188
43167 (31352) 6
25.1% (20.2) 43.4% (21.6) 31.5% (20.9)
25.5% (20.2) 43.8% (21.5) 30.8% (20.0)
14.1% (16.8) 31.5% (26.2) 54.5% (36.7)
Table 3. Type of motor vehicle usually driven by the Czech respondents. private car van bus lorry truck n
94.9% 2.1% 1.0% 1.5% 0.5% 195
Table 4. Vehicle characteristics of Czech car or van drivers. Car / van drivers ownership: private <50% for 81.4% business purposes private >50% for 9.0% business purposes company car 9.6% n 188 price of new vehicle EUR mean 4433 (std) (5552) n 188 Table 5. Existing equipment in Czech respondents' vehicle. The percentage indicates the percentage of the vehicles currently equipped with the system. Speed adapter Cruise control Navigation Back up control ABS / traction control
All drivers 5.2% 3.7% 4.7% 5.3% 22.8%
Car / van drivers 4.8% 3.2% 4.3% 4.9% 22.5%
Table 6. Czech respondents' familiarity with the ADA systems presented in the questionnaire. The percentage indicates the percentage of the respondents that indicated to be familiar with the system. All drivers ACC / distance 22.5% keeping ISA speed limitation 35.7% Navigation 42.4%
Car / van drivers 22.7% 35.2% 43.2%
43
Table 7. The attractiveness preference model for Czech respondents Motorways
Motorways and rural roads
car heav car profe y priv all svehi ate sional cle 10.4 ACC 15.38 8.14 6 distance 0.29 0.06 warning 0.02 vehicle followin g 0.23 -0.37 0.12 assistan ce stop&go assistan 0.08 -0.18 0.21 ce 25.7 29.37 3 no 0.54 support 0.04 speedin g 0.55 0.20 warning speed limitatio -0.74 0.51 ns ISA
Navigati on no support static route info actual route info
43.9 28.67 1 -0.31 0.95
10.67 17.35 -0.14
-0.43
0.16
0.33
0.20 0.05 -0.25
0.03
-0.02
0.10
0.17 0.01 0.27
-0.18
25.30 30.02 22.96
27.6 20.5 29.37 7 0 0.09 -0.38 0.10
23.5 1
0.06
0.11
0.08
0.43
0.37
0.46
0.40 0.43 0.96
0.52
-0.49
-0.47
-0.54
-0.58 0.49 0.33
-0.35
43.20 50.12 47.45
50.3 2 0.91
39.7 33.33 5 -0.88 0.82
-0.17
41.8 2
-0.79
-0.84
-1.03
0.08 -0.47
-0.02
0.27
-0.01
0.20 0.18 0.00
0.17
0.87 0.78
0.81
0.57
1.04
0.64 0.88 0.71
0.68
€ 500 € 1500
0.01 -0.22
-0.02
0.02
-0.03
€ 2500
-0.47 0.42
-0.42
-0.14
-0.25
44
Hea car car vy priv profesall vehi ate sional cle 12.1 13.3 7.94 8.93 4 7 0.22 0.08 0.15 0.19
heavy car car privat profes- vehicl all e sional e
19.9 26.57 0 0.41 0.69
Price
All roads
23.37 9.18
12.24
0.44
0.12
0.28
26.3 8 0.15 0.56 0.02 0.16 0.17 0.40 9.87
-0.85
0.88
25.7 4 0.58
-0.67
-0.22
-0.21
-0.36
29.37
regressi on 4.40 3.62 intercep t n 48 11
3
4.32
4.83
4.83
62
51
15
4.85 4.31 4.42 -
66
53
8
4.32 3
64
4. NEGATIVE SIDE EFFECTS - Assessment of driver behaviour changes It is predicted that changes in behaviour will occur with the introduction of new systems (behavioural adaptation, risk compensation etc.). The use of blind spot detection and navigation system, in place of a map, may lead to reduction in workload, which in turn may lead to drivers increasing vehicle speed. The introduction of blind spot and navigation systems may lead to changes in driver behaviour. Reduced workload and stress have often undesirable effects such as increased speed. It has been suggested that the introduction of blind spot detection and navigation systems may lead compensatory behaviour that may reduce the benefits of the measures being implemented. It has been also suggested that behavioural adaptation might occur in response to ADAS through imitation and isolation effects. There is a danger of non equipped vehicles imitating the behaviour of equipped ones. 5. NAVIGATION DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM FUNCTIONALITY The navigation systems are greatly booming in road communication. The first navigation system appeared in the 1980s, and nowadays, there are many sophisticated systems in the markets that exploit the GIS (i.e. Geographic Information Systems), for example the GPS (i.e. Global Positioning System), RDS-TMC (i.e. Radio Data System-Traffic Message Channel), the electronic maps and network applications for the static navigation and in future for the dynamic navigation. In addition to their utilisation in passenger transport, the navigation systems are also very useful in both bus traffic and goods transport, regardless of their use in the other transport kinds from air traffic to pedestrians. The development of the navigation systems is directly tied to a development of map digitisation, software and network application development, satellite systems (e.g. GALILEO), and the enhancement of demands for such navigation systems. This ADAS system will give to the driver intelligent information, advice and warning. Navigation systems aim to improve driving safety and should be used in passenger and heavy vehicles. Navigation by providing location and route guidance to the drivers and supports the various collisions avoidance capabilities with road geometry and location data at every moment of the day and during all traffic and weather conditions. It will also provide the necessary capability RDSTMC Radio Data System/Traffic Message Channel to filter traffic information to select those messages that are applicable to the vehicle location and route of travel. It will also offer the capability to recommend optimal routing based on driver preferences. More advanced versions of this service may integrate real-time traffic conditions into the calculations of optimal routes. An extra module will enable the receipt of information via GSM. The navigation display can also be used helping the driver when parking, using a camera viewing backwards. Driver’s behaviour is not expected to significantly reduce the system benefits or may even further enhance them. Some behavioural adaptations could occasionally occur. It is probable
45
that behavioural adaptation will be detected (but depends on the situation). System customisation may compensate for driver‘s behavioural adaptation. The techniques are developed, available and already marketed. Price depends on sophistication, approx. 2000 Euro. It is expected that this system will be installed at the factory more a more in new cars. Demand development: Of course, the development of the most advanced and sophisticated navigation systems will also depend upon the demands for such systems. The great markets with both high demands and technological pressure provide a perspective of dynamic development and the utilisation of navigation systems. It is obvious that the new technology splits up the world. Purchasing power and willingness to pay for such comfort is incomparably higher in the advanced countries compared to the developing countries. Moreover, the advanced countries can benefit by the production and selling of the systems, while the developing countries can only purchase such systems because of their outdated technology. The cost for the sophisticated car navigation systems in the Czech Republic ranges from 60 up to 130 thousands CZK, which would purchase few of the drivers. The standard installation of the navigation systems in new cars will also increase their price, and hence the existing tendency of importing the used cars from abroad still prevails in the Czech Republic.
6. MITIGATION STRATEGIES There is valid risk of exploiting some of the ADA systems by drivers to more risk behavioural (escalating of speed, belittling of attention due driving). To prevent doing that would be useful set these problematic ADA systems in order to be active only when driver respect legal speed. When driver exceeded sufferable speed limit there would be deactivating ADA systems, thereby would be prevent trade on them risky behaviour and to undesirable transmittal of responsibility for driving vehicle from driver to autonomous systems. Essential condition to in place such as restriction would be prior in place of navigation systems (for example GPS system of localisation and electronic maps), which would be eligible assess what road is topically using by vehicle. Navigation systems in this case should 46
prior to control maximum speed limit in actually leg and compare that limit with real speed of vehicle. We do not expect that using of electronic systems of navigation should have great negative impact to safety by means of undesirable behaviour adapting of drivers. 7. BLIND SPOT DETECTION Driver’s behaviour is not expected to significantly reduce the system benefits or may even further enhance them. There is a slight probability that some behavioural adaptation will occur. The behavioural adaptation is detected only in particular cases. System is inflexible to driver’s behavioural adaptation. Risk Analysis Result Occurence Failure Detection Severity probability Detectability Recoverability
Risk
Navigation
No satellite transmission
2
6
6
3
54
Blind spot detection
No camera transmission
2
5
8
9
85
47
8. MITIGATION STRATEGIES AND POSSIBILITY To resolve blind spot problem when driving forward would be good use mechanistic resolving whereby addicting rear-view mirror integrated into doors mirrors of automobile. To resolve blind spot by means of visual sensors located on stern of vehicle would be appropriate put to use in the first place when reversing. To realise potential of camera when reversing enhances broadly safety mainly for heavy vehicles. Stern camera should compensate also missing rear-view mirror in interior. We do not expect that using of electronic systems eliminated blind spot should have great negative impact to safety by means of undesirable behaviour adapting of drivers. Both of these systems (navigation, blind spot detection) are information only. Such systems provide information to the driver by audible or visual means. Information only systems have no connections to any vehicle operational controls. 9. CONCLUSION From the point of view of long-term perspective, today's condition of road communication is untenable. For its effective and sustainable development and practice, it is necessary to strengthen the co-operative traffic components at the expense of individual traffic ones. In the near future, traffic will be less dependent upon the decision of individuals and will be more and more controlled. And providing current information on traffic situations in the real time will more and more support this part that will remain dependent upon the individual decisions (that is, the drivers). In the world, great attention is devoted to this trend, and new research and development projects are supported that concentrated on the development of a wide collection of the systems and the methods supporting different transportation types. In the USA, the collection of the methods is commonly called the Intelligent Traffic Systems, in Europe the Traffic Telematics. Both in the USA and also in the European Union, great attention has been devoted to the problems. The applications should be divided into two parts. On one hand, the drivers should be provided with the information as most as effective (and cheap) to be needed for using the road network effectively and safely, and on the other hand they can be provided with the other information for which the drivers are willing to pay. ADAS system capabilities and conditions for driving the cars on roads: The ADAS and TICS systems are the typical technological products that facilitate human activities. However, this may be a great source of temptation how to fill the released mental capacity and the time. Hence without the specification of a strict feedback and knowledge of a real mental capacity, driver's behaviour, the stipulation of the rules among human being, vehicle, road and legislation, and the relation of traffic security versus the facilitation of the basic driver's activities, this perfect idea to replace the sensory and mental human capacity by technology would be able to be counter-productive or even dangerous. 9.1 TOPICS AND CONDITION STIPULATION In addition to the technical parameters of the devices and the systems themselves, there is a number of the aspects that can affect the operational quality of technology used and its full and effective exploitation. 1. Great attention is devoted to the standardisation process, its technical arrangement, possible abuse or unauthorised use within the framework of the creation of the European standards in Telematics. However, the standardisation of "human parameters" is only marginal, or nearly fully omitted. This problem is solved by legislation as the driver's legal responsibility, this means that the driver is liable for his
48
2. 3.
4.
5. 6.
activities even though some supporting facility is used. From the commercial point of view, the elimination of possible customers is not acceptable, however, it is necessary to emphasise and define the legal responsibility of the producers of such systems, for example, the responsibility for training courses of such systems, their verification, proper use, etc. The safe use of technological facility/systems when driving the vehicle must be taken into account not only for its construction, but also in designing its control elements, communication modules and all display tools. The specification (i.e. the priority) of information to be transmitted and the right to react in a critical event. The priority of the driver's decision before the calculated response, the priority of information related to safe drive before the additional information (e.g. leisure, music, other news, etc.), the elimination of overloading the mental human capacity (e.g. unclear information, misinformation, implied sense, unclear instructions for use, etc.). The compatibility of the system functionality with the basic driver's activities, goals and tasks and the unacceptability of using the system for the other purposes have to eliminate the danger of the loss of control over technology or its use for the other purposes than specified (e.g. calling, sending e-mails, playing games, etc.). Only the trained persons should handle and operate these technical tools, both under normal operation and in emergency events (i.e. in case of system failure, incorrect operation, in case of delayed responses, etc.) Any failure of the system must be immediately and clearly indicated to the user. The user should be ready and able to fully control the vehicle manually.
9.1.1 POSITIVES OF ADAS AND TICS SYSTEMS: x The enhancement of the driver's sensory and mental capacity, information processing without the human intervention, possible solutions. x Recognition of danger in wide relations x Stable system productivity (i.e. no mental failures, no side-track, no discussion and no emotion) x No fatigue (no monotony when driving a highway, reliably repeated tasks and messages) 9.1.2 NEGATIVES OF ADAS AND TICS SYSTEMS: x Technical solution (without human intervention) need not be the optimised solution for a specific situation. The absence of human approach, for example, foresight of the other human aspects, can deteriorate the solution and can select fatal responses (e.g. braking instead of acceleration or making an effective vehicle manoeuvre). x Despite all legislative driver's responsibility, it is difficult to eliminate the driver's feeling of safety, convenience and the tendency to release its mental capacity and to relax. x Growing lazy and loosing the basic driver's skill that is necessary for safe driving the vehicle at roads. x The problem of a mixed car fleet, i.e. the cars provided with ADAS (TICS) and the other cars. This is the same as for power brake boosters, ABS, and automatic overdrive transmissions. A massive use of the ADAS and TICS systems is not expected in the near future, and hence their existing users would accept wrong responses and driving around unknown city at the drivers that are not provided with the navigation systems. x The ADAS and/or TICS system installation in your car is not privilege, and it does not mean higher drive quality and the elimination of accidents and possible injury.
49
9.1.3 LEGAL APPROACH AND LEGISLATION: Nowadays, our legislation does not consider the navigation systems, and the clause on the today's responsibilities of the drivers will not be satisfactory in case of their massive application. The relationships among the producers, user, systems, specific situation, and responsibility for decisions will be also more complex even for judicial experts.
50
LEVEL AND SEVERITY OF DISTRACTION The main objective of the cost 352 Action is to create a scientific base for road traffic and vehicle equipment legislation, safety evaluation methodology and rules for drivers’ education and training for the appropriate use of In-Vehicle Information Systems (IVIS) in order to enhance road safety. The study of driver behaviour is essential to the safe implementation of new traffic control systems. Into this context of increasing demands placed on drivers in a complex environment, vehicle manufacturers are introducing a broad array of new technologies. Whilst the motivation is driver comfort, there are plenty of opportunities, and pitfalls, for safety that this new technology provides. It is clear that the development and supply of In-Vehicle Information Systems (IVIS) is not taking place in a context of discovering and providing for the information handling capacities of drivers. In addition, the increasing use of mobile phones, GPS based navigation systems and even DVD in cars is almost certainly leading to accidents. Vehicle manufacture and the development of techniques such as intelligent speed adaptation take place on a European-wide basis. It is vital for policy makers, both in Government and Industry, to understand the individual and cumulative effects of this growth in IVIS on the capabilities of drivers to manage their vehicles in safety. This COST proposal will provide the evidence to allow policy makers to react appropriately. This paper presents the findings of TruckSim study that examined the effects of distraction of drivers due to different in-vehicle tasks. There were four in-vehicle distraction tasks: unwrapping sweets, reading the text message on the mobile phone, entering destination on the navigation system, and adjusting the heating controls. The effects of these tasks were examined by requiring participants to drive in simple and complex road environments. Overall measures of driving performance were collected, together with reaction time measures and subjective measures of driver’s perceived workload. The conclusions of the research are that reading the text message on the mobile phone is the most distractive task and have the greatest negative impact on performance. Introduction The demands related with car driving by professional drivers are noticeably different from the requirements for non-professional drivers. Among the specificities of the professional truck driver’s work, there is for instance, the driver’s material responsibility (the high price of the vehicle and of the load). However, the key factor is the fact that a professional driver almost spends his whole working time driving a vehicle, which is a high demanding activity both from the cognitive (attention, information perception and processing, decision making) and from the emotional and social viewpoints. Reed and Cronin [12] underline that truck drivers are submitted to a number of physical and psychological stresses inherent of their occupation. Concerning the possible usage of in-vehicle systems, there is a significant difference between the private car drivers and professional drivers groups. In the case of private car users, drivers can simply decide and choose which system they will buy and use. Professional drivers are, in general, not involved in the decision-making about the in-vehicle systems. Professional drivers are also forced to use such systems under various conditions. Numerous studies examined the problem of multi-tasking while driving and identified risky factors in connection with the use of telematics: driver distraction, information overload (particularly the coded information of systems), cognitive capture (tendency to complete the secondary task – phone call, navigation question)[5].
51
Truck driver distraction due to different in-vehicle tasks In the present study, the impact of performing four different in-vehicle tasks was measured in the TruckSim experiment. Sixteen drivers drive two types of road: 8,8 km trunk route and 3,8 km of urban road while carrying out different tasks that varied in their complexity. Each driver drove the route under four tasks conditions: turning the fan and temperature to the maximum, navigation to a certain destination, reading the text message on the mobile phone and unwrapping the sweets. Drivers` behaviour was recorded together with their reaction times. Reaction times were measured through the task where drivers had to flash the headlights when the screen turned white (fog). They had to flash the headlights during all distraction tasks. Driver distraction has been implicated as a contributing factor to over 20 percent of motor vehicle crashes in reviews of accident causation [19]. Concerns that new technologies may contribute to driver distraction are not new. There are many studies investigating the potential impacts of in-vehicle systems (IVIS) on driver performance, cognitive and visual workload and distraction. Nevertheless, the majority of real-traffic or simulator studies on distraction are carried out with the group of passenger cars participants. There has not been a lot of research related to drivers of trucks, but this group is in relation to telematics usage very important one. Truck drivers use the telematics devices to perform their everyday task – they use mobile phones, navigation systems, route guidance systems etc. The technologies are available in the trucks primarily to improve the productivity of the transportation company, so there is an issue of the system` s acceptance. Driver distraction is an important safety issue. As the use of in-vehicle technologies becomes more popular especially in the case of professional lorry drivers, there is concern about a potential increase of driver distraction arising from the usage of telematics in-vehicle technologies. A significant amount of distraction associated with their use may arise both from the manual manipulation of these devices, but also from cognitive workload related to their use.
Effects of different in-vehicle tasks Distraction is a key issue for the researches investigating the impact of ITS on road safety. It occurs when a triggering event induces an attentional shift away from the task. There are many potential in-vehicle sources of distraction in the frame of the driving task. Distraction occurs when a driver is: x delayed in the recognition of the necessary information to safely maintain the lateral and longitudinal control of the vehicle (the driving task) x due to some event, activity, object or person, within or outside the vehicle x that compels or tends to induce the driver’s shifting attention away from fundamental driving tasks x by compromising the driver’s auditory, biomechanical, cognitive or visual faculties, or combinations thereof. NHTSA estimates that at least 25% of police reported crashes involve some form of driver inattention; distraction is one form of such inattention and it plays role in over half of these crashes [16][19]. Every secondary driving task is a potential distracter; NHTSA recognizes 13 sources of distraction [16]: 1. eating or drinking 2. outside person, object or event
52
3. adjusting radio, cassette, or CD 4. other occupants in vehicle 5. moving object in vehicle 6. smoking related 7. talking or listening on mobile phone 8. dialing mobile phone 9. using device/object brought into vehicle 10. using device/controls integral to vehicle 11. adjusting climate controls 12. other distraction 13. unknown distraction While the driver is distracted by some event, he/she is not fully concentrated on the primary driving task, which in conclusion results in increased response time, decrease of awareness and increased risk of involvement in accident. As implicitly mentioned in the list of potentional distracters above manipulating and using various in-vehicle information systems (IVIS) is one part of these distractive activities [15]. Mobile phone use In a vast body of researches is the impact of mobile phone usage on driving performance investigated. It indicates a significant connection between mobile phone use while driving and increased accident involvement risk [10]. It distracts the driver visually (driver is forced to move his eyes from the road environment to the mobile phone), physically (one handed driving while answering the phone or holding the phone while talking), aurally (distraction by the ring tone and the communication with other person itself) and/or cognitively (workload made by paying attention to the driving task and conversation topic). According to Reed and Green [13], hand-held mobile phones reduce driving precision. Many studies also have found that using hands-free phone while driving is no safer than using handheld phone. Using mobile phone while driving can increase the risk of being involved in a collision by up to four times [14]. When dealing with professional drivers, it is required to learn that receiving text messages through mobile phones is a popular way to maintain the contact with the employer when driving. Reading and writing text message while driving causes high physical (holding the mobile phone and pressing the buttons), visual (reading the text on the small screen) and cognitive distraction (paying attention to the written text). A research in United Kingdom revealed that drivers consider sending a text message to be the most distracting activity [3]. 30% of drivers admit to send text message while driving [17], which is an alarming number considering the workload caused by writing a text message. In-vehicle navigation systems Navigation system is also relatively common device used by truck drivers and it is also another distraction related in-vehicle device. Despite of its positive effects on driving economics, it can also distract and endanger driver who operates with route guidance systems while driving. It can distract drivers physically (manual entry of destination), visually (looking at the visual display while operating with the device or viewing the map) or aurally (listening to auditory turn-by-turn instructions). Based on the research findings of Tijerina et al. [18], where 4 in-vehicle navigation systems where investigated, it was concluded that route guidance systems with voice recognition
53
technology are more viable and safer option than systems that require visual-manual entry. However the destination entry is very time consuming activity even if voice recognition is used. Therefore the data entry lock is activated in many systems when the vehicle is moving [4]. According to Dingus et al. [2] findings result the electronic route map without voice guidance and the conventional map in the most driving intrusion creating high visual attention demand and requiring the driver to look longer. On-board Internet and email access It is predicted that such systems will become important information sources in vehicles. The major concern of its manufacturers is to provide an easy operability with such systems causing as less distraction as possible. Such systems are also research aims in research projects. It was found that even listening to speech-based emails degrades driving performance [11]; these results should be interpreted with caution because of the research methodology (speech based system was not compared with email systems using other mode of input). In-vehicle radio system and CD player Surprisingly very little is known about cognitive, physical and visual demands of interacting and/or listening to the radio while driving. It is likely to be, that the radio use places different demands on drivers depending on the nature of specific task they are performing and type of interface used [6]. As radio can be found almost in every vehicle it is frequently used as a reference device in research than the target of research itself; but researches made on this field are ambiguous. Tuning a radio while driving appears to have detrimental effect on driving performance, particularly for inexperienced drivers [20]. It was revealed in simulation study of Horbery, Anderson, Regan, Triggs & Brown [7] that perceived workload was highest when operating with radio (tuning, changing bass/treble, speaker balance) in comparison to operating hands-free mobile phone (answering a set of general questions). Even though the level of distraction caused by interacting with a radio may be smaller than that caused by other in-car tasks, it should still not be discounted [16]. CD player is also very common feature in most present-day cars. Operating a CD player while driving is more distracting than dialing a mobile phone or eating [9]. Eating & drinking, smoking, other persons in the vehicle The number of non-technology related secondary driving tasks is unlimited. We will discuss the most common ones. There is no legislation prohibiting eating or drinking while driving, but these activities can create physical and visual distraction for drivers. Drivers need to remove their eyes off the road and one or both hands off the steering wheel for considerable amount of time. Greater proportion of drivers involved in traffic accidents was distracted by eating or drinking rather than by talking on a mobile phone [16][9]. Smoking is also very distracting activity for drivers as they need to remove their hands off the wheel when lighting a cigarette, hold it for a while and put out. Based on results of questionnaire study, it is concluded that smokers have and increased risk of being involved in traffic accident [1].
54
Talking with passengers while driving is usually considered to be a low risk activity, but passengers can be a source of distraction (while arguing with the driver, speaking intensively with another passenger or driver, when the passenger is a small child etc.). Presence of passengers for younger drivers increases crash risk, which is a result of distraction and risk-taking [21]. Other tasks, adjusting the heating controls and unwrapping the sweets, have been chosen because they also have attention-demanding potential, but are considered as common in the everyday job of drivers. Research aims Distraction is a significant road safety issue. The study aimed to explore the effects of invehicle distraction in two types of road environment by TruckSim experiment, including objective and subjective measures. METHOD The experiment took place at Transport Research Laboratory in Crowthorne, UK. Equipment Participants drove a TruckSim owned and maintained by Transport Research Laboratory, which is capable to record various driving performance parameters at the frequency of 60 Hz. The TruckSim was equipped with a TomTom navigation system and Nokia mobile phone. Nokia mobile phone remained in the kit mounted to the left of the steering wheel, for the duration of the study. The TomTom system remained to the right of the steering wheel for the duration of the study. Participants Sixteen participants (15 male and 1 female) took part in this study; each person was tested individually. Of these, six were drivers of age from 46-57 years, five were of age from 30-35, four were of age of 21-28 and one driver was 26 years old; average age was 42 years. All participants held valid C driving licenses, were currently insured and were experienced drivers (minimum of 5 years of experience). Participants were recruited via TRL database and were paid 50 pounds for their participation. Participants were all healthy, of average body build and fitness. In-vehicle tasks causing distraction The study was designed to assess in-vehicle distraction. For each environment (simple and complex), four distraction tasks were used: 1. Reading the text message on the mobile phone. Participants were asked to read first text message in the inbox. 2. Entering destination in the navigation system. Participants were asked to enter destination (“Drive to Heathrow Airport”) using the TomTom navigation system. 3. Unwrapping sweets. Participants were asked to unwrap the sweet and leave wrapper in the tray. 4. Adjusting the heating controls. Participants were asked to turn the fain and temperature in the cabin to the maximum.
the the the the
55
Conditions There were two different environment conditions, simple and complex. In simple environment, drivers drove on the highway. In complex environment, drivers drove in town (with pedestrians, traffic, lights, roundabouts). The simple environment was about 8,8 km long, the complex environment was approximately 3,8 km long. Performance measures The objective driving performance measures focused on speed-related issues. Additionally, reaction time was measured (when the fog on the screen occurred, drivers had to flash their headlights as quick as possible). Finally, measures of perceived workload were recorded after each drive using a widely used multiple dimension subjective workload index, the NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX). Reaction time measuring Drivers were asked to react to the appearance of a fog on the screen by flashing their headlights. The fog appeared four times in each experimental drive. The reaction time was measured from the moment of the fog appearance till the drivers pressed the button to flash the headlights. The faster the driver reacts, the more prepared he/she would be to respond to sudden events in the road traffic environment. Experiment design Subjects were divided into experimental groups as listed in the table below (Table 1). Table 1 Experimental design Task Complex environment Simple environment
With tasks 4 4
No task 4 4
Procedure Participants were introduced to the TruckSim and shown the relevant function of the tool. After the brief description of the procedures and what to expect, the informed consent form, sickness questionnaire and pre-test questionnaire were completed. Then they took part in a familiarization trial for approximately 10 minutes to familiarize them with the simulator and the tasks. Drivers had to perform all tasks to make the researchers sure they are confident with them. Afterwards they undertook two experimental drives, after each one they had to fill in the NASA-TLX questionnaire. After the both drives, they had to fill in post-drive questionnaire, which explored their subjective feelings on the different experimental tasks. These questionnaires also included driving history, name, age and attitudes towards different tasks drivers had to perform. RESULTS The experiment involved both objective measures of driving performance and subjective measures of workload. Two experimental logfiles from the experimental drives were excluded from the experiment due the log error (from simple environment). One logfile was excluded due the simulator sickness issue (from complex environment). Final configuration of subjects in dependency on environment and distraction tasks can be found below (Table 2). Table 2 Final experimental configuration
Environment Complex without Complex with Simple without Simple with distraction tasks distraction tasks distraction tasks distraction tasks N (subjects) 7 8 8 6 56
Different in-vehicle tasks may influence driver` s behaviour in a variety of ways. In an attempt to capture the complexity of this impact, various categories of dependent measures were gathered: speed, reaction times, and drivers` subjective assessments of workload and distraction. Objective measures: overall driving performance Mean speed The overview of the speed profiles from all experimental drives (in m/s) is listed in the table below (Table 3). Table 3 Overview of the speed profiles
Mean Std. Deviation
Mean speed Simple environment with
Mean speed Simple environment without
Mean speed Complex environment with
Mean speed Complex environment without
12,164
11,971
5,424
6,137
4,312
1,709
0,190
0,826
Analysis of the mean speed in simple environment with and without distraction tasks did not show any significant difference; F(2,12)=0,271, F-crit(2,10)=4,103 (p<0,05), t(14)=1,151, tcrit=1,7823 (p<0,05). Driving performance in the simple environment was not significantly different neither F-test value nor t-test. Driving performance in the complex environment with and without distraction tasks concerning the speed was not significantly different with F-test, but speed comparison with ttest shows very significant difference; F(2,13)=2,449, F-crit(2,10)=4,103 (p<0,05), tstat(15)=10,391, t-crit=3,6941 (p<0,0135). Reaction times Total number of analyzed reaction times can be found in Table 4. Ideal number of responses is given in the round brackets in the table. Missing responses were not further analyzed as there wasn’t found any significant relation between missing response and environment. Nevertheless, according to Table 4, missing responses were rather surprisingly connected with simple environment with distraction tasks than with complex environment with distraction tasks. Missing reaction time values were ignored. Table 4 Total numbers of analyzed reaction times in both environments
Environment N times)
Complex without Complex with Simple without Simple with distraction tasks distraction tasks distraction tasks distraction tasks (reaction 27 (28) 32 (32) 31 (32) 21 (24)
The overview of all reaction times in different environments not considering different invehicle distraction tasks (in s) can be found in the table below (Table 5). Table 5 Overview of the reaction times in both environments
N
Valid
RT Simple without
RT Complex without
RT Simple with
RT Complex with
31
27
21
32
57
Mean
1,0298
0,9206
1,1290
1,1957
Median
1,0000
0,9200
1,0500
1,1850
Std. Deviation
0,19066
0,23867
0,29144
0,27165
Variance
0,036
0,057
0,085
0,074
Range
0,88
1,17
1,20
1,33
Minimum
0,57
0,48
0,83
0,70
Maximum
1,45
1,65
2,03
2,03
The analysis of the reaction times in the complex environment with and without distraction tasks showed significant difference; F(2,57)=1,30, F-crit=3,1826 (p<0,05), t(59)=4,09, tcrit=3,1422 (p<0,00135). The analysis of the reaction times in the simple environment with and without distraction tasks did not show any significant difference; F(2,50)=2,34, F-crit=3,1826 (p<0,05), t(52)=1,37, t-crit=1,6759 (p<0,05). The t-test analysis of the reaction times in the simple and complex environment did not show any significant difference; F(2,53)=1,15, F-crit=3,1826, (p<0,05), t(55)=0,85, t-crit=1,6759 (p<0,05). This result is rather surprising. However, when comparing median values of reaction times in the simple and complex environment with and without distraction tasks, the median value of reaction time in the complex environment is by 0,135s higher than in the simple environment. In spite of the fact that t-test did no show any significant difference, such increase in reaction time needs to be taken into account confirming the assumption of higher demandingness of the complex environment. Median values of the reaction time in simple and complex environment without distraction tasks are also lower than median values of reaction times in both environments with distraction tasks. The total number of reaction times in relation to environment and distraction tasks can be found in the table below (Table 6). Table 6 Total number of analyzed reaction times in relation to tasks and environments Distraction task HEATING
Environment
Comple Simpl e x
N (react. 8 times)
5
TOMTOM
SWEETS
MOBILE
Complex Simple
Comple Simple x
Comple Simple x
8
8
8
5
5
6
The analysis of differences between reaction times in the simple and complex environment in relation to distraction tasks showed no significant differences in performing following tasks. (1) Heating distraction – F(2,11)=4,64, F-crit=4,1028 (p<0,05), t(13)=0,83, t-crit=2,0150 (p<0,05), (2) TomTom distraction – F(2,11)=2,08, F-crit=4,1028 (p<0,05), t(13)=0,76, tcrit=1,7959 (p<0,05), (3) Unwrapping sweets distraction – F(2,11)=6,96, F-crit=4,1028 (p<0,05), t(13)=0,13, t-crit=1,8125 (p<0,05). Significant difference in the reaction time between simple and complex environment was identified in the Mobile distraction task – F(2,12)=7,06, F-crit=4,1028 (p<0,05), t(14)=3,31, tcrit=3,2498 (p<0,005). Following graph (Figure 1) shows minimum, maximum and median values of reaction times in the simple environment with in-vehicle distraction tasks and in the complex environment with in-vehicle distraction tasks. 58
Figure 1 Reaction times in dependency on environment and tasks
Subjective measures: drivers` subjective assessments of workload and distraction
NASA-TLX Drivers` subjective workload was measured by NASA-TLX questionnaire. Correlations between reaction times and results from NASA-TLX questionnaire from complex environment without distraction task (r=0,47, p=0,01), complex environment with distraction task (r=0,133, p=0,467), simple environment without distraction task (r=0,226, p=0,222) and simple environment with distraction task (r=0,370, p=0,099) show, that the subjective workload increases with the reaction time. The t-test did not reveal any significant difference between the subjective workload neither in different environments nor under presence of the distraction task. However, perceived subjective workload in complex environment was higher than in simple environment, the highest workload was perceived in complex environment with distraction tasks (Table 7). Table 7 Results of NASA-TLX NASA-TLX Complex with
NASA-TLX Simple with
NASA-TLX Complex without
NASA-TLX Simple without
Mean
64,9584
54,9444
57,8572
55,5833
Median
67,1669
52,6667
58,3333
54,3332
Std. Deviation
10,71787
16,14987
11,34776
25,95786
Range
30,67
49,67
34,33
65,67
Minimum
46,67
33,33
46,33
28,33
Maximum
77,33
83,00
80,67
94,00
59
Post-drive questionnaire Results of attitudes of drivers to different in-vehicle tasks are summarized in graph (Figure 2), where mean values of all responses can be found. As the graph shows, drivers felt most uncomfortable when performing the operation with Tomtom navigation system or reading text message on the mobile phone in the complex and simple environment. On the other hand, they felt most comfortable when operating the heating system in the simple environment. 1 = very uncomfortable, 10 - very comfortable 8
subjective evaluation
7
6,7
6,4
7
6
6
5
4,6
4
4,3
3,8
3,6
3
2
1
0
SMS simple
SMS heating heating tomtom tomtom sweet complex simple complex simple complex simple
sweet complex
tasks/environment Figure 2 Results of the attitudes of the subjects in relation to tasks and environment
Some examples of the answers in the opened question in the questionnaire are listed below: “The task completed with the sat-nav system was quite easy to perform as I only had to press a few buttons. I imagine it would be more difficult if I had to enter a road name or postcode etc. Personally I never use phone whilst driving so found this a little more difficult.” “I would not operate a sat-nav while driving. It’s really difficult. “ “Operating a mobile phone requires too much time with your eyes off the road. Adjustment of heating and operation of TomTom is easier when you are familiar with the location and operation of the equipment. Unwrapping sweets is not a problem as this is a well practiced activity, which does not require you to take your eyes off the road.” “Opening sweet wrapped in town environment caused distraction enough to miss a red traffic light. Reading text message in town feels very dangerous as too much time is spend with eyes on inside of the cab rather than road. Plus the necessary re-focus time when looking from the cab to road.” DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Generally in this experiment we found that performing an additional in-vehicle task (such as adjusting the heating controls, unwrapping sweets, reading the text on mobile phone and entering destination on the navigation system) while driving can result in exacerbation of driving performance in some driving situations. From the view of speed regulation comparing situations with distraction tasks and without distraction tasks - we found that 60
participants drove more slowly when they have been busy by distraction, particularly in the complex environment, where speed comparison showed very significant difference. That just corresponds with the fact of more demanding city traffic conditions. Other part of the experiment was the evaluation of the reaction time to the appearance of a fog on the screen by flashing the headlights. The in-vehicle distraction tasks impair overall driving performance. The negative effects were observed in both the simple and complex environment. Under simple environment (motorway) conditions we found the higher mean reaction time while performing the distraction tasks in the comparison to the mean reaction time without distraction tasks. The same result was found under complex (city) conditions. Furthermore t-test indicated that the complex environment with in-vehicle distraction tasks is significantly different from the complex environment without in-vehicle distraction tasks. Then we see that distraction of drivers, who are not fully concentrated on the primary driving task can lead to increase response time, decrease of their free mental capacity for appropriate reactions and thereby increase the risk of involvement in accident. For further information we evaluated mean reaction times in the simple environment with invehicle distraction tasks versus complex environment with in-vehicle distraction tasks. In all distraction tasks except heating control appeared to be worse responses in terms of city conditions. The most considerable and statistically significant difference we found at reading the text message on the mobile phone, which is obvious also on medians (Figure 1). Unfortunately in contrast to our result, for professional drivers is a receiving text messages just popular way to establish the communication with the employer while driving. Reading and writing text messages while driving causes high physical, visual and cognitive distraction. Drivers also felt uncomfortable when performing this activity considering results from the post-driving questionnaire. When we compare the medians describing mean reaction times (Figure 1), it seems to be rather surprising that on the highest levels are values of unwrapping sweets in the both complex and simple environments, which supports assumption, that for some drivers are such distracters very demanding. However, greater proportion of drivers involved in traffic accidents was distracted by eating or drinking rather then by using a mobile phone [14][8]. It is therefore rather surprising, that drivers felt comfortable when unwrapping sweets in both environments. When considering drivers’ subjective workload, highest perceived workload is connected with complex environment supporting the assumption, that driving in the city is more attention demanding than driving on the highway. Secondary driving tasks performed under such condition may therefore result in more hazardous scenarios. This experiment touched some serious issues of truck drivers’ distraction. The findings suggest haulier companies need to evaluate truck safety equipment and provide adequate training that involves not only learning the basics of operating a vehicle and memorizing the rules of the road, but also good judgment and reflexes, experience, patience, and common sense while driving in different environments and performing various secondary driving tasks. Nevertheless, conclusions made for the real traffic environment could be affected by simulator environment. It is possible that tasks found to be relatively more distracting in the laboratory conditions may not influence safe driving in the real traffic if they are performed infrequently, or in low demand situations, where drivers can choose where and how to perform desired action. On the other side, such actions can be connected with higher workload and stress in the real environment as they can result in an accident; one’s health cannot be endangered within the laboratory conditions. The role of exposure to distraction in defining overall crash risk is an important area for future. It is necessary to understand the preceding factors associated with crashes, near
61
crashes, critical events and develop relationship between task completion time, eyes-off-road time and critical accident likelihood. The objective of the present report was to review the existing knowledge on the impact of IVIS on road safety. It is presented below according to the four basic functions identified during the discussions in work package I. As a next step, the focus was shifted towards three driver populations, the novice drivers, the elderly drivers and the professional drivers, who present a specific challenge for IVIS use. It was the overall goal of this literature review to highlight the missing knowledge and to identify the main questions for further researches, in relation with work package III of this COST Action. The impacts of phoning on the different aspects of driving behaviour are well documented by a sound body of knowledge whereas the impacts of other information technologies and the functions they provide seem to be largely unexplored. Taking into account the rapid technological development in this field, not only more research but also a different view on the systems are required. Before proceeding to study the impacts of single new devices or their combinations (e.g. SMS and e-Mail) it would be desirable to develop a generic taxonomy of the performed tasks with these systems while driving in order to produce the results which can be generalised and allow for predictions of the impacts of future developments. For the systems which provide the driver with driving-related information a shift in the perspective has to be stated. First, it turned out that from a safety-related viewpoint the phenomenon of “Behavioural Adaptation” needs to be considered. Although it has to be acknowledged that the positive impacts of these systems might be diminished or even overcompensated by the various behavioural mechanisms subsumed under this concept (e.g. delegation of responsibility) there seems to be remarkably few empirical evidence on this issue. Second, only few of the studies presented and discussed in chapter 3 operationalized the impact by means of indicators of driver behaviour. The exceptions are the studies on the effects of navigation systems and of the different aspects of the HMI design (e.g. voice vs. visual messages) which can be related to the issue of driver distraction through the interaction with the system while driving. For other services (e.g. traffic information) a “user needs” perspective seems to be more prevalent in present research, i.e. there are surveys which try to identify e.g. the different kinds of information, which drivers would like to get before or during a given trip by means of interviews. But none of the studies reviewed in the present report provided data on how this information influences actual driving behaviour on tactical or operational level or if correlations with indicators like workload, stress, comfort etc. exist. As regards the interactions with IVIS according to drivers’ characteristics, a large body of research showed that young drivers are a very specific group of road users which is most liable to dangerous driving behaviour due to a lack of experience. Thus, there are at least two questions to be answered by research. First, if there are IVIS functions which might be of help for them to cope with their frequently documented limitations due to inexperience. Second, if the interaction of this specific group with IVIS while driving might create new, additional risks. Whereas the findings concerning the first question are not conclusive there seems to be at least some evidence with regard to the second question: driving a vehicle as well as interacting with an IVIS device requires the acquisition of complex skills. A research work by Lansdown (2002) reviewed in the present document indicates that young novice drivers might be at a special risk when learning to perform a secondary task (e.g. operating the IVIS) while driving because they are still in the process of acquiring the complex skill of driving the vehicle. Moreover, a research work by Hosking et al. (in press) suggests that younger drivers are prone to make use of technologies (writing SMS) which are especially popular in this age groups, leading to dangerous behaviours (e.g. in terms of lane-keeping) which are not compensated by more cautious behaviours (e.g. increasing distance to lead vehicle, reducing
62
speed) which were frequently observed in studies on the effects of phone use while driving. On the other hand there are also results showing that teenage drivers are able to prevent their driving performance from becoming impaired by a secondary task even if subjective experienced workload increases (Slick and Tran, 2005). This can be interpreted as evidence for compensation by increased effort. However, as a whole our knowledge on the issue of “Impacts of IVIS on younger drivers” is far from complete thereby indicating a clear need for more systematic research to further explore this field. At least for the elderly drivers and the impacts of IVIS and their driving behaviour results are somewhat more conclusive. The research reviewed in this report stresses the importance of Human Factors and highlights the relationships between the design of the Human-Machine Interaction and safety. This resulted in numerous recommendations on system design and on the functions, providing special benefits for the elderly, given the documented age-correlated changes in visual, cognitive and motor functioning. Nevertheless, it needs to be ensured that those technologies are properly implemented and well accepted by this driver group in order to realize their benefits. With regard to professional drivers the situation takes a new dimension of complexity due to the context of the use of IVIS. Whereas car driving in a private context implies that systems are implemented and used voluntarily this situation changes in the context of professional use. Drivers are in most cases not the owners of the vehicles and the decision to equip the car with one or more IVIS is not taken by them. It became obvious that IVIS use has to be considered as a part of their work activity which implies that there are less degrees of freedom to decide if a system is used or not or to make choices according to personal preferences. Consequently the research reviewed in this report had a clear focus on the work of a professional driver in its organisational context and on how this is influenced by modern information technology in the vehicle. However, none of the research explicitly addressed the question of the impact of these technologies on actual driving behaviour from a safety perspective. This seems to be a significant issue for future research in particular because professional drivers, on the one hand, seem to be restricted in their choices to use or not use the systems. On the other hand professional drivers can be expected to be highly experienced drivers, a factor which might diminish the risks arising from “forced” system use. By the end these considerations have the status of speculations or in the best case hypotheses which should be validated by future research efforts.
63
Intelligent cars of the future Traffic on roads thickens, pressure on drivers’ increases, and accidents remain a burning issue. Will state-of-the-art technology, the so-called ‘intelligent transport systems’, enhance road safety?
Intelligent cars of the future, the development of which is supported by the European Commission, look quite normal at first sight. However, under their hood equipment is hidden, capable of many things: Preventing impacts, keeping the car within the lane, controlling the car distance in a queue, or preparing for an impact, and then calling help. If they became a regular part of car equipment the number of road accidents casualties could drop to one half according to the Commission. Traffic congestions would be limited, which would also result in reducing the quantity of combustion products in the air, and the fuel consumption would go down; total savings have been calculated at up to 22 billion EUR a year. Example of intelligent transport systems in vehicles Even today can we see sophisticated driver assistance systems ADAS (Advanced Driver Assistance Systems), which form a technological part of vehicles, as well as additional information systems IVIS (In-vehicle Information Systems). The use of mobile computer and communication devices in vehicles, such as mobile telephones and portable digital assistance devices, rapidly increases.
The Volvo Company, for example, have introduced an active safety system in the model S80; it is capable of taking over control over the brake system if the driver does not start to brake already in the initial phase of the danger of a collision. Systems have been developed which 64
draw drivers’ attention to the danger of micro-sleep, fatigue, or stress, which could result in the car’s leaving the lane; if the driver does not respond immediately, the system will be able to direct the vehicle back. GM is developing a cruise control responding already from the zero speed; it means that the car will be able to stop and move again along with a queue. Mercedes of S and CL classes for example offer a hard-disk navigation system or intelligent system of light control with automatic evaluation and switching in five programs. There is a new product by the Japanese Company Sharp - the LCD display in the dashboard, the construction of which enables sending different images, the visibility of which depends on the visual angle; while the driver is watching the navigation system, the passenger may watch a film from the DVD player. New vehicles are produced with the ESP stabilization system the light or acoustic warning signal of which draws the driver’s attention to the fact that the vehicle is just balancing the skid, which would have occurred without the ESP engagement. Systems are produced that provide warning in foggy conditions or before an obstacle; in the last few years the dynamic navigation receiving signals on traffic congestions has resolved the problem of lost signal for example when driving through tunnels. The system supplied to Citroën C6 also considers enhanced safety of pedestrians involved in a collision with a car. Acceleration sensors and an optical fibre sensor are built in the bumpers, which - together with an acceleration meter - supplies data to a control unit that evaluates the current collision. If it comes in contact with a pedestrian, the sensor bends and interrupts the light flow, and within a few milliseconds the control unit gives out an instruction for lifting the rear part of the hood above the motor, which reduces the risk of a contact with hard parts of the motor space. It means that some systems of active safety do exist, but they are separate. The future lies in full integration of these vehicle intelligent systems. Only positive aspects? Do the new systems comply with varied needs of drivers - whether they are professional, elderly, beginners, or handicapped ones? In Europe there are still relatively few scientifically acquired findings available that would capture this issue in all its aspects, including the need of education and training in using intelligent transport systems (ITS), their influence on mental burden and attention, or acceptance of these systems in relation to different socioculture characteristics in general. Some systems should facilitate drivers’ tasks and enhance travelling safety for example by a better access to navigation information, which enables the reduction of the level of attention which has to be given to orientation when driving. The dissemination of traffic or meteorological information in real time makes it possible to predict certain critical situations and avoid them. Adaptive drive controls (for example cruise control) reduce drivers’ stress and mental burden, while maintaining a safe distance from the vehicle ahead. Special active support systems balancing some delayed reactions and non-clarities in decision-making in unforeseen situations are suitable for example for senior drivers. The majority of road accidents, around 90 - 95%, are caused by human failure. The data acquired indicate that the primary causes of at least one quarter of all accidents are inattention: distraction, “looking, but not seeing”, and falling asleep behind the wheel. Traffic and safety measures, which are already commonplace today, such as safety belts or air-bags, contributed to the reduction of accidents in the last decades, but have reached their limits. How big a potential for further enhancement of road safety will be brought about by new, advanced assistance systems? No matter how perfect they all look from the technical point of view, humanities specialists ask up to what extent they are acceptable for the drivers and how they could change their behaviour and attitude when driving.
65
A broad range of advanced assistance systems are supposed to enhance the driver’s perception of danger and partly automate the driver’s tasks. This includes warning with regard to the speed, keeping the vehicle safely within a lane, detection of a blind stop, automated monitoring of the vehicle surroundings, pedestrian detection, vision improvement, and monitoring the driver’s conditions and functions. In essence they improve or enhance perception and driver’s cognitive functions. The practical impact on road traffic safety, however, will depend on their interaction with the driver. For example for effective support of the driver and avoiding a frontal collision it is most important that the warning signal or feedback intuitively require a correct and timely reaction - collision-avoiding manoeuvre. New technologies assume a new concept of driver-vehicle interaction in more sensory modalities - visual, tactile, and auditory. The introduction of new safety systems can bring about enormous changes in drivers’ behaviour. Behavioural adaptation may significantly influence (as compared to the expectations) a topical safety benefit of the measures introduced both in positive and in negative sense. Predicting risks The ADAS safety benefits may be significantly reduced or completely eliminated by an unexpected behavioural response of a driver with regard to technology, for example by excessive reliance on modern vehicle systems and shifting the safety limits. Safety potential of the appliances may remain unused - if, for example, their warning is perceived by the drivers as unpleasant or bothering; in this case they can simply give them up. Therefore an important objective of the Human Machine Interface research is also to discover possible unpleasant behaviour of the system. The IVIS and mobile devices can induce the danger of working overload, particularly with regard to information, lack of attention, and diverted attention from the actual driving. If we take into consideration critical safety impacts of mobile telephones, the safety-related questions are also raised by the introduction of supplementing information functions, such as e-mail, access to the Internet, navigational assistance, or road and traffic information.
NAVIGATION
Contradicting information from different systems or conflicts between these independent systems themselves can distract attention, cause overloading, or drivers’ confusion or irritation; it means that they can cause problems, which do not pose a threat in case of an
66
isolated system. It is therefore necessary to introduce a complex of information functions in the vehicles. For the future a uniform adaptive integrated interface is necessary connecting different systems in one functional whole, which solves conflicts between individual functions and takes advantage of their aggregated effect. The goal of transport experts focusing on humanities is to collect knowledge and get involved in the development of methods and technologies for safe and effective integration of the fixed ADAS and IVIS systems as well as portable devices and systems in the context of the vehicle control. On the basis of the findings acquired a general adaptive integrated driver-vehicle interface will be developed, which will be characterized by: x Multi-modal devices divided into various systems, for example displaying the information in the driver’s field of vision, voice inputs and outputs, seat vibrations, equipment for touch inputs, or directional acoustic outputs. x Centralized intelligence for solving conflicts between the systems, for example by means of sorting the information on the basis of priorities and scheduling. x Smooth integration of mobile equipment in a uniform HMI. x Adaptability of the integrated HMI to the topical condition of the driver or driving context. In this way it will be possible to take advantage of new technology to the maximum benefit in the sphere of safety and at the same time to minimise information over-burden and inattentiveness caused by vehicle’s information systems and mobile equipment. The goal is to improve mobility and comfort, but without any concessions in the area of safety. Before the mass introduction of modern assistance systems, however, it will be necessary to solve a number of technical, psychological, legal, and organizational issues. Example of some: Who will bear a responsibility in case of an accident? Will it be the driver, as it is today, or the manufacturer of the systems, or the manufacturer of the car?
67
NEW IDEAS AND APPROACHES IN EU FUNDED RESEARCH There are 8-9 new projects that emerge from HUMANIST. The more you know about something, the more you find out that you don’t know so much and what you would need to find out. For example, ITS for specific groups of population. For example elderly pensioners have problems related to the decline of visual and hearing abilities, or different countries have different needs related to different cultural background.
Being involved in eu projects means a rich network Getting new partners means getting new information, access to databases and technological equipment and most of all to people who you can address.
Knowledge transfer between organisation and companies in the region HUMANIST has been more academically oriented in the beginning, however it is getting more and more into the practice.
METRIC TECHNIQUE TOOL A technique is the component of the experimental methodology which is used to directly gather data on a particular aspect of the driving task Examples are: eye movement analysis, subjective assessment, critical incident analysis
68
TYPE OF EFFECTIVENESS DATA PRACTICAL ISSUES ENVIRONMENT
A tool is the object used to obtain one or more metrics. Examples are: video camera, eye tracker, accelerometer, questionnaire, checklist
An environment is the physical surroundings in which the evaluation data is captured. Examples include: static simulator, dynamic simulator, real road, test track, usability laboratory
Examples of the type of data obtained are: objective, subjective, observation al and expert opinion
The effectiveness of the metric should be expressed in terms of the validity, reliability and sensitivity
Practical issues will include time, cost and training required
GLOSSARY This manual has been built in order to provide easy to understand definitions and descriptions of different functions and systems. In the manual, only functions strictly related to driving have been considered. Terms are presented in alphabetical order and they are related to functions or systems. Moreover, for each term synonyms and related terms are indicated. ACC (Adaptive Cruise Control): cruise control system that is able not only to keep a speed selected by drivers, but also to automatically maintain a safe distance from the vehicle ahead, using dedicated sensors (such as long-range Radar, Lidar, etc.) and adapting to speed changes of the obstacles ahead. [see also Stop-and-Go] ADAS (Advanced Driver Assistance Systems): generic term describing in-vehicle technologies designed to improve vehicle safety by aiding the driver, such as collision avoidance, curve warning, lane departure warning, etc. (synonyms: ADA) Advanced Traveller Information Systems (ATIS): include technology that provides a variety of information that assists travellers in reaching a desired destination via private vehicle, public transportation, or a combination of the two. It may include information provided before a trip (pre-trip), such as through a Web page or kiosks, or during travel (enroute), such as through variable message signs and highway advisory radio. Blind Spot Monitor: vehicle-based system that uses sensors to detect the presence of vehicles located in a zone to the side and rear of the host vehicle (corresponding to the driver’s mirror “blind spot”); a warning indicator can be presented to the driver when vehicles are detected in the zone and a higher-level warning presented if the driver initiates a potentially hazardous lane change. Collision Avoidance: system providing information to the driver regarding the level of danger of other objects (mostly other vehicles close to the host-vehicle) and the avoidance tactics to employ. (synonyms: obstacle avoidance) [see also: Collision Warning, Pre-crash systems] Collision Warning: a function that detects the presence and motion of vehicles and provides warnings to driver in the event that a collision may occur. (synonyms: Global collision warning) [see also: Pre-crash] Cruise Control: a system that keeps the vehicle speed set by the driver independently on the road profile. [see also: ACC] Decision aid at junction: a system which will help the drivers to accept or reject a gap when they are doing a left turn at a T junction or a turn across traffic. Driver monitoring: any system which detects driver’s physiological status, for instance: drowsiness, lacks of attention, eye-movements, heart rate variability. Emergency-related services: any system that can perform the emergency call to the rescue services, for example after an accident or in case of a driver’s sudden collapsing (and in this case, possibly after that the vehicle pulls up alongside the emergency lane automatically). [see also Driver’s Monitoring] 69
Front-end Collision Warning: A collision warning system applied to the front of a vehicle to help accident prevention, in particular, rear-end collisions with preceding vehicles. (synonyms: Front Collision Warning; Forward Collision Warning);[see also: Collision Warning; Longitudinal Warning] Global Positioning System (GPS): US satellite positioning system used to pinpoint geographic locations world-wide. A system consisting of 24 satellites and controlling ground stations, operated by the US Department of Defence, that provides highly synchronised signals to allow receivers (usually but not always ground-based) to pinpoint their location anywhere on the earth to a high degree of accuracy; this, along with map databases and mapmatching software, is the key enabling technology for in-vehicle route guidance, automatic collision notification, and other intelligent vehicle applications. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications): digital cellular telephony system used in ITS services such as traffic information, emergency call and fleet management Headway: the time (gap expressed in time-terms) between a leading vehicle and the velocity of the host vehicle HMI (Human-Machine Interface): previously know as man-machine interface (MMI); means by which a user interacts with a machine and includes simple and advanced functions such as voice recognition, speech synthesis and touch screens ISA (Intelligent Speed Adaptation): systems designed to alert drivers when they exceed the speed limit or are travelling dangerously slow, with some systems also offering dynamic correction capabilities. ITS (Intelligent Transport Systems and Services): any system or service that makes the movement of people or goods more efficient and economical, thus more "intelligent". IVICS (In-Vehicle Information and Communication Systems): information and communication systems intended for use by the driver while driving. They provide drivers with different information (traffic information, route information). They are not intended to apply to vehicle control systems (such as Collision avoidance and Cruise control systems). Junction management: any system able to warn the drivers (i.e.: in terms of speed recommendations) when they approach a junction, depending on the intended colour of the traffic light when crossing the intersection or turning in intersection, so that there is no risk of collision. Intersection infrastructure (i.e.: traffic light ) is able to communicate bi-directionally with all vehicles, passing the junction. (synonyms: Intelligent junction) Lane Departure Warning System: any system that detects the host vehicle’s position inside the lane (namely, measuring the distance from the lane boundaries) and warns the driver when the vehicle trajectory indicates potential hazard of exiting the lane itself. (synonyms: Lane warning systems; Road departure warning systems). Lane keeping system: any system that maintains the vehicle inside its own lane automatically.
70
Lateral collision avoidance: any system able to warn the driver in case that a risk of lateral collision occurs. It can work with radars or with cameras. Navigation Functions: provide drivers with information about how to get from one place to another. Parking support system: any system that supports and helps the driver in the parking manoeuvre. It can be completed automatic (the vehicle acts the manoeuvre without any driver’s action), semi-automatic (the driver acts only on lateral commands or, alternatively, on longitudinal ones), or it can provide only indications on the parking manoeuvrer (i.e.: optimal trajectory, parking room) PDA (Personal Digital Assistant): small, hand-held devices offering functions similar to a personal computer (though limited); also now offering access to some ITS services Pre-Crash systems: any system that can detect when an accident is unavoidable. This information can be used for a “pre-activation” of the on-board vehicle restrain system (i.e.: seat-belts, airbags). Route Guidance System: a system which enables a driver to select a precise destination, the system then computes the best route to follow based on specific criteria and gives the driver specific instructions in the course of the journey. Route Navigation System: a system which provides support to a driver through a map indicating position and destination, but the driver is expected to actively make navigation decisions to arrive at that destination. Smart cards: contactless systems wich permit to have easy access to particular place, to memorise specific data concerning the driver (seat and command adjustement, controls, medical information ..). Stop-and-Go: a variant of Adaptive Cruise Control for the low speed scenarios (queue in motorways, urban environment, etc.); the system is capable of operating continuously at low speed, including the opportunity to stop completely the vehicle behind a leading vehicle and then restarting (automatically or manually) when the lead vehicle moves again. As before mentioned, it is very useful in cases of severe traffic congestion. Telematics: a term used commonly throughout the world to refer to the integration of computer and communications systems into transportation systems; similar to the US term Intelligent Transportation Systems. Traffic Management in Transport and Logistics: Any system with the aim to improve transport efficiency in delivery of goods. The idea is to optimise dynamically the utilization of transport routes, delivery vehicles, as well as delivery period, mobile communication and computing resources. In addition, the customer will benefit from new opportunities for monitoring and controlling the transport of his goods. (see also Traffic Network Equalisation) Traffic Network Equalization: a network system for traffic management, with the objective of improving the performance of the roadway network. The idea is to utilize existing traffic
71
infrastructure more efficiently by combining strategic management of traffic streams with individualized driver information and route guidance. Time to collision: the time (gap expressed in time-terms) between a leading vehicle and the relative velocity of the host vehicle. TMC (Traffic Message Channel): digital channel used to provide silent, coded messages to in-vehicle applications in order to display route and traffic information in a user's native language Travel and Traffic Information: system providing information to the driver regarding the features of the road network, particularly any potential hazards and congestion information. Could also give public transport information and more particularly the existence of accessible subway or railway station. Vehicle-vehicle communication: any system able to perform the communication between vehicles, in order to get and transmit information (i.e. : fog presence, ice on the roads, etc.). Vehicles acts as “probes” on the road network [see also vehicle-infrastructure communication] Vehicle-infrastructure communication: the same type of system, but in this case the communication is between vehicles and infrastructure. The information exchange can concern weather conditions, traffic jam situation, availability of the parking spaces dedicated to the drivers with disability and so on. In this case the communication can be towards a traffic central server (which will then provide to spread the information to all other interested vehicles) or towards a more traditional type of infrastructure (traffic lights in a junction, which get the information about the vehicles flow passing the intersection). [see also: vehiclevehicle communication; junction management] Vision Enhancement: a function that aims to improve a driver’s perception of the forward driving conditions using specific devices (such as an infra-red camera); in sub-normal visibility conditions (at night or in bad weather) it improves visibility by providing enhanced visual information directly to the driver. WAP (Wireless Application Protocol): standard which brings Internet content to mobile phones.
72
ETHICAL CODE IN BEHAVIOURAL RESEARCH - HUMANIST All basic ethical principles for research have to be preserved in each study with human subjects. These three basic principles are: x Respect for persons (individuals should be treated as autonomous agents, and second, that persons with diminished autonomy are entitled to protection) x Beneficence (individuals must not be harmed, possible benefits for individuals should be maximized and possible harms should be minimized) x Justice (a fair distribution of the burdens and benefits resulting from the research should be found) Informed consent An opportunity to decide what shall and what shall not happen within the research has to be given to all subjects - participants of the research up to the way they are capable. The subject should sign the informed consent when he/she is provided with all relevant information about the research, when there is a valid conviction, that the subject correctly comprehends all these information and when the participation of the subject on the research is on a voluntary base. As mentioned implicitly in the text above, the informed consent should contain three following elements: information, comprehension and voluntariness. Information – a subject should be provided with sufficient information about the research; this information include research procedure, their purposes, risks, anticipated benefits and a statement offering the subject the opportunity to ask questions and to withdraw at any time from the research. Nevertheless, providing all information to the subject may sometime jeopardize the intent of the research or influence the research outcome (results validity); e.g. this may happen when the research includes some form of surprise. In all cases of research involving incomplete disclosure, such research is justified only if it is clear that (1) incomplete disclosure is truly necessary to accomplish the goals of the research, (2) there are no undisclosed risks to subjects that are more than minimal, and (3) there is an adequate plan for debriefing subjects, when appropriate, and for dissemination of research results to them. Information about risks should never be withheld for the purpose of eliciting the cooperation of subjects, and truthful answers should always be given to direct questions about the research. Care should be taken to distinguish cases in which disclosure would destroy or invalidate the research from cases in which disclosure would simply inconvenience the investigator. It is therefore possible to inform the subject about the real purpose immediately after completing the research procedure. Other way how to preserve the ethical principles is to let the subjects to decide, if they want to continue in the research in spite of lacking knowledge about some issues of the research. Comprehension – The researchers should be assured that the information provided to the subject is well comprehended and the subject understands it. Hence, the manner and context in which information is conveyed is as important as the information itself. It is necessary to adapt the information provision to the subjects’ intelligence, rationality, mature and language. Any information even the most complicated one can be provided in a way, which is comprehensible for any subject. The comprehension therefore highly depends on the researcher’s ability to present the information in a suitable way. If necessary (for subjects who are incompetent to decide for themselves), a third party involvement is possible. The third parties chosen should be those who are most likely to 73
understand the incompetent subject's situation and to act in that person's best interest. The person authorized to act on behalf of the subject should be given an opportunity to observe the research as it proceeds in order to be able to withdraw the subject from the research, if such action appears in the subject's best interest. Voluntariness – The participation of the subject on a research must be on a voluntary base. This element of informed consent requires conditions free of coercion and undue influence. Coercion occurs when one person to another intentionally presents an overt threat of harm in order to obtain compliance. Undue influence, by contrast, occurs through an offer of an excessive, unwarranted, inappropriate or improper reward or other overture in order to obtain compliance. Also, inducements that would ordinarily be acceptable may become undue influences if the subject is especially vulnerable. Unjustifiable pressures usually occur when persons in positions of authority or commanding influence, especially where possible sanctions are involved, urge a course of action for a subject. A continuum of such influencing factors exists, however, and it is impossible to state precisely where justifiable persuasion ends and undue influence begins. But undue influence would include actions such as manipulating a person's choice through the controlling influence of a close relative and threatening to withdraw health services to which an individual would otherwise be entitle. Assessment of risks and benefits The assessment of risks and benefits presents both an opportunity and a responsibility to gather systematic and comprehensive information about proposed research. For the investigator, it is a way to examine whether the proposed research is properly designed. For a review committee, it is a method for determining whether the risks that will be presented to subjects are justified. For prospective subjects, the assessment will assist the determination whether or not to participate. The Nature and Scope of Risks and Benefits – The assessment of risks/benefits is in a very close relation to the principle of beneficence, just as the moral requirement that informed consent be obtained is derived primarily from the principle of respect for persons. The term – risk – refers to a possible harm occurrence. However, when expressions such as "small risk" or "high risk" are used, they usually refer (often ambiguously) both to the chance (probability) of experiencing a harm and the severity (magnitude) of the envisioned harm. The other term – benefit – is used in a reference to the positive value related to the research and its possible positive impact on health or welfare. The risk/benefit assessments are concerned with the probabilities and magnitudes of possible harm and anticipated benefits. Many kinds of possible harms and benefits need to be taken into account. There are, for example, risks of psychological harm, physical harm, legal harm, social harm and economic harm and the corresponding benefits. While the most likely types of harms to research subjects are those of psychological or physical pain or injury, other possible kinds should not be overlooked. The Systematic Assessment of Risks and Benefits – It includes systematic, no arbitrary analysis of risks and benefits, which means assessment of information about all aspects of research, and to consider alternatives systematically; the justifiability of the research has to be taken in to account on the first place. The method of ascertaining risks should be explicit, especially where there is no alternative to the use of such vague categories as small or slight risk. It should also be determined whether an investigator's estimates of the probability of harm or benefits are reasonable, as judged by known facts or other available studies.
74
Assessment of the justifiability of research should reflect at least the following considerations: (1) Brutal or inhumane treatment of human subjects is never morally justified. (2) Risks should be reduced to those necessary to achieve the research objective; consider if the use of human subjects is really essential. (3) When research involves significant risk of serious impairment, review committees should be extraordinarily insistent on the justification of the risk. (4) When vulnerable populations are involved in research, the appropriateness of involving them should itself be demonstrated. (5) Relevant risks and benefits must be thoroughly arrayed in documents and procedures used in the informed consent process. Selection of Subjects Within this component of ethical code the justice ethical principle is relevant. Justice is relevant to the selection of subjects of research at two levels: the social and the individual. The individual justice means, that the selection, recruitment and treatment of all participants in a research is identical. Social justice means that a distinction is made between various social groups, as there is a difference between their ability to bear burdens of research and appropriateness of placing further burdens on already burdened persons; research should therefore consider the relevance of involvement of some specific groups (use adults before children, health before ill, etc.) Application of the three principles on the simulation based behavioural research Due to the technology progress, especially in the informatics domain, it is possible to substitute potentially dangerous studies in the real environment with the safe studies in the virtual environment on simulators. Such methods are commonly used in many researches, as they do not constitute danger of being injured for tested subjects. The main reason for using simulators in behavioural research is to study issues, which cannot be studied in the real environment or if such research in real environment would have taken too much effort. Substitution of instrumented vehicle studies with simulator studies can be performed up to certain level and such substitution is never perfect or applicable for all researches. The potential risks of simulation-based environment should be taken into account when performing research on a simulator. Always use simulator sickness questionnaire in order to prevent the simulator sickness of the subject When it is necessary to perform the experiment in spite of the person potentially experiencing simulation sickness, such person should be informed about the issue thoroughly and the experimental situation should be stopped immediately when the person is not feeling well (symptoms of simulation sickness are being apparent) Subjects must not be exposed to ethically problematic situations Application of the three principles on the instrumented vehicle based behavioural research Studies with the instrumented vehicle are being used to study behaviour of subjects in the real environment. The danger constituted by driving in the real environment is understandable. Today’s road environment is not safe any more and each error might be penalized by an injury or death. Hence, the basic problem of all instrumented vehicle studies is to balance the benefits of the study and the potential risk exposure of the tested subjects. Always try to minimize the danger of subjects; consider the possibility of substitution of some driving tasks with similar/same tasks in the virtual environment on the simulator Subjects must be kept informed about all tasks they will perform during the experimental drive
75
Always gather additional driving history data from the subjects, as it is possible that they are scared of some situations, they do not feel well being observed while driving etc.; this can cause a lot of problems/risks during the experimental drive Subjects must be always informed that their attention should be concentrated on the safe performance within the primary driving tasks on the first place and that any other secondary tasks are additional and must not be performed under unsafe conditions Secondary driving control over the vehicle is highly advised If possible, following measures for the vehicle instrumentation reflecting principles for in-vehicle systems design should be met: The vehicle instrumentation should not interfere with the primary driving tasks and should not affect the safe driving The system should be located and fitted in accordance with relevant regulations, standards, and the vehicle and component manufacturers’ instructions for installing the systems in vehicles No part of the system should obstruct the driver’s field of view as defined by applicable regulations No part of the physical system should obstruct any vehicle controls or displays required for the driving task Visual displays that carry information relevant to the driving task and visually intensive information should be positioned as close as practicable to the driver’s forward line of sight Visual displays should be designed and installed to reduce minimize glare and reflections Systems with visual displays should be designed such that the driver can complete desired task with sequential glances that are brief enough no to adversely affect driving Where appropriate, internationally agreed upon standards or recognized industry practice relating to legibility, icons, symbols, words, acronyms, or abbreviations should be used. Where no standards exist, relevant design guidelines or empirical data should be used Available information relevant to the driving task should be timely and accurate under routine driving conditions The system should not produce uncontrollable sound levels liable to mask warnings from within the vehicle or outside or to cause distraction or irritation The system should allow the driver to leave at least one hand on the steering control The system should not require uninterruptible sequences of manual/visual interactions Driver should be able to control the pace of interactions with the system (with specific exceptions) The system’s response following driver input should be timely and clearly perceptible (if not interfering with the study design)
76
THE COST 352 CODE OF ETHICS The COST 352 Code of Ethics formulates the basic principles of ethical behaviour of research workers and their acting within research, based on generally accepted ethical standards common in this field. The Code of Ethics of COST Research Associates shall be binding for research workers involved in common projects. The Ethical Committee consisting of experienced staff shall supervise observance of the Code of Ethics. This Committee shall deal with particular cases of improper behaviour and breach of the research work ethics. General principles of research work A research worker shall exercise his or her profession to the benefit of individuals and the society, respecting people’s personality, life and health. A research worker shall be impartial, respecting the clients and observing ethical principles within his or her field of activity. A research worker shall ensure protection of information achieved in relation to the research activity. He or she shall not disclose the facts learned during the performance of his or her job. A research worker shall not introduce any cultural, racial, social, class or ethnic prejudices into the research. A research worker shall not use his or her professional relationship for any personal, religious, political, ideological or other interests. A research worker, as a member of expert panels (scientific boards, professional advisory bodies, etc.), shall adhere exclusively to the expert point of view in his or her decision-making and voting in specialized issues. A research worker shall refuse any managerial or advisory function in research management, administration or funding, if there is justified concern that personal, scientific, professional, financial or other activities would pose a risk of conflict of interest, thus influencing his or her objectivity, competency or decision-making capacity while holding given office. A research worker shall co-operate with the Ethical Committee of -WCE within performance of its tasks. Research methods A research worker shall be responsible for the selection of research topics and methods used within the research, analysis and processing of results. A research worker shall be responsible for accuracy and objectiveness of the research carried out and shall be aware of limits of the research methods used. A research worker shall be obliged to ensure tests, diagnostic aids and records of examination against access of unauthorised persons without appropriate education and to prevent their misuse. While using diagnostic techniques, a research worker shall respect the client’s right to have the nature and purpose of such techniques explained using reasonable language, unless a prior exception have been agreed upon from this rule. If explanation is given by other workers, the research worker shall specify the procedure to ensure correctness of such explanations. A research worker is aware that the results of tests may loose their value in the course of time and that they do not provide a full picture of the person examined. While publishing the findings and results of a certain issue, a research worker shall be fully responsible for their completeness and possibility to verify them and shall not be biased in their interpretation.
77
Publishing of findings and results A research worker may be stated as an author or co-author of a publication if he or she: 1. wrote a part of the manuscript 2. designed the research strategy 3. acquired and determined the data on which the research is substantially based 4. connected various theoretical bases into a superior unit, thus substantially influencing the quality of the published research findings or processed a conceptual model 5. proposed assessment, participated in data analysis or interpretation of results, which substantially contributed to the scientific value of the publication 6. by mental activity contributed to the creative process leading to the resulting work. A research worker shall abstain from plagiarism; whenever quoting other authors, he or she shall refer to the information source. While summarising the findings of another author, he or she shall express the original thoughts bona fide and without deliberate misrepresentation. In a publication, a research worker shall acknowledge the scientific contribution of his or her predecessors and colleagues to the examined issue, to which he or she directly relates. A research worker shall also quote significant works, which are not in line with his own findings and conclusions. Shall a research worker discover a significant error in the published data, he or she shall undertake appropriate measures, e.g. print errata or other correction. After publishing the findings, a research worker shall store all primary data and documentation of substantial results, for a period usual in given discipline, unless other obligations or regulations prevent him or her therefrom. A research worker shall not divide the results and findings unnecessarily into several publications, to artificially increase the number of works. A research worker shall not acquire quotations of his or her own work by an agreement of several authors on mutual purposeful quotations of their works. A research worker shall share the research results with other members of the research team. A research worker shall not use scientific and scientific-pedagogic titles, which he or she acquired by submitting or using materials demonstrably acquired in breach of the ethic principles. Assessment, review, evaluation and critic activities A research worker shall review or undertake other assessment activities delegated to him personally. He or she shall approach assessment with reasonable trust in the data submitted. A research worker shall not delay assessment unnecessarily. A research worker shall not prepare an opinion, if the conclusions could be influenced by personal interest. A research worker shall approach preparation of expert opinion only from the field of his specialization. A research worker shall not use the data stated in the publication draft for other purpose than preparation of the review. He shall avoid wilful conflicts of interest. A research worker shall state a clear expert opinion.
78
In respect to oneself A research worker shall ensure, keep and develop his or her professional competency, be aware of and keep within the limits of his or her own competency. A research worker shall support education and professional development of his or her subordinates, in particular PhD students. A research worker shall keep critical attitude to his or her own knowledge and results as well the results of his colleagues and shall be open for discussion and relevant arguments. In respect to colleagues A research worker shall assess his or her colleagues based on the results achieved and treat them fairly; he or she shall not require activities from them that belong to his or her own duties and shall not require anything inadequate in relation to their abilities and possibilities. A research worker shall convey verbally and by his or her own example his or her knowledge, skills and principles of good behaviour in science. A research worker shall support growing qualification of students and subordinate research workers as well as their research and publication activities and international contacts and shall include them among authors of a publication, if they creatively contributed thereto. A research worker shall not defend and cover behaviour which is in breach of ethical principles. He or she shall act against unethical and unsuitable use of scientific findings. He or she shall not find excuses to cover his or her own mistakes against the principles of research ethics. A superior worker shall not tolerate subordinates who cover, overlook or enable unethical behaviour.
79
In respect to research participants A research worker shall make a clear and honest agreement with research participants, which shall precede their participation, and clarify the obligations and responsibilities of everybody. Such an agreement should usually be in writing. Participants shall be informed of the research purpose, its anticipated duration and progress, risks, annoyances and negative impacts related to the research, benefits related to participation in the research, remuneration for participation in the research and an option to terminate their participation in the research at any time. A research worker shall be obliged to keep all promises and liabilities resulting therefrom. A researcher shall inform all participants on all points of the research which might influence their willingness to participate and explain all other points about which the participants may ask. The methodological requirements of the study may suggest the necessity of non-disclosure or falsehood. Before performing such a study, the researcher shall have special responsibility: to determine whether the use of such methods is justifiable by the assumed scientific, educational or otherwise resulting values; to determine whether other procedures are at hand which would avoid the use of non-disclosure or falsehood; to ensure that the participants are provided with sufficient explanation as soon as possible. A research worker shall respect the freedom of an individual to refuse participation at any time or to withdraw from the research. The commitment to protect such freedom requires to think thoroughly and to consider the moment when the researcher is in the position of an authority or influences the participant. Such a position of authority includes particularly the situations where participation in the research is requested as a part of employment or where the participant is a student, client or staff of the researcher. The rights of the individual shall be superior to the researcher’s need of finishing the research. A research worker shall protect the participant from physical and psychical discomfort, harm or danger, which might occur due to resulting procedures. Shall an endangerment by such results exist, the researcher shall inform the participant of such facts. Agreement reached with participants shall not limit their lawful rights and shall not reduce the researcher’s legal liability. After the data has been collected, a research worker shall provide the participants with information on the essence of the study and try to defeat erroneous assumptions which might occur. When scientific or human values justify withholding or non-disclosure of such information, the researcher shall take special responsibility for research monitoring and making sure that no harmful results threat the participants. Where the research procedure shall result in undesirable consequences for an individual participant, the researcher shall be responsible for discovery and removal or correction of such consequences, including any long-term effects. Information about the research participant acquired during the research shall be confidential, unless agreed otherwise in advance. If there is a chance that other people might gain access to such information, this possibility, including the method of confidentiality protections, shall be explained to the participant as a part of the process leading to the acquisition of an informed consent with his or her participation. If the research participant is a minor, it is necessary to ask for his or her consent as well as a written consent of the next friend. Special attention shall be paid to the minors.
80
Anotace v þeštinČ Vozidlová telematika Souþasná motorová vozidla jsou stále þastČji a více vybavována novými technickými zaĜízeními, u kterých není možné pĜesnČ pĜedpovídat jejich vliv na chování Ĝidiþe. Skuteþností ovšem zĤstává že zavádČní rĤzných zaĜízení vozidlové telematiky (in-vehicle safety devices - SD) þasto velmi významnČ ovlivĖuje výkon Ĝidiþe. ěidiþova úloha sestává z Ĝešení úkolĤ na tĜech hierarchických úrovních: strategické, taktické a Ĝídicí. ěada technických novinek podporuje vývoj nejrĤznČjších podpĤrných zaĜízení zasahujících do Ĝidiþovy þinnosti, mnohé z nich mohou být, pĜi správném používání být pĜínosem pro bezpeþnost silniþního provozu. PĜi používání nesprávném naopak mohou paradoxnČ vést k až k opaku. Požadavky kladené na Ĝidiþe jsou ale konfrontovány na tĜech úrovních (chování): báze znalostí, báze pravidel a báze dovedností. Tyto významným zpĤsobem ovlivĖují formování obsahu a rozsahu dovedností Ĝidiþe. ěidiþské dovednosti musí být prĤbČžnČ konfrontovány a pĜizpĤsobovány aktuálním možnostem zavádČných SD. Z publikovaných výsledkĤ studia velkého souboru literatury vyplývá, že dosud neexistuje dostateþná empirická báze pro hodnocení vlivĤ, které by SD mohly mít na bezpeþnost silniþního provozu všeobecnČ, resp. na chování Ĝidiþe v jednotlivostech. DĤležitým krokem pro pĜekonání znaþných deficitĤ hodnotících studií je konstrukce peþlivČ propracovaného systému hodnocení, který výzkumníkĤm i tvĤrcĤm koncepcí umožní kvalifikovanČ shromažćovat empirické poznatky ohlednČ dopravnČ-bezpeþnostních vlivĤ SD. V dalším bude nezbytné vhodným zpĤsobem využít a pĜispČt k dalšímu rozvoji systému hodnocení, který byl navržen Ĝešiteli projektu GADGED. Uvedený systém vhodnČ využívá obecných psychologických teoriích a zejména znalostí dopravní psychologie, které shrnuje do systému pČti kategorií pĜedstav vlivu: x citovČ-poznávací pĜedpoklady, x pĜedstavy dĤležité v aktuálním procesu (napĜ. pozornost), x poznávací a citové zkušenosti, x vlivy na chování ve stĜedním až dlouhém þasovém období (napĜ. kompenzace rizika) a x systémové a následné aspekty (napĜ. bezpeþnost v celém systému). AutoĜi uvedeného projektu soustĜećují pozornost na poznávání a studium potenciálních dopravnČ-bezpeþnostních problémĤ spojených s rĤznými formami uživatelského rozhraní. Popisují problémy, které vyvolávají funkþní požadavky na definování rozhraní þlovČk-stroj. RovnČž upozorĖují na nutnost aplikování nebo vývoje vhodných metod, které zajistí, aby výsledky byly dostupné vždy, když vznikne jejich aktuální potĜeba. Cílem jejich výzkumu v oblasti SD bylo zobecnit znalosti na úrovni, která pĜesáhne rámec jednoduchých technických Ĝešení. Znalosti formulují tak, aby mohly být transformovatelné také do dalšího technologického rozvoje.
Teoretický základ Jízda s motorovým vozidlem je komplexní a dynamickou Ĝídicí úlohou, která se odehrává v rámci „systému“, tj. silniþního provozu. Tento systém silniþního provozu není osamocenou strukturou, nýbrž jen prvkem systému rozsáhlejšího, v nČmž je zasazen. Silniþní provoz je tedy proto ovlivĖován systémem vyšší úrovnČ, tj. systémem spoleþenským, ale i systémy nižších úrovní, které se skládají napĜ. z projektantĤ silnic, dopravních inženýrĤ, poskytovatelĤ služeb a výrobcĤ vozidel. V silniþním provozu pĤsobí na Ĝidiþe znaþné množství nejrĤznČjších informací. Ovšem, pĜi uskuteþĖování urþité cesty (resp. jízdy) s urþitým úþelem je k dosažení cíle cesty obvykle 81
potĜebná a pro Ĝidiþe dĤležitá jen jejich malá þást. VČtšinu zbylých informací je tak možno chápat jako „šum“, který v žádném pĜípadČ nesmí být pĜíþinou odvádČní Ĝidiþovy pozornosti od jeho hlavní þinnosti – Ĝízení vozidla. Proto tedy musí být Ĝidiþ schopen rozlišovat nezbytné a dĤležité informace a odfiltrovat je od informací nerelevantních. ěízení vozidla tedy zahrnuje soustavný výbČr relevantních informací, které ústí do urþitého jednání a provádČní jízdních manévrĤ. ěidiþ musí být schopen vþas rozpoznat, které informace jsou v rĤzných dopravních situacích relevantní, což se dosahuje tréninkem smyslĤ. ZjednodušenČ je možno Ĝíci, že rozhodující þást umČní Ĝídit vozidlo lze ztotožnit s umČním se dívat a vidČt dĤležité informace z dopravního svČta. Na následujícím pĜíkladu je možno vysledovat mnohá úskalí, která na Ĝidiþe na silnicích þekají v každém okamžiku.
1.1.1.0.59.6
Foto Pavel Skládaný
ZasnČžená vozovka
Železniþní pĜejezd
PĜijíždČjící vlak
Schopnost vnímání zárodkĤ nebezpeþí a pohotovosti Ĝešení kritických dopravních situací je základem s pĜedstihem reagovat na hrozící nebezpeþí. ěidiþ musí bČhem Ĝízení prĤbČžnČ
82
korigovat své pĜedpoklady a oþekávání vývoje dopravní situace a být stále pĜipraven na možný výskyt nutnosti operativní zmČny jednání. Za zohledĖování požadavku interakce s jinými systémovými komponenty má být považována napĜ. adaptace (pĜizpĤsobení) se prĤbČžnČ se mČnícímu, zþásti stochastickému okolí nabízejícímu urþité množství relevatních informací skrytých v „informaþním šumu“.. Vazba mezi Ĝidiþem a vozidlem mĤže obecnému požadavku zvyšovat bezpeþnost silniþního provozu odpovídat jen tehdy, není-li systém vnímání a pozornosti Ĝidiþe odvádČn od sledování okolního provozu na pozemní komunikaci a jejím bezprostĜedním okolí není-li Ĝidiþ signifikantnČ zatížen nadmČrným sledováním doplĖkových technických prostĜedkĤ a tím je eliminován vznik jeho zbyteþných stresových reakcí. Stres sám o sobČ signalizuje stav, kdy si dotyþná osoba (v našem pĜípadČ Ĝidiþ) uvČdomuje že jeho možnosti a schopnosti se již nedokáží plnČ vyrovnat s požadavky vzniklé situace. Pozornost, vnímání, postĜeh, rozhodování a reagování jsou rozhodujícími pojmy zpracovávání informací a stĜídavČ mají kauzální vztah k fyziologii, poznávání, vlivĤm motivace, ustáleným charakteristikám osobnosti, jakož i prvkĤm urþité situace. Vnímání je chápáno jako proces chápání informací. V každém z uvedených pČti stupĖĤ tohoto procesu se mĤže vyskytnout chyba a omezení jejich kapacity. Je ménČ obvyklé explicitnČ uvažovat proplétání citových procesĤ zpracování informací pĜi formování modelu, není to však ménČ dĤležité pĜi rozhodování o zpĤsobu jednání. V relevantních modelech dopravní psychologie hraje subjektivní riziko v Ĝídicím jednání klíþovou roli. Jestliže zaĜízení SD objektivnČ zlepší bezpeþnost silniþního provozu, potom tato skuteþnost mĤže být rovnČž reflektována formou zvýšení subjektivní bezpeþnosti. Podle Wildeho modelu homeostáze rizika mĤže dojít i k procesu vzdalování se bezpeþnosti, jestliže má úþastník silniþního provozu sklon akceptovat vČtší míru rizika, než si sám v daném okamžiku uvČdomuje. Princip homeostáze se uplatní tehdy, jestliže Ĝidiþ chybČjící vnímání rizika kompenzuje tím, že volí riskantnČjší zpĤsob jízdy. ZaĜízení SD, u nichž vozidlo reaguje automaticky bez zásahu Ĝidiþe, preventivnČ pĤsobí proti objektivnímu zvČtšování nebezpeþí jeho kompenzaþním chováním (resp. volbou riskantnČjšího zpĤsobu jízdy). Podle teorie homeostáze rizika toto nezmenšuje faktickou nerovnováhu mezi rizikem vnímaným a rizikem akceptovaným. Stále se setkáváme s uživateli silnic, kteĜí jsou ochotni pĜijímat vČtší míru rizika, než by v daném okamžiku mČli. Toto je výchozím bodem agrese, odporu k systému a jeho odmítání.(1) PĜi kategorizaci telematických systémĤ je vhodné rozlišovat následující tĜi druhy interakce: x interakci mezi Ĝidiþem a vozidlem, x interakci mezi Ĝidiþem a prostĜedím a x interakci mezi vozidlem a prostĜedím. Ovládání chování Ĝidiþe pĜi Ĝízení vozidla zasahuje do tĜí rĤzných úrovní: x báze znalostí, x báze pravidel a x báze dovedností. Chování na bázi znalostí zahrnuje Ĝešení problému. Nezbytným se stává tehdy, když není k dispozici vhodné pravidlo, jak jednat v urþité specifické situaci nebo jestliže Ĝidiþ nechce použít existující pravidlo nebo nemá takové pravidlo rozvinuto. Chování na bázi znalosti vyžaduje uvažování a potĜebuje ke své konstrukci delší þas. Chování na bázi pravidel (pĜedpisĤ) se vyskytuje tehdy, když není k dispozici automatická odezva na vzniklou situaci. Chování je Ĝízeno více nebo ménČ vČdomČ a spotĜebovává urþitou kapacitu pozornosti. Proto je tento druh chování nároþnČjší na þas a ménČ „efektivní“ než chování na bázi dovedností. ěidiþ musí v mysli vČdomČ vybírat z pravidel chování, která má v sobČ již vyvinuta a zvolit v dané situaci to nejvhodnČjší. Chování na bázi dovedností lze charakterizovat jako Ĝízení datové. Získávané informace jsou pĜímo pĜevádČny do konkrétního jednání nebo vzorĤ jednání. ýinnosti jsou vykonávány bez 83
vČdomé kontroly a bez potĜeby þerpání kapacity vČdomé pozornosti. Chování na bázi dovedností je bezprostĜední a efektivní. Aby byl Ĝidiþ schopen formou adekvátního chování zvládnout konkrétní vzniklou dopravní situaci, musí disponovat urþitými smyslovými, poznávacími a motorickými schopnostmi. Vnímání lidskými smysly, zejména zrakem, ale i sluchem a hmatem, jsou pro Ĝízení vozidla podmínkou nutnou, nikoli však postaþující. Vnímaná informace musí být také zpracována a transformována do rozhodnutí, jak v urþité situaci jednat a udržovat interakci s ostatními úþastníky silniþního provozu. Pro uskuteþĖování rozhodnutí o jízdních manévrech a jednáních musí Ĝidiþ rovnČž disponovat významnými motorickými schopnostmi. KromČ toho provedení pĜíslušných jízdních manévrĤ závisí na motivaci Ĝidiþe a jeho ochotČ jednat. Faktory jako nezralé dovednosti, málo zkušeností s Ĝízením, neodpovídající oþekávání a pravidla, stres, pĜetížení, únava, alkohol þi drogy mohou schopnosti Ĝidiþe ovlivnit velmi negativnČ. Požadované schopnosti pro bezpeþnČjší Ĝízení lze shrnout následovnČ: i smyslové schopnosti (zrakové, sluchové, hmatové) i schopnost pozorovat prostĜedí a vybírat z nČj informace v dané chvíli významné i schopnost zachycovat relevantní informace v rámci þasu, který je v dané situaci k dispozici i schopnost si relevantních informací všímat i schopnost informace správnČ interpretovat i schopnost ze získaných informací odhadovat další vývoj dopravní situace a s pĜedstihem na nČj reagovat i schopnost správnČ posuzovat hranice vlastních schopností i schopnost správnČ posuzovat možnosti svého vozidla i motivace a ochota k bezpeþné jízdČ. SpoleþnČ se zpĤsobilostí þlovČka a jeho praxí v Ĝízení vozidla hrají ve výkonu a kvalitČ provádČní úkolĤ velkou roli i oþekávání Ĝidiþe. Adekvátní oþekávání podporují správné pĜedvídání a hodnocení budoucího vývoje dopravní situace, což Ĝidiþe umožĖuje reagovat vþas, efektivnČ a správnČ. Je možné rozlišovat dva druhy oþekávání, oþekávání dlouhodobá (a priori) a oþekávání krátkodobá (ad hoc). Oþekávání a priori se tvoĜí v prĤbČhu mČsícĤ a let Ĝidiþské zkušenosti. NapĜíklad „þervená“ znamená nebezpeþí a nabádá k zastavení, zatímco „zelená“ signalizuje bezpeþí a potvrzení možnosti pokraþovat v jízdČ. Základ oþekávání ad hoc tvoĜí události, které se pĜihodily v posledních hodinách a minutách, napĜ. série ostrých zatáþek dává tušit, že i v dalším úseku této silnice se takové zatáþky mohou vyskytnout. V dĤsledku toho oþekávání a tím i schopnosti vytváĜení správných pĜedpokladĤ vývoje ve specifických dopravních situacích jsou u každého Ĝidiþe jiné a liší se podle zkušeností, ale i podle toho, zda Ĝidiþ dané prostĜedí zná nebo nezná. Z výše uvedené diskuse popisující promČnné faktory ovlivĖující chování Ĝidiþe je zĜejmé, že reálné vlivy zaĜízení SD na Ĝízení vozidla a zlepšení bezpeþnosti silniþního provozu jsou urþovány celou škálou faktorĤ. K nim patĜí pĜedevším porozumČní Ĝidiþe podstatČ fungování SD, výhody, které Ĝidiþi zaĜízení SD podle jeho zkušeností pĜináší a Ĝidiþova motivace zaĜízení SD používat nebo nepoužívat. Systém pro hodnocení vlivu zaĜízení vozidlové telematiky Složky našeho taxonomického systému jsou odvozovány z poznatkĤ dopravní psychologie na stranČ jedné a z potenciálních oblastí používání zaĜízení vozidlové telematiky na stranČ druhé. V seznamu charakteristik pro klasifikaci systémĤ musí být ve vztahu k psychologii zohledĖovány i vČkové faktory. Hodnocení každého prvku systému se zamČĜuje na oþekávaný zisk nebo ztrátu bezpeþnosti. Základem hodnocení je stanovení hypotéz o pĜíþinné vazbČ mezi tČmito prvky a objektivní bezpeþností. Pokles objektivní bezpeþnosti se pĜedpokládá napĜíklad tehdy, jestliže jsou smysly Ĝidiþe pĜetíženy.
84
PĜed zaþátkem hodnocení bezpeþnostních zaĜízení musí být bezpodmíneþnČ zaznamenáno, zda je toto hodnocení omezeno na urþité vybrané skupiny osob (napĜ. mladé Ĝidiþe, ženy, agresivní Ĝidiþe, všechny Ĝidiþe) nebo urþité dopravní situace (specifické uspoĜádání charakteristik okolí). Dále je potĜebné zaznamenat, zda hodnocené bezpeþnostní zaĜízení spolupracuje s dalšími bezpeþnostními zaĜízení þi nikoli. Ve výzkumné praxi bohužel þasto dochází k tomu, že vlivy jednotlivých SD jsou hodnoceny izolovanČ bez ohledu na existující vazby k jiným bezpeþnostním zaĜízením.
NejþastČji používané systémy vozidlové dynamiky: i zaĜízení proti blokování kol pĜi brzdČní (ABS), i zaĜízení protiskluzové ochrany (ASR), i program elektronicky zajišĢované stability (ESP) a sledování adheze, a i systémy Ĝízení jízdního kursu (HCS). i udržujících vzdálenost je regulace bezpeþného odstupu od vozidla jedoucího vpĜedu. Toto zaĜízení je charakteristické a rozšíĜené u vČtšiny systémĤ automatického Ĝízení jízdy. Je známé pod názvem ACC (Adaptive Cruise Control), AICC (Autonomous Intelligent Cruise Control) nebo ADR (Automatic Distance Regulation). Hlavním rozdílem mezi udržováním odstupu a preventivním pĤsobením proti vzniku kolize je chybČjící schopnost systémĤ ACC adekvátnČ reagovat na pevné pĜekážky. Tento rozdíl systémĤ je obvykle akceptován. i Systémy varující a pĜedcházející kolizi detekují pĜekážky (vozidla nebo statické pĜekážky) Uvedené systémy obvykle využívají digitálních CCD kamer, mikrovlnných radarĤ, laserových radarĤ nebo piezokeramických zaĜízení (Polaroid), nebo detekují vzdálenost na všechny strany (Delco). PĜípadnČ též automaticky vozidlo zabrzdí. Japonští výrobci vyvíjejí a testují tyto druhy systémĤ ve zkušebních vozidlech. NČmeþtí výrobci vozidel a dodavatelé komponentĤ pro automobily jsou zdrženlivČjší, což má þásteþnČ svĤj základ v projektu PROMETHEUS. K tomu, aby systémy adekvátnČ reagovaly ve všech možných situacích jsou nezbytná velká þasová zpoždČní spojená s pravdČpodobností planého alarmu. Nový pĜístup, který využívá vícenásobné senzory vþetnČ poþítaþového vidČní, mechanicky snímaného mikrovlnného radaru a fúze senzorĤ pro dosažení jejich integrity a od té doby se po zahájení projektu AC-ASSIST zmenšuje poþet planých alarmĤ. V EvropČ i Americe byly publikovány pokusy se zkušebními vozidly. Zatímco nČmeþtí a ameriþtí výrobci preferují výstražné systémy, japonští výrobci sázejí na systémy automatického brzdČní, jestliže Ĝidiþ nereaguje na optické nebo akustické varování pĜed pĜekážkou. Systémy preventivnČ pĤsobící proti vzniku kolize mohou být teoreticky nazírány jako nejvyšší stupeĖ systémĤ ACC, v kombinaci s prvky parkovacího asistenta. Ovšem podle principu þinnosti systémy CA (s jednou výjimkou) detekují pouze pĜekážky pĜed vozidlem bez ohledu na úmysly Ĝidiþe nebo jiných úþastníkĤ silniþního provozu. Tento izolovaný „pohled na svČt“ je jednou ze slabostí tČchto systémĤ. i Pomocné systémy pro parkování (PTS). Systémy PTS jsou zaĜízení pĜíbuzná varování pĜed kolizí, ovšem technicky ménČ propracovaná. Jsou konstruovaná pro detekci statických pĜekážek pĜi nízkých rychlostech. Mají pomáhat Ĝidiþi pĜi zajíždČní do úzkých parkovacích míst. Pomocné systémy pro parkování využívají rĤzné snímaþe pro mČĜení vzdáleností objektĤ, které vozidlu stojí v cestČ. VČtšina vývojáĜĤ se soustĜećuje na detekci pĜekážek za vozidlem, pouze jediný systém sleduje i pĜekážky pĜed vozidlem. Systémy se odlišují ve zpĤsobu, jakým podávají informaci Ĝidiþi. Lepší systémy informaci zobrazují v prostoru zadního skla automobilu pĜi couvání. Jiné systémy poskytují velmi detailní zobrazení formou videa a/nebo grafickou prezentací okolí. i Systémy, které preventivnČ pomáhají zabránit Ĝízení pod vlivem alkoholu, se nazývají systémy kontroly alkoholu (ACS). 85
Po nastoupení do vozidla je Ĝidiþ vyzván, aby fouknul do kontrolního zaĜízení. Zjistí-li se ve vydechovaném vzduchu Ĝidiþe urþitá hladina alkoholu, resp. je-li pĜekroþen nastavený limit, zablokuje zaĜízení zapalování vozidla a znemožní start. Je-li vozidlo již uvedeno do provozu (nástupní zkouška na alkohol byla negativní) zaĜízení v náhodných intervalech požaduje po Ĝidiþi další zkoušky vydechovaného vzduchu, zda se nenapil bČhem jízdy. ěidiþĤm, kterým byl ve Spojených státech amerických odebrán Ĝidiþský prĤkaz za Ĝízení pod vlivem alkoholu, je Ĝidiþský prĤkaz vrácen jen tehdy, jestliže souhlasí s vybavením svého vozidla kontrolní jednotkou, resp. systémem kontroly alkoholu. Tato kontrolní jednotka je též doporuþena zaþínajícím ĜidiþĤm. i Systémy monitorování ospalosti Ĝidiþe (DAMS), Zde je možno definovat dvČ skupiny metod, které lze pro tento úþel používat. Jednou metodou je analyzování stability ovládání volantu (opatĜení ve vztahu k udržování vozidla v jízdním pruhu). Druhá metoda ke zjišĢování kondice Ĝidiþe používá fyziologické parametry. Vždycky, když výkon Ĝidiþe mČĜený jednou þi druhou metodou pĜekroþí urþitý práh, je Ĝidiþ považován za ospalého resp. usínajícího a je aktivována Ĝada protiopatĜení. i Systémy zlepšujících vidČní (VES), Existují dva hlavní smČry ohlednČ systémĤ zlepšujících vidČní (VES), které mají rozšiĜovat funkci zraku v noci nebo za nepĜíznivých povČtrnostních podmínek. První z nich, aktivní VES, užívají pĜídavné senzory, informaþní zdroje jako digitální mapy a speciální zaĜízení, která smČrují svČtlomety vozidla na tu þást dopravního prostoru pĜed vozidlem, která je momentálnČ pĜedmČtem oprávnČného zájmu Ĝidiþe. Inteligentní vozidlové systémy navíc dokáží rozdČlení svČtla pĜizpĤsobovat i v závislosti na rychlosti a úhlu pohledu. Druhé z nich (pasivní VES) užívají neviditelné zdroje osvČtlení komunikace, které svítí na vČtší vzdálenost nebo do vČtší šíĜky ve srovnání se základními svČtlomety. Odražené záĜení zachycují speciální senzory, které ho transformují do viditelného svČtla. ěidiþi je pak reprodukován dodateþný obraz dopravního prostoru pĜed vozidlem. i Systémy sloužící k ochranČ chodcĤ, Systémy sledující chodce jsou konstruovány pro detekování chodcĤ (nebo ojedinČlých pĜekážek) v blízkosti vozidla nebo v jeho jízdní dráze. RĤzná vývojová pracovištČ užívají rĤzné senzorové techniky a rĤzné rozsahy prostorĤ, v nichž systém hledá pĜekážky nebo chodce. ObzvláštČ japonští výrobci sledují myšlenku detekování chodcĤ v noci a Ĝešení problému mrtvého úhlu. Výzkum je provádČn na úrovni ryze technologické a nejsou k dispozici žádné informace ohlednČ prezentace informací uživateli. Samostatnou oblast telematické podpory Ĝidiþe tvoĜí i NavádČcí informaþní systémy NavádČcí informaþní systémy poskytují Ĝidiþi informaci týkající se volby trasy jízdy. Tato informace je pĜímo pĜenášena do vozidla z centrálního nebo distribuþního informaþního centra. Typickými pĜíklady jsou: informace o provozní situaci, informace týkající se podmínek na urþité trase nebo silnici, informace o volných parkovacích místech þi servisních stanicích. Hlavní otázkou týkající se tohoto druhu poskytování informací je, jak je informace Ĝidiþem požadována a Ĝidiþi reprodukována. Není-li takový proces získávání informací pĜíliš þastým a probíhá uživatelsky vhodnou formou, která nepĜetČžuje smyslové orgány zamČstnané sledováním a Ĝešením dopravních situací, potom taková dodateþná informace mĤže pomoci zlepšit bezpeþnost silniþního provozu. Na bezpeþnost silniþního provozu je možné vhodnČ pĤsobit i tak, že systém motivuje ke zmČnČ zpĤsobu dopravy a tuto pomáhá realizovat (informace o zaĜízeních Park and Ride). Pod klíþovým slovem „intermodalita“ jsou diskutovány mnohé pokusy, které mají usnadnit zmČnu z jednoho zpĤsobu dopravy (osobní automobil) na jiný (veĜejná doprava), což je pĜíkladem snahy o zmenšování intenzity individuální dopravy. Zmenšení rozsahu individuální dopravy pak logicky redukuje pravdČpodobnost vzniku nehody. 86
Cíle ovlivĖování konstrukce nových zaĜízení PĜi každém výzkumu a vývoji nových zaĜízení do vozidel je nutné si uvČdomit, že þlovČk se souþástí informaþnho procesu, informace uchovává, zpracovává a jedná v souladu s posledním pĜírĤstkem informací. Pro hodnocení bezpeþnostních zaĜízení je podstatné vČdČt, jaké vlivy ve vztahu k þlovČku i situaci jsou zodpovČdné za rušení procesu hladkého zpracování informací. Pokud budeme vycházet z teoretického pozadí chování Ĝidiþe musíme mít vždy na pamČti subjektivní riziko, duševní kapacitu ĜidiþeĤ u nichž se pĜedpokládají pĜíþinné vazby ve vztahu ke speciálním bezpeþnostním zaĜízením. Vždy je nutno sledovat systém, který obsahuje pČt základních kategorií pĜedstav vlivu: x smyslovČ-citová oþekávání (tj. pasivní odpor, subjektivnČ pociĢovaná užiteþnost), x pĜedstavy dĤležité v aktuálním procesu (tj. vnímání, pozornost), x smyslová a citová zkušenost (tj. pasivní odpor, subjektivnČ pociĢovaná užiteþnost), x dĤsledky resp. vlivy na chování ve stĜednČdobém nebo dlouhodobém chápání (tj. akceptované riziko, zvyky pĜi Ĝízení vozidla) a x systémové a další aspekty (tj. plynulost dopravy, hustota dopravy, bezpeþnost silniþního provozu).
Základní funkce telematiky Rozlišujeme dvČ základní funkce telematických zaĜízení: (1) rozšiĜování schopností a (2) ulehþení stávajících þinností. RozšiĜování schopností je zamýšleno jako podávání informací orientaþního nebo výstražného charakteru. Tyto funkce obsahují navigaþní systémy a rĤzné techniky zprostĜedkování varovných signálĤ. Ulehþení stávajících þinností je ovšem dosahováno pomocí zaĜízení, která vyvolávají automatické reakce a nejsou Ĝidiþem ovlivnitelné (pracují pĜípadnČ i proti jeho vĤli). Takovým telematickým systémem je napĜíklad automatická regulace vzdálenosti od vozidla jedoucího vpĜedu. Zatímco systémy (1) zaruþují pĜi Ĝízení vozidla svobodu rozhodování, systémy (2) svobodu omezují. Efekty bezpeþnostních zaĜízení vozidlové telematiky na rĤzné mechanismy ovlivĖování, regulace a zmČn chování Ĝidiþe Následné shrnutí je þlenČno v souladu se sedmi pĜedpokládanými mechanismy vlivu na chování Ĝidiþe. Pro každý z tČchto mechanismĤ byly uvažovány a popisovány: i oþekávané kladné vlivy i možné vedlejší úþinky i empirické dĤkazy
Psychofyziologická kondice Ĝidiþe Vlivy zaĜízení vozidlové telematiky (SD) na rĤzné psychofyzické stavy závisí na uspoĜádání a funkcích tČchto SD. VšeobecnČ se oþekává, že zmenší stres a uþiní tak Ĝízení vozidla snazším a pĜíjemnČjším. Na druhé stranČ je nutné poþítat i s možností výskytu neoþekávaných záporných vlivĤ, napĜ. není-li design urþitého zaĜízení uživatelsky pĜíjemný, zaĜízení pĜíliš odvádí pozornost nebo je jeho používání pĜíliš obtížné a složité. Nutno pĜiznat, že empirických dĤkazĤ ohlednČ kladných i záporných vlivĤ SD máme dosud nedostatek. Taktéž je jen málo zaĜízení, která jsou zamČĜena na preventivní zabránČní v Ĝízení vozidla tČm osobám, jejichž schopnost k Ĝízení je snížena (alkoholem nebo únavou).
87
Poskytování vhodných informací Ĝidiþi ZaĜízení vozidlové telematiky jsou zamýšlena jako podpora procesu komplexního zpracování informací Ĝidiþem formou poskytování relevantních informací nebo tak, že Ĝidiþi ulehþujeme od urþitých þinností resp. nutnosti provádČt nČkteré úkony. Systém se stará o interpretaci a výbČr informací, þímž ovlivĖuje informaþní vstupy Ĝidiþe.
Správné hodnocení významu vstupních informací Ĝidiþem Interpretace a výbČr informací je Ĝidiþem þasto provádČno chybnČ a neadekvátnČ. Rozsah, ve kterém zaĜízení SD podporuje proces výbČru vhodných informací opČt závisí na strukturálních a funkþních vlastnostech systému. PĜedpokládá se, že takový systém pracuje spolehlivČ. NicménČ, pĜed uvedením sytému na trh je nutné provést rozsáhlý výzkum jeho použitelnosti.
ěidiþovy myšlenky / domnČnky ohlednČ svých schopností Ĝídit vozidlo Je-li SD používáno dobrovolnČ a úspČšnČ, lze oþekávat vznik pocitu zlepšení vlastních Ĝidiþských schopností. Získáním kladných zkušeností se dostaví dĤvČra ve spolehlivost systému, což ale na druhé stranČ znamená nevítané zvýšení subjektivní bezpeþnosti. Pozorování chování jiných úþastníkĤ silniþního provozu a jeho srovnávání s vlastním chováním ovlivĖuje pĜedstavy o vlastních schopností i jinak. U telematických zaĜízení, která podporují napĜ. správný bezpeþnostní odstup, dodržování stanovených rychlostních limitĤ atd. lze oþekávat vliv na Ĝidiþovo chápání pravidel silniþního provozu. Pokud užívání takových zaĜízení není v praxi rozšíĜeno, mohou být jejich kladné vlivy znehodnocovány negativními vlivy vyplývajícími z nárĤstu heterogenity chování v silniþním provozu.
ěidiþova automatizovaná zpČtná vazba PĜírĤstek Ĝidiþských dovedností závisí na zpČtné vazbČ. Tento proces se mĤže zavedením telematického zaĜízení znaþnČ mČnit, neboĢ zpČtná vazba je provádČna v jiné kvalitČ nebo v souvislosti s jinými vstupy. IntenzivnČjším používáním SD by se v Ĝidiþi mČla rozvinout schopnost pĜesnČji odhadovat hranice možností systému. Do jaké míry mĤže být tento proces úspČšný závisí na chybové toleranci SD a na zpĤsobu a rozsahu, v jakém je Ĝidiþi zpČtná vazba poskytována. Empirický dĤkaz tohoto efektu dosud chybí. Na druhé stranČ nemĤžeme vylouþit možnost, že Ĝidiþ ztratí schopnost Ĝízení vozidla nevybaveného SD poté, co si bČhem urþitého þasového období zvykl používat vozidlo takto vybavené. Pro tento jev však není k dispozici žádný empirický dĤkaz.
ěidiþovo poznávací hodnocení zpČtné vazby Bylo by možné pĜepokládat, že pĜi užívání perfektnČ fungujícího a akceptovaného SD vzniká v Ĝidiþi pocit vyšší bezpeþnosti ve srovnání s jízdou bez užití tohoto systému. Zdali tomu tak skuteþnČ je, závisí na pociĢovaných schopnostech Ĝízení vozidla. Jestliže Ĝidiþ pociĢuje zlepšení schopností, potom je následkem zvýšení subjektivní bezpeþnosti. V opaþném pĜípadČ mĤže u Ĝidiþe vznikat stav nejistoty. Míra pocitu ztráty schopností pravdČpodobnČ závisí i na vČku Ĝidiþe. KromČ toho pĜetrvává obava, že Ĝidiþi budou mít tendenci pĜisuzovat vznik eventuální dopravní nehody používání nové technologie. Takové delegování odpovČdnosti z Ĝidiþe na vozidlo je možné považovat za prostĜedek vlastní ochrany a obhajoby.
ZávČr ěízení vozidla zahrnuje nepĜetržitý výbČr informací, které ovlivĖují jednání a chování Ĝidiþe jehož þinnosti mohou kladnČ ale i zápornČ ovlivnit bezpeþnost provozu na pozemních 88
komunikacích. Do vozidel by mČly být montovány jen takové telematické systémy, které mohou pĜispČt ke zlepšení bezpeþnosti na silnicích. PĜi kategorizaci popisovaných systémĤ je vhodné rozlišovat následující tĜi skupiny zaĜízení, které budou kladnČ ovlivĖovat: interakci mezi Ĝidiþem a vozidlem, interakci mezi Ĝidiþem a prostĜedím a interakci mezi vozidlem a prostĜedím bez zásahu Ĝidiþe. Dalším Ĝešením je nutno pĜispČt k postupnému popisu a naplĖování všech tĜí rĤzných úrovní znalosti, pravidla, dovednosti a tím se podíleli na formování chování ĜidiþĤ. Rozvojem a rozšiĜováním navádČcích informaþních systémĤ budou ĜidiþĤm poskytnuty informace o volbČ optimální jízdní trasy a tím snížili nejen riziko jejich stresu ale bude to také pĜíspČvek ke zlepšení životního prostĜedí.
89
Spolupráce þlovČk – stroj v oblasti silniþní dopravy a mobility Studie vytvoĜená ve þlenských státech Evropské unie udává efektivitu rĤznými pĜístupy možné redukce úrazĤ v individuální automobilové dopravČ. Podle této studie nejvČtšího pĜínosu bylo dosaženo zlepšením ochrany samotných automobilĤ pĜi srážkách, což umožĖuje 15ti procentní snížení úrazovosti. 11ti procentního snížení lze dosáhnout opatĜeními, vedoucími k eliminaci pití alkoholu pĜed jízdou. Inženýrská opatĜení na komunikacích mohou snížit nehodovost o 6,5 procent. PomČrnČ menší dopad zmČn silniþní infrastruktury na snížení nehod a jejich následkĤ pravdČpodobnČ souvisí také s vysokými náklady tČchto opatĜení. Proto i když studie Ĝeckého dopravního institutu identifikovala stovky þerných míst na hlavních evropských komunikacích, národní úĜady zlepšily situaci pouze na velmi malé þásti z nich. Proto nejsou zmČny a zlepšení infrastruktury souþástí zamýšleného snížení smrtelných nehod o 50 procent, jak vyplývá z programu Evropské unie pro rok 2010. PrávČ využití nejnovČjší technologie mĤže se stát katalyzátorem pĜi dosahování tohoto smČlého cíle, zvláštČ pĜi výhodné kombinaci nové technologie s existující infrastrukturou þi její vylepšenou verzí. MĤže to vést k velmi výhodným ekonomickým Ĝešením. Tato Ĝešení budou pravdČpodobnČ založená na následujících inovativních principech: Inteligentní komunikace – Ĝidiþi ve vyspČlých zemích jsou konfrontováni se stále komplexnČjším dopravním prostĜedím, které zahrnuje vertikální a horizontální znaþení, které mnohdy bývá telematické. Následující pĜíklady ukazují, kdy jsou Ĝidiþi pod kritickou psychickou zátČží zpĤsobenou dopravním okolím: 9usilování o pĜeþtení a porozumČní VMS zpráv pĜi hledání cesty v neznámém prostĜedí (þasto v cizím jazyce a za užití cizích symbolĤ), 9pokus detekovat nezbytnou þást informace v prostĜedí s nadbyteþným množstvím informaþních zdrojĤ (pĜi využití navigaþního systému v automobilu, zprávách RDSTMC atd.). Proto je potĜeba samovysvČtlujícího a personifikovaného systému. Tento systém by nabízel intuitivní Ĝízení a informace nezbytné cestČ k cíli. Reagoval by na potĜeby Ĝidiþe (trasa, omezení, preference) a byl by v mateĜském jazyce Ĝidiþe. Ohleduplná komunikace – v okamžiku, kdy nČkdo udČlá chybu se þasto stává, že z rĤzných dĤvodĤ pokraþuje ve vykonávání chybných manévrĤ. PĜes 80 procent nehod se nČjakým zpĤsobem vztahuje k omylu Ĝidiþe. Lidé oþekávají, že jim bude odpuštČno, když udČlají chybu v reálném životČ, stejný zpĤsob by mohl být uplatnČn i v oblasti dopravy. Ohleduplná komunikace by mohla využívat pokroþilých telematických systémĤ ve spojení se sofistikovanými systémy v automobilech. Tímto by mohla podporovat Ĝidiþe pĜi Ĝízení v pĜípadČ omylu. Tyto systémy, v protikladu k tradiþním ADAS – Advanced Driver´s Assitance Systems neposkytují pouze adekvátní varování, ale nahrazují silniþní infrastrukturu. Mohou napĜíklad simulovat zvuk pásĤ pĜi okraji komunikace a tak varovat pĜi opouštČní jízdního pruhu. Ekonomické silnice – je výsledkem nČkolika studií, které se zamČĜily na ekonomii a zvýšení kapacity komunikace pomocí informaþních technologií jako alternativy vybudování nových silnic. Je pravda, že existuje velice málo studií týkajících se návratnosti instalace nových technologií na existující komunikace, zvláštČ ve srovnání s tradiþními postupy zvyšování bezpeþnosti (jako je napĜíklad budování separaþních bariér). Tato data je možné v souþasnosti získat pomocí simulaþního modelování na mikro a makro úrovni s využitím parametrĤ vozidel vybavených ADAS systémy a tak predikovat dopad na bezpeþnost.
90
Všechny tyto systémy budou používat inteligentní intuitivní a pĜitom relativnČ levné nové technologie v kombinaci s tradiþní silniþní infrastrukturou tak, aby se: 9vytvoĜil konsensus o prioritách regulaþního a standardizaþního procesu se zámČrem integrovat rozmístČní ADAS a IVIS (In Vehicle Information Systems) na existující silniþní infrastrukturu, 9posoudil potenciál ekonomické výhodnosti tČchto nových technologií (ADAS a IVIS) a dalších inovativních konceptĤ (HMI), aby se zvýšil bezpeþnostní, inteligentní a ohleduplný charakter komunikací zvláštČ u dálnic a silniþních tunelĤ. 9vytvoĜily a testovaly nové modely na mikro a makro úrovni se zámČrem stanovit a ocenit bezpeþnost a funkþnost prostĜedí komunikace, 9harmonizovaly a personifikovaly prostĜedky vertikálního a horizontálního dopravního znaþení pro specifické potĜeby uživatele, 9vytvoĜila priorita implementaþních scénáĜĤ a doporuþení pro postup rozvoje prostĜedí komunikace s malými náklady a za využití nových technologických elementĤ. Sem patĜí i kontroly, audit a inspekce.
Human - Machine Interface a inteligentní auta budoucnosti Doprava na silnicích houstne, nároky za Ĝidiþe se zvyšují a nehody zĤstávají stále palþivým problémem. Inteligentní auta budoucnosti, jejichž vývoj nyní podporuje Evropská komise, pod kapotou ukrývají technologie, které umČjí zabránit nárazĤm, dovedou udržet auto v jízdním pruhu, uhlídat odstup v kolonČ nebo se pĜipraví na náraz a pak si samy zavolají pomoc. Pokud by se staly bČžnou souþástí výbavy, mohl by podle komise klesnout poþet obČtí dopravních nehod na polovinu. Omezily by se dopravní zácpy, tedy i škodlivé zplodiny ve vzduchu, klesla by spotĜeba paliv, celková úspora je vyþíslena až na 22 miliard eur roþnČ. Nové technické prostĜedky mají za úkol signalizovat, upozorĖovat, navigovat a podporovat rĤzné þinnosti pĜi Ĝízení. PĜi jejich výzkumu se spojují technické disciplíny, ergonomie i humanitní vČdy – psychologie, sociologie. Jsou dopady tČchto technologií vždy jenom pozitivní? Odpovídají rĤznorodým potĜebám ĜidiþĤ, aĢ už profesionálních, starších, nováþkĤ, ĜidiþĤ s postižením? V EvropČ je stále pomČrnČ málo vČdecky získaných poznatkĤ, které by tento problém postihovaly ve všech aspektech, vþetnČ nutnosti vzdČlávání a výuky pro užívání inteligentních dopravních systémĤ (ITS), vlivu na mentální zátČž a pozornost þi vĤbec na akceptaci tČchto systémĤ v souvislosti s rĤznými sociálnČ-kulturními charakteristikami.
Interface þlovČk - stroj
þlovČk
Lidské schopnosti
komunikac
vozidlo ITS
Fyzické faktory FIG 1.: Interface þlovČk
– stroj podle VOLPRACHTA, H.
91
Už dnes se objevují sofistikované pomocné systémy pro Ĝidiþe ADAS (Advanced Driver Assistance Systems), informaþní systémy IVIS (In-vehicle Information Systems), rapidnČ vzrĤstá i užití mobilních poþítaþových a komunikaþních pĜístrojĤ ve vozidle, napĜíklad mobilních telefonĤ a pĜenosných digitálních asistenþních zaĜízení. NČkteré systémy mají ĜidiþĤm usnadnit úkoly a zvýšit bezpeþnosti cestování tĜeba lepším pĜístupem k navigaþním informacím, což dovoluje snížit úroveĖ pozornosti, kterou je tĜeba pĜi Ĝízení vČnovat orientaci. ŠíĜení dopravních nebo meteorologických informací v reálném þase umožĖuje pĜedvídat urþité kritické situace a vyvarovat se jich. Adaptivní kontrola jízdy (napĜ. cruise control, tedy nastavení stálé rychlosti jízdy – tempomat), snižuje ĜidiþĤv stres a mentální zátČž, zatímco udržuje bezpeþnou vzdálenost od pĜedchozího vozidla. Jiné speciální aktivní systémy podpory mohou vyrovnávat nČkteré opoždČné reakce a nejasnosti rozhodování v nepĜedvídatelných situacích. Hodí se tedy napĜíklad pro Ĝidiþe seniory. BČhem posledních nČkolika desetiletí se postupnČ zaþaly (nejen) v silniþní dopravČ používat tzv. Inteligentní dopravní systémy (ITS – Inteligent Transport Systems). Jedná se tedy o relativnČ nové odvČtví vČdy, které se velmi rychle rozvíjí (Pierce, Lappin, 2003). Zpoþátku se tyto systémy vyrábČly pĜedevším z dĤvodu samotného rozvoje informaþních technologií a technologického pokroku než kvĤli požadavkĤm trhu. V souþasné dobČ si však Ĝada ĜidiþĤ není schopna Ĝízení bez tČchto technologií pĜedstavit, protože jim nabízejí rozsáhlou nabídku funkcí a služeb. Obvykle se tyto systémy rozdČlují do dvou hlavních kategorií podle jejich dopadu na úkony pĜi Ĝízení. Problematika informaþních systémĤ ve vozidle (IVIS) Jak již název napovídá, jedná se o zaĜízení, která Ĝidiþi zprostĜedkovávají rĤzné informace; do této kategorie Ĝadíme i rĤzná komunikaþní zaĜízení jako je napĜ. mobilní telefon. Jde tedy o neinvazivní asistenci Ĝidiþi, kdy je rozhodnutí o pĜijmutí nebo odmítnutí informace (asistence) pouze na nČm. Tyto informace samy o sobČ mohou zvýši jízdní komfort, navigaþní systémy mohou Ĝidiþi pomoci nalézt nejvhodnČjší trasu podle zadaných parametrĤ a navigovat jej krok za krokem, rádio vybavené systémem RDS-TMS zprostĜedkuje Ĝidiþi informace o aktuální dopravní situaci, handsfree sada ve vozidle umožní Ĝidiþi vést telefonní hovor za jízdy atd. Tyto systémy s sebou na jedné stranČ pĜináší nesporné výhody, na stranČ druhé však existuje reálné nebezpeþí výskytu dopravní nehody právČ v dĤsledku používání tČchto systémĤ. Každá další informace, která se bezprostĜednČ nevztahuje k aktuální dopravní situaci a primární úloze pĜi Ĝízení127 je potencionálním distraktorem, tedy nČþím, co je schopno upoutat pozornost Ĝidiþe a tím ji odklonit od Ĝízení automobilu. Pokud se Ĝidiþ bČhem Ĝízení vČnuje jiné aktivitČ – distraktoru, jedná se o sekundární þinnost128 pĜi Ĝízení. Problém vykonávání více þinností souþasnČ pĜi Ĝízení vozidla se zkoumal v rĤzných studiích a na základČ výzkumĤ lze za nejrizikovČjší faktory spojené s používáním zaĜízení IVIS považovat tyto: distrakce Ĝidiþe, pĜetížení informacemi (zvláštČ pak jsou-li informace kódovány), kognitivní upoutání þinností (tendence dokonþit sekundární úlohu – telefonní hovor, práci s navigaþním systémem)(Green, 2004). PĜedpokládá se, že nepozornost pĜi Ĝízení se podílí na více než 20% nehod (Wang, Knipling, & Goodman, 1996). Názory, že nové technologie pĜispívají k distrakci Ĝidiþe nejsou nové, v mnoha studiích se zkoumá dopad informaþních systémĤ ve vozidlech (IVIS) na výkon pĜi Ĝízení, kognitivní a vizuální zátČž a distrakci.
127 Primární úlohy spojené s Ĝízením jsou všechny þinnosti, které se pojí pĜímo s Ĝízením vozidla tzn. technické zvládnutí Ĝízení vozidla, sledování situace vnČ i uvnitĜ vozu a reakce na mČnící se podmínky 128 Sekundární þinnosti spojené s Ĝízením jsou všechny þinnosti, které Ĝidiþ pĜi Ĝízení vykonává, ale s Ĝízením vozidla nesouvisí.
92
NHTSA (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration) odhaduje, že nejménČ na 25% nehod ohlášených policii, se urþitým zpĤsobem podílí i nepozornost; distrakce je jednou z forem nepozornosti a hraje roli ve více než 50% tČchto nehod (Stutts et al., 2001)(Wang, Knipling & Goodman, 1996). Dále v textu se podrobnČji zamČĜíme na nejrozšíĜenČjší typy informaþních a komunikaþních systémĤ ve vozidle. Telefonování za volantem Ve velkém poþtu studií se zkoumal dopad používání mobilního telefonu pĜi Ĝízení na výkon jedince. ZávČry studií naznaþují, že mezi používáním mobilního telefonu a rizikem vzniku dopravní nehody existuje významná souvislost (Lam, 2002). Mobilní telefon pĜispívá jak k vizuální distrakci (Ĝidiþ je nucen fixovat pohled na mobilní telefon a pĜestává sledovat vozovku), k fyzické distrakci (Ĝidiþ drží volant pouze jednou rukou zatímco pomocí druhé ruky telefonuje), k sluchové distrakci (distrakce prostĜednictvím vyzvánČní telefonu a distrakce zpĤsobená komunikací s druhou osobou) a ke kognitivní distrakci (zátČž spojená s tím, že Ĝidiþ vČnuje pozornost jak Ĝízení tak konverzaci). Reed and Green (1999) tvrdí, že telefon držený v ruce snižuje pĜesnost Ĝízení. V mnoha studiích se také zjistilo, že používání mobilního telefonu s hands-free není bezpeþnČjší než používání telefonu drženého v ruce. Používání mobilního telefonu bČhem Ĝízení mĤže zvýšit riziko vzniku dopravní nehody až þtyĜikrát (Redelmeier, Tibshirani, 1997). Jisté je, že telefonování bČhem jízdy zvyšuje reakþní þas, zvyšuje mentální zátČž, mČní zpĤsob, jakým Ĝidiþ zpracovává vizuální informace a vnímá dopravní situaci. Studie, které byly v této oblasti provedeny, však nedovolují uþinit jednoznaþné závČry; napĜ. v tom, zda jsou Ĝidiþi schopni kompenzovat zhoršení výkonu pĜi Ĝízení bČhem telefonního hovoru zvýšením bezpeþného chování. ObecnČ lze konstatovat, že lidé, kteĜí telefonují bČhem Ĝízení, jsou rizikovČjší Ĝidiþi, protože telefonování za jízdy odráží zpĤsob života, postoje a osobnostní faktory (Wilson et al., 2003). Systémy IVIS zcela jistČ ovlivĖují chování Ĝidiþe a strategické rozhodování pĜi jízdČ. ZpĤsobují delegování zodpovČdnosti za rĤzná rozhodnutí, mČní komunikaþní vzorce ĜidiþĤ pĜi jízdČ, zvyšují zátČž kvĤli dvojznaþným signálĤm atp. Navigaþní systémy Navigaþní systém je relativnČ bČžné zaĜízení, které Ĝidiþi v ýeské republice pĜi jízdČ používají. Navzdory pozitivním pĜínosĤm navigaþních systémĤ na hospodárnost jízdy (Ĝidiþ nebloudí), mĤže toto zaĜízení také zpĤsobovat distrakci a ohrožovat Ĝidiþe, který s takovým zaĜízením bČhem jízdy zachází. U Ĝidiþe mĤže dojít k distrakci fyzické (manuální vkládání cíle cesty), vizuální (sledování obrazovky bČhem vkládání dat nebo sledování mapy) nebo zvukové (poslouchání zvukových instrukcí). Ve výzkumu Tijerina et al. (1998), ve kterém se zkoumaly 4 navigaþní systémy ve vozidle, se zjistilo, že navigaþní systémy, které používají technologie rozpoznávání hlasových instrukcí jsou pĜijatelnČjší a bezpeþnČjší než systémy, které vyžadují vizuálnČ-manuální vkládání dat. Vkládání informací o cíli cesty je však þasovČ velmi nároþná aktivita i pĜi použití hlasového rozpoznávání. Z tohoto dĤvodu se v pĜípadČ, že je vozidlo v pohybu, v nČkterých pĜístrojích aktivuje zámek, který blokuje zadávání údajĤ bČhem jízdy (Farber, Foley, & Scott, 2000). Výsledky výzkumu Dingus et al. (1995), který se zamČĜil na elektronickou verzi mapy bez zvukové navigace a tradiþní mapy naznaþují, že právČ tyto dva zpĤsoby navigace kladou na Ĝidiþe nejvyšší vizuální zátČž a vyžadují, aby je Ĝidiþ sledoval déle.
93
Problematika asistenþních systémĤ pro Ĝidiþe (ADAS) Asistenþní systémy používané pĜi Ĝízení mohou pozitivnČ pĤsobit na výkon pĜi Ĝízení tím, že snižují požadavky kladené na Ĝidiþe, zvyšují poþet a kvalitu informací pro Ĝidiþe, umožĖují lepší ovládání vozu a snižují poþet chyb, kterých se Ĝidiþ pĜi Ĝízení mĤže dopustit. Asistenþní systémy pro Ĝidiþe na rozdíl od informaþních systémĤ mají ovšem invazivní povahu, neboĢ mají na Ĝízení vozidla pĜímý dopad. Tyto systémy mají usnadnit jedinci Ĝízení vozidla, zvýšit jízdní komfort a snížit riziko vzniku dopravní nehody. TČchto systémĤ existuje na trhu celá Ĝada, liší se funkcemi i cenou. Mezi nejrozšíĜenČjší systémy bezpochyby patĜí ABS, ESP, posilovaþe Ĝízení atd. StejnČ jako v tČchto pĜípadech pouze budoucnost ukáže, která ze zaĜízení budou z hlediska akceptace Ĝidiþi, požadavkĤ trhu nebo bezpeþnostní politiky životaschopné a dojde k jejich masivnímu rozšíĜení. Asistenþní systémy tedy na jedné stranČ zvyšují jízdní komfort, avšak nesou s sebou také urþitá rizika. Zejména pĜi delším používání tČchto systémĤ se mohou zhoršovat nČkteré Ĝidiþské schopnosti; napĜ. Ĝidiþ nemusí být pĜipraven reagovat na mČnící se situaci, mĤže se na systém pĜíliš spoléhat129 apod. Dlouhé Ĝízení, které nevyžaduje tolik aktivity ze strany Ĝidiþe, mĤže zpĤsobovat snížení bdČlosti a pozornosti. Dalším problémem mĤže být fakt, že Ĝidiþi, kteĜí své vozy nebudou mít vybaveni tČmito moderními systémy budou imitovat chování ĜidiþĤ s nimi. V takovém pĜípadČ to mĤže znamenat, že Ĝidiþi s tČmito systémy budou sice jezdit bezpeþnČji, ale v pĜípadČ, že vČtšina ĜidiþĤ tyto systémy mít nebude, celková dopravní bezpeþnost se sníží (Aparicio, 2002). Nyní se zamČĜíme na jednotlivé relativnČ rozšíĜené asistenþní systémy.
129
Simulátorová studie protikolizního systému ukázala, že Ĝidiþi si na tento systém velmi rychle zvykli, ale v pĜípadČ, že systém pĜestal fungovat, nebyla více než polovina ĜidiþĤ schopna se kolizi vyhnout.
94
Inteligentní adaptace rychlosti (ISA – Inteligent Speed adaptation) Jedná se o skupinu algoritmĤ, které kontrolují rychlost vozidla a to tak, že buć pĜímo pĜekraþování rychlosti zamezují nebo pouze podávají Ĝidiþi informaci o pĜekroþení rychlosti. Informace o aktuální povolené nebo doporuþené rychlosti se získávají ze senzorĤ v okolním prostĜedí nebo z navigaþního systému uvnitĜ vozidla. ěidiþ je ve vČtšinČ pĜípadĤ schopen rychlostní omezení pĜekroþit tím, že více sešlápne plynulý pedál, který mu ovšem v opaþném smČru klade jistý odpor. Z mnoha studií vyplývá, že se jedná o relativnČ úþinný nástroj jak snížit rychlost, v nČkterých je vysoká ochota ĜidiþĤ akceptovat tento restriktivní systém ve vozidle (Vlassenroot, De Mol, 2004)(Boroch, 2002)(Biding, Lind, 2002). Na druhé stranČ existuje Ĝada studií, které úþinek tohoto systému na rychlost popírají. Nejvíce ochotni „vyhovČt“ systému mají Ĝidiþi s vysokou mírou kompliance k pĜedpisĤm i bez aktivace tohoto systému. Rizikoví Ĝidiþi, kteĜí jsou zvyklí povolenou rychlost pĜekraþovat, se nauþí rychlost pĜekraþovat i s aktivovanou ISA (Várhelyi, 2002). Adaptivní kontrola jízdy (ACC – Adaptive Cruise Control) ACC je dynamická kontrola rychlosti, pomocí které je systematicky udržována urþitá vzdálenost od vozidla vpĜedu. Výsledky studií ukazují, že Ĝidiþi se na tento systém mohou adaptovat zpĤsobem, který je z hlediska bezpeþnosti dopravy rizikový. ěidiþi, kteĜí Ĝídili automobil vybavený ACC v simulovaném prostĜedí, byli schopni velmi dobĜe vykonávat sekundární úlohy. Snížila se však pozornost Ĝidiþe, vigilita, snížil se výkon pĜi Ĝízení; Ĝidiþ v jednom jízdním pruhu více manévroval. Reakþní þas na rizikovou událost se ovšem významnČ prodloužil. ěidiþi navíc systému pĜíliš dĤvČĜovali, pĜestože bČhem jízdy byli vystaveni jeho simulovanému selhání. V souvislosti s tímto systémem se doporuþuje trénovat ostražitost Ĝidiþe, aby se minimalizoval dopad behaviorální adaptace. ěidiþi však na druhou stranu také mají tendenci jezdit obecnČ nižší rychlostí, ménČ brzdit i zrychlovat, z þehož vyplývají i urþité pĜínosy pro bezpeþnost (Bjorekli, Jenssen, Moen & Vaa, 2003)(BrookCarter, Parkes, Burns & Kersloot, 2002). Dynamické kontrolní systémy (ABS, ESP aj.) ZávČry rĤzných studií, které se týkají systému ESP (Elektronický Stabilizaþní Program) jsou vesmČs pozitivní. Tento relativnČ nový systém, kterým jsou dnes þasto vybavena moderní auta, snižuje riziko nehod, pĜi nichž havaruje jediné vozidlo; zvláštČ pak pĜi zhoršených podmínkách poþasí, jako je napĜ. náledí. ESP snižuje riziko, že se vozidlo dostane mimo vozovku (Tingvall et al., 2003). Na druhou stranu je tĜeba vyþkat, jakým zpĤsobem se situace bude dále vyvíjet, protože významné snížení nehodovosti se oþekávalo i od rozšíĜeného systému ABS. Systém ABS pĜináší nesporné výhody, které ulehþují ovládání vozu pĜi brzdícím manévru. Pokud se ale zamČĜíme na chování ĜidiþĤ, zjistíme, že Ĝidiþi, jejichž vozidla jsou vybavena ABS jezdí rychleji, udržují menší vzdálenosti mezi vozidly a zaþínají brzdit pozdČji (Sagberg, 1997)(www.wikipedia.org). Teorie vysvČtlující rizikové chování Ukázali jsme, že každý moderní systém s sebou sice pĜináší Ĝadu výhod, které by samy o sobČ mohly pĜinést zvýšení bezpeþnosti. PlnČ automatické vozidlo, které by þlovČka pĜivezlo na zvolené místo zcela samo, je hudbou vzdálené budoucnosti a je také otázkou, zda þlovČk o takové vozidlo vĤbec stojí. Zatím je však bezpeþnost na silnicích vždy výsledkem interakce
95
vozidla, Ĝidiþe a okolního prostĜedí. Jak však mĤžeme vysvČtlit, že pĜes všechny moderní technologie se na silnicích po celém svČtČ stále dochází k nehodám pĜi kterých umírají lidé? Existují teorie, které se snaží právČ tyto mechanismy ve spoleþnosti vysvČtlit. My si je velmi krátce nyní pĜiblížíme. Teorie homeostázy rizika Homeostáza rizika je psychologická teorie navržená Geraldem Wildem, který tvrdí, že každý jedinec má vrozenou urþitou hladinu pĜijatelného rizika, která se nemČní. Hladina pĜijatelného rizika je však u rĤzných jedincĤ rĤzná. Pokud se míra pĜijatelného rizika v jedné þásti života jedince zmČní, zmČní se hladina pĜijatelného rizika v jiné oblasti tak, aby se celková hladina pĜijatelného rizika opČt vyrovnala. Tuto teorii Wilde použil i na velké lidské systémy jako je napĜ. populace ĜidiþĤ. Této teorii nahrává fakt, že napĜ. Ĝidiþi, jejichž auto je vybaveno ABS Ĝídí nebezpeþnČji, udržují menší odstupy mezi auty, jezdí v zatáþkách rychleji. Tato teorie znamená, že jakékoliv bezpeþnostní opatĜení vyvolá zvýšení rizika v jiné oblasti. Pro zvýšení bezpeþnosti na silnicích je tĜeba podle Wilda uþinit dvČ vČci. Zaprvé je tĜeba zvýšit u lidí oþekávání budoucnosti, protože zvýšenČ rizikové chování je patrné zejména u lidí, kteĜí nepovažují svou budoucnost za hodnotu. Za druhé je tĜeba lidi pĜímým zpĤsobem pĜimČt, aby se chovali bezpeþnČ; napĜ. v nČkterých firmách odmČĖovali dČlníky za to, že nemČli žádný úraz, þímž se jim povedlo znaþnČ snížit nehodovost na pracovišti. Na druhé stranČ je patrné, že motivace snížením ceny pojistného za jízdu bez nehod se míjí úþinkem a je proto tĜeba navrhnout nové motivaþní postupy. Wildova teorie je nicménČ terþem kritiky a není rozšíĜenČ pĜijímána. Teorie kompenzace rizika Teorie kompenzace rizika tvrdí, že jedinci pĜizpĤsobují své chování jakožto reakci na vnímané zmČny rizika. ZvíĜata v pĜírodČ se chovají opatrnČji v pĜípadČ, že vnímají nebezpeþí a naopak se chovají ménČ opatrnČ, pokud se cítí bezpeþnČ. Tuto teorii lze s úspČchem aplikovat i na oblast dopravy, zejména v souvislosti s používáním ochranných prvkĤ jako jsou helmy, zádržné systémy nebo ABS. Teorie vznikla z velké þásti na základČ prĤzkumu v oblasti zásahĤ v rámci dopravní bezpeþnosti. PravdČpodobnost úrazu v dĤsledku dopravní nehody se snížila, pravdČpodobnost zranČní jako takového se nezmČnila. To znamená, že došlo k nČjaké zmČnČ v pravdČpodobnosti vzniku nehody. Studie dokazují, že napĜ. povinnost poutat se bČhem Ĝízení nevede ke snížení zranČní nebo úmrtí na silnicích. Styl Ĝízení u ĜidiþĤ, kteĜí jsou zvyklí se nepoutat a jsou donuceni se pĜi jízdČ pĜipoutat je agresivnČjší; Ĝidiþi jezdí rychleji a ménČ bezpeþnČ (www.wikipedia.org). Ve studii z roku 1994 se ukázalo, že aþkoliv zavedení vyšší povolené rychlosti a snížení pokutování ĜidiþĤ za rychlost vedlo ke zvýšení rychlostí, nemČlo toto opatĜení žádný vliv na dopravní nehodovost (Jackson & Blackman, 1994). Také se ukázalo, že zvýšené ekonomické ztráty pĜi nehodách vedly k významnému snížení þetnosti dopravních nehod, ale nikoliv ke snížení rychlosti. Ukazuje se, že snaha o regulaci urþitého rizikového chování jako je rychlost má malý vliv na dopravní nehodovost. DĤležitČjším parametrem z hlediska bezpeþnosti než je absolutní poþet dopravních nehod je poþet zranČných a usmrcených, jejichž poþet se dá rapidnČ snížit zavádČním rychlostních omezení a dĤsledným dohledem nad jejich dodržováním (www.wikipedia.org).
96
ZÁVċRY Aþkoliv již nyní existuje nebo se vyvíjí celá Ĝada systémĤ, které pomáhají Ĝidiþi pĜi Ĝízení a snaží se uþinit Ĝízení vozidla bezpeþnČjším a pohodlnČjším, nesou s sebou tyto systémy i urþitá rizika. Tato rizika jsou spojena zejména se zmČnami v chování ĜidiþĤ, pĜetížením informacemi, nesou s sebou problémy s kódováním informací, mohou zpĤsobovat snížení ostražitosti a bdČlosti atd. Vnímání možných rizik u ĜidiþĤ rozhodnČ není ideální a je tĜeba se mu uþit (Vaa, 2005). Fakt, že se Ĝidiþi cítí v moderním automobilu bezpeþnČjší, mĤže vyústit v rizikovČjší chování, které bude snižovat pozitivní pĜínos tČchto systémĤ. Z výše popsaných dĤvodĤ je tĜeba na tomto poli pracovat jen velmi obezĜetnČ, je tĜeba provést Ĝadu výzkumĤ, snažit se harmonizovat a regulovat požívání moderních systémĤ ve vozidlech na mezinárodní úrovni. ITS mĤže pomoci zlepšit výkon ĜidiþĤ v následujících oblastech: (1) PĜekraþování rychlosti v urþitých situacích, zvláštČ u mladých nezkušených ĜidiþĤ, kteĜí podceĖují rychlosti v zatáþkách, (2) Monitorování únavy a spánku, (3) Schopnost detekovat zmČny rychlosti u auta vepĜedu, (4) PĜi pĜedjíždČní varovat Ĝidiþe, že se v dráze nachází nČjaký pohybující se objekt nebo objekt ve slepém úhlu, (5) Varování, že se blíží cyklista nebo motocyklista (nČkteĜí Ĝidiþi nejsou schopni detekovat jednostopá vozidla zvláštČ v levotoþivých zatáþkách), (6) Varování o vozidlech na kĜižovatkách, kde mívají mnoho nehod zejména staĜí Ĝidiþi nebo (7) Varování o pĜítomnosti chodcĤ (Vaa, 2005).
Vývoj v oblasti ITS z hlediska HMI v silniþní dopravČ Inteligentní technické systémy v dopravČ prodČlávají v souþasné dobČ bouĜlivý rozvoj. Je to proto, že mají obrovský potenciál Ĝešit dlouhotrvající problémy v dopravČ jako je zátČž životního prostĜedí, bezpeþnost na komunikacích þi kongesce atd. Výrobci jsou pod tlakem trhu, mnohé systémy vznikají nekoordinovanČ, bez respektování pĜání a psychických možností uživatelĤ. PĜipravovaná evropská direktiva a provádČcí plán, které byly pĜipraveny ještČ za þeského pĜedsednictví EU, mají pĜinést koordinaci a rozvoj ITS na vČdeckých základech. Direktorát EU pro energii a transport odsouhlasil 16. prosince 2008 pĜípravu nové direktivy týkající se podmínek implementace Inteligentních dopravních systémĤ – ITS v dopravČ a akþní plán pro utilizaci ITS v EvropČ. Týká se využití informaþních a komunikaþních technologií v dopravČ – výpoþetní techniky jako poþítaþĤ, senzorĤ, satelitĤ i mobilních telefonĤ atd. Direktiva má být pĜijata EU a zamČĜuje se pĜedevším na silniþní dopravu i s interface a dopadem na ostatní módy dopravy. Má pomoci pĜi koordinaci využití sofistikovaných ITS a zrychlení využívání inteligentních systémĤ v dopravČ vzhledem ke stále rostoucím negativním trendĤm. Hlavním rysem je ekologický aspekt a vytvoĜení trvale udržitelné dopravy na bázi ITS. V souþasné dobČ je direktiva a akþní plán diskutována v Evropském parlamentu, s platností direktivy se poþítá pro léta do roku 2014 s tím, že aktivity a kooperace budou pokraþovat i po tomto datu.
Cíle direktivy a akþního plánu EU Souþasný stav v oblast ITS charakterizuje jejich rychlý technický vývoj, znaþná þást systémĤ je technicky vyspČlá a vhodná pro nasazení v praxi. Jejich skuteþné nasazení je však pomalé a fragmentární, což snižuje výhody proti celoplošnému nasazení. Existují znaþné rozdíly ve využití ITS mezi jednotlivými zemČmi, nízký stupeĖ intermodality. Efektivitu snižuje také skládanka regionálních a národních Ĝešení, nedostatek interoperability, efektivní kooperace. 97
Cílem direktivy a akþního plánu je ekonomická, bezpeþná a ekologická doprava. Dosažení cílĤ je podmínČno zrychleným a koordinovaným využitím služeb ITS, zvýšením interoperability jednotlivých systémĤ, jejich efektivní kooperací. Vedle toho je tĜeba také vyĜešit problematiku soukromých dat a dĤvČryhodnosti systémĤ. Spoleþný evropský program mĤže stanovit agendu spoleþných priorit týkající se spolupráce (interoperability) systémĤ, kontinuity služeb i za hranicemi jednotlivých zemí, generování množstevních efektĤ vedoucí ke snížení nákladĤ a podpory evropského prĤmyslu otĜeseného krizí.
Výzvy k intenzivnímu nasazení ITS v evropském prostoru Redukce CO2 a dalších škodlivin Doprava v EvropČ je jediný sektor, kde negativní dopady z provozu stále rostou. Platí to pĜedevším pro silniþní dopravu, která produkuje 72% emisí CO2 z celkového objemu emitovaného dopravou. Je experty odhadováno, že i v letech 2010 až 2020 emise CO2 ještČ porostou a zvČtší se o 15%. Doprava produkuje celou paletu dalších chemických škodlivin a je také velkým polutantem co se týþe zneþistČní vod a pĤd. Sofistikované systémy mohou snížit emise CO2 o 10-20% zpoplatnČním nČkterých komunikací, managementem pĜístupu a mobility, podporou tzv. eco-driving a podporou multimodality. O 10% ménČ kongescí Obrovské jsou zábČry pĤdy dopravou a dopravní infrastrukturou. ýást ploch je neefektivnČ zabírána stále þastČjšími dopravními zácpami. Experti spoþítali, že kongesce vedou roþnČ k ekonomickým ztrátám ve výši 1% hrubého národního produktu, což v pĜípadČ sjednocené Evropy pĜedstavuje pĜibližnČ 115 bilionĤ Euro. NovČ zavádČné inteligentní systémy mohou redukovat zácpy o 5-15% pĜedevším v oblasti využití dynamického dopravního managementu, dynamické navigace, elektronického vybírání mýta z nákladní dopravy atd. O 5 000 ménČ mrtvých na evropských silnicích Nehodovost je další velký evropský problém. Vysoká intenzita dopravy na pozemních komunikacích v souþasné dobČ klade velké nároky na Ĝidiþe motorových vozidel. Dokazuje to úroveĖ nehodovosti v ýeské republice, která je navzdory rĤzným opatĜením na její redukci v porovnání s dalšími evropskými zemČmi velmi vysoká. I když se poþet smrtelných úrazĤ díky bezpeþnČjším automobilĤm a pokroku v medicínČ snižuje, stále ještČ je poþet lidských ztrát v silniþní dopravČ obrovský. Za rok zahyne v EvropČ na silnicích pĜes 40 000 obþanĤ, pro ýeskou republiku toto þíslo kolísá mezi 1000 a 1300 za rok. Uvážené nasazení ADAS – Advanced Driver Assistance Systems a IVIS – In Vehicle Information Systems (napĜ. ESC – elektronická kontrola stability, varování pĜi pĜejezdu z jízdního pruhu, omezovaþe a hlídaþe rychlosti, tísĖová volání – emergency call, e-call atd.) mĤže zmenšit poþet zranČných o 5-10% a poþet zabitých pĜi nehodách až o 5-15%.
Zvýší nejmodernČjší pĜístroje, takzvané inteligentní dopravní systémy, bezpeþnost? Velká vČtšina silniþních nehod, kolem 90–95 %, je zpĤsobena lidským selháním. Získaná data hovoĜí o nepozornosti (rozptylování, „dívání se, ale nevidČní“ a usnutí za volantem) jako o primární pĜíþinČ minimálnČ þtvrtiny všech nehod. Dnes už bČžná dopravnČ-bezpeþnostní opatĜení, napĜíklad bezpeþnostní pásy a airbagy, v minulých dekádách významnČ pĜispČly ke snížení poþtu nehod, dosáhly však už svých limitĤ. Velký potenciál pro další zvyšování 98
bezpeþnosti silniþního provozu nabízí vývoj nových vyspČlých asistenþních systémĤ pro Ĝidiþe, jejich široké penetraci zatím brání skuteþnosti, že se nepodaĜilo dosáhnout pĜijatelné poĜizovací ceny tČchto moderních systémĤ. Jakkoli vše vypadá techniky dokonalé, odborníci z humanitních vČd se ptají, nakolik jsou moderní systémy pro Ĝidiþe pĜijatelné a jak mohou zmČnit jejich chování a postoje pĜi Ĝízení. ÚspČch praktického využití tČchto produktĤ pĜedpokládá i významné trvalé kroky v oblasti lidských faktorĤ. Využití inteligentních dopravních systémĤ ve vozidlech Široká škála vyspČlých asistenþních systémĤ má posílit Ĝidiþovo vnímání nebezpeþí a þásteþnČ automatizovat Ĝidiþské úlohy. Zahrnuje výstrahu týkající se rychlosti (pĜekroþení nejvyšší dovolené rychlosti), podporu bezpeþné jízdy v jízdním pruhu, resp. jeho dodržování (signalizace pĜed vyjetím vozidla z pruhu), detekci slepého bodu, automatizované sledování okolí vozidla, detekci chodcĤ, zlepšení vidČní a monitorování stavu a funkcí Ĝidiþe. Potenciál tČchto systémĤ spoþívá v tom, že v podstatČ zdokonalují nebo zkvalitĖují vnímání a kognitivní funkce Ĝidiþe. Praktický dopad na bezpeþnosti provozu ale bude záviset na jejich interakci s Ĝidiþem. NapĜíklad k úspČšné podpoĜe Ĝidiþe a vyhnutí se þelní srážce je nejdĤležitČjší, aby varování þi zpČtná vazba intuitivnČ vyžádala správnou a vþasnou reakci – vyhýbací manévr. Nové technologie pĜedpokládají nové pojetí interakce Ĝidiþ – dopravní prostĜedek ve více senzorických modalitách – vizuální, taktilní a auditivní. Praxe ukazuje, že je nezbytný výzkum, jak nejlépe využít potenciál ADAS k maximální bezpeþnosti, a jeho úzké propojení s vývojem pĜíslušných technologií. Zavedení nových bezpeþnostních systémĤ mĤže zpĤsobit dalekosáhlé zmČny v chování ĜidiþĤ. Behaviorální adaptace mĤže signifikantnČ ovlivnit (ve srovnání s oþekáváním) aktuální bezpeþnostní pĜínos zavádČných opatĜení jak v pozitivním, tak v negativním smyslu. PĜedpovídat rizika Bezpeþnostní pĜínos ADAS mĤže být výraznČ redukován nebo zcela eliminován neoþekávanou behaviorální odpovČdí Ĝidiþe, jež se vztahuje k technologiím. NapĜíklad nadmČrným spolehnutím se na moderní systémy ve vozidle a posunutím hranic bezpeþí. Bezpeþnostní potencitál pĜístrojĤ však mĤže zĤstat nevyužit – je-li napĜíklad jejich varování ĜidiþĤm nepĜíjemné nebo je dokonce vnímají jako obtČžující, mohou se jich jednoduše vzdát . Proto je dĤležitým cílem výzkumu HMI (human machine interface, rozhraní Ĝidiþ – vozidlo) i odhalování možného nepĜíjemného chování systému. IVIS a mobilní zaĜízení mohou indukovat nebezpeþí pracovního pĜetížení, zejména informaþního, nesoustĜedČnosti a odklon pozornosti od samotného Ĝízení. Vezmeme-li v potaz kritické bezpeþnostní dopady mobilních telefonĤ, vyvolává otázky týkající se bezpeþnosti i zavedení doplĖkových informaþních funkcí, jako jsou e-mail, pĜístup k internetu, pomoc pĜi navigaci, silniþní a dopravní informace. Možné jsou konflikty mezi rĤznými nezávislými systémy komunikujícími s Ĝidiþem, jež zvyšují riziko duševního pĜetížení a neoþekávaných projevĤ chování. K dalším výzvám tedy patĜí zavádČní komplexu informaþních funkcí ve vozidlech – instalovat nezávisle na sobČ rĤzné systémy komunikující s Ĝidiþem není možné nejen proto, že tak velký poþet samostatných zaĜízení by se nevešel do kabiny vozu. ProtichĤdné informace z rĤzných systémĤ mohou rušit pozornost, pĜetČžovat, mást a rozþilovat Ĝidiþe, tedy pĤsobit problémy, které v pĜípadČ izolovaného systému nehrozí. Behaviorální zmČny v reakcích a kombinace
99
systémĤ mohou být velmi odlišné od reakcí v pĜípadČ izolovaného systému. Proto je do budoucna nutné jednotné adaptivní integrované rozhraní spojující rĤzné systémy do funkþního celku, Ĝešící konflikty mezi jednotlivými funkcemi a využívající jejich agregovaného efektu. Cílem odborníkĤ humanitních vČd v oblasti dopravy je shromáždit znalosti a podílet se na vývoji metod a technologií pro bezpeþnou a efektivní integraci pevnČ zabudovaných ADAS, IVIS i pĜenosných zaĜízení a systémĤ do kontextu Ĝízení vozidla. Na základČ získaných poznatkĤ bude vytvoĜeno obecné adaptivní integrované rozhraní Ĝidiþ – vozidlo, které bude charakterizovat: x Multimodální zaĜízení rozdČlené do rĤzných systémĤ, napĜíklad zobrazení informací do zorného pole Ĝidiþe, hlasové vstupy a výstupy, sedadlové vibrace, zaĜízení pro dotykové vstupy, smČrové zvukové výstupy. x Centralizovaná inteligenci pro Ĝešení konfliktĤ mezi systémy, napĜíklad prostĜednictvím tĜídČní informací na základČ priorit a rozvrhování. x Hladká integrace mobilních zaĜízení do jednotného HMI x PĜizpĤsobivost integrovaného HMI aktuálnímu stavu Ĝidiþe þi kontextu Ĝízení. Tak bude možné využívat nových konceptĤ a technologií k maximálnímu pĜínosu v oblasti bezpeþnosti za pomoci vyspČlých asistenþních systémĤ pro Ĝidiþe a zároveĖ minimalizovat informaþní pĜetížení a nepozornost zpĤsobené informaþními systémy vozidla a mobilními zaĜízeními. Nové technologie umožní zlepšení mobility a pohodlí, ovšem bez ústupkĤ v oblasti bezpeþnosti. Moderní asistenþní systémy ve vozidlech mají budoucnost. PĜed jejich masovým zavedením je však nutno vyĜešit velké množství technických, psychologických, právních a organizaþních otázek.
ZmČny v dopravním systému Inteligentní dopravní systémy ITS mají velký potenciál na zmČny v dopravním systému. Mohou ho uþinit bezpeþnČjším, ekonomiþtČjším a ekologickým. ITS akþní plán a direktiva mají za cíl akcelerovat a koordinovat užívání ITS na komunikacích s cílem vytvoĜit interface mezi silniþní dopravou a ostatními módy. Proto byly vytvoĜeny tyto prioritní oblasti: 1. Optimální užití dat z oblasti silniþní dopravy a transportu 2. Management dopravy a pohybu zboží 3. Silniþní bezpeþnost 4. Integrace vybavení vozidla a dopravní infrastruktury 5. Ochrana a držení dat 6. Evropská koordinace dat V oblasti 3, tj. bezpeþnosti na silnicích jde zejména o rychlé zavádČní bezpeþnostních systémĤ, zavedení po havarijního upozornČní, vytvoĜení rámce pro bezpeþnou komunikaci þlovČk stroj vþetnČ nomádických pĜístrojĤ, zjištČní dopadĤ ITS na tzv. zranitelné úþastníky silniþního provozu a vytvoĜení kódu nejlepších praktik napĜ. v nákladní dopravČ þi parkování. V oblasti 4, tj. evropských rámcových podmínkách jde o: 1. zásady a spoleþný pĜístup 2. národní a regionální pĜístup k ITS architektuĜe a jejich využití 3. snížení nákladĤ 4. interoperabilitu 5. multimodalitu
100
Evropská direktiva a akþní plán vytváĜejí právní rámec pro evropskou kooperaci, nástroj pro rozhodování o budoucím vývoji ITS a návod pro nasmČrování výzkumu ITS i platformu pro intermodální unifikaci.
ZmČny ve výzkumu HMI – spolupráce þlovČk stroj ZavádČní nových technických prostĜedkĤ do aut má vhodnou intervencí a podporou rĤzných þinností Ĝidiþe zvýšit bezpeþnost na silnicích a snížit negativní environmentální dopad dopravy. Otázkou však zĤstává, zda jsou dopady tČchto technologií, takzvaných inteligentních dopravních systémĤ (ITS) vždy jenom pozitivní. V ýeské republice, ale i v celé EvropČ, je stále pomČrnČ málo vČdecky získaných poznatkĤ, které by tento problém ze všech jeho aspektĤ postihovaly, jako jsou potĜeby rĤzných skupin ĜidiþĤ (profesionálové, starší Ĝidiþi, noví Ĝidiþi, postižení Ĝidiþi – Ĝidiþi se zvláštními potĜebami), vzdČlávání a výuka pro systémy ITS, vliv na mentální zátČž a pozornost, akceptace tČchto systémĤ v souvislosti s rĤznými sociálnČ-kulturními charakteristikami a podobnČ. Výzkum inteligentních dopravních systémĤ integruje humanitní vČdy (psychologie, sociologie), ergonomii (vČda o porozumČní interakcí mezi þlovČkem a systémem, snažící se o spokojenost þlovČka a výkonnost systému), ale také inženýrské disciplíny (kybernetika, prĤmyslový design, umČlá inteligence).
Pro naší dobu je charakteristický vývoj nových informaþních a komunikaþních technologií v mnoha oborech, které výraznČ mČní charakter a postupy tČchto oborĤ. Je evidentní, že nástup IT a jejich rozšiĜování bude v následujících letech pokraþovat díky novým možnostem techniky, aby výraznČ zmČnil zvyky a obvyklé metody i tĜeba v dopravČ. Ale i když souþasný rozvoj v oboru dopravní telematiky a systémech podpory Ĝidiþe (driver assistance systems) mĤže vytvoĜit opravdovou pĜíležitost podpory mobility a skuteþné zlepšení bezpeþnosti silniþního provozu, pĜesto pro psychology, ergonomy a inženýry navrhující tyto systémy vzrĤstá poþet otázek týkající se jejich pĜijatelnosti pro Ĝidiþe a možných zmČn chování nebo postojĤ. Tyto výzkumy HMI v EvropČ existují, ale jsou rozptýlené. Abychom obdrželi efektivní výsledky, je tĜeba integrovat výzkumné schopnosti v EvropČ. ZámČrem „Network of
101
Excellence HUMANIST130“ je spojit výzkumy do oblasti interakce uživatel/systém a jejich aplikace v dopravní telematice a systémech podpory Ĝidiþe (driver assistance systems) a vytvoĜit evropské virtuální centrum špiþkových pracovišĢ (European Virtual Centre of Excellence) zamČĜené na design soustĜedČný se na þlovČka pro Information Society Technologies vČnující se silniþní dopravČ.
Prosazuje se nová forma výzkumných organizací v dopravČ Cílem projektu HUMANIST a jeho pokraþovatele VCE HUMANIST 2009 je vybudování špiþkového evropského pracovištČ (Network of Excellence), které shromažćuje a integruje výsledky výzkumu pĜedních evropských dopravních institucí. Idea projektu je vzájemné pĜedávání informací a zmenšování tzv. vČdomostních propastí (knowledge gaps) mezi jednotlivými zemČmi. KromČ pracovní skupiny 2, v rámci které vznikají spoleþné projekty partnerĤ HUMANISTu, ve nichž dochází ke sdílení infrastruktury a vzájemných zkušeností a poznatkĤ, je cílem projektu pĜedevším efektivní generování a shromažćování informací. KromČ možnosti využívat zaĜízení (napĜíklad dopravních simulátorĤ) rĤzných institucí ve spoleþných projektech, dále vzdČlávat nejenom výzkumníky (výmČnné pobyty, výukové programy, podpora zaþínajících výzkumníkĤ formou workshopĤ a skupinových semináĜĤ), ale i zástupce prĤmyslu a veĜejných autorit (tzv. letní školy pro profesionály) je pĜínosem projektu samozĜejmČ pĜístup k informacím (znalostní databáze, organizování semináĜĤ, workshopĤ a konferencí, vydávání spoleþných publikací). ObecnČ je tedy cílem projektu HUMANIST integrace poznatkĤ z oblasti HMI (Human-Machine-Interface), lidského faktoru v dopravČ a ITS zlepšení silniþní bezpeþnosti podporou na þlovČka zamČĜeného designu inteligentních dopravních systémĤ, pĜedevším IVIS a ADAS. Jedná se o výzkum interakce uživatele (Ĝidiþe) a tČchto technologií (pĜedevším komunikaþních a asistenþních systémĤ).
PĜíþiny vzniku projektu HUMANIST VCE a COST 352131 Vývoj nových informaþních a komunikaþních technologií bude v následujících letech pokraþovat, aby výraznČ zmČnil postupy, zvyky a obvyklé metody v dopravČ. Jestliže se rychle vyvíjel pracovní úkol Ĝidiþe od doby stvoĜení motorového vozidla, tato situace se dnes prudce mČní. Je to pĜedevším díky kombinaci vlivĤ rozšíĜení informaþních a komunikaþních systémĤ Ĝidiþe zavedených ve vozidle a objevení se pokroþilých systémĤ podpory Ĝidiþe – ADAS a IVIS. NČkteré systémy jsou navrženy pro Ĝidiþe s cílem usnadnit lidem jejich úkol a zvýšit bezpeþnost jejich cesty. NapĜíklad pĜístup k navigaþním informacím dovoluje snížení úrovnČ pozornosti, jež se podílí v procesu orientace v situaci Ĝízení. ŠíĜení dopravních nebo meteorologických informací v reálném þase dovoluje aktivací anticipaþního procesu vyvarovat se kritickým situacím. Adaptivní kontrola jízdy (napĜ. cruise control, nastavení stálé rychlosti jízdy, tempomat), snižuje ĜidiþĤv stres a mentální zátČž, zatímco udržuje 130 Popis konsorcia: HUMANIST Network of Excellence, sponzorovaná a podporovaná ECTRI a FERSI networks dává dohromady 22 partnerĤ, vþetnČ EC-JRC z 14 evropských zemí. Všichni partneĜi patĜí do Evropské Unie, jedni mimoĜádní úþastníci (Norsko) a jedna pĜistupující zemČ patĜící k východnímu bloku, Centrum dopravního výzkumu v BrnČ, ýR. Konsorcium HUMANIST sdružuje výzkumníky lidských faktorĤ, ergonomie, kognitivních vČd, strojírenství, sociologie, kteĜí pracují v oblastech bezpeþnosti silniþního provozu, návrhĤ a hodnocení systémĤ, analýzy dopravních nehod a výuky ĜidiþĤ. Celkový poþet výzkumníkĤ zahrnutých do iniciativy HUMANIST dosahuje 108 výzkumných pracovníkĤ a 27 doktorandĤ. 131 Projekt COST 352 – Vliv moderních informaþních systémĤ v automobilu na bezpeþnost silniþního provozu 2004– 2008 Vedení: Michael Bernhard (Švýcarsko) Hlavním cílem projektu je vytvoĜení vČdecké základny pro legislativu týkající se silniþního provozu a vybavení vozidel, metodologie hodnocení bezpeþnosti a pravidel pro výcvik a vzdČlávání ĜidiþĤ s ohledem na správné používání vozidlových informaþních systémĤ (IVIS) za úþelem zvýšení bezpeþnosti silniþního provozu.
102
bezpeþnou vzdálenost k autu pĜed námi. V poslední ĜadČ aktivní, speciálnČ vymyšlené systémy podpory mohou vyrovnávat nČkteré opoždČné reakce a nejasnosti rozhodování ĜidiþĤ v nepĜedvídatelných situacích. Jestliže souþasný rozvoj v oboru dopravní telematiky a systémech podpory Ĝidiþe (driver assistance systems) mĤže vytvoĜit opravdovou pĜíležitost podpory mobility a skuteþné zlepšení bezpeþnosti silniþního provozu, pĜesto pro odborníky humanitních vČd a ergonomy vzrĤstá poþet otázek týkající se jejich pĜijatelnosti pro Ĝidiþe a možných zmČn chování nebo postojĤ i z hlediska Ĝízení. Vznik automatických technologií, kdy systémy kontroly budou schopny peþovat o nČkteré kontrolní úkoly, tradiþnČ pĜipisované Ĝidiþi, pĜináší otázku rozdČlování úkolĤ mezi þlovČkem a strojem stejnČ dobĜe jako výbČr logiky použité pro management této sdílené kontroly.
Hlavní cíle projektu Humanist Efektivní realizace oþekávaných výhod bude záviset na podmínkách implementace systémĤ: pĜedevším v jaké míĜe systém odpovídá potĜebám ĜidiþĤ, zda se sluþuje s jejich funkþními schopnostmi a uspokojuje kritéria dĤležitosti, použitelnosti a pĜijatelnosti. Toto mluví pro vČtší aktivní zapojení vČd o þlovČku do rĤzných stupĖĤ koncepce systémĤ a také pro koncept technologického rozvoje rozhodnČ zamČĜeného na lidi, ve kterém je podpora navržena v souladu s lidskými potĜebami a není Ĝízena technologickou nabídkou a ziskem podnikĤ.
Kvalifikace lidských faktorĤ v EvropČ existují, ale jsou rozptýlené v rĤzných zemích a v rĤzných výzkumných institutech nebo na univerzitách. Abychom obdrželi efektivní výsledky, je tĜeba integrovat výzkumný potenciál v EvropČ KvĤli tomu se spojilo dohromady 22 špiþkových evropských výzkumných institutĤ, aby ustanovily Network of Excellence HUMANIST usilující o spojení výzkumu v oblasti interakce uživatel/systém a jejich aplikace na informaþní systémy uvnitĜ vozidla a na pokroþilé systémy podpory Ĝidiþe a o vytvoĜení v termínu European Virtual Centra kvĤli tČmto tématĤm. Projekt je podporován Directorate General of Information Society of the European Commission.
Oþekávané úþinky Oblast dopravní telematiky a systémĤ podpory Ĝízení je charakterizována rychlým technologickým rozvojem a silnou soutČží v prĤmyslovém svČtČ mezi Evropou, Japonskem a USA. ÚspČch praktického využití tČchto nových produktĤ, pĜes snahy technologického výzkumu, potĜebuje silné a nepĜetržité kroky v oblasti lidských faktorĤ. Zapojení pĜedních evropských vČdeckých výzkumných kapacit do interakcí uživatel/systém týkající se silniþní dopravy prostĜednictvím HUMANIST NoE umožní: x RĤst spoleþenských výhod zavedením ITS, ohledem na rĤznorodost populace uživatelĤ (vČk, gender, profesionálové atd.) x Sladit a zvýšit bezpeþnost silniþního provozu a pĜiblížení ITS mezi obþany rĤzných státĤ x Otoþit se þelem k výzvČ doby a pĜipravit mezinárodní užívání vyspČlých technických prostĜedkĤ v automobilech a telematice x PĜispČt k standardĤm výroby a rozvoji taktiky zavedení x PodpoĜit možné vstupní informace pro výzkum a vývoj evropských odvČtví prĤmyslu x Rychle reagovat na jakýkoliv technologický rozvoj vytváĜením databází spoleþných znalostí, identifikováním mezer ve znalostech, pĜedcházením redundance a duplikace výzkumných aktivit Znalosti shromáždČné a produkované konsorciem HUMANIST budou pĜispívají k iniciativČ eSafety, což je spoleþná iniciativa prĤmyslového-veĜejného sektoru pro zlepšení bezpeþnosti silniþního provozu díky používání nových informací a komunikaþních technologií. Interakce þlovČk-stroj byla urþena jako prioritní oblast pro realizaci doporuþení 103
eSafety, aby podporovala vývoj, rozmístČní a využití inteligentních integrovaných systémĤ bezpeþnosti silniþního provozu. HUMANIST již pĜinesl vstupní informace HMI (Human – Machine Interface) pracovní skupinČ za úþelem vývoje a dalších doporuþení pro praxi.
Spoleþný program aktivit HUMANIST Konsorcium HUMANIST ustanovilo a realizovalo promyšlený spoleþný program aktivit, aby se postupovalo smČrem k vzniku elitního Evropského Virtual Centra. Ten koordinuje výzkum, integruje, rozšiĜuje a Ĝídí výzkumné aktivity. Všechny výzkumné oblasti jsou komplementární a dovolují zabývat se zeširoka znalostmi potĜebnými k prozkoumání všech rĤzných aspektĤ designu ITS - zamČĜených na þlovČka. PatĜí sem zejména: x Identifikace Ĝidiþských potĜeb ve vztahu k ITS x Zhodnocení možných výhod ITS x Spoleþné kognitivní modely Ĝidiþ-vozidlo-prostĜedí pro design zamČĜený na uživatele x Analýzy vlivu ITS na chování Ĝidiþe x Vývoj nových metodologií pro zhodnocení bezpeþnosti a použitelnosti ITS x Výchova Ĝidiþe a trénink používání ITS x Využití ITS pro výcvik a výuku ĜidiþĤ BČhem prvních fází projektu byly vytvoĜené spoleþnČ výzkumné aktivity zamČĜeny na vytváĜení pĜehledových studií, aby byly objeveny základní nedostatky ve vČdeckých znalostech a aby se definovaly nové relevantní výzkumné otázky. Dále roþní programy výmČnných pobytĤ výzkumníkĤ a vzájemné sdílení infrastruktury byly využity jako podnČcující prostĜedky k smČrování k vyváženému výzkumnému programu s komplementárními pĜístupy. ěada rozšiĜujících aktivit byla vytvoĜena, aby široce rozšiĜovala znalosti z NoE smČrem k dĤležitým kapitálovým úþastníkĤm: x Organizováním debat a pĜenos znalostí díky zjištČným aktivitám s ostatními projekty na eSafety a dĤležité kapitálové úþastníky a podporováním souladu s ostatními sítČmi jako standardizace a normativní a pre-normativní orgány. x ZĜízením tréninkových programĤ pro evropské studenty a mladé výzkumníky v oblasti a navíc odborníkĤm v prĤmyslu, vládním orgánĤm a jiným organizacím v automobilové oblasti. x Prosazováním a rozšiĜováním pojmĤ, aktivit a výsledkĤ NoE širokému publiku ěada integrujících aktivit byla vytvoĜena za úþelem Ĝídit a upevĖovat výzkumnou strukturu NoE HUMANIST: 1. Podporováním mobility výzkumníkĤ uvnitĜ sítČ a spoluĜízení (co-directions) PhD. 2. Maximálním využitím fondu existujících experimentálních infrastruktur bČhem sdílení 3. ZĜízením elektronické vnitĜní sítČ aby se snadno a rychle sdílely znalosti uvnitĜ sítČ (fórum, webové konference, spoleþná databáze) a kvĤli zĜízení e-learning iniciativ Konsorcium HUMANIST organizuje a provádí periodické interní pĜezkoumání (posudky) prĤbČhu, aby posoudilo kvalitu a udržitelnost integrace sítČ. Externí posudky se uskuteþnily na konci projektu.¨Pracovní plán byl pĜipraven aby zajistil dlouhodobou udržitelnost sítČ v období 4 let financování. Podpora sítČ HUMANIST každým partnerem pĜedstavenstva (directorate general board) zaruþuje životnost a samoudržitelnost NoE v budoucnu.
ZávČr: Moderní asistenþní systémy ve vozidlech mají budoucnost. PĜed jejich masovým zavedením je však nutno vyĜešit velké množství technických, psychologických, právních a organizaþních otázek. Je evidentní, že nástup informaþních technologií (dále jen IT) a jejich rozšiĜování
104
bude v následujících letech pokraþovat díky novým možnostem techniky, aby výraznČ zmČnil zvyky a obvyklé metody v oblasti dopravy. VČdecký výzkum - Human Machine Interface (dále jen HMI) vznikl pro maximální zvýšení bezpeþnostního pĜínosu nových vyspČlých asistenþních systémĤ pro Ĝidiþe. Ale i když souþasný rozvoj v oboru dopravní telematiky a v systémech podpory Ĝidiþe (driver assistance systems) mĤže vytvoĜit opravdovou pĜíležitost podpory mobility a skuteþnČ pĜispČt k zlepšení bezpeþnosti silniþního provozu, pĜesto pro psychology, ergonomy a inženýry navrhující tyto systémy vzrĤstá poþet otázek týkající se jejich pĜijatelnosti pro Ĝidiþe a možných zmČn jejich chování nebo postojĤ k této technice. Další výzkum, napĜ. v rámci Viruálního Centra Exclelence HUMANIST pomĤže návrháĜĤm aut a technického vybavení v nich tyto vČci Ĝešit ve spolupráci s odborníky humanitních oborĤ.
105
Literature: 1. Aparicio, F., Adaptations to in-vehicle assistance systems for driving, IX. World congress, PRI, The human behavior and its interaction with the social environment, the vehicle and the doad. Adaptations and safety strategies, Madrid, 2002. 2. Begg, D.J., & Langley, J.D. (2004). Identifying predictors of persistent non-alcohol or drug-related risky driving behaviours among a cohort of young adults. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 36, 1067-1071. 3. Bena, E., Hoskovec, J. a Štikar, J. Psychologie a fyziologie Ĝidiþe. Nakladatelství dopravy a spojĤ, Praha 1968. 4. BERNHARD, M., SCHMEIDLER, K. et. al. The Influence of In-Vehicle Information Systems on Driver Behaviour and Road Safety: COST Action 352. 1st ed. Brno: Ing. ZdenČk Novotný, 2009. 89 p. ISBN 978-80-7355-083-7. 5. BERNHARD, M., SCHMEIDLER, K. Human Machine Interface Research and ITS. In MONTERDE, H., MORENO, D. Towards Future Traffic Safety Research: International Cooperation on Theories and Concepts in Traffic Safety. 1st ed. Valencia, Spain: Palmero Ediciones, 2008, p. 493 - 503. ISBN 978-84-936390-3-7. 6. BERNHARD, M., SCHMEIDLER, K. Influence of in-vehicle information systems on road safety. In 6th European Congress and Exhibition on Intelligent Transport Systems and Services: Time for Intelligent Move, Aalborg (Dánsko), 18-20 June 2007 [CD-ROM]. Aalborg (Dánsko) : ERTICO ITS Europe, 2007. 7. BERNHARD, M., SCHMEIDLER, K. Influence of Modern In-Vehicle Information Systems (IVIS) on Road Safety Requirements. In Proceedings of the International Conference MOSATT 2007: Modern Safety Technologies in Transportation, Košice, Zlatá Idka (Slovensko), 25.-27. 9. 2007. Košice (Slovensko) : Slovenská dopravní spoleþnost Slovenské akademie vČd, 2007, p. 2229. ISBN 978-80-969760-2-7. 8. BERNHARD, Michael, SCHMEIDLER, Karel. Human Machine Interface Research and ITS Development: Badanie interfejsu czlowiek-maszyna i rozwój ITS. Transport problems (Problemy transportu), 2007, vol. 2, no. 2, p. 8.
9. BIDING, T., Lind, G., Inteligent Speed Adaptation (ISA), Results of large-scale trials in Borlänge, Lindköping, Lund and Umea during the period 1999 – 2000, Vägverket, Publication, 2002:89 E. 10. BJORKLI, C., Jenssen, G., Moen, T., Vaa, T., Adaptive Cruise control (ACC) and Driver Performance: Effects on Objective and Subjektive Measures, 10th World Congress and Exhibition on Inteligent Tranport Systems and Services, Madrid, Spain, 16-20th November, 2003. 11. BOROCH, T., Inteligent speed adaptation in Denmark – Field trial of a GPS-based systém for intelligent speed adaptation, Proceedings of e-Safety Congress, Lyon, France, Sptember, 2002. 12. Brison, R. J. (1990). Risk of automobile accidents in smokers. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 81, 102-106.
13. BROOK-CARTER, N., Parkes, A., Burns, P., Kersloot, T., An experimental assessment of an urban cruise control (ACC) systém, Proceedings of e-Safety Congress, Lyon, France, 16-18 September, 2002. 14. Clarke, S., Robertson, I., T. Meta-analytic review of the Big Five personality factors and accident involvement in occupational and non-occupational settings, Journal of occupational and organisational psychology 78, Part 3, Sep 2005. 15. Dingus, T., McGehee, D., Hulse, M., Jahns, S., & Manakkal, N. (1995). Travtrek evaluation task C3 – Camera Car study. Report No. FHWA-RD-94-076. Office of Safety and Traffic Operations, McLean, VA.
106
16. Direct Line (Motor Insurance). (2002). The Mobile Phone Report: A report on the effects of using a hand-held and a hands-free mobile phone on road safety. Direct Line Insurance Croydon. United Kingdom. 17. Farber, E., Foley, J., & Scott, S. (2000). Visual attention design limits for ITS in-vehicle systems: The Society of Automotive Engineers standard for limiting visual distraction while driving. Transportation Research Board Annual General Meeting, Washington DC. 18. GELOVÁ E., HANZLÍKOVÁ I. ITS and Czech Circumstances. In Intelligent Transport Systems: Design and Safety, Praha, Volume 9. 2006 19. Green,P., Driver Distraction, Telematics Design, and Workload Manages: Safety Issues and Solutions, SAE Paper 2004-21-0022.
20. Groszová, S. Za volantem žena aneb breviáĜ Ĝidiþky – zaþáteþnice. Nakladatelství dopravy a spojĤ, Praha 1976. 21. Haigney, D., & Westerman, S. J. (2001). Mobile phone use and driving: a critical review of research methodology. Ergonomics, 44, 132-143.
22. Hanzlíková, I. (2005). Possible impacts of modern vehicle systems on driver’s behaviour. In Proceedings Road and eSafety. Brno: Transport Research Centre. 23. Harbluk, J.L., Noy, Y.I.: The Impact of Cognitive Distraction on Driver Visual Behaviour and Vehicle Control. Ergonomics Division. Road Safety Directorate and Motor Vehicle Regulation Directorate. February 2002.
24. Havlík, K. Psychologie pro Ĝidiþe. Portál, Praha 2005, ISBN 80-7178-542-3. 25. Horberry, T., Anderson, J., Regan, M. A., Triggs, T. J., & Brown, J. (2003). Driver distraction: the effects of concurrent in-vehicle tasks, road environment complexity and age on driving performance. Manuscript submitted for publication.
26. Huguenin, R. a Rothengatter T. Traffic & Transport Psychology. Theory and Application. Elsevier 2004. ISBN 0-08-043925-X. 27. HUMANIST Owerview, 1st Quarter 2004 28. Jenness, J. W., Lattanzio, R. J., O’Toole, M., & Taylor, N. (2002). Voice-activated dialling or eating a cheeseburger: Which is more distracting during simulated driving? Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 46th Annual Meeting, Pittsburgh, PA.
29. Kolegium autorĤ: IX. World Congress, Madrid, 26. - 28. February 2002. The Human Behaviour and ITS interaction with the Social Environmnet, The Vehicle and The Road. Adaptations and Safety Strategies. Dirección General de Tráfico. Madrid 2002. 30. Lam, L. T. (2002). Distractions and the risk of car crash injury. The effects of drivers age. Journal of Safety Research, 33, 411-419. 31. Lee, J. D., Caven, B., Haake, S., & Brown, T. L. (2001). Speech-based interaction with in-vehicle computers: The effects of speech-based E-mail on drivers’ attention to the roadway. Human Factors 45, 631-639. 32. MACKģ, I. Acceptance of telematics by Czech and British truck drivers. Different Drivers: Similar Needs? 2nd HUMANIST conference on driver needs. Turku (Finsko), 28 - 29. 9. 2006. 33. MACKģ, I. Acceptance of telematics by Czech and British truck drivers. In ITS World Congress Proceedings, Londýn (Velká Británie), 8.10. - 12.10. 2006 [CD-ROM]. Londýn (Velká Británie) : ERTICO-ITS Europe, 2006. 34. MACKģ, I. Evaluation of different ergonomic factors in cabin of drivers in public transport. HFES Europe Chapter Conference. Sheffield (Velká Britán 35. MACKģ, I. Pedagogical aspects of simulator training process. In Proceedings of the Conference on European guidelines for the application of new technolgogies for driver training and education. Madrid, April 25-26, 2006. In Proceedings of the Conference on European Guidelines for the application of new technologies for driver training and education., Madrid, 25-26/4/2006. Madrid: UPM Spain, 2006, s. 60.
107
36. Nabi, H., Consoli, S., M., Chiron, M., Lafont, S., Chastang, J., F., Zins, M., Lagarde, E. Aggressive/hostile personality traits and injury accidents: an eight-year prospective study of a large cohort of French employees - the GAZEL cohort, Psychological Medicine 36, Mar 2006. 37. Nop, D. Psychologie v dopravČ. VUT, Brno 1975. 38. Parker, D. Driver error and crashes. Proceedings of the international workshop on modelling driver behaviour in automotive environments, European Commision, Joint research Centre, Institute fot the protection and security of the citizen, Ispra, Italy, 2005. 39. Peck, R.C., Kuan, J., (1983). A statistical model of individual accident risk prediction using driver record, territory and other biographical factors, Accident Analysis & Prevention, 15, 371-393. 40. Peirce, S., Lappin, J. (2003) Acquisition of traveller information and its effects on travel choices: evidence from a Seattle-area travel diary survey, Technical Report, 13813, USDoT. 41. Pettitt, M., Burnett, G., Stevens, A. (2005). Defining Driver Distraction, 12th World Congress on ITS, San Francisco, 6-10 November 2005, USA, 12 p. 42. PÍPA, Martin, PLÍHAL, JiĜí. BLACKBOX - projekt vČdy a výzkumu Ministerstva dopravy ýR. Soudní inženýrství, 2006, roþ. 17, þ. 5, s. 256-259. ISSN 1211-443X. (BLACKBOX - R&D project of MoT CR) 43. PÍPA, Martin. Intelligent Car Initaitive. ITS@revue [on-line]. 2006. Dostupné z WWW: http://www.cdv.cz/itsrevue/. ISSN 1213-4287. 44. PÍPA, Martin. Intelligent Car Initiative [on-line]. Dostupné z WWW:
. 45. PÍPA, Martin. Intelligent Car Initiative. ITS@revue, 2006, roþ. 6, þ. 10, s. 5-6. ISSN 1213-4430. 46. Redelmeier. D. A., & Tibshirani. R. J. (1997) Association between Cellular Telephone Calls and Motor Vehicle Collisions. The New England Journal of Medicine, 336(7), 453-458. 47. Reed, D.B., Cronin, J.S.: Health on the road: Issues faced by female truck drivers. AAOHN Journal, Vol. 51, 2003, Iss. 3, pg. 120. 48. Reed, M. P., & Green, P. A. (1999). Comparison of driving performance on-road and in low cost simulator using a concurrent telephone dialling task. Ergonomics, 42, 1015-1037. 49. Sagberg, F., Fosser, S., Saetermo, I.A.F., An Investigation Of Behavioural Adaptation To Airbags And Antilock Brakes Among Taxi Drivers, Accident Analysis & Prevention, Vol. 29, No. 3, s.293-302.
50. Schmeidler, K. (2005). Human factor failure in road transport. In EKO - Ecology and Society 4/2005. 51. Schmeidler, K. (2005). Trends of development of individual car transport in the Czech Republic. Part I. In Transport 5/2005. 52. SCHMEIDLER, K. HMI research and related recommendations for IVIS use in Central and Eastern Europe (Invited speaker). In 7th European Congress and Exhibition on Intelligent Transport Systems and Services: ITS for Sustainable Mobility, Geneva (Switzeland), June 3rd 6th 2008 [CD-ROM]. Geneva (Switzeland): ERTICO, 2008. 53. SCHMEIDLER, K. Human Factors and road safety in the Czech Republic. In The 16th International Conference on Safe Communities: Impact of Safe community on Road Safety, Tehran (Írán), 11-13th June 2007. Tehran (Írán): WHO Collaborating Center on Community Safety Promotion, 2007, p. 78. 54. SCHMEIDLER, K. Human Factors Research and Road Safety in the Czech Republic. In 10th International Conference : Transport and Technologies for Sustainable Development, Karlovy Vary (ýeská republika), 19.-21. 9. 2007. Karlovy Vary (ýeská republika): The Society for Sustainable Life, Czech Ministry of Environment, Technological Centre of the Czech Academy of Science, Healthy Cities of the Czech Republic and State Environmental Fund, 2007, p. 185-195. ISBN 80-903634-2-3.
108
55. SCHMEIDLER, K. Impact of Human Factors on Czech Safety Programme. In 9th World Conference on Injury Prevention and Safety Promotion: SAFETY 08, Merida, Yucatan (Mexiko), March 15th-18th [CD-ROM]. Merida (Mexiko) : Instituto Nacional de Salud Publica, 2008.
56. SCHMEIDLER, K. Issues related to ITS safety and public authorities. In European conference on
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65. 66.
Human Centered Design for Intelligent Transport Systems: Stakeholders Forum: European Statement of Principles, Issuess and Perspectives, Lyon (Francie), 2. - 4. April 2008 [CD-ROM]. Lyon Bron (Francie): INRETS, 2008. SCHMEIDLER, K. ITS for Sustainable Urban Transport. COST Action 352 Conference: The Influence of In-vehicle Systems on Driver´s Behaviour and Road Safety. Bundesanstalt fuer Strassenwesen, Bergisch Gladbach (NČmecko), February 10th 2009. SCHMEIDLER, K. Road Safety in the Czech Republic is related to Human Factors Research. In Road Safety on Four Continents: 14th International Conference, Bangkok (Thajsko), November 14th-16th 2007. Linköping (Švédsko): VTI, 2007, p. 146. SCHMEIDLER, K. Roles, Effects and Acceptance of Advanced Assistance and Information Systems in Czech Republic in Safety Promotion and Injury Prevention. 8th World Conference on Injury Prevention and Safety Promotion. ICC Durban (Jižní Afrika), 3. 4. 2006. SCHMEIDLER, K. The added value of the Network of Excellence for its members. In European Conference on Human Centered Design for Intelligent Transport Systems: HUMANIST publications, Scientific Advisory Board, Lyon (Francie), 2. - 4. April 2008 [CD-ROM]. Lyon, Bron (Francie): INRETS, 2008. SCHMEIDLER, K. The role of Transport research center in HUMANIST - Centre of Excellence programme. In MONTERDE, H., MORENO, D. Towards Future Traffic Safety Research: International Co-operation on Theories and Concepts in Traffic Safety. 1st ed. Valencia, Spain: Palmero Ediciones, 2008, p. 58 - 71. ISBN 978-84-936390-3-7. SCHMEIDLER, K. The role of Transport Research Centre in HUMANIST Programme. In On Safe Roads in the XXI. Century : 4th Conference, Budapest, Congress Park Hotel Flamenco (Maćarsko), 25. -27. October, 2006. Budapest (Maćarsko) : ERTICO, PIARC, 2006, p. 52. SCHMEIDLER, K. Vývoj v oblasti ITS z hlediska HMI v silniþní dopravČ. In BRNOSAFETY: Mezinárodní konference o bezpeþnosti silniþního provozu, BVV - Central European Exhibition Centre Brno, 4.-5. 6. 2009. Brno: BVV - Veletrhy Brno, a.s., VýstavištČ 1, June 2009, s. 5. SCHMEIDLER, K., BERNHARD, M. Badanie interfejsu czlowiek-maszyna i rozwój ITS. In Transport Systems Telematics : 7th International conference, Karowice-UstróĖ (Polsko), 17. - 19. 10. 2007 [CD-ROM]. Katowice (Polsko): Univerzita Katowice, 2007. SCHMEIDLER, K., HANZLÍKOVÁ, I. Car dependency, Land Use and Transportation. In International Conference, Athens, University of Piraeus, 18. 4. 2006. SCHMEIDLER, K., REHNOVÁ, V., WEINBERGER, J. a kol. Vliv moderních informaþních systémĤ v automobilu na bezpeþnost silniþního provozu : PrĤbČžná zpráva. Brno: Centrum dopravního výzkumu, 2005. 35 s. Zadavatel: MŠMT. (The impact of modern information systems on traffic safety)
67. SCHMEIDLER, K.: Behavior and Attitudes related to ADAS, 17th International ICTCT Workshop: Cost – effective solutions for improving road safety in rural areas. Integrating the 4Es: education, enforcement, engineering and electronics. University of Tartu, Archimedes Foundation, Tartu, Estonia 68. SCHMEIDLER, Karel, VAŠEK, JiĜí. Inteligentní dopravní systémy: design a bezpeþnost. Silniþní obzor, 2006, roþ. 67, þ. 6, s.173-174. (Intelligent Transport Systém: Design and Safety) 69. SCHMEIDLER, Karel, VAŠEK, JiĜí. Pražský semináĜ o ITS a bezpeþnosti zaštítilo konsorcium Humanist. Dopravní noviny, 2006, roþ.15, þ. 23, s. 18 (The Prague´s seminar on ITS and safety was supported by HUMANISt Consortium) 70. SCHMEIDLER, Karel, ZEHNALOVÁ, Veronika. SemináĜ HUMANIST: Centre of Excellence. Kriminalistika, 2006, roþ. XX, þ. 4, s. 57-59.
109
71. SCHMEIDLER, Karel. Inteligentní auta budoucnosti. Psychologie Dnes, 2006, roþ. 12, þ. 9, s. 2325. ISSN 1212-9607. (Intelligent cars of future) 72. SCHMEIDLER, Karel. Podíl lidského faktoru na bezpeþnosti a nehodovosti dopravy: The Share of Human Factor in the Safety and in Accident Rate in Transport. Horizonty dopravy, 2006, roþ. 14, þ. 3, s. 15-20. ISSN 1210-0978.
73. Simoes, A., Retuerto, I., Pauzie, A., Needs of elderly/disabled travelers and accessible multimodal transport information systems, Transport Research Board congress, Washington DC, USA, January, 2001. 74. Smékal, V. O lidské povaze. Cesta, Brno 2005. 75. Smékal, V. PĜehled psychologie osobnosti. SPN, Praha 1985. 76. Stevens, A., Minton, R. (2001). In-vehicle distraction and fatal accidents in England and Wales. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 33 (4), 539-545. 77. Štikar, JiĜí, Hoskovec JiĜí: PĜehled dopravní psychologie. Historie, teorie, výzkum, aplikace. UK, Praha 1995. 78. Stutts, J. C., Reinfurt, D. W., Staplin, L., & Rodgman, E. A. (2001). The role of driver distraction in traffic crashes. Report prepared for AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, Washington, DC. 79. Stutts, J., Feaganes, J., Reinfurt, D., Rodgman, E., Hamlett, C., Gish, K., Staplin, L. (2005). Driver's exposure to distractions in their natural driving environment. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 37 (6), 1093-1101. 80. Stutts, J., Feaganes, J., Reinfurt, D., Rodgman, E., Hamlett, C., Gish, K., Staplin, L. (2005). Driver's exposure to distractions in their natural driving environment. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 37 (6), 1093-1101.
81. Stutts, J.C., Reinfurt, D.W., Staplin, L., Rodgman, E.A. (2001). The Role of Driver Distraction in Traffic Crashes, AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, Washington, DC, 63 p. 82. Telstra. (2003). Telstra, Police and NRMA Insurance join forces to target mobile phone use on Australian roads. Telstra News Release. www.telstra.com.au/newsroom. 83. Tijerina, L., Parmer, E., & Goodman, M. J. (1998). Driver workload assessment of route guidance system destination entry while driving: A test track study. Proceedings of the 5th ITS World Congress, Seoul, Korea.
84. Tingvall, C., Krafft, M., Kullgren, A., Lie, A., The efectiveness of ESP (Electronic Stability Programme) in reducing life accidents, ESV Paper 261, 18th ESV Conference, Nagoya, 2003. 85. Vaa, T., Modelling Driver Behaviour on Basis of Emotions and Feelings: Predicting Effects of Inteligent Transport Systems, HCI International, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, July, 2005. 86. Vaa, Truls. Modelling driver behaviour on basis of emotions and feelings: ITS and behavioural adaptations, European Commision, Joint research Centre, Institute fot the protection and security of the citizen, Ispra, Italy 2005. 87. Várhelyi, A., Speed management via in-car devices:effects, implications, perspectives, Transportation 29, 237-252, 2002. 88. Vlassenroot, S., De Mol, J., Trial on intelligent speed adaptation in Ghent, Belgium: the results on acceptance and driving-behavior of the test-drivers, 11th World Congress and Exhibition on Inteligent Transport Systems and Services, Budapest, Hungary, May, 2004. 89. Wang, J. S., Knipling, R. R., & Goodman, M. J. (1996). The role of driver inattention in crashes: New statistics from the 1995 Crashworthiness Data System. 40th Annual Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine, Vancouver, Canada. 90. Wikman, A-S., Nieminen, T., & Summala, H. (1998). Driving experience and time sharing during in-car tasks on roads of different width. Ergonomics, 41, 358-372.
110
91. Williams, A. F. (2001). Teenage passengers in motor vehicle crashes: A summary of current research. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, Arlington, VA.
111
Karel Schmeidler, PhD. is Senior Researcher at CDV - Transport Research Centre and Associated Professor for Urban sociology, Urban Design and Planning at the Faculty of Architecture, Technical University Brno, Czech Republic, visiting Professor at University of Central England, Birmingham UK EDUCATION x MA in Architecture and Town Planning at Technical University Brno, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zurich, Switzerland x PhD in Architecture and Urban Planning at Technical University Brno, Czech Republic x MA in Sociology at Charles University Prague and Brno Masaryk-UJEP University x PhD in Urban Sociology at Masaryk University Brno x Postgraduate studies in UNI and UNEP Dresden, Germany, AMBERTON SHAW Glasgow, UK, x LISI St. Petersburg, Russia and DTH Lyngby, Denmark PROFESSIONAL MEMBERSHIPS National Representative in AESOP (Association of European Schools of Planning 19942001), National Representative in AKTION (a common project in the field of science and education) National Representative in ICTCT – International Co-operation on Theories and Concepts in Traffic Safety (2001- now) Dr Schmeidler has 30 years’ experience in transport research and planning fields. He has worked on several national and international research projects involving sociology, design, urban planning, integrated land use and transport planning research, including the EC projects SIZE, ASI, CONSENSUS, TRAINER, ADVISORS, COST C20, COST C27, COST 616 CITIAIR, COST 349, COST 352 COST 355 and COST 358 projects, Central European University Fellowships (Soros Foundation Projects) and HUMANIST Centre of Excellence and many important national CZ projects funded by the Czech Grant Agency and some Czech ministries and universities. He has dozens publications encompassing sociology, urban design, urban sociology, planning and transport fields, and has authored or contributed to several books, including Sociologie v architektonicke a urbanisticke tvorbe (Brno 1997 and reprinted 2001 and Mobilita pro seniory Brno, Novpress 2009, and Mobilita ve mČstČ, 2010, Key Publishing, Ostrava).
112
