Gizi Dalam Pembangunan: Distribusi Pendapatan dan Gizi By Office
: Suyatno, Ir. MKes : Dept. of Public Health Nutrition, Faculty of Public Health Diponegoro University, Semarang Contact : 081-22815730 / 024-70251915 Blog : suyatno.blog.undip.ac.id
Conceptual Framework of Linking Poverty & Nutrition Nutrition Security Immediate Causes
Dietary Intake Macro-nutrients Micro-nutrients
Health Status
Access to food
Health environment & services Maternal & child care practices
Household income/ expenditures on food
Quality & quantity of care
Policies that encourage Underlying Causes
Adult development and Labor productivity
-food production -income generation -transfer food in-kind
Access & quality of health, sanitation & water
Policies & programs that increase -caregivers access -caregivers resource control -caregivers knowledge, adoption & practice
Policies that improve -adequate sanitation -safe water supply -health care availability -environmental safety/ shelter
Political & legal Institutions Political commitment, legal structures for implementing food laws Basic Causes
Resource control, ownership, use Resource use & pricing policies Potential resources Poverty/natural resources availability/ agricultural technology
Keterkaitan Pendapatan & Gizi Pendapatan mempengaruhi konsumsi dan Gizi Besar pendapatan akan menentukan: akses pangan secara ekonomi data beli pangan jumlah dan kualitas pangan
Distribusi pendapatan yang baik akan mengurangi kesenjangan ekonomi antar keluarga sehingga akan mengurangi kesenjangan gizi.
SOURCES OF FAMILY INCOME
Rp
Primary Sources of Income
Income from Other Sources
Salaries and Wages Commissions/tips Bonuses Family and clothing allowances Transportation and representation allowances Honoraria Other forms of compensation Net receipts/ profits derived from operation of family operated enterprises/ activities and practice of profession or trade
Gifts and assistance from abroad and from domestic source Dividends from investments Imputed rental values of owner occupied dwelling units Interests, royalties Rentals including landowner’s share of agricultural products Pensions Receipts from family sustenance activities
FAMILY EXPENDITURE Food Food consumed at home Cereals and cereal preparations Roots and tubers Fruits and vegetables Meat and meat preparations Dairy products and roots Fish and marine products Coffee, Cocoa and tea Non-alcoholic beverages Food not elsewhere classified
Food regularly consumed outside the home Alcoholic beverages Tobacco
Non-Food Fuel, Light and Water Transportation and communication Household operation Personal care and effects Clothing, Footwear and other wear Education Recreation Medical care Non-durable furnishings Durable furniture and equipment Taxes Housing, House Maintenance and Minor Repairs Miscellaneous expenditures Special family occasion Gifts and contributions to others Other expenditures
Other disbursements
9
National Statistics Office
Pendapatan & Belanja Pangan Dalam ekonomi pangan, yang terpenting: berapa jumlah/persentase untuk konsumsi/belanja pangan. bagaimana distribusi pendapatan dan pangan.
Hukum Engel : “the proportion of a family’s budget devoted to food declines as the familiy’s income increase” the income elasticity of demand for food is less than one. Penyebab berlakunya hukum Engel adalah: “the limited capacity of human stamach”
Hukum Bennett : the ‘starchy staple ratio’ declines as houshold income increase as the consumer diversifies the food consumption bundle to include higher-priced calories.
Argumentasi: Karena pangan pokok berpati jumlah substitusinya sedikit dan jumlah konsumsinya terbatas disebabkan oleh kemampuan manusia terbatas secara fisiologis
Karena adanya keinginan manusia yang universal untuk memperoleh bahan makanan yang bervariasi dan berprotein tinggi, serta permintaan gula
Hukum Houthakker : “the average quality of food calories (measured by prices) rises with incomes” The figure is drawn in logarithms to illustrate elasticities: (log) Food Quality = (log) food expenditure – (log) food quantity Food Consumption Food expenditure (Engel’s low) Food quantity (calories) (Bennet’s low) Food Quality
Starchy staples (calories) Household income
HUBUNGAN ANTARA PENDAPATAN DENGAN KONSUMSI KALORI
Note: Solid lines indicate consumption patterns before a subsidy on dried cassava; dotted lines indicate consumption patterns after a subsidy on dried cassava. The shaded areas indicate increases in calorie intake after the subsidy.
Pengukuran Distribusi Income dan Gizi
Lorenz Curve: • A curve showing the proportion of total income earned by a given percentage of the population. • e.g what proportion of total income is earned by the top 10% of the population?
Lorenz Curve % of National Income
This line represents the situation if income was distributed equally. The poorest 10% would earn 10% of national income, the poorest 30% would earn 30% of national income.
30% 10%
10%
30%
Percentage of Population
Lorenz Curve % of National Income
In this second The Lorenz Curve will In this example, example, Lorenz show the the extent to the poorest curve lies further which equality exists. below the of gap The greater the 30% of line the equality. theof between Now, the line population earn poorest equality30% and only the 20% ofofthe earn the curve7% the greater the national income. degree of inequality. national income. 20% 7% 30%
Percentage of Population
Gini Coefficient • Enables more precise comparison of Lorenz Curves • The proportion of the area taken up by the Lorenz Curve in relation to the overall area under the line of equality
Mengukur Kesenjangan: Metode Gabungan Didasarkan pada kurva Laurenz – –
Angka berkisar 0 - 1 Kriteria kesenjangan: • 0.50 – 0.70 = kesenjangan tinggi • >0.35 – <0.5 = kesenjangan sedang • 0.20 – 0.35 = kesenjangan rendah
–
Perhitungan angka Gini ada 3 cara, yaitu: Gini ratio, Bilangan Gini dan Pendekatan Integral
Gini Coefficient % of National Income
The total area under the equality The line areaofbounded by the Lorenz Curve
Percentage of Population
a. Gini Ratio (G) Rumus: G = A’/A Dimana : Pendapatan
A’ adalah area antara kurva Laurenz dan garis kesamarataan
100 %
n a ta a ar am s ke A’ nz e s i r r u a a G L va r u K A
0%
100 % Penerima
b. Bilangan Gini (G) Rumus (I) : k
k
G = ∑ Pi . Ii+1 - ∑ Pi+1 . Ii 1
1
Dimana : Pi = persen komulatif penerima pendapatan ke-i Ii = persen komulatif pendapatan yang diterima kelompok ke-I k = kelompok penerima pendapatan
No (k) 1 2 (k-1) 3 4 (k-2) 5 6 (k-3) 7 8 (k-4) 9 10 (k-5) 11 12(k-6) 13 14(k-7) 15 16 (k-8) 17 18 (k-9) 19 20(k10)
Penerima Pendapatan (% komulatif) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Jumlah
Pendapatan diterima (I) (Rp) 60.000 90.000 130.000 180.000 210.000 230.000 250.000 270.000 280.000 300.000 330.000 370.000 420.000 500.000 590.000 700.000 1.040.000 1.200.000 1.350.000 1.500.000
(%) 0.6 0.9 1.3 1.8 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.8 3.0 3.3 3.7 4.2 5.0 5.9 7.0 10.4 12.0 13.5 15.0
10.000.000
100
Persentase Komulatif Pendapatan diterima Kuantil Desil 1.5 4.6
4.6 9.0
14.2
14.2 20.0
27.0
27.0 36.2
49.1
49.1 71.5
100
100
Contoh: Perhitungan Bilangan Gini I ∑ Pi . Ii+1 • • • • • • • • • •
k1 ….. k2 ….. k3 ….. k4 ….. k5 ….. k6 ….. k7 ….. k8 ….. k9 ….. K10....
0.1 x 0.046 0.2 x 0.09 0.3 x 0.142 0.4 x 0.2 0.5 x 0.27 0.6 x 0.362 0.7 x 0.491 0.8 x 0.715 0.9 x 1.0 1.0 x 0.0 G
∑ Pi+1 . Ii = 0.0046 …… 0.2 x 0.015 = 0.003 = 0.018 …… 0.3 x 0.046 = 0.0138 = 0.0426 …… 0.4 x 0.09 = 0.036 = 0.08 …… 0.5 x 0.142 = 0.071 = 0.135 …… 0.6 x 0.2 = 0.12 = 0.2172 …… 0.7 x 0.27 = 0.189 = 0.3437 …… 0.8 x 0.362 = 0.2896 = 0.572 …… 0.9 x 0.491 = 0.4419 = 0.9 …… 1.0 x 0.715 = 0.715 =0 . = 2.3131 - 1.8793 = 0.4338
Rumus (II) : k
G = 1 - ∑ Pi (Ii +Ii -1) 1
Dimana : Pi = persen penerima pendapatan kelompok ke-i Ii = persen komulatif pendapatan yang diterima kelompok ke-I k = kelompok penerima pendapatan
No (k)
Penerima Pendapatan (%)
1 2 (k-1) 3 4 (k-2) 5 6 (k-3) 7 8 (k-4) 9 10 (k-5) 11 12 (k-6) 13 14 (k-7) 15 16 (k-8) 17 18 (k-9) 19 20(k10)
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Jumlah
Pendapatan diterima (I) (Rp) 60.000 90.000 130.000 180.000 210.000 230.000 250.000 270.000 280.000 300.000 330.000 370.000 420.000 500.000 590.000 700.000 1.040.000 1.200.000 1.350.000 1.500.000
(%) 0.6 0.9 1.3 1.8 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.8 3.0 3.3 3.7 4.2 5.0 5.9 7.0 10.4 12.0 13.5 15.0
10.000.000
100
Persentase Komulatif Pendapatan diterima Kuantil Desil 1.5 4.6
4.6 9.0
14.2
14.2 20.0
27.0
27.0 36.2
49.1
49.1 71.5
100
100
Contoh: Perhitungan Bilangan Gini II G • • • • • • • • • •
= 1 - ∑ Pi (Ii +Ii -1)
k1 ….. 0.1 (0.015 + 0 ) k2 ….. 0.1 (0.046 + 0.015) k3 ….. 0.1 (0.09 + 0.046) k4 ….. 0.1 (0.142 + 0.09) k5 ….. 0.1 (0.2 + 0.142) k6 ….. 0.1 (0.27 + 0.2 ) k7 ….. 0.1 (0.362 + 0.27) k8 ….. 0.1 (0.491 + 0.362) k9 ….. 0.1 (0.715 + 0.491) K10.... 0.1 (1.0 + 0.715) G = 1 - 0.5662 = 0.4338
Kemiskinan (Poverty) • Poverty is “welfare level below a reasonable minimum.” • Poverty has various dimensions – – – – –
Income poverty Security poverty Education poverty Health – Nutrition Poverty Multiple deprivation
• Poor people’s perception of poverty level
Beragam Makna dari “Poverty” The primary focus is on individuals or groups suffering from multiple deprivations
Education poor
Health Poor Core Poor Security Poor Income Poor
KEMISKINAN Ekonomi • Pendapatan Perkapita rendah • Tingkat pengangguran tinggi • Ketergantungan pada sektor pertanian yang tinggi sehingga produktivitas tenaga kerja rendah • Persentase penduduk miskin tinggi • Investasi Rendah
Struktural • Topografi wilayah • Kondisi geografis • Kurangnya sarana & prasarana
Situasional
Politik
• Klimatologi tdk mnguntungkan
• Jauh dan sulitnya akses dari sumber kekuasaan
• SDA yang belum dapat digunakan secara optimal
• Kurangnya Partisipasi & budaya politik
Sosial • Tingkat Pendidikan & Kesehatan masih Rendah • Rasio Beban Tanggungan yang tinggi • Adat kebiasaan • Berpikir & cara pandang miskin • Kepercayaan tradisional
The Vicious Circle of Poverty Kekurangan Modal
Investasi Rendah
Tabungan Rendah
Produktivitas Rendah
Pendapatan Rendah
Akibat kemiskinan Akses terhadap program promotif & preventif rendah Sehingga pengetahuan kesehatan terbatas (ignoransi) Selanjutnya (juga) melemahnya akses terhadap pelayanan kuratif dasar, akses terhadap obat esensial, pelayanan kedaruratan, terutama bagi kelompok resiko tinggi (bumil, balita dll) Dan dampaknya terhadap kehidupan sosial ekonomik yang sehat dan produktif Rizanda, 2005; Ekowati, 2005; Tan 2003
Kesakitan Meningkatnya • faktor resiko personal & lingkungan • malnutrisi Menurunnya : • akses ke pengetahuan & informasi • kemampuan mengakses pelayanan
Kemiskinan
Menurunnya: • kualitas hidup • produktivitas • kemampuan belajar • tabungan Meningkatnya hutang, dll
Indikator Kemiskinan • Terdapat beberapa indikator kemiskinan yang biasa digunakan, yaitu indikator: – Kemiskinan relatif – Kemiskinan absolut – Kemiskinan kultural, dan – Kemiskinan struktural
Kemiskinan Relatif • Seseorang dikatakan berada dalam kelompok kemiskinan relatif, jika pendapatannya berada di bawah pendapatan di sekitarnya, atau dalam kelompok masyarakat tersebut, ia berada di lapisan paling bawah. • Bisa jadi meskipun pendapatannya cukup untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pokok, namun karena dibanding masyarakat di sekitarnya, pendapatannya dinilai rendah, ia termasuk miskin. • Amerika Serikat menggunakan indikator kemiskinan semacam ini.
Characteristics of the very poor Group 1:The very poor • • • • • • • • • • • •
Children don't go to school Lack of food Poor shelter - many people in one room Unemployed Lack of clothes to wear Beggar/ must hunt food/ hand outs Big families Don't meet families basic needs Deserted by husbands No source of income/ no-one else to help Struggles for food and shelter, no thought of luxuries Children are dirty
• • • • • • • • • • • •
No opportunities to achieve anything Uncertainty eg. food for tomorrow Works for other village people Polygamous families No assets Unmarried daughters with children Bad health Many children to support Pensioner with very big responsibilities Christmas is like any other day Get food by ploughing Children steal from others - especially food
Source: Small Enterprise Foundation/SEF & Univ of Natal
Characteristics of the poor Group 2: Very poor, but a bit better than the poorest • • • • • • • • •
Casual labourers - farm/domestic Pensioner with big responsibilities Buy some food daily; not good food Can't satisfy their needs - money doesn't last Working but not earning enough Have shelter - bit better than poorest Poor clothes - but better than poorest Problems sending children to school often don’t go beyond primary level Small businesses
• • • • • • • • • •
Lot of credit Don't have much; things only OK when have job Problems sending kids to school Problems with emergencies Lot of children to support Deserted by husbands Big families Better house, but owner died/ redundant - so conditions have gone down Better clothes than the poorest Better shelter - especially during the rains
Source: Small Enterprise Foundation/SEF & Univ of Natal
Characteristics of the poor Group 4: People who are not poor; better off; rich
Group 3: Poor • • • • • • • • • • • •
Dreams of luxury Can buy basic food and other basic needs Have businesses Pensioner with little responsibilities Employed, but low salaries Children go to school and have uniforms, but can’t afford tertiary education Manage to support families Employed, but low income Poor income, but little responsibilities Better housing Fewer children to support Some clothes
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Professionals / Government workers Have cars Run businesses Better housing Good jobs/ secure jobs Herds of cattle Good food Afford luxuries/ don't lack money Good clothes Can afford to educate to tertiary level Hire other people for their business/ at home Everyone has a bed Look after families with no hardships Children go to better schools Shop owners Well off with little responsibilities Taxi owners
Source: Small Enterprise Foundation/SEF & Univ of Natal
Kemiskinan Absolut • Dilihat dari kemampuan pendapatan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pokok (sandang, pangan, pemukiman, pendidikan dan kesehatan). • Jika pendapatan seseorang di bawah pendapatan minimal untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pokok, maka ia disebut miskin. • Indonesia menggunakan indikator kemiskinan jenis ini.
Kemiskinan Kultural • Dikaitkan dengan budaya masyarakat yang “menerima” kemiskinan yang terjadi pada dirinya, bahkan tidak merespons usaha-usaha pihak lain yang membantunya keluar dari kemiskinan tersebut.
Kemiskinan Struktural • Kemiskinan yang disebabkan struktur dan sistem ekonomi yang timpang dan tidak berpihak pada si miskin, sehingga memunculkan masalah-masalah struktural ekonomi yang makin meminggirkan peranan orang miskin.
Starvation Line • The present poverty line is a conveniently low threshold based largely on only caloric norms. • In fact, it should be called the starvation line. • It does not factor in norms for nutrition, health, clothing, housing, education etc. • Even worse is that the Planning Commission recognizes this shortcoming and yet doesn’t do anything about it.
“starvation line” calculated: • The present line is based on the norm that the average person : – In Indonesia 2100 kkal per capita per day – in urban India should consume 2400 calories a day and a person from rural India should consume 2100 calories a day.
• The minimum cost of obtaining such nutrition was calculated when this line was formed: – Sajogyo : in rural 240 kg rice per capita a year, and in urban 360 kg beras per capita a year in 1973 – In India about 650 grams of grains in 1979
• All those who spent less than this amount on food were considered poor. • Since then, this amount was periodically updated based on inflation.
Garis Kemiskinan (Poverty Line) • Garis yang membagi/menjadi batas penduduk miskin dan tidak miskin • Gais kemiskinan: standar hidup minimum yang sesuai kondisi masyarakat • Didasarkan pada 2 konsep,yaitu: - Konsep Standar hidup - Tingkat minimum yang cocok/dapat diterima (minimum acceptable level)
Indeks yang digunakan • Indeks ganda (a multiple Index approach): ~ Didasarkan pada pemenuhan kebutuhan dasar yang berbeda-beda. • Indeks tunggal (Head Count Index) : ~ Didasarkan pada perkiraan nilai pendapatan (nilai uang) yang didasarkan 2 pendekatan: 0 Menentukan keranjang barang-barang pokok yang terdiri dari makanan dan bukan makanan yang kemudian dihitung uang yang diperlukan untuk membelinya berdasarkan harga yang berlaku 0 Menentukan garis kemiskinan langsung berdasarkan kebutuhan makanan
Aksioma yang Harus dipenuhi oleh “poverty line” Axiom 1: If a person A enjoys a higher standard of living than person B, then the real poverty line for person A cannot be higher than that of person B. Axiom 2: The poverty line should be proportional to individual needs.
Axiom 3: If two persons A and B have the same needs and face the same prices, then person A should have higher poverty line than person B because person A has more expensive tastes than person B. Axiom 4: A person on poverty line in period t, denoted by zt should have exactly the same standard of living as the person on the poverty line in period t’, denoted by zt’
Poverty Lines and Poverty Measurement • Two Issues in Generating Poverty Estimates – Fixing a poverty line: Identification – Measuring poverty: Aggregation
Read Sources: Suresh Babu,International Food Policy Research Institute
Methods of Fixing Poverty Lines • Cost-of-basic-needs method (Food-share method) – Cost of basic food needs – Cost of basic non-food needs
• Food-energy method – Expenditure level that meets the food energy requirement – Based on calorie-income relationships – Fitting and tracing calorie-expenditure graph
Cost-of-Basic-Needs Method Total Poverty Line = Z
Z=ZF + ZN ZF = Food Poverty Line ZN=Non-food Poverty Line
How to calculate the Food Poverty Line 1. 2. 3. 4.
Calculate average household (HH) size Find minimum requirement of daily per-capita calories for WHO Find the typical food bundle of the relative poor HH Calculate the calories of this food bundle
5.
Determine the cost of this food bundle
WHO’s average minimum ZF = calorie requirement calories in average food bundle for relatively poor HH
Cost of the * average food bundle
How to Calculate the Non-food Poverty Line 1. 2.
Find typical Household (HH) on the food poverty line. Calculate the non-food expenditures of the HH.
xF = per capita expenditures on food XN = per capita expenditure on non-food X = total per capita expenditure
ZN = E {XN|xF= ZF}
for the poor
(Non-food poverty line is the per capita non-food expenditure level when the per capita food expenditure level is equal to the food poverty line)
ZN = E {XN|x= ZF}
for the ultra (extreme) poor
(The non-food poverty line is given by the per capita non-food expenditure when the total expenditure is equal to the food poverty line. The food poverty line in essence becomes the total poverty line for the ultra poor)
Z = ZF + ZN
Minimum daily caloric requirements by sector and gender Urban Rural Age categories Male Female Male Female 0 to 1 year 820 820 820 820 >1 to 2 years 1,150 1,150 1,150 1,150 >2 to 3 years 1,350 1,350 1,350 1,350 >3 to 5 years 1,550 1,550 1,550 1,550 >5 to 7 years 1,850 1,750 1,850 1,750 >7 to 10 years 2,100 1,800 2,100 1,800 >10 to 12 years 2,200 1,950 2,200 1,950 >12 to 14 years 2,400 2,100 2,400 2,100 >14 to 16 years 2,600 2,150 2,600 2,150 >16 to 18 years 2,850 2,150 2,850 2,150 >18 to 30 years 3,150 2,500 3,500 2,750 >30 to 60 years 3,050 2,450 3,400 2,750 >60 years 2,600 2,200 2,850 2,450 Source: Caloric requirements are from WHO (1985, Tables 42 to 49). Notes: Requirements used are for men weighing 70 kilograms and for women weighing 60 kilograms. Urban individuals are assumed to need 1.8 times the basal metabolic rate (BMR), while rural individuals are assumed to need 2.0 times the average BMR. Children under one year of age are assigned the average caloric need of children either 3–6, 6–9, or 9–12 months old.
Poverty lines and spatial price indexes by region Food Reference Ultra Relative poverty poverty poverty price Region line line line index Metropolitan 50.18 75.36 129.19 1.000 Lower urban
45.94
101.72
67.52
0.787
Lower rural
44.29
85.38
64.71
0.661
Upper urban
45.19
101.36
67.51
0.785
Upper rural
40.36
82.81
53.37
0.641
Notes: Poverty lines are monthly, per capita figures in Egyptian pounds. The Metropolitan poverty line is used as a base line to create the relative price index, which is simply the ratio of each region's reference poverty line to the base line.
Issues in the Poverty Line • Does a poverty line exists? • Can it be used & is it well accepted? • Are international standards for setting poverty lines accepted in all countries? • Can we use the same poverty line throughout a country? • Can the nutritional basket underlying the poverty line be derived from surveys?
Measures of Poverty • Incidence of Poverty: poverty rate – Use the headcount rate to calculate the poverty rate of the % of population below the poverty line
• Depth of Poverty – how far a person is below the poverty line • Poverty Gap – aggregation of depth of poverty • Poverty Severity – aggregation with weights
Head-count Index of Poverty • Proportion of population whose consumption (y) is less than the poverty line Z Y1, Y2,..…Z, ..…Yn q
H =q/n H = Head-count index q = number of poor n = size of the population Eg: if n=100; q=50 then H=0.5 or 50%
• Problems – Insensitive to the depth of poverty – H will not change when a poor persons welfare changes if he/she remains below the poverty line
Example of the Head-count Index Calculation Income of 4 individuals in a sample: 1,2,3,4 Poverty Line Z = 3.0 H = q/n =3/4 = 0.75 or 75%
Head-count of Absolute Poverty for Bangladesh Year
Sector
1973/ 1974
Rural
82.9
Urban
81.4 (5.6)
Rural
73.8
71.8
Urban
66.0
65.3
Rural
57.0
n.a.
Urban
66.0
Rural
1981/ 1982 1983/ 1984 1985/ 1986 1988/ 1989
BBS Graph* Fitting Method +
Ahmed et al. (1991)+
Ravallion & Sen (1994)
Rahman & Haque (1988)
-
-
65.3
71.3
n.a.
55.9
62.5
n.a.
63.2
37.8
79.1
65.3
n.a.
-
50.7
n.a
48.4
53.8
49.8
50.0
n.a.
n.a.
40.9
39.5
n.a.
42.6
51.0
51.6
45.9
47.1
41.3
n.a.
Urban
56.0
66.8
30.8
29.1
n.a.
30.6
Rural
48.0
-
49.7
-
43.8
n.a.
Urban
44.0
n.a.
33.4
-
-
1991/ Rural 50.0 + food energy method 1992 Urban 46.8
-
35.9 -
52.9 * BSS 1991 and BSS 1995 33.6
Hossain & Sen (1992)
Sen & Islam (1993)
Muqtada (1986)
-
-
-
54
Poverty Gap Index (PGI) • Aggregate short-fall of the poor relative to the poverty line Z Y1, Y2,…, Yq; Yq ≤ Z Poorest Least poor q
PG = 1/n Σ [(Z-Yi)/Z] = mean proportionate i=1
poverty gap across the whole population (zero gap for the non=poor)
Example of Poverty Gap Calculation
Income of4 individuals in a sample: 1,2,3,4 Poverty line = Z = 3; n=4 PG = [(3-1)/3 + (3-2)/3]/4 = [(2/3) + (1/3)]/4 = [(3/3)/4] = ¼ or 0.25
Poverty gap index does not capture differences in severity of poverty.
Why? Region A = (1,2,3,4) Region B = (2,2,2,4) Poverty line = Z = 3 HA = 0.75 PGA = 0.25
HB = 0.75 PGB = 0.25
Poverty gap will be unaffected by an income transfer from a poor person to another poor person who remains below the poverty line
Squared Poverty Gap Index (SPG) • Mean of the squared proportionate poverty gap • Reflects severity of poverty • Sensitive to the distribution among the poor q
SPG = 1/n Σ [(Z-Yi)/Z]2 i=1
Eg: Region A = (1,2,3,4) Region B = (2,2,2,4) with Z=3 SPGA = 0.14 SPGB = 0.08 Poverty in region A > Poverty in region B
Poverty Analysis Income/Consumption Poverty Profile • Correlates poverty with: – – – – – – – – –
Gender Age Residential location Ethnic characteristics Income source Employment sources Share of food/ non food consumption Education outcomes Malnutrition outcomes
Qualitative Analysis of Poverty • Role of informal sector? • Social analysis of poverty? • Institutional analysis of poverty reducing institutions • Intra-household distribution of resources
Use of Qualitative Methods • • • •
Subjective meaning of poverty Intra-household dimensions of poverty Poor people’s priorities for action Social, political, and cultural factors, gender roles, and traditional beliefs • Participants help in designing household surveys • Assess the validity of HHS results at local level
Income or Consumption? • Consumption reflects income as well as past savings, access to credit markets, and seasonal variation in income • No records of income or seasonal fluctuations • Large informal sectors • Consumption data helps in deriving the poverty line
Measuring Income/ Consumption Poverty • • • • •
Household data availability – tools Measurement of income poverty Quantitative analysis tools Qualitative analysis tools Income poverty dynamics – tools
Data Needs for Poverty Analysis • National level data – National accounts – GDP, consumption, savings, investment, imports, exports, etc. – Ministry of Finance, Central Statistical Agency – Budgets, price surveys, and data collection – Monthly, quarterly, and yearly
Data Needs for Poverty Analysis cont. • Local level data – Consumer and producer prices, climatic data, availability and use of markets and services – CSA, local service providers, regional departments – Price and market surveys – Monthly, yearly
Data Needs for Poverty Analysis cont. • Household – Individual level data – Household income, consumption, employment, assets, production, demography, etc. – CSA, sectoral ministries, NGOs, academics – Household survey, rapid assessments, monitoring and evaluation – Yearly, 2-3 years, every 5 years
Data Sources for Poverty Analysis • • • •
Administrative data Population Census Household surveys Qualitative and Participatory Assessments – ethnographic, village studies, beneficiary assessments, etc.
Types of Household Surveys • • • • • •
Single-topic surveys Multi-topic surveys Census data Poverty monitoring surveys Times series data Panel data sets
Garis Kemiskinan BPS: • Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) mengukur garis kemiskinan dengan pendekatan konsumsi sejalan dengan pendekatan Bank Dunia. • Garis kemiskinan tersebut diukur dari kemampuan membeli bahan makanan ekuivalen dengan 2100 kkal per kapita per hari dan biaya untuk memperoleh kebutuhan minimal akan barang/jasa, pakaian, perumahan, kesehatan, transportasi, dan pendidikan.
Kriteria BPS (2007): 1. Sangat miskin : kemampuan minimal untuk memenuhi konsumsi setara atau kurang dari 1900 kalori per orang perhari dan pengeluaran Non Makanan atau senilai Rp120 000 per bulan. 2. Miskin : kemampuan minimal untuk memenuhi konsumsi antara 1900-2100 kalori perorang dan pengeluaran non makanan atau senilai Rp 150 000 perorang bulan. 3. Mendekati Miskin: kemampuan minimal untuk memenuhi konsumsi antara 2100-2300 kalori perorang perhari dan pengeluaran Non makanan atau senilai Rp 175 000 perorang bulan.
Garis Kemiskinan VV. Bhanoji Rao • Rao menghitung garis kemiskinan dengan memperhitungkan kebutuhan kalori per hari minimum yang diperlukan seseorang untuk hidup layak sebagai dasar, kemudian diambah lagi dengan keperluan untuk kehidupan dasar yang sifatnya sosial, misalnya untuk pemeliharaan kesehatan, sekolah, dsb.
Indikator Kemiskinan Prof Sayoga • Dibedakan antara daerah perkotaan dan pedesaan. • Garis kemiskinan untuk pedesaan setara dengan 240 kg beras per kapita per tahun, sedangkan untuk perkotaan setara dengan 360 kg beras per kapita per tahun. • Garis kemiskinan ditetapkan setelah survei di seluruh Indonesia pada 1973.
Pergeseran Pengertian Kemiskinan • Pergerseran pengertian kemiskinan dengan tidak melihat aspek pendapatan dan konsumsi saja, tetapi juga melihat masalah ketergantungan, harga diri, kontinuitas pendapatan dsb.
SMERU • Mengartikan kemiskinan dengan melihat berbagai dimensi: – Ketidakmampuan memenuhi kebutuhan konsumsi dasar (sandang, pangan, papan); – Tidak adanya akses terhadap kebutuhan hidup dasar lainnya (kesehatan, pendidikan, sanitasi, air bersih, dan transportasi) – Tidak adanya jaminan masa depan (karena tidak adanya investasi untuk pendidikan dan keluarga) – Kerentanan terhadap goncangan yang bersifat individual maupun massal.
SMERU-lanj. – Rendahnya kualitas sumber daya manusia dan keterbatasan sumber daya alam; – Tidak dilibatkan dalam kegiatan sosial masyarakat; – Tidak adanya akses terhadap lapangan kerja dan mata pencaharian yang berkesinambungan; – Ketidakmampuan berusaha karena cacat fisik maupun mental; – Ketidakmampuan dan ketidakberuntungan sosial (anak-anak terlantar, wanita korban kekerasan rumah tangga, janda miskin, kelompok marjinal dan terpencil)
Bank Dunia: o Miskin (absolut) jika pendapatan kurang dari 1 $ per day -- dijadikan acuan BPS o Miskin (relatif) jika pendapatan kurang dari 2 $ per day -- dijadikan acuan World Bank
Kemiskinan Indonesia • Masalah kemiskinan memang telah lama ada sejak dahulu kala. • Pada masa lalu umumnya masyarakat menjadi miskin bukan karena kurang pangan, tetapi miskin dalam bentuk minimnya kemudahan atau materi. • Belum ada kesepakatan yang mantap dan general antar negara dalam mendefinisikan kemiskinan (e.g : Bank Dunia dengan PPP US $ 2/hari, Indonesia dengan US$ 1/hari)
Gambaran Perubahan • Tingkat kemiskinan mutlak menurun drastis dalam dua dasawarsa sebelum krisis ekonomi 1997; – Jumlah penduduk miskin pada 1976 mencapai 54,2 juta jiwa (40,1 %), – menurun menjadi 40,6 juta jiwa (26,9 %) pada tahun 1981, – 35 juta jiwa (21,64 %) pada tahun 1984, – 27,2 juta jiwa (15,1 %) pada tahun 1990, dan – 22,5 juta jiwa (11,3) pada 1996.
Angka Kemiskinan Indonesia
Persebaran Penduduk Miskin (2004)
Near Poor & Trasient Poverty Near poor : • Kelompok nyaris miskin • Rata-rata pengeluaran lebih 20 % dari garis kemiskinan
Transient poverty : • Rentan Miskin /kemiskinan sementara • Kelompok near poor mudah masuk dan keluar dlm perangkap kemiskinan ini dlm waktu singkat • Suatu kenaikan besar jumlah penduduk miskin sebagai dampak suatu fluktuasi yang cepat dan mendadak pd harga kebt pokok dan pendapatan • Mengatasi relatif mudah, al: Stabilisasi harga komoditas dasar
Transient Poverty • Lebih di kenal nyaris miskin (based on tingkat pendapatan) • Hampir 42 persen dari seluruh rakyat Indonesia hidup di antara garis kemiskinan AS$1- dan AS$2-per hari • hasil survei Bank Dunia tahun 2004 menunjukkan hanya 16,7 persen penduduk Indonesia yang tergolong miskin, lebih dari 59 persen dari mereka pernah jatuh miskin dalam periode satu tahun sebelum survei dilaksanakan. • Data terakhir juga mengindikasikan tingkat pergerakan tinggi (masuk dan keluar) kemiskinan selama periode tersebut, lebih dari 38 persen rumah tangga miskin pada tahun2004 tidak miskin pada tahun 2003.
29,30%
Household without access to safe water
52,32%
21,21%
Household without access to sanitation 43,86%
Household with children aged 1212-15 not enolled in junior high school
Household with birth attended by traditional paramedics
7,86% 20,76%
9,29% 27,89%
0,00% Source: SUSENAS 2002, BPS
10,00% Noon Poor
20,00% Poor
30,00%
40,00%
50,00%
60,00%
Potret Kesenjangan Wilayah • Kesenjangan KBI-KTI, Jawa-Luar Jawa, antara kota metropolitan-kota besar-kota menengah dan kecil, perkotaan-perdesaan • Akar kesenjangan: – perbedaan potensi sumber daya alam, – letak geografis, – budaya – kebijakan pembangunan orientasi pembangunan
Poverty and Inequality 1978-2004 35
0,4
30
0,35
Percent
0,25 20 0,2 15 0,15 10
0,1
5
0,05
0
0 1978 1980 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2003 2004 Year Poverty
Gini Ratio
Index Gini
0,3
25
Income Distribution (Lower Middle, and Low Income) $3,000
$2,500
Per-capita Trade (US$)
Lithuania
$2,000
Fiji Thailand
$1,500
$1,000 Ukraine
$500
$0 15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
45.0
50.0
55.0
Gini Coefficient (0 = equitable, 100 = inequitable)
Source: International Financial Statistics, International Monetary Fund, December 2001, and Measuring Income Inequality: A New Database, Deininger, Klaus, and Lyn Squire, World Bank, 2002
60.0
65.0
Ciri Kemiskinan Indonesia • Lebih Banyak Penduduk yang rentan terhadap kemiskinan (US$1-2/hari) • Kemiskinan pendapatan vs kemiskinan non-pendapatan (gizi, kesehatan, pendidikan, akses air bersih,dll) • Kesenjangan antar wilayah (kota-desa, jawa-luar jawa, KTI-KBI)
Sebab-sebab Struktural Kemiskinan di Indonesia • Ketidakmampuan mengelola sumber daya alam secara maksimal; • Kebijakan ekonomi yang tidak berkomitmen terhadap penanggulangan kemiskinan dan semata-mata mengejar pertumbuhan ekonomi (trickle down effect tidak bekerja) – Kesalahan mendasar dalam asumsi perekonomian Indonesia adalah pengangguran dan kemiskinan hanya mungkin diatasi jika ekonomi tumbuh minimal (misalnya) 6,5 %.
– Asumsi demikian salah, karena: • Yang dapat mengatasi pengangguran dan kemiskinan adalah pertumbuhan ekonomi yang melibatkan kegiatan ekonomi rakyat yang pelakunya adalah masyarakat miskin. • Pengangguran dan kemiskinan adalah dua hal berbeda. Orang yang menganggur belum tentu miskin.
– Ilustrasi: 1 % pertumbuhan diasumsikan mampu menampung 200.000-400.000 tenaga kerja baru, maka pertumbuhan 6.5 % hanya mampu mempekerjakan 1,3 juta-2,6 juta tenaga kerja dan tidak ada jaminan bagi penduduk miskin yang mencapai puluhan juta jiwa.
Kebijakan Pemerintah untuk Menanggulangi Kemiskinan • Masa Kolonial: ‘politik etis’ balas budi. • Masa Orde Baru: terkait dengan program pembangunan nasional sejak Repelita I-V. Program sektoral yang pernah dilaksanakan: – – – – – – –
BIMAS, INMAS, dan P4K (Departemen Pertanian), UPPKS (BKKBN), KUD dan Koperasi Simpan Pinjam (Departemen Koperasi), UED-SP, BKD dan PKK (Departemen Dalam Negeri), KUBE (Departemen Sosial) Wajar 9 tahun (Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan) dan pengembangan Puskesmas (Departemen Kesehatan)
Kebijakan Pemerintah untuk Menanggulangi Kemiskinan-lanj. •
Mulai Repelita VI diluncurkan Inpres Desa Tertinggal (IDT), yang meliputi: – – –
•
Komponen bantuan langsung sebesar Rp 20 juta/desa sebagai dana bergulir selama 3 tahun; Bantuan pendampingan pokmas IDT oleh tenaga pendamping Sarjana Pendamping Purna Waktu (SP2W); Bantuan pembangunan sarana/prasarana
Untuk masyarakat miskin di kelurahan tidak ‘tertinggal’ diluncurkan program Takesra/Kukesra.
Kebijakan Pemerintah untuk Menanggulangi Kemiskinan-lanj. • Ketika terjadi krisis ekonomi, jumlah penduduk miskin meningkat tajam karena merupakan gabungan dari penduduk miskin lama dan penduduk baru yang bersifat sementara (transient poverty). – Untuk mengatasi masalah ini, dikeluarkan program Jaring Pengaman Sosial (JPS), yang dibagi dalam empat kelompok program, yaitu JPS Departemen teknis, JPS prioritas, JPS sektor-sektor pembangunan dan JPS monitoring
Beberapa Kelemahan dalam Program Penanggulangan Kemiskinan 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
6)
Masih berorientasi pada pertumbuhan ekonomi makro daripada pemerataan; Sentralisasi kebijakan daripada desentralisasi; Lebih bersifat karitatif daripada transformatif; Memposisikan masyarakat sebagai objek dan bukan subjek; Cara pandang tentang penanggulangan kemiskinan masih berorientasi pada ‘charity’ daripada ‘productivity’; Asusmsi permasalahan dan solusi kemiskinan sering dipandang sama daripada pluralistis.
