eenheden en de voorkomende bodemtypen worden kort besproken. Van groot belang voor de exploitatie van de vegetatie is de watervoorziening

SAMENVATTING

SAMENVATTING Vooral na de conferentie van de Verenigde Naties in 1977 in Nairobi is het duidelijk geworden dat 'woestijnvorming' een probleem is dat voor alle aride gebieden over de gehele wereld geldt. De situatie in grote delen van Zuidwest Azie, waar in deze eeuw, met name in de laatste decennia, veranderingen zijn opgetreden in de wijze en intensiteit van het landgebruik, is een duidelijk voorbeeld. Vee1 van de veranderingen leiden op grote schaal tot een ernstige aantasting en uitputting van natuurlijke hulpbronnen, met name van fauna, vegetatie en bodem. Hierdoorwordt in toenemende mate land minder bruikbaar of ze1fs onbruikbaar. Als begrazing het algemeen aanvaarde 1andgebruik is, neemt de vegetatie a1s natuurlijke hu1pbron daarbij een sleute1positie in. Tegen deze achtergrond behandelt deze studie de al eeuwen1ang begraasde woestijngebieden van Irak, waarbij de nadruk ligt op de oeco1ogie en het gebruik van de vegetatie en op de mens als oeco1ogische faktor. Het doe1 van de studie is het 1everen van een bijdrage aan een verantwoord gebruik onder een gericht beheer van deze gebieden. Het veldwerk is uitgevoerd van april 1970 tot juni 1973 vanuit het Institute for Applied Research on Natural Resources, nabij Bagdad. Het onderzoeksgebied wordt gevormd door de Southern Desert, Western Desert en Lower Jezira (Fig. 1-3), tezamen ongeveer 240000 km 2 groot. Het plantendek bestaat er voor het overgrote deel uit lage, open struikvegetaties waartussen, na de winter- en voorjaarsregens, annuellen en bo1gewassen opb1oeien. Min of meer overeenkomstige vegetatietypen bedekken ongeveer 10-15% van het landoppervlak van de aarde; zij vormen een natuurlijke hulpbron van grote betekenis, vooral in verband met extensieve veeteelt. De onderzochte woestijngebieden vormen ongeveer 55% van het oppervlak van Irak, een land dat vooral bekend is door de vroegere culturen in en langs de Mesopotarnische vlakte. Olie vormt er nu de belangrijke b~on van inkomsten. Bodem, vegetatie en fauna van de woestijngebieden van Irak zijn, door de marginaal beschouwde gebruiksmogelijkheden, over het algemeen nog in geringe mate of in het geheel niet onderzocht. Enke1e k1eine gebiedjes vormen hierop een uitzondering. Aan de floristische en p1antengeografische aspecten van de vegetatie is relatief veel aandacht besteed, voora1 door verzamelaars tijdens studiereizen. Het in deze stu die onderzochte gebied he eft een gerniddelde jaarlijkse regenval varierend van ongeveer 50 mm tot 350 mm, met enorme verschillen tussen de jaren. Het grootste dee1 van de regen valt in enke1e hevige buien. De temperaturen dalen's winters soms tot bene den het vriespunt en lopen 's zomers op tot ongeveer SO°C. De jaarlijkse verdamping bedraagt ongeveer twee tot drie en een halve meter en de relatieve luchtvochtigheid kan in de zomer overdag dalen tot beneden tien. procent. Het gebied kan worden verdeeld in zeven fysiografische eenheden die zich vooral van elkaar onderscheiden door relief, het meer of rninder doorsneden zijn met wadis, zandig of stenig karakter en, daarmee samenhangend, bodemtype en hoogteligging (ongeveer 0-91 S meter boven gerniddeld zeeniveau). Deze 403

eenheden en de voorkomende bodemtypen worden kort besproken. Van groot belang voor de exploitatie van de vegetatie is de watervoorziening. Oorspronkelijk was men daarvoor aangewezen op enkele diepe gegraven putten, ondiepe putten veelal in of nabij wadis, enkele natuurlijke bronnen en (slechts van korte duur) verzameld regenwater dat aan het oppervlak bleef staan. Vanaf de jaren dertig zijn er putten geslagen. In de loop der jaren is het aantal daarvan uitgegroeid tot enkele honderden. Deze zijn soms tot honderden meters diep geboord en voorzien van pompen en opslagtanks. Deze verbetering in de watervoorziening en het gebruik van vrachtwagens en ander gemotoriseerd vervoer hebben vrijwel de gehele woestijn binnen het bereik van mens en vee gebracht. Na het in gebruik raken van vuurwapens en vooral met de invoering van snelle transportmogelijkheden werd er meedogenloos gejaagd, vooral op de grotere diersoorten. Oryx, struisvogel en andere diersoorten die hier eens in grote groepen voorkwamen zijn thans uitgeroeid evenaIs de grote roofdieren zoals de leeuw en het jachtluipaard. Nog slechts gazellen komen sporadisch voor. De mens moet al zeer lang geleden in dit gebied aanwezig zijn geweest, getuige de gevonden artefacten. Van een duidelijke invloed op de vegetatie kan echter pas sprake geworden zijn na het ontstaan van het nomadisme, toen Bedoeiimen vanuit het Arabisch schiereiland naar het Noorden trokken in het eerste en tweede millennium v. Chr., na het domesticeren van de dromedaris, de eenbultige kameel. Eeuwenlang is daarna de nomadische begrazing het landgebruik geweest voor de woestijngebieden. De Bedoeiimenstammen hadden hun eigen strikte regels voor het gebruiksrecht van bepaalde streken. Vooral de beperkingen in de drinkwatervoorziening en de vijandelijkheden tussen de stammen hielden de totale begrazingsdruk laag. Na de eerste wereldoorlog is dat beeld snel veranderd. De grenzen van het huidige Irak werden vastgelegd, er kwam leger- en politietoezicht, en met snelle transportmogelijkheden en zich steeds uitbreidende drinkwater-voorzieningen werd de woestijn 'opengelegd'. De kuddes kamelen en vooral schapen groeiden; voor geheel Irak nam het aantal schapen toe van 5 525 000 in 1938 tot 11 040 000 in 1965. Dit proces en de gevolgen ervan voor de vegetatie zijn nagegaan. Gebaseerd op een verkenning van het gebied, waarvoor van ongeveer 4000 km een globale besehrijving van terrein, bodem, vegetatie en landgebruik werd gemaakt, is, na een subjeetieve selektie, op 54 plaatsen een gedetailleerde vegetatie bemonstering uitgevoerd. In 50 kwadraten van 4 m2 per plaats werden diehtheid, hoogte, bedekking en (als totaalgetal) biomassa van de voorkomende overblijvende planten bepaald. Tevens werd de bodem bemonsterd op twee punten per plaats op de dieptes 0-30 cm en 30-60 em. De betrouwbaarheid en de bewerking van deze gegevens voor een c1assifieatie worden besproken. Bij de verwerking van de gegevens is een nieuwe kwantitatieve maat gebruikt. Daarbij is in een percentage (het gerniddelde van relatieve diehtheid, relatieve frequentie en relatieve bedekking) de bijdrage van de soort in de totaalopname uitgedrukt. Uiteindelijk werden 15 vegetatietypen en 14 socio-oeeologische groepen onder404

scheiden. De oecologische basis voor deze typen is met name gevonden in een klimaatsgradient, een verschil in bodemtextuur, en het landgebruik, waarbij vooral het ploegen van de bodem in het verleden meespeelt. De bedekkingspercentages liggen in de grootte orde van 1- 20% met slechts enkele hogere waarden. Het aantal soorten is laag. De autoecologie van de drie belangrijkste soorten, Haloxylon salicornicum, Rhanterium epapposum en Artemisia herba-alba, wordt behandeld, waarbij de nadruk ligt op de oecologie van de voortplanting. De eerste twee soorten vinden hun noordelijkste verspreidingsgrens in Irak. Het kiemingsproces en de ontwikkeling van de kiemplanten van de soorten illustreren hun aanpassing aan de extreme omstandigheden. Voor Rhanterium epapposum, een composiet van zandige bodems, wordt voor het eerst het kiemingsproces beschreven. In de gevallen bloemhoofdjes kiemen na de regens meerdere zaden terwijl ze in het hoofdje blijven zitten. De worteltjes dringen door de gemeenschappelijke bloembodem in het vochtige zand. Er is geen reden om aan te nemen dat door concurrentie over het algemeen slechts een kiemplant verder uit zou groeien. Uit een vergelijking van de strategie van de voortplanting wordt duidelijk hoe elk van de so orten aan een bepaald milieu is aangepast. In een apart deel worden het gebruik van de woestijngebieden door de mens en vee, in het bijzonder de vegetatie, en de gevolgen van dit gebruik, uitgewerkt. Begrazing door kamelen en schapen, thans vooral door schapen (enkele miljoenen), en in mindere mate geiten en ezels, heeft van oudsher plaatsgevonden, maar door de toegenomen begrazingsdruk is de vegetatie recentelijk sterk aangetast. De nieuw verzamelde en de reeds bekende gegevens over de voorkeur van de vee so orten voor de meest algemene plantensoorten zijn samengevat. Chemische analyse van plantenmateriaal toonde aan dat de bij voorkeur gegeten delen van de struiken een hoog ruw eiwit gehalte hebben en vaak rijk zijn aan mineralen; de gehaltes liggen zelfs hoger dan bij gekweekte voedergewassen. Het vochtgehalte varieert sterk over de seizoenen. In het voorjaar kan de vegetatie (inc1usief de annuellen) lOveel vocht bevatten dat extra drinkwater voor het vee overbodig wordt. Van geselecteerde soorten is de produktie over de seizoenen en, in een geval, voor twee jaren vergeleken. Door de ongeveer 4000 km verkenningstochten als transecten te analyseren en door gebruik te maken van de beschikbare produktiegetallen, is een globale schatting gemaakt van de totale produktie in de 240000 km 2 in 1971. Dit cijfer (2,91 x 109 kg drooggewicht) is vergeleken met de behoefte aan veevoer, afgeleid uit de 1971 - census gegevens (2,52 - 3,31 x 109 kg drooggewicht). Deze cijfers zijn voor het begin van de jaren zeventig goed met elkaar in overeenstemming. De produktie in de midden zestiger jaren, en waarschijnlijk ook daarvoor, moet echter veel hoger zijn geweest gezien de aantallen stuks vee, en de daarmee samenhangende behoefte aan voer, vermeld voor de 1965 census. Verdere veldgegevens, die een aanwijzing zijn voor de afgenomen produktie, worden besproken. Tevens blijkt de produktie per millimeter regen voor de overblijvende vegetatie slechts ongeveer een kilogram per hectare te bedragen 405

terwijl in de literatuur voor vergelijkbare gebieden in Noord Afrika drie tot vier kilogram worden vermeld. Het kappen van struiken voor brandstof (koken, verwarming) is een gebruik dat ondanks zijn omvang op zichzelf geen emstige gevolgen hoeft te hebben. Dat dit wei het geval is komt doordat het voortdurend plaatsvindt in dezelfde beperkte gebieden, rondom dorpen, putten, bronnen, etc., en bovendien omdat de eventuele hergroei weer aan be grazing blootstaat. Experimenten, waarin struiken van Haloxylon salicornicum en Rhanterium epapposum (herhaaldelijk) werden geknipt, tonen enerzijds, zolang het knippen niet te frequent plaatsvindt, de relatief grote weerstand van de eerste soort, maar tonen anderzijds de desastreuze gevolgen van het gebruik zoals dat door de bevolking, in combinatie met het vee, plaatsvindt. De meest direkte vemietiging van de natuurlijke vegetatie heeft plaatsgevonden doordat lager gelegen gebieden, die aflopend regen water ontvangen, mechanisch worden geploegd in (onverantwoorde) pogingen een graangewas te verbouwen. De meest produktieve vegetaties vallen hier onder en regeneratie vindt niet of nauwelijks plaats. Dit proces wordt besproken voor de noordelijke Jezira, het gebied met de hoogste regenval-verwachting, waar vrijwel geen natuurlijke vegetatie is overgebleven, en tevens voor de wadis en later gelegen terreinen in de woestijn in het zuiden. Na ploegen blijkt in veel gevallen een vegetatie op te komen waarin Peganum harmala en Artemisia scoparia domineren, twee soorten die voor begrazing of ander gebruik vrijwel geen waarde hebben. Waamemingen aan gebieden die een aantal jaren strikt beschermd zijn geweest of slechts licht begraasd tonen aan hoe hoog de bedekking, biomassa en produktie van bepaalde vegetaties kunnen worden onder dergelijke omstandigheden. Suksessie treedt wei op, maar blijkt voor de struikvegetaties een uiterst langzaam proces. Vergelijkingen van gebieden binnen en buiten afrasteringen geven een driemaal meer of nog hogere biomassa en bedekking voor de gebieden binnen de afrasteringen. Onder strikte bescherming blijkt de produktie van Haloxylon salicornicum terug te lopeno Een niet te intensieve begrazing stimuleert bij deze soort de groei. De gecombineerde en elkaar versterkende gevolgen van overbegrazing, kappen voor brandstof en ploegen, in diverse combinaties, tonen duidelijk aan hoe ver de aantasting van de vegetatie, en ook van de bodem door enorme erosie, al is voortgeschreden. Voor veel gebieden zal regeneratie moeilijk zijn of zelfs onmogelijk blijken. De verwachting is daarom dat, als de aantasting kan doorgaan in het huidige tempo, de eens zo produktieve woestijn-begrazingsgebieden van leak over enkele decennia zullen zijn omgezet in een kale, levenloze woestijn. Deze 'woestijnvorming' is geen proces dat zich over een zeker front in een bepaald tempo afspeelt. Het is veeleer een aantasting van binnen uit, waarbij de invloedssferen van de aangetaste gebieden elkaar tenslotte gaan raken, en waardoor geleidelijk de natuurlijke hulpbronnen van het gebied in zijn geheel worden aangetast en vernietigd. 406

In het 1aatste dee1 van de studie wordt een aanpak uitgewerkt die tot een beter beheer kan 1eiden. Een argument hiervoor kan ook gevonden worden in de economische betekenis van het gebied, in ve1erlei opzicht, maar voora1 voor de veetee1t. Deze betekenis is afzonderlijk uitgewerkt. Voor de periode 1953-1961 waarvan vo1doende gegevens beschikbaar waren, blijkt dat de woestijngebieden al1een al door de veeteelt 10-15% bijdroegen tot het totale aandee1 van de 1andbouwsector aan het nationaa1 inkomen. Tevens blijkt uit de sne1 stijgende v1eesprijzen, door de groeiende bevo1king en het toenemend inkomen, de toenemende vraag naar veeteeltprodukten. Om tot een verantwoord beheer te komen wordt een aanpak in drie fasen uitgewerkt waarin de 1andeva1uatie-procedure, zoa1s die onlangs door de F AO is voorgeste1d, een be1angrijke ro1 speelt. In de eerste fase wordt op basis van inventarisatie en k1einschalige kaarten van de be1angrijkste onderde1en van het land, zoals terreingeste1dheid, bodem, vegetatie, etc. voor het gehe1e gebied een globa1e geschiktheidsc1assificatie voor verschillend 1andgebruik uitgewerkt. Deze 1andgebruikstypen en de daarvoor in aanmerking te nemen faktoren worden afzonderlijk besproken. De overheid zou hieruit een keuze moeten maken en prioriteitsgebieden aangeven. In de vo1gende fase worden gese1ecteerde gebieden op een tienmaa1 grotere schaal gekarteerd. Er wordt dan ook een eva1uatie met een kosten/baten verwachting gemaakt, waarbij rekening wordt gehouden met de sociaa1-economische faktoren. Op basis hiervan moe ten in de derde fase concrete beheersmaatrege1en worden doorgevoerd waarvoor een sterke organisatie in het 1even geroepen zou moe ten worden. De ontwikkeling in de sociaal-economische sector zowe1 als veranderingen in de vegetatie en bodemgeste1dheid dienen dan nauwkeurig gevo1gd te worden waarbij een voortdurend overleg tussen de waarnemers, overheid, beheerders en gebruikers tens10tte een optimaa11andgebruik zou moeten garanderen. Enke1e aspecten van de kaarteringen, en het zo be1angnjke meten van de produktie van de vegetatie, worden afzonderlijk behande1d. Onder toepassing van moderne survey-technieken zouden de kaarteringen re1atief sne1 en efficient kunnen worden uitgevoerd. De bovengrondse biomassa en produktie van de struikvegetaties blijken met vrij grote betrouwbaarheid af te lei den uit de gemakkelijk te meten parameters diameters en hoogte van de individue1e struiken. Tenslotte worden de ontwikkelingen kort samengevat. Dezelfde technische ontwikkelingen die ge1eid hebben tot de enorme aantasting en degradatie van de woestijnbegrazingsgebieden zouden kunnen worden aangewend om tot een verantwoord beheer van de nog overgeb1even natuurlijke hu1pbronnen te komen. De methoden daarvoor zijn in grote lijnen voorhanden en de inkomsten uit olie-export p1aatsen Irak in een re1atief gunstige positie.

407

REFERENCES

REFERENCES Aart, R. van (1974), Aspects of land use planning in the Lower Mesopotamian Plain - a problem analysis. Neth. J. Agric. Sci. 22 : 54 - 65. Abul-Fatih, Hussain A. (1970), The vegetation of saline swampy areas of Bahr-al-Najaf, Iraq. M.Sc.Thesis Univ. Baghdad, in: Bull.Coll.Sci. Baghdad 17 (1976): 49 - 52. Abul-Fatih, H. (1975), Vegetation and s(lil of saline depressions near Najaf, Central Iraq. Vegetatio 30: 107 - 115. Agnew, A.D.Q. (1960), The protected range areas at Khidr el Mai and Shubaichi. Report to Dir. Gen. Research and Projects, Min. Agric., Iraq, 7 pp. (typescript). Agnew, A.D.Q. (1961), Studies on the Plant Ecology of the Jezira of Central Iraq II.Hummock formation by Haloxylon salicornicum (Moq.) Bge. Bull.Coll.Sci. Baghdad 6 : 42 - 59. <\gnew, A.D Q. (1962a), Flora of the Baghdad District, Part I: Monocotyledons, with a general account of the vegetation of the area. Suppl. to Bull. Coli. Sci. Baghdad 6 : 1 - 170. Agnew, A.D.Q. (1962b), A study of the oak forests of Gara Mountain, Mosul Liwa. Proc. Iraq Sci. Soc. 5 : 31 - 43. Agnew, A.D.Q. & John E.C. Flux (1970), Plant dispersal by hares (Lepus capensis L.) in Kenya. Ecology 51 : 735 - 737. Agnew, A.D.Q. & R.W. Haines (1960), Studies on the Plant Ecology of the Jezira of Central Iraq I. The influence of perennials on annuals in the Jezira. Bull. Coli. Sci. Baghdad 5 : 41 60. Ahmed, Adnan M. & Walter Kraft (1972), A contribution to the hydrogeology of the Western Desert ofiraq. J. Geol. Soc. Iraq V : 13 5 - 148. Ahmed, Mohammed M.A. (1968), Mutton and beef price analysis, central region, Iraq. Iraqi J. Agric. Sci. III : 49 - 61. Ahmed, Mohammed M.A. & Hikmat A.AI-Roumi (1967), Demand and price analysis of meat in Iraq. Iraqi J. Agric.Sci. II: 61 - 69. Ainsworth, W. esq. (1841), Notes of an excursion to Kal'ah Sherkat, the U'r of the Persians, and to the ruins of Al Hadr, the Hutra of the Chaldees, and Hatra of the Romans. J. Roy. Geog. Soc. XI : 1 - 20. AI-Amari, Ahmed Shehab, Jamal Nuri AI-Barazanchi, N.C. Keulemans, W.S. Post, Khairi Habib Tammo & Jabbar Kadhem Tukhaikh (1968), Investigations into the production of forage under irrigation for animal feed at Abu Ghraib, Iraq. Tech. Rep. no. 19 Animal Husbandry Research and Training Project. UNDP IF AO - D.G. of Animal Resources and Veterinary Services, Abu Ghraib, Iraq. 35 pp. AI-Ani, Hikmat A. & Sharif Y. Haddad (1973), Seasonal changes in the plant behaviour of Falluja and Iskanderiya gypsum desert flora. Iraqi J. Agric.Sci. VII : 1 - 11. AI-Ani, Tariq A. & Maida S. Jawad (1973), Range Resources of Iraq VIII. Height-nutrient composition relationship of five native range species. Tech. Rep. no. 47 Inst. for Appl. Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 20 pp. (mimeo). AI-Ani, Tariq A.& Maida S. Jawad (1974), Range Resources of Iraq X. Seasonal variation in nutrient content of Haloxylon salicornicum and Artemisia herba-alba. Tech. Rep. no. 56 Inst. for Appl. Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq 12 pp. (mimeo). AI-Ani, T.A., I.M. Habib, A.!, Abdulaziz & N.A. Ouda (1970a), Plant indicators in Iraq Part II - Mineral composition of native plants in relation to soils and selective absorption. Techn. Rep. no. 15 Inst. for Appl. Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 8 pp. (mimeo). AI-Ani, Tariq A., M.M. AI-Mufti, N.A. Ouda, R.N. Kaul & D.C.P. Thalen (1970b), Range Resources of Iraq I. Range cover types of Western and Southern Desert. Tech. Rep. no. 16 Inst. for Appl. Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 8 pp. (mimeo). AI-Ani, T.A., A.1. Abdulaziz, M.M. AI-Mufti, F.M.R. AI-Charchafchi, R.N. Kaul & D.C.P. Thalen (1971a), Range Resources of Iraq II. Studies on palatability and nutritive value of some range species. Tech. Rep. no. 19 Inst. for Appl. Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 10 pp. (mimeo). AI-Ani, Tariq A., A.I. Abdulaziz, M.M. AI-Mufti, F.M.R. AI-Charchafchi, R.N. Kaul & D.C.P. Thalen (1971b), Studies on nutrient composition of some range species. Iraqi J. Agric.Sci 6 : 3 - 19.

411

AI-Ani, Tariq A., M.M. AI-Mufti & F.M.R. AI-Charchafchy (1971c), Range Resources of Iraq IV. Germinability of some native range species of Iraq. Tech. Rep. no. 30 Inst. for Appl. Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 14 pp. (mimeo). AI-Ani, Tariq A., M.M. AI-Mufti, N.A. Ouda, R.N. Kaul & D.C.P. Thalen (1974), A reconnaissance survey of range cover types in the Western and Southern Deserts of Iraq. Proc. XII Int. Grassl. Congr. Moscow 1974, Vol. I Part II, pp. 583-594. AI-Hashimi, M.H. (1972), An evaluation of animal husbanJry in Iraq. The Baghdad Observer Vno. 1231, 14 FebL 1972. AI-Hilli, Majeed R. (1970), Ecological study in Baiji sand dunes. M. Sc. thesis Univ. Baghdad, in: BuII.Coll.Sci. Baghdad 17 (1976) pp. 20 - 25. Ali, K.T. (1955), Agricultural potentialities of Iraq. Section II : Animal production pp. 7 - 11. Paper no. 13 - 12 F AO Centre on Land Problems in the Near East, Salahuddin, Iraq. AI-Kasab, Nafi Nasser (1966), Die Namdenansiedlung in der Irakischer Jezira. Tiibinger Geographische Studien Heft 20, GeogL Institut der Universitiit Tiibingen, 148 pp. Allen, Shirley Walter (1959), Conserving Natural Resources. Principles and Practice in a democracy (2nd ed.) Mc. Graw-Hill, New York, 370 pp. Allouse, B.E. (1954-1968), A bibliography on the vertebrate fauna of Iraq and neighbouring countries. Iraq Nat. Hist. Mus. Publ.; no. 4 Mammals pp. 1-31 (1954); no. 5 Birds pp. 1-45 (1954); no. 6 Reptiles & Amphibians pp. 1 - 23 (1955); no. 7 Fishes pp. 1 - 31 (1955); no. 25 Mammals (sec. comp.) pp. 1- 36 (1968). Allred, B.W. (1968), Range management training handbook for Saudi Arabia. Report FAO, Rome, 216 pp. AI-Mufti, M.M., Tariq A. AI-Ani & R.N. Kaul (1970), Preliminary results from trials of some exotic grass species. Tech. Rep. no. 4 Inst. for Appl. Research on Natural Resources,.Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 5 pp. (mimeo). AI-Mufti, M.M., T.A. AI-Ani, D.C.P. Thalen & R.N. Kaul (1971a), Range Resources of Iraq V. Studies on adaptability of some exotic range species in the environs of Fudhaliya. Tech. Rep. no. 29 Inst. for Appl. Research in Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 24 pp. (mimeo). AI-Mufti, M.M., T.A. AI-Ani, D.C.P. Thalen & R.N. Kaul (1971b), Range Resources of Iraq III. The herbarium of the Institute for Applied Research on Natural Resources, Iraq - Collection, Identification and Preservation of range plants and seeds. Tech. Rep. no. 21 Inst. for Appl. Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 21 pp. (mimeo). AI-Rawi, Ali & H.L. Chakravarty (1964), Medicinal Plants of Iraq. Tech. Bull. no. 15 Min. Agric., Dir. Gen. Research and Projects, Iraq. Altaie, F.H. (1968), The Soils of Iraq. Ph. D. thesis, Ghent, Belgium. Altaie, Flayeh, H. c. Sys & G. Stoops (1969), Soil Groups of Iraq. Their Classification and Characterization. Pedologie XIX: 65 - 148. Anderson, C.A. (1958), Suggested procedure for range activities in Iraq. Report ICA / Iraq, 20 pp. (mimeo). Ashraf, A. (1976), Land evaluation for rural planning in the Sousse area. M.Sc. thesis lTC, , Enschede, The Netherlands, 169 pp. ASP (1975), Manual of Remote Sensing (2 vols.) Robert G. Reeves (ed. in chief) American Society of Photogrammetry, 2144 pp. Baig, M. Shabbir (1977), Inventory and evaluation of rangeland. An example for rangelands in arid zones worked out for Quetta-Pishin area, Baluchistan, Pakistan. M.Sc. thesis lTC, Enschede, The Netherlands, 132 pp. + app. Bannink, J.F., H.N. Leys & I.S. Zonneveld (1974), Akkeronkruidvegetatie als indicator van het milieu, in het bijzonder de bodemgesteldheid. (Weeds as environmental indicators, especially for soil conditions). Meded. Stichting Bodemkartering, Bodemk. Studies nr. 11. Wageningen, The Netherlands. Barnes, R.F. (1973), Laboratory Methods of Evaluating Feeding Value of Herbage. (chapter 32, pp. 179-214) in: Chemistry and Biochemistry of Herbage. G.W. Butler & R.W. Bailey (eds.), Academic Press, London and New York. Batanouny, K.H. (1973), Soil properties as affected by topography in desert wadis. Acta Bot. Acad. Sc. Hung. 19 . 13 - 21.

412

Batanouny, K.H. (1974), The desert vegetation in Egypt. Joint Symposium on Arid Lands Ecosystems (Egyptian and American Scientist) 12 - 18 May 1974 Cairo Univ., Inst. of African Research and Studies, 52 pp. (mimeo). Batanouny, K.H. & S. Abu EI-Souod (1972), Ecological and phytosociological study of a sector in the Lybian Desert. Vegetatio 25 : 335 - 356. Batanouny, K.H. & M.R. Hilli (1973), Phytosociological study of Ghurfa desert, central Iraq. Phytocoenologia 1 : 223 - 249. Batanouny, K.H. & M.Y. Sheikh (1972). Ecological Observations along Baghdad - Huseiba Road, Western Desert, Iraq. Feddes Repert. 83 : 245 - 263. Batanouny, K.H. & M.A.F. Zaki (1969), Root development of two common species in different habitats in the Mediterranean subregion in Egypt. Acta Bot. Acad. Sc. Hung. 15 : 217 226. Bazilevich, N.l., L.Y. Rodin & N.N. Rozov (1970), Geographical aspects of biological productivity, in: Sov. Geogr. Rev. Trans!. 12 : 293 - 317 (1971), trans!. from Mat. V. Syezda Geogr. Obshch. USSR, Leningrad. Beard, John S. (1973), The Physiognomic Approach, pp. 355 - 386 in: Ordination and Classification of Communties, Handbook of vegetation science Vo!. 5, R.H. Whittaker (ed.) Dr. W. Junk b.v. Pub!. The Hague, The Netherlands. Beaudelaire, J.P. (1972), Water for livestock in semi arid zones. World Animal Rev. 3 : 1 - 9. Beaumont, Peter, Gerald H. Blake & J. Malcolm Wagstaff (1976), The Middle East: A Geographical Study. John Wiley & Sons, London, 572 pp. Beek, K.J. (1978), Land evaluation for agricultural development. Pub!. 23 International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 333 pp. Beek, K.J. & J. Bennema (1972), Land evaluation for agricultural land use planning. An ecological methodology. Dept. Soil. Sci. and Geo!., Agric. University, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 70 pp. Beek, M.A. (1960), Atlas van het tweestromenland. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 164 pp. Blair Rains, A. (1970), Chemical analysis of fodder samples and the interpretation of results. Appendix 3, pp. 127-133 in: An Ecological Survey of Western Province, Zambia, with Special Reference to the Fodder Resources. vo!' 2. Land Resource Study no. 8. D.D.S. Tolworth, England. Bodenheimer, F.S. (1943), Studies on the Ecology and Control of the Moroccon Locust (Docoistaurus nUIrcoccanus) in Iraq. Dep. Agric. Iraq. Bull. 29,121 pp. Boissier, P.E. (1867 -1888), Flora Orientalis, 5 vols. & Supp!., Basel - Geneva - Lyon. Bor, N.L. (1968), Gramineae, Volume nine, Flora of Iraq, C.C. Townsend, Evan Guest & Ali Al-Rawi (eds.) Min. Agric., Iraq, 588 pp. Bormann, F.H. (1953), The statistical efficiency of sample plot size and shape in forest ecology. Ecology 34: 474 - 487. Braidwood, R.I. (1952), From Cave to Village, birth of agriculture and animal husbandry. Scientific American 187 : 62 - 66. Braidwood, R.J. (1954), The Iraq - Jarmo Project. Sumer X : 120 - 138. Braun - Blanquet, J. (1928), Pflanzensoziologie, Grundziige der Vegetationskunde. Biologische Studienbiicher 7.1 Ed. Berlin, 330 pp. Braun - Blanquet, J. (1964), Pflanzensoziologie, Grundziige der Vegetationskunde, 3 E.d. Springer, Wien - New York, 865 pp. Brice, W.C. (1966), South-West Asia. A systematic regional geography. Univ. of London Press, London. Brichambaut, G. Perrin de (1956a), Note regarding the main perennial grasses observed in the low and middle mountains of Kurdistan, 2 pp. (mimeo). Brichambaut, G. Perrin de (1956b), Report to the Government of Iraq on the improvement of fodder production. FAO/56/11/8595 Report no. 562, Rome, 49 pp. (mimeo). Brichambaut, G. Perrin de & C.C. Wallen (1963), A study of agroclimatology in semi-arid and arid zones of the Near East Tech. Note no. 56, WMO, Geneva, 64 pp. Brinkman, R. & A.J. Smyth (eds) (1973), Land evaluation for rural purposes. Summary of an expert consultation, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Pub!. 17 International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 116 pp. Brown, Dorothy (1954), Methods of Surveying and Measuring Vegetation. Comm. Bureau of Pastures and Field Crops, Bull. 42, Farnham Royal, Bucks, England, 223 pp.

413

Bryan, H.M. & H.W. Springfield (1955), Range Management in Iraq - Findings, Plan and Accomplishment. 1. Range Manage. 8 : 249 - 256. Burdon, David J. (1971), Exploitation of Groundwater for Agricultural Production in Arid Zones. pp. 290 - 300 in: Food, Fiber and the Arid Lands, William G. Mc Ginnies, Bram J. Goldman and Patricia Paylore (eds.) The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona. Buringh, P. (1960), Soils and soil Conditions in Iraq. Min. Agric. Dir. Gen. Research and Projects, Iraq. 322 pp. Buringh, P. (1968), Introduction to the study of soils in tropical and subtropical regions. PUDOC, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 118 pp. Butzer, K.W. (1958), The Near East during the last glaciation: a palaeogeographical sketch. Geogr. J. 124 : 367 - 369. Butzer, Karl W. (1964), Environment and Archaeology, An introduction to Pleistocene Geography. Aldine Pub!. Compo Chicago, 524 pp. Cain, S.A. & G.M. de O. Castro (1959), Manual of vegetation analysis. Harper, New York. Central Statistical Organization (1970), Annual Abstract of Statistics 1970, Min. Planning, Iraq 575 pp. Central Statistical Organization (1973), Results of the 1971 census of agriculture, Vols. I and II, Min. Planning, Baghdad, 278 + 127 pp. Chapline, W.R. & R.O. Whyte (1947), The use and misuse of shrubs and trees as fodder. Imp. Agri. Bur. Joint Pub!. 10. Imp. Bur. of Pastures and Field Crops, England. Chapman, G.W. (1957) Forests and Forestry in Iraq. Report D.G. of Forests, Min. Agric. Iraq (mimeo). Chapman, V.J. (1960), Iraq and the Middle East, pp. 222-226 in: Salt Marshes and Salt Deserts of the World, Leonard Hill, London and New York. Chaudri, I.I., H.A. Kareem, A. AI-Zubaidi & A.Y. Hanna (1971), Plant indicators of alluvial soils of central Iraq. Vegetatio 23 : 315 - 322. Cheesman, R.E. (1920), Report on the Mammals of Mesopotamia collected by Members of the Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force, 1915 to 1919. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 27 : 323 346. Clawson, M., H.H. Landsberg & L.T. Alexander (1971), The agricultural potential of the Middle East. Am. Elsevier Pub!. Compo Inc., New York, 312 pp. Clifford, H.T. (1976), Dendrograms and their Interpretation. pp. 96 - 101 in: Pattern analysis in agricultural science, W.T. Williams (ed.) CSIRO Melbourne, Elsevier Sci. Pub!. Comp., Amsterdam, Oxford, New York. Clor, M.A., T.A. AI-Ani & F. Charchafchi (1973), Range Resources ofTraq IX, Seed viability and seedling vigour of Haloxylon salicornicum as affected by time lapse, storage conditions and seed size. Tech. Rep. no. 52 Inst. for App!. Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 7 pp. (mimeo). Clor, M.A., T.A. AI-Ani & F. Charchafchi (1974a), Range Resources of Iraq XIII, Germination and seedling development of Haloxylon salicornicum. Tech. Rep. no. 57 Inst. for App!. Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 33 pp. (mimeo). Clor, M.A., T.A. AI-Ani & F. Charchafchi (1974b), Range Resources of Iraq XV. Germination, storage conditions and after-ripening of the seeds of Artemisia herba-alba. Tech. Rep. no. 76 Inst. for App!. Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 17 pp. (mimeo). Clor, M.A., T.A. AI-Ani & F. Charchafchi (1976), Germinability and seedling vigor of HaloxyIon salicornicum as affected by storage and seed size. J. Range Manage. 29 : 60 - 62. Condon, R.W. (1968), Estimation of grazing capaCIty on arid grazing lands. pp. 112 - 124 in: Land evaluation, G.A. Stewart (ed.) Mac Millan, Melbourne, Australia. Cook, C. Wayne (1972), Comparative nutritive values of forbs, grasses and shrubs, pp. 303 310 in: Wildland Shrubs - Their Biology and Utilization. An Int. Symp., Logan, Utah, USDA Forest Service General Techn. Rep. INT - 1,1972. Cooke, Ronald U. & Andrew Warren (1973), Geomorphology in Deserts, B.T. Batsford Ltd. London, 374 pp. Crampton, E.W. & L.E. Harris (1969), Applied Animal Nutrition (2 nd ed.). W.H. Freeman and Compo San Francisco, 753 pp.

414

Dakshini, K.M.M. (1972), Indian subcontinent, pp. 3-15 in: Wildland Shrubs - Their Biology and Utilization, An Int. Symp., Logan, Utah, USDA Forest Service General Tech. Rep. INT - I, 1972. Dapper, O. (1680), Nauwkeurige beschrijvingen van Azie, behelsende de gewesten van Mesopotamie, Assyrie, Anatolia, Klein Azie, Arabie. Amsterdam (in Kon. Bibl., The Hague). Davis, P.H. (1975), Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands. Vol. I (1965) - Vol. V (1975). Edinburgh University Press. Dennis, P.E. (1953), Report to the Government of Iraq on the Investigations and Development of Groundwater Resources. Report no. 189, FAO, Rome. D.H.V. (1978), Methodology Report Botswana Countrywide Animal and Range Assessment Project. Report by D.H.V. Consulting Engineers Amersfoort, The Netherlands, to Dept. of Wildlife, National Parks and Tourism, RepUblic of Botswana, Gaborone, 73 pp. Dickson, V. (1955), The wild flowers of Kuwait and Bahrain, Allen and Unwin, London, 144 pp. Dietz, Donald R. (1972), Nutritive value of shrubs, pp. 289 - 302 in: Wildland Shrubs - Their Biology and Utilization,.A Int. Symp., Logan, Utah, USDA Forest Service General Tech. Rep. INT - I, 1972. Doughty, Charles M. (1908), Wanderings in Arabia, an abridgment of 'Travels in Arabia Deserta' made with the author's sanction by Edward Garnett, 2 vols., Duckworth, London. Dougrameji, J. & R.N. Kaul (1971), Report on the possibilities of reclamation of sand dunes and proposed future research. Tech. Rep. no. 37 Inst. for Appl. Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 10 pp. (mimeo). Draz, Omar (1978), Revival of the 'Hema' system of range reserves as a basis for Syrian Range Development Programme. Paper presented at 1st International Rangeland Congress, Denver, Colorado, August 1978. Dregne, Harold E. (1967), Inventory of Research on Surface Materials of Desert Environments. pp. 287 - 377 in Deserts of the World. William G. McGinnies, Bram J. Goldman & Patricia Paylore (eds.) University of Arizona Press, Tucson. Dudley Stamp, L. (ed.) (1966), A glossary of geographical terms (2 nd ed.) Longman Group Ltd., London. Dijk, A. van, D.C.P. Thalen & I.S. Zonneveld (1977), The application of satellite multi spectral scanning in land survey - preliminary experiences with optical and digital image (pre-) processing of an area near Kahama, Tanzania. Printed Report, D.H.V. Consulting Engineers, Amersfoort, lTC, Enschede, The Netherlands, 76 pp. Dijksterhuis, E.J. (1949), Condition and management of rangeland based on quantitative ecology. J. Range Manage. 2 : 104 - 115. Dzerdzeevskii, B.L. (1958), On some climatological problems and microclimatological studies of arid and semi-arid regions in U.S.S.R., pp. 315 - 325 in: Climatology and microclimatology, Proc. Canberra Symposium. Arid Zone Research XI, UNESCO, Paris. Eig, A. (1935). Ecologie du Criquet Maroccain en Iraq. Bull. Ent. Res. 26 : 293 - 309. Emberger, L. (1955), Afrique du Nord-Ouest. pp. 219 - 294 in: Plant Ecology Reviews of Research, Arid Zone Research VI, UNESCO, Paris. Emberger, L. (1958), The study of the vegetation and its bearing on the national economy, with special reference to the Mediterranean region and Iraq. Prosp. Iraq BioI. 1 : 4 - 14. Engel, C.G. and R.P. Sharp (1958), Chemical data on desert varnish, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 69 : 487-518. Europa Publications Ltd. (1975), The Middle East and North Africa 1975 - 1976. (Iraq pp. 362 - 400). Everist, Selwyn L. (1972), Australia, pp. 16 - 25 in: Wildland Shrubs - Their Biology and Utilization, An Int. Symp. Logan, Utah, USDA Forest Service General Tech. Rep. INT - I, 1972. F AO (1970), Report in Group Fellowship Study Tour on Settlement in Agriculture of Nomadic, Semi-Nomadic and other pastoral people, U.S.S.R. Report no TA 2810, FAO, Rome, 46 pp.

415

F AO (1971), Integration of the grain and livestock sectors in the Near East. F AO Monthly Bull. of Agric. Econ. and Stat. 20 (2) : 1 - 8. F AO (1972), Report on the FAO experts consultation on the settlement of nomads in Africa and the Near East. Cafro, 4 - 12 Dec. 1971. FAO Report no. RP 20, Rome, 35 pp. FAO (1974), Approaches to land classification. Soils Bulletin no. 22, FAO, Rome, 120 pp. FAO (1976), A framework for land evaluation. Soils Bulletin no. 32, FAO, Rome, 72 pp. FAO/UNESCO (1977), Soil map of the world, sheet VII-I, South Asia, UNESCO, Paris. Fine, N.C., Khalid T. Ali, Mohammed Faraj & Omar Amin Ali (undated), Industrial Dates and Ground Date Pits for Fattening Cattle. Min. Agric. Iraq, Div. Animal Husb., 6 pp. (mimeo). Firmin, R. & M.D. Kernick (1964), Notes on a new Acacia species in Kuwait. Paper presented to the 10th Int. Bot. Congress, Edinburgh, 5 pp. (mimeo). Fisher, W.B. (1950), The Middle East, a Physical, Social and Regional Geography. Methuen, London (3 rd ed. 1956). Floret, Christian (1971), Recherches phyto-ecologiques entreprises par Ie C.N.R.S. sur Ie biome 'Zone Aride' en Tunisie. Doc. no. 57 C.N.R.S., CEPE, Montpellier, 26 pp. Floret, C. & R. Pontanier (1974), Etude de trois formations vegetales naturelles du Sud\ tun\esien. Production bilan hydrique des sols, Inst. Mat. Rechn. Agrond., Tunis, 44 pp. (mimeo). FMC. Corporation (1964), Preliminary study and report on Land Reclamation and Irrigated Agriculture in the Western Desert of Iraq. Vo!. 1 San Jose, California, 25 pp. + 20 pp. app. Fosberg, F.R. (1967), A classification of vegetation for general purposes. pp. 73 - 120 in: Guide to the check sheet for I.B.P. Areas. I.B.P. Handbook no. 4, Blackwell Sc. Pub!. Oxford and Edinburgh. Freitag, H. (1971a), Die natiirliche Vegetation Afghanistans, beitriige zur Flora und Vegetation. Vegetatio XXII: 285 - 344. Freitag, H. (1971b), Studies in the natural vegetation of Afghanistan. pp. 89 - 106 in: Plant life of South-West Asia. Proc. Symp. Bot. Soc. of Edinburgh. P.H. Davis, P.C. Harper & I.C. Hedge (eds). Gehrke, Ulrich & Gustav Kuhn (1963), Die Grenzen des Irak. Historische und rechtliche Aspekte des irakischen Anspruchs auf Kuwait und des irakisch-persischen Streites urn den Schatt ai-Arab. W. Kohlhammer GMBH, Stuttgart. Gillett, J.B. (1948a), The Desert Vegetation of Iraq. 5 pp. (mimeo). Gillett, J.B. (1948b), The Steppe Vegetation of Iraq. 7 pp. (mimeo). Gillett, J.B. (1948c), The Pastures and Wild Fodder Plants of Iraq. 10 pp. (mimeo). Gimingham, C.H. & G.R. Miller (1968), Measurement of the Primary Production of Dwarf Shrub Heaths. (Part II, pp. 43-51) in: Methods for the Measurement of Primary Production of Grassland. IBP Handbook no. 6. Blackwell Sci. Pub!. Oxford and Edinburgh. Goodall. D.W. (1970), Statistical Plant Ecology. Ann. Rev. Eco!. and Syst. 1: 99 - 124. Goodall, D.W. (1973a), Sample Similarity and Species Correlation. pp. 107 - 156 in: Ordination and Classification of Communities, Handbook of vegetation science Vo!. 5, R.H. Whittaker (ed.) Dr. W. Junk b.v. Publ., The Hague, The Netherlands. Goodall, D.W. (1973b)~ulI'\ep-'p~ Classification-,I>P,5}S:-§15 in: Ordination and Classification of Communities, Handbook of vegetation science 5, R.H. Whittaker (ed.) Dr. W. Junk b.v. Pub!., The Hague, The Netherlands. Goodin, Joe R. and Syrus M. McKell (1971), Shrub productivity - a reappraisal of arid lands. pp. 235 - 246 in: Food, Fibre and the Arid Lands, William G. McGinnies, Bram J. Goldman and Patricia Paylore (ed.) The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona. Goosen, D.l. (1967), Aerial photo-interpretation in soil survey. Soils Bulletin no. 6, FAO, Rome. Gounot, M. (1969), Methodes d'etude quantitative de la vegetation. Masson et Cie., Editeurs, Paris. 314 pp. Greig-Smith, P. (1964), Quantitative plant ecology (2 nd ed.) Butterworths, London, 256 pp. Grimsdell, 1.I.R. (1978), Ecological monitoring. Handbook no. 4 African Wildlife Leadership Foundation, Nairobi, Kenya, 73 pp. Gronovius, I.F. (1755), Flora Orientalis, Leiden. Guest, E.R. (1932), Notes on Trees and Shrubs for Lower Iraq. Dep. Agric. Iraq. Bull. 26: 1 18.

416

Guest, E.R. (1933), Notes on Plants and Plant Products, with their Colloquial Names in Iraq. Dep. Agric. Iraq Bull. 27 : 1 - 111. Guest, E.R. (1953a), The Rustam Herbarium Part VI. General and Ecological account. Kew Bull. 8 : 383 - 403. Guest, E.R. (1953b), The Rustam Herbarium Part VII. Economics. Kew Bull. 8 : 535 - 542. Guest, E.R. (ed.) (1966), Flora of Iraq volume one. Introduction to the Flora, an account of the geology, soils, climate and ecology of Iraq with gazetteer, glossary and bibliography. Min. Agric., Iraq, 313 pp. Guest, E.R. & R.A. Blakelock (1954), The Rustam Herbarium Part VIII. Bibliography of Iraq. Kew Bull. 9 : 243 - 249.

Habib, I.M., T.A. AI-Ani, M.M. AI-Mufti, B.H. AI-Tawil & B.A. Takessian (1970), Plant indicators in Iraq I. Native vegetation as indicator for soil salinity and waterlogging. Tech. Rep. no. 14 Inst. for Appl. Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 10 pp. (mimeo). Hadac, Emil (1966), Bibliographia Phytosociologica: Iraq Pars II. Excerpta Botanica 7: 102104. Hadac, E. & A.D.Q. Agnew (1962), Report on the 1960 University of Bahgdad Scientific Excursion to Helgurd Mountain, Erbil Liwa, Iraq. I. A floristic and plant ecological survey of the Helgurd Region. Bull. Iraq Nat. Hist. Inst. 2 : 5 - 10. Hadac, E. & A.D.Q. Agnew (1963), Report on the 1960 University of Baghdad Scientific Excursion to Helgurd Mountain, Erbil Liwa, Iraq. II. Plant communities of the Helgurd Region. Bull. Iraq Nat. Hist. Inst. 2 (6) : 1 - 18. Haines, R. Wheeler (1951), Haloxylon schweinfurthii Asch. (Chenopodiaceae) near Cairo. Bull. de l'lnst. Fouad 1er du Desert (1951) : 77 - 80. Haines, R. Wheeler (1957), Flowers of the Falluja Desert. Prosp. Iraq BioI. 1 : 30 - 40. Haines, R. Wheeler (1958), Autumn flowering on the gypsum deserts of Baghdad. Iraq Nat. Hist. Mus. Pub!. 13 : 1 - 12. Hammouda, M.A. & Z. Y. Bakr (1969), Some aspects of germination of desert seeds. Phyton 13: 183 - 201. Handel-Mazzetti, H.F. von (1912, 1913, 1914a), Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Expedition nach Mesopotamien, 1910: Pteridophyta und Anthophyta aus Mesopotamien und Kurdistan sowie Syrien und Prinkipio. Ann. Naturh. Mus. Wien, 26 : 120 - 154 (1912), 27 : 41 - 92 and 391 - 459 (1913), 28: 14 - 39 (1914). Handel-Mazzetti, H.F. von (1914b), Die Vcgetationsverhaltnisse von Mesopotamien und Kurdistan. Ann. Naturh. Mus. Wien 28 : 48 - 111. Harris, S.A. (1960), The distribution of certain plant species in similar desert and steppe soils in central and northern Iraq. J. Eeol. 48: 97 -105. Harris, Grant A. (1977), Changing philosophies of rangeland management in the United States. J. Range Manage. 30 : 75 - 78. Harrison, D.L. (1956), Gerbils from Iraq, with description of a new Gerbil. J. Mamm. 37 : 417-422. Harrison, D.L. (1964, 1968, 1972), The mammals of Arabia. Vol. I (1964) Introduction, Inseetivora, Chiroptera, Primates. Vol. II (1968) Carnivora, Hyracoida, Artiodactyla. Vol. III (1972) Lagomorpha Rodentia. Ernest Benn Ltd. London, 670 pp. Hasan, M.S. (1958), Growth and structure of Iraq's population 1867 - 1947. Bull. Oxford University 20 : 339 - 350. Haseeb, K. (164), The national income of Iraq 1953 - 1961. Oxford University Press, London, 1964 New York and Toronto 184 pp. Hassan, A. Hassan & Mustafa Mashkour (1972), Mean annual precipitation in Iraq. J. Geol. Soc. Iraq V: 119 - 127. Hassawy, G.S., S.A. Tammimi & H. AI-Izzi (1968), Weeds in Iraq. Techn. Bull. no. 167 Bot. Div., Min. Agric. Iraq, 256 pp. Hatt, Robert T. (1959), The mammals of Iraq. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan no. 106 113 pp. Heady, Harold F. (1972), Ecological consequences of Bedouin settlement in Saudi Arabia. pp. 683 - 693 in: The Careless Technology, Ecology and International Development. M. Taghi 417

Farvar & John P. Milton (eds.), The Center for the Biology of Natural Systems, Washington University. Heady, Harold F. (1975), Rangeland Management. McGraw-Hill Book Company, 460 pp. Hills, E.S. (ed.) (1966), Arid Lands, a geographical appraisal. Methuen & Co. Ltd. London, 461 pp. Hitti, Philip K. (1968) The Arabs, a short history. MacMillan, London, Melbourne, Toronto, 212 pp. Holt, A.L. (1923), The future of the North Arabian Desert. Geogr. J. (1923) : 259 - 271. Hooker, Joseph Dalton (1881), Hooker's Icones Plantarum or Figures, with descriptive characters and remarks, of new and rare plants, selected from the Kew Herbarium. Vol. XIV part III (1351 - 1375), October 1881. Williams and Norgate, London and Edinburgh. Hooker, J.D. (1885), The Flora of British India, Vol. V Chenopodiaceae to Orchideae, L. Reeve and Co. Ltd., Brook, Ashford, England. Horwitz, W. (1960), Offical methods of analysis of the Association of Agricultural Chemists. 9th ed., Ass. Off. Agric. Chern. Washington D.C., USA. Houerou, H.N. Ie (1959), Recherches ecologiques et Flonstiques sur la vegetation de la Tunisie meridionale. Inst. Rech. Sahar. Univ. Alger, Mem. hs., 510 pp. Houerou, H.N. Ie (l959), Recherches ecologiques et floristiques sur la vegetation de la Tunisie la production fourragere et pastorale. Rapport PNUD I AT 2386, FAO, Rome, 14 pp. Houerou, H.N. Ie (1969), North Africa: Past, present and future. pp. 227 - 278 in: Arid lands in transition, A.A.A.S., Washington D.C., USA. Houerou, H.N. Ie (1972a), Africa - the Mediterranean region, pp. 26 - 36 in: Wildland Shrubs - Their Biology and Utilization, An Int. Symp., Logan, Utah, USDA Forest Service General Tech. Rep. INT - I, 1972. Houerou, H.N. Ie (1972b), An assessment of the primary and secondary production of the arid grazing lands ecosystems of North Africa. pp. 168 - 172 in: Ecophysiological foundation of ecosystems productivity in arid zone. L.E. Rodin (ed.), Nauka, Leningrad. Houerou, H.N. Ie (1975), The rangelands of North Africa: Typology, yield, productivity and development. Proc. Seminar on Evaluation and Mapping of tropical African Rangelands, pp. 41 - 55. 1.L.C.A., Addis Abeba. Houerou, H.N. Ie (in press), Africa north of the Sahara. in: Rangelands in Arid Zones, R.N. Kaul & D.C.P. Thalen (eds.) Dr. W. Junk b.v. Publishers, The Haque, The Netherlands. Houerou, H.N. Ie & C.H. Hoste (1977), Rangeland Production and Annual Rainfall Relations in the Mediterranean Basin and in the African Sahelo - Sudanian Zone. J. Range Manage. 30: 181 - 189. Huzayyin, S. (1956), Expansion of the Arabs: its relation to climatic changes and other factors. Bull. de l'Inst. d'Egypte XXXVIII: 37 - 52. Hyder, D.N. (ed.) (1973), Arid Shrublands - proceedings of the third workshop of the United States I Australian rangelands panel, Tucson, Arizona, March 26 - April 5, 1973, 148 pp. Society for Range Management, Denver, Colorado. Ibrahim, K.M. (1967), The pasture, range and fodder crop situation in the Near East. Summary report and bibliography. Report no. PL: PFCll, FAO, Rome, 159 pp. INGRA (1960), Explanatory Report, One hundred well programme in Southern and Northern Desert. INGRA-Consulting Dept. Report, Zaghreb, Yugoslavia, 20 pp. INGRA (1964), Statistical Report Northern and Southern Deserts, One hundred ten wells programme. INGRA-Consulting Dept. Report, Zaghreb, Yugoslavia, 54 pp. INGRA (1967), Mosul Liwa 100 + 14 wells programme. Final Report, vol. I and II. INGRAConsulting Dept. Report, Zaghreb, Yugoslavia. International Bank (1952), The economic development of Iraq. Publ. for International Bank for Reconstruction and Development by the John Hopkins Press, London, 463 pp. lTC (1978), Projet de developpement rural integre de la region du Kaarta, Republique du Mali, Rapport Final, Phase de reconnaissance du volet VIII: cartographie. lTC, Enschede, Pays-Bas (The Netherlands), 329 pp. Jaccard, P. (1902), Gesetze der Pflanzenverteilung der Alpinen Regio. Flora 90 : 349 - 377. Jackson, M.L. (1958), Soil chemical analysis. Prentice Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, USA.

418

Jacob, Georg (1897), Altarabisches Bedouinenleben. Georg Olms Verlagbuchhandlung, Hildesheim, W-Germany, (Reprografischer Nachdruck) 278 pp. Jamali, M.F.J. (1934), The new Iraq: Its problem of Bedouin education. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 160 pp. Johnson, Douglas L. (1969), The nature of nomadism. Univ. of Chicago, Dept. of Geogr. Research paper no. 118, 185 pp. Johnson, C.M. & A. Ulrich (1959), Analytical methods for use in plant analysis. Calif. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 766 : 25 - 78. Jones, L. (1969), Rapid population growth in Baghdad and Amman. Middle East Journal 23 : 209 - 215. Jones, Quentin & A.S. Barclay (1972), Industrial raw materials from shrubs, pp. 101 - 108 in: Wildland Shrubs - Their Biology and Utilization, An Int. Symp., Logan, Utah, USDA Forest Service General Tech. Rep. INT - 1,1972. Jones, Richard G., Ismail M. Al-Sabi, Klaas Koster, Rajaa Y. Toma & Khalid S. Al.oubaidi (1967), Survey of sheep and goat slaughter receipts in Baghdad. Tech. Rep. no. 1 Animal Husbandry Research and Training Project UNDP /F AO - D.G. of Animal Resources and Veterinary Services, Abu Ghraib, 7 pp.

Kappen, L., O.L. Lange, E.D. Schulze, M. Evenari & U. Buschbom (1972), Extreme water stress and photosynthetic activity of the desert plant Artemisia herba-alba Asso. Oecologia 10 : 177 - 182. Kassas, M. & W.A. Girgis (1970), Habitat and plant communities in the Egyptian Desert. VII. Geographical facies of plant communities. J. Eco!. 58 : 335 - 350. Kassir, S.M., N. Bashir, J. Alikhan, F. Al-Jaff, F. Al-Dessouby & D.G. McFetridge (1967), Survey of cattle, buffalo and camel slaughter receipts in Baghdad, Iraq, 1966. Tech. Rep. no. 8 Animal Husbandry Research and Training Project. UNDP/FAO - D.G. of Animal Resources and Veterinary Services, Abu Ghraib, 33 pp. Kaul, R.N. (1969a), Iraq - Range Ecology (Institute of Applied Research on Natural Resources). UNESCO/FR/SF /Report Serial no. 1127 /BMS.RD/ AVS. Paris, 12 pp. + App. Kaul, R.N. (1969b), Institute for Applied Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq. Progress Report in Plant Ecology. Report to UNESCO (Paris), 7 pp. + Annex I - III and App. I - IV. (typescript). Kaul, R.N. (ed.) (1970), Afforestation in Arid Zones. Dr. W. Junk N.V. Pub!. The Hague, The Netherlands, 435 pp. Kaul, R.N. (1973), An integrated natural resources survey in northern Iraq. Nature and Resources IX. 13 - 18. Kaul, R.N. & M.M. Al-Mufti (1974), Range Resources of Iraq XI. A preliminary ecological appraisal of Artemisia herba-alba vegetation. Tech. Rep. no. 55 Inst. for App!. Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 29 pp. (mimeo). Kaul, R.N. & D.C.P. Thalen (1971a), Range Resources of Iraq. A Problem Analysis. Tech. Rep. no. 20 Inst. for App\. Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 28 pp. (mimeo). Kaul, R.N. & D.C.P. Thalen (1971b), Range ecology at the Institute for Applied Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq. Nature and Resources VII: 10 - 15. Kellersohn, Heinrich (1952), Die Landwirtschaft im Irak. Erdkunde VII: 276 - 288. Kemick, M.D. (1966), Plant Resources, range ecology and fodder plant introduction. Report to the Government of Kuwait. Rep. no. TA 2181, FAO, Rome, 95 pp. Kershaw, Kenneth A. (1964), Quantitative and dynamic ecology. Edward Arnold Pub!. Ltd. London, 183 pp. Kevork, Ohannes K. & Hilmi Sabir Al-Uthman (1972), Ecological observations on the Egyptian Spiny-tailed Lizard Uromastix aegyptius : 1. On food and feeding habits. Bull. Iraq Nat. Hist. Mus. V. : 26 - 44. Kharin, N.G., A. Babayev & LA. Grigorshenko (1971), Interpretation methods for the determination of the volume of desert shrubs. Problems of Desert Development 1971 (1): 44 - 52 (Russian). Khawaja, A.K., S.A. Matti, R.F. Asadi, K.M. Mokhtar & S.H. Aboona (undated), The compo-

419

sition and nutritive value of Iraqi feedstuffs. Report D.G. of Animal Resources. Min. Agric. Iraq, 34 pp. Kinsinger, Floyd (1977), Sampling precision and probability. Resource Inventory Notes, May 1977, pp. 1 - 5. USDI, Bureau of Land Management, Denver Service Centre, Colorado. Kinsinger, Floyd E. & Gerald S. Strickler (1961), Correlation of production with growth and ground cover of Whitesage. J. Range Manage. 14: 274 - 278. Kittani, H. (1956), Grazing resources on forest lands (progress since the Baghdad Meeting 1954). Paper 1st meeting F AO-working party on development of grazing and fodder resources of the Near East, Cairo, 2 pp. (mimeo). Knetsch, G. & P. Gounot (1963), Arid zone research in Iraq. Arid zone (Newsletter) 22 : 9 18, UNESCO, Paris. Koppen, W. (1931), Grundriss der Klimakunde (2nd ed.) Walter de Gruyter Co. Berlin, 388 pp. Kozlowski, T.T. (ed.) (1968), Water Deficits and Plant Growth. Vol. I. Development, Control and Measurement. Academic Press, New York. Krader, Lawrence (1959), The ecology of nomadic pastoralism. Int. Soc. Sci. J. 11 : 499 510. Kreeb, Karlheinz (1961), Bibliographia phytosociologica: Iraq. Excerpta Botanica 3 : 78. Krochmal, Arnold (1972), Medicinal values. pp. 98 - 100 in: Wildland Shrubs - Their Biology and Utilization. An Int. Symp., Logan, Utah, USDA Forest Service General Tech. Rep. INT - I, 1972. Labib, A.1. & Taha, S. Matti, R. Asadi, K.M. Salek & S.H. Yossef (1968), Iraqian Feedstuffs Composition Tables and nutrition figures for animals and poultry. Rep. no. 184 Animal Husb. Div. Min. Agric. J. Iraq, II pp. Lawless, R.1. (1972), Iraq: changing popUlation patterns Ch. 4. in: PopUlations of the Middle East and North Africa, a geographical approach, 1.1. Clarke and W.B. Fisher (eds.) University of London Press Ltd. Lawrence, T.E. (1926), Seven pillars of wisdom. Reprinted edition (1967) published by Dell Publishing Co., Inc. New York. Lebon, J.H.G. (1953), Population Distribution and the Agricultural Regions of Iraq. Geogr. Rev. XLIII: 223 - 228. Lebon, J.H.G. (1964), Recent research on the landpotential of Iraq. Geogr. Rev. L1V : 104109. Lees, G.M. & N.L. l'alcon (1952), The geographical history of the Mesopotamian Plains. The Geogr. 1. CXVIII (I) : 24 - 39. Lewis, James K. (1969), Range management viewed in the ecosystem framework. pp. 97 - 187 in: The ecosystem concept in natural resource management. George M. Van Dyne (ed.). Academic Press, New York and London. Lieth, Helmut & Robert H. Whittaker (eds.) (1975), Primary productivity of the biosphere. Ecological Studies 14, Springer-Verlag. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 339 pp. Long, G.A. (1955), First preliminary report to the Government of Iraq on ecology and grazing problems. FAO - Report to Min. Agric. Iraq, 5 pp. (mimeo). Long, G.A. (1956), Second preliminary report to the Government of Iraq. Ecology and grazing problems. FAO - Report to Min. Agric. Iraq, 9 pp. (mimeo). Long, G.A. (1957), Rapport aux Gouvernements de I'Egypte, de I'Irak, de I'Iran, de la Jordanie et du Liban sur 'Les etudes phyto - ecologiques de base et leurs relations avec les problemes pastoraux'. FAO - Report no. 627, 36 pp. Longrigg, S.H. (1925), Four centuries of modern Iraq. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 378 pp. Longrigg, S.H. (1953), Iraq 1900 to 1955, a political, social and economic history. Oxford University Press. Lon(lon, New York, Toronto, 436 pp. Mac Fadyen, W.A. (1938), Water Supplies in Iraq. Water supply report no. 7. Southern Desert. Iraq. Geo!. Dep. Pub!. no. 1, Min. Econ. and communities, Gvt. of Iraq, 156 pp. McGinnies, William G. (1972), North America. pp. 55 - 66 in: Wildland Shrubs - Their Biology and Utilization. An int. Symp., Logan, Utah, USDA Forest Service General Tech. Rep. INT -1,1972.

420

McGinnies, William G., Sram J. Goldman & Patricia Paylore (eds.) (1967), Deserts of the World, an inventory of geographical research on desert environments. 788 pp. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona. McGinnies, William G., Bram J. Goldman & Patricia Paylore (eds.) (1969), Arid lands in Perspective. The University of Arizona Press. Tucson, Arizona. McGinnies, William G., Sram J. Goldman & Pa tricia Pay lore (eds.) (1971), Food, Fiber and the Arid Lands. The University of Arizona Press. Tucson, Arizona, 437 pp. McKell, Cyrus M., James P. Blaisdell & Joe R. Goodin (eds.) (1972), Wildland Shrubs - Their Biology and Utilization. An Int. Symp., Logan, Utah, USDA Forest Service General Tech. Rep. INT - I, 1972,494 pp. Mahdi, Nuri & P.V. Georg (1969), A Systematic List of the Vertebrates of Iraq. Iraq Nat. Hist. Mus. Publ. no. 26, 104 pp. Mahmood, Ghazi (1967), Determination of the carrying capacity in the Western Desert (Rutba) 1967. Report to Dir. Gen. Research and Projects. Range Management Division Min. Agric. Iraq. 47 pp. (typescript). Martonne, E. de (1926), Areisme et indices d'aridite. Academie des Sciences, Paris, Comptes Rendus 182 : 1395 - 1398. Martonne, E. de & L. Larfrere (1927), Map of interior basin drainage. Geogr. Rev. XVII (3), pl. 2. Mason, Lamar R. & Selar S. Hutchings (1967), Estimating foliage yields on Utah juniper from measurements of crown diameter. 1. Range Manage. 20 : 161 - 166. Meigs, P. (1953), World distribution of arid and semi-arid homoclimates. pp. 203 - 210 in: Hydrology, Reviews of Research on Arid Zone. Arid Zone Research no. I UNESCO, Paris. Meigs, P. (1964), Classification and occurrence of Medeterranean type dry climates. pp. 17 21 in: Land use in semi-arid Mediterranean climates. Arid Zone Research XXVI. UNESCO, P a r i s . Meteorological Department Iraq (1962), Climatological Atlas for Iraq. Publ. no. 13. Iraq Met. Service and Dept. Baghdad. Milner, C. & R. Elfyn Hughes (1968), Methods for the Measurement of the Primary Production of Grassland. IBP Handbook no. 6. Blackwell Sc. Publ. Oxford and Edinburgh, 70 pp. Mitchell, Raoul C. (1956), Aspects' geologiques du desert occidental de l'Irak. Bull. Soc. Geol. Fr. (6) VI: 391406. Moen, Aaron N. (1973), Wildlife Ecology, W.H. Freeman and Comp., San Francisco, 458 pp. Mobayen, S. & V. Tregubov (1970), Carte de la vegetation naturelle de l'Iran, Proj. UNDP/ FAO IRA 7 Bull. 14, 18 pp. Monakhov, M.A. (1972), On the associations of plant communities with defmite ground conditions in the Western Desert of Iraq. Bull. Moscow Ass. for Use of Nature, section Biology, Vol. 2 : 90 - 95 (Russian). Mooney, H.F. (1956), Southwestern Asia: Iraq. pp. 428 - 433 in: A world geography of forest resources. S. Haden-Guest, J.K. Wright & Eileen M. Teclaff (eds.). American Geogr. Soc. publ., New York. Moore, R.M. & R.A. Perry (1970), Vegetation in Australian grasslands, R.M. Moore (ed.) Australian National University Press, Canberra. Moore, R.M., R.W. Condon & J.H. Leigh (1970), Semiarid woodlands in: Australian Grass"lands. R.M. Moore (ed.) Australian National University Press, Canberra. Morris, Meredith J., Kendall L. Johnson & Donald L. Neal (1976), Sampling shrub ranges with an electronic capacitance instrument. J. Range Manage. 29 : 78 - 81. Mountfort, Guy (1965), Portait of a Desert. The Story of an Expedition to Jordan. Collins, London, 192 pp. Mueggler, Walter F. (1965), Cattle distribution on steep slopes. J. Range Manage. 18 : 255 257. Mueller-Dombois, Dieter & Heinz Ellenberg (1974), Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology. John Wiley & Sons, New York and London, 547 pp. Musil, Alois (1928), The manners and customs of the Rwala bedouins. America Geogr. Soc. New York. Nabelek, Fr. (1923), Le desert et Ie steppe en Mesopotamie. Acta Bot. Bohemica 2 : 1-2.

421

Nasserula, Sabah M. (1971), Ecological studies on the vegetation around Ukhaidir, Iraq. M.Sc. thesis Univ. Baghdad, in: Bull. Coli. Sci. Baghdad (1967) pp. 58 - 60. Naval Intelligence Division (1944), Iraq and the Persian Gulf. Geographical Handbook Series B.R. 524,682 pp. Neale, P.E. (1948), Preliminary report of livestock work in Egypt, Iraq, Syria and Lebanon. FAO regional conf. Near East, Cairo, 15 pp. (mimeo). Noble, A.H. (1926), The subsurface water resources of Iraq. Publ. of the Dept. of Agric. Iraq, 30 pp. Noy-Meir, Imanuel (1973), Desert Ecosystems: Environment and Producers. Ann. Rev. Ecol. and Syst. 4 : 25 - 51. Novikoff, G., F.H. Wagner & M. Skouri (1975), Tunisian presaharan project. System analysis of the presaharan ecosystem of southern Tunisia. US/lBP Desert Biome. Progress Report, 179 pp. (mimeo). Oedckoven,K.H. (1970), Iraq. pp. 98 - 109 in: Afforestation in arid zones. R.N. KauI (ed.) Dr. W. Junk N.V. Publishers, The Hague, The Netherlands. 'Oraim, Abdul Jabbar (1965), Sedentarization of Bedouins in Iraq. Meeting of experts of the Arab League on the Settlement of Nomads (Arabic, quoted in Yacoub 1971). Orshan, G. (1972), Morphological and physiological plasticity in relation to drought. pp. 245 - 254 in: Wildland Shrubs - Their Biology and Utilization. An Int. Symp. Logan, Utah, USDA Forest Service General Tech. Rep. INT - I, 1972. Orshan, G. & S. Dishin (1968), Seasonal changes in productivity under desert conditions. pp. 191 - 201 in : Functioning of terrestrial ecosystems at the primary production level. Proc. Copenhagen Symposium. UNESCO Natural Resources Research Series no. 5. UNESCO, Paris. Orshan, G. & G. Zand (1962), Seasonal body reduction of certain desert halfshrubs. Bull. Res. Counc. Israel 11 D. : 35 - 42. Pabot, H. (1962), Methodes d'etude de la couverture veg6tale applicables dans les pays du Proche et du Moyen-Orient, 21 pp. (typescript). Parsons, The Ralph M. Company (1955), Groundwater Resources of Iraq. (9 vols.) 1955 a. J ezira Desert (Vol. 5) 1955b. Southern Desert (Vol. 7) 1955c. Northern Desert (Vol. 8) 1955d. Hydrologic aspects of selected areas (Vol. 9). Pearse, C. Kenneth (1970), Range deterioration in the Middle East. Proc. XI Int. Grassl. Congr. Surfers Paradise, pp. 26 - 30. Pechanec, J.F. (1967), The range society is at the crossroads. J. Range Manage. 20 : 125 128. Peppelenbosch, P.G.N. (1968), Nomadism on the Arabian Peninsula, a general appraisal. Tijdschr. Econ. Soc. Geogr. LIX : 335 - 346. Perry, R.A. (1962), Measurement of vegetation. Tech. Mem. 62/1 C.S.I.R.O. Div. of Land Research and Regional Survey, Australia, 59 pp. Petrov, M. (1970), Central Asia. pp. 234 - 267 in: Afforestation in Arid Zones. R.N. Kaul (cd.) Dr. W. Junk N.V. Publishers, The Hague, The Netherlands. Petrov, M.P. (1972), Asia. in: Wildland Shrubs - Their Biology and Utilization, An Int. Symp. Logan, Utah, USDA Forest Service General Tech. Rep. INT - I, 1972. Pitman, C.R.S. (1922), Notes on Mesopotamian mammals. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 28: 474 - 480. Poore, M.E.D. & V.C. Robertson (1963), An approach to the rapid description and mapping of biological habitats. Publ. subcommission on conservation of terrestrial biological communities of the I.B.P., 68 pp. Post, G.E. (1932), Flora of Syria, Palestine and Sinai. 2nd ed. J.E. Dinsmore (ed.) Vol. I and II. Post, W.S., R.T.. Malcolm & K.H. Tammo (1968), Some economic aspects of mechanised fodder production on irrigated lands. Tech. Rep. no. 20 Animal Husbandry Research and

422

Training Project. UNDP/F AO - D.G. of Animal Resources and Veterinary Services, Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 32 pp. Preston, R.L. (1972), Protein requirements for growing and lactating ruminants. Paper at mini symp. on 'Protein requirements for growing and lactating ruminants', Agric. University Wageningen, The Netherlands, Jan. 1972,26 pp. (mimeo).

a

Quezel, Pierre (1965), La vegetation du Sahara, du Tchad la Mauritanie. Gustav Fischer Verlag. Stuttgart, 333 pp. Quezel, P. & S. Santa (1962), Nouvelle flore de ['Algerie et des regions desertiques meridionales. C.N.R.S. Paris I, 565 pp. Raswan, Carl R. (1930), Tribal areas and migration lines of the North Arabian Bedouins. Geogr. Rev. XX: 494 - 502. Raswan, Carl R. (1934), 1m Land der schwarz en Zelte. Mein Leben unter den Bedouinen. Ullstein Verlag, Berlin. Rechinger, K.H. (1963 - 1970), Flora Iranica (in parts by families) no. 1 - 72. Akad. Druck und Verlagsanstalt, Graz, Austria. Rechinger, K.H. (1964), Flora of Lowland Iraq. Cramer Verlag, Weinheim, 746 pp. Regel, C. von (1953), La vegetation en Iraq (Mesopotamie) et ses retations avec la vegetation de la Region Mediterranee. Euclides 13 : 431 - 438. Regel, C. von (1954), Phytogeographie de l'Iraq. pp. 51 - 52 in: Proc. Eight Int. Bot. Congress, Paris, Sections 7 - 8. Reitan, Clayton H. & Christine R. Green (1967), Weather and climate. part II of 'Deserts of the World, an inventory of geographical research on desert environments', William G. Me Ginnies, Bram J. Goldman & Patricia Paylore (eds.) The University of Arizona Press Tucson, Arizona, 72 pp. Richards, L.A. (ed.) (1954), Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils. Agric. Handbook no. 60 USDA, Washington D.C., 160 pp. Risser, P.G. & E.L. Rice (1971), Phytosociological analysis of Oklahoma upland forest species. Ecology 52 : 940 - 945. Robinette, W. Leslie (1972), Browse and cover for wildlife. pp. 69 -76 in: Wildland ShrubsTheir Biology and Utilization, An Int. Symp., Logan, Utah, USDA Forest Service General Tech. Rep. INT - 1,1972. Rodin, L.E. (ed.) (1972), Eco-physiological foundation of ecosystems productivity in arid zone. Int. Symp. USSR, June 7 - 19,1972, Nauka, Leningrad, 232 pp. Rodin, L.E., N.1. Bazilevich & Yu. M. Miroshnichenko (1972), Productivity and biogeochemistry of Artemisietea in the Mediterranean area. pp. 193 - 198 in: Ecophysiological foundation of ecosystems productivity in arid zone. L.E. Robin (ed.) Nauka, Leningrad. Roux, Georges (1964), Ancient Iraq. George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Published in Pelican Books A 828 (1966),480 pp. Sankary, Mohamed Nazir, & Michael G. Barbour (1972a), Autecology of A triplex polycarpa from California. Ecology 53 : 1155 - 1162. Sankary, Mohamed Nazir, & Michael G. Barbour (1972b), Autecology of Salsola vermiculata var. villosa from Syria. Flora 161 - 421 - 439. Sankary, Mohamed Nazir, & Michael G. Barbour (1972c), Autecology of Haloxylon articulatum in Syria. J. Eco!. 60 : 697 - 711. Sarsam, N.H., K.T. Ali & G.B. McLeroy (1956), Preliminary Report on the use of date byproducts in the ration of fat-tailed sheep. Report Dept. Animal Husbandry, Abu Ghraib Agric. Exp. Sta. 7 pp. (mimeo). Schimper, A.F.W. (1898), Pflanzengeographie auf physiologischer Grundlage. Fischer Verlag, Jena. Schmidt - Nielsen, K. (1956), Animals and arid conditions: Physiological aspects of productivity and management. pp. 368 - 382 in: The future of arid lands. G.F. White (ed.). Pub!. 43 A.A.A.S., Washington D.C ..

423

Schumacher, F.X. & R.A. Chapman (1954), Sampling methods in forestry and range management. Duke University School of Forestry, Bull. 7 revised. Durham, North Carolina, 222 pp. Schwan, H.E. (1955), A management program for the livestock ranges of Iraq. U.S.O.M./ IRAQ Range Management Project Report, 14 pp. (mimeo). Schwan, H.E. (1956), A report on the livestock range and related land use problems in northern Iraq. U.S.O.M./Iraq Range Management Project Report, 6 pp. (mimeo). Schwan, H.E. (1957), Some outstanding problems of Iraq's ranges. Paper presented to U.S. O.M. meeting 16 Febr. 1957,4 pp. (mimeo). Serkahia, S.Y. (1956), Botanical and ecological analysis of the Western Desert. Paper presented to 1st meeting FAD working party on the development of the grazing and fodder resources in the Near East. 14 - 21 March 1956, 7 pp. (mimeo). Serkahia, S.Y. (1957), Work of range management in Iraq. Range Management Section, Animal Husbandry Division, Min. Agric. Iraq, 3 pp. (mimeo). Serkahia, S.Y. (1972), Textbook on range management in Iraq (in Arabic), Min. Agric. Iraq. Shantz, H.L. (1956), History and problems of arid lands development. pp. 3 - 25 in: The future of arid lands. C.F. White (ed.), pub!, no. 43, A.A.A:S:, Washmgton D.C. Sharif, C.M. & Neil E. West (1968), Forage moisture variations on mountain summer range. J. Range Manage. 21 : 228 - 235. Shimwell, David W. (1971), The description and classification of vegetation. Sidgwick & Jackson, London, 322 pp. Short, Henry L., Robert M. Blair & Leonard Burkart (1972), Factors affecting nutritive values. pp. 311 - 318 in: Wildland Shurbs - Their Biology and Untilization. An Int. Symp., Logan, Utah, USDA Forest Service General Report INT - 1,1972. Shreve, F. (1951), Vegetation of the Sonoran Desert. in: Vegetation and flora of the Sonoran Deserts. F. Schreve & I.L. Wiggins (eds.) vol. I. Carnegie Institution of Washington, pub!, no. 591,2 Vols. Slatyer, R.O. (1968), Measurement of the primary production of arid zone plant communities. (Part III, pp. 53 - 61) in: Methods for the measurement of the primary production of grassland, LB.P. Handbook no. 6, Blackwell Sci. Pub!. Oxford and Edinburgh. Sluijs, A.A. van der (1969), Groundwater, a natural resource of Iraq. Final Report to UNESCO, 56 pp. (typescript). Sobolev, L.N. & V.D. Utekhin (1973), Russian (Ramensky) approaches to community systematization. pp. 75 - 103 in: Ordination and classification of communities, Handbook of vegetation science Vol. 5, R.H. Whittaker (ed.), Dr. W. Junk b.v. Publ. The Hague, The Netherlands. Soest, P.J. van (1975), 'Vezels', Text of three papers read at Agric. University Wageningen, The Netherlands, Febr. 1975 (in Dutch). Sokal, R.R. & C.D. Michener (1958), A statistical method for evaluating systematic relationships. Kans. Univ. Sci. Bull. 38 : 1409 - 1437. Solecki, Ralph S. (1954), Tar Kshaife, a possible prehistoric station near Ukhaider, Iraq. Sumer X : 62 - 68. Solecki, Ralph S. (1955), Shanidar cave, a palaeolithic site in Northern Iraq, its relationship to the stone age sequence of Iraq. Sumer XI : 14 - 38. S¢rensen, T.A. (1948), A method of establishing groups of equal amplitude in plant sociology based on similarity of species content. K. Danske Vidensk Selsk. BioI. Skr. 5 : 1 - 34. Soriano, Alberto (1972), South America. pp. 51 - 54 in: Wildlands Shrubs - Their Biology and Utilization, An Int. Symp., Logan, Utah, USDA Forest Service General Tech. Rep. INT - 1, 1972. Sprague, Howard B. (1971), Improvement of livestock production by Bedouin nomads on semidesert rangelands of Saudi Arabia. Report of the Stanford Research Institute (S.R.1. Project ECH - 8680) prepared for the Ministry of Agriculture and Water, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 48 pp. + app. Springfield, H.W. (1954), Natural Vegetation in Iraq. Tech. Bull. Min. Agric. Iraq, 23 pp. Springfield, H.W. (1957), Forage problems and resources of Iraq. I.C.A. Report in coop. with USDA, Washington D.C., 37 pp. Srivastava, A. (1969), A guide to literature on Iraq's natural resources, containing studies and reports from 1833 to 1968. UNESCO/SF/Iraq 12, Institute for Applied Research on Natural

424

Resources, 133 pp. (mimeo). Stoddart, Laurence A., Arthur D. Smith & Thadis W. Box (1975), Range Management (3rd ed.) McGraw Hill, New York, 532 pp. Sweet, Louise E. (1965), Camel raiding of North Arabian Bedouin: a mechanism of ecological adaptation. American Anthropologist 67 : 1132 - 1150. Sykes, J.G., H. AI-No uri, J. Suliman, A. AI-Hadad & K. AI-Morany (1969), Consumer survey of meat, dairy and poultry products in Iraq. Tech. Rep. no. 31 Animal Husbandry Research and Training Project. UNDP/FAO - D.G. of Animal Resources and Veterinary Services, Abu Ghraib, Iraq 8 pp. Tiickholm, Vivi (1956), Students' Flora of Egypt (in coli. with M. Drar & A.A. Abdel Fadee1) Cairo, 649 pp. Tiickholm, Vivi (1974), Students' Flora of Egypt (2 nd cd.) Cairo University Pub!', 888 pp. Tadmor, N.H., G. Orshan & E. Rawitz (1962), Habitat analysis in the Negev desert of Israel, Bull. Res. Counc. Israel 11 D 3 : 148 - 173. Thalen, D.C.P. (1972), A preliminary evaluation of biomass and production in the desert rangelands of Iraq. pp. 184 - 198 in: Proc. First Sci. Conf., Sci Res. Found. (25 - 30 March 1972), Min. of Higher Educ. and Sci. Research, Iraq. Thalen, D.C.P. (1973), Final Report to UNESCO over theperiod March 1970 - June 1973 of the associate expert in plant ecology at the UNESCO/UNDP/SF Project Institute for Applied Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq. UNESCO, Paris 20 pp. (typescript). Thalen, D.C.P. (1974a), Range Resources of Iraq X. An appraisal of Rhanterium epapposum (Oliv.) vegetation. Tech. Rep. no. 54 Inst. for App!. Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 46 pp. (mimeo). Thalen, D.C.P. (1974b), Range Resources of Iraq. Preliminary account of Haloxylon salicorniculll (Moq.) Bge. as a forage producer. Tech. Rep. no. 60 Inst. for App!. Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 38 pp. (mimeo). Thalen, D.C.P. (1975), The Caracal Lynx (Caracal Caracal Schmitzi.) in Iraq. Earlier and new records, habitat and distribution. Bull. Nat. Hist. Res. Centre. Univ. Baghdad IV : 1 - 23. Thalen, D.C.P. (1978), Complex mapping units, geosyntaxa and the evaluation of grazing areas. pp. 491 - 514 in: Assoziationskomplexe (Sigmeten) und ihre praktische Anwendung (Int. Symp. Rinteln April 1977), Reinhoid Tiixen (ed.), J. Cramer Verlag, Vaduz. Thalen, D.C.P. (Lp.) On photographic techniques in permanent plot studies. Vegetatlo (in press). Thalen, D.C.P. & M.M. AI-Mufti (1973), Range Resources of Iraq VII. A record of existent data on small ex closures with particular reference to changes in the vegetation near Shabicha, Southern Desert. Tech. Rep. nco 44 Inst. App!. Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Iraq, 21 pp. (mimeo). Thalen, D.C.P. & I.S. Zonneveld (1974), The vegetation component in landscape survey for land eValuation in arid areas. in: Landschaftsgliederung met Hilfe der Vegetation (Int. Symp. Rinteln April 1974), in press. Thornthwaite, C.W. (1931), The climates of North America according to a new classification. Geogr. Rev. 21 : 633 - 655. Thornthwaite, C.W. (1948), An approach toward a rational classification of climate. Geogr. Rev. 38 : 55 - 94. Tigner, James R. & Gary E. Larson (1977), Sheep losses on selected ranches in Southern Wyoming, J. Range Manage. 30 : 244 - 252. Townsend, C.C. & Evan Guest (eds.) (1966), Flora of Iraq Vo!' 2, including Pteridophyta, Gymnospermae and Angiospermae (Rosaceae). Min. Agric., Iraq, 184 pp. Townsend, C.C., Evan Guest & Ali AI-Rawi (1968), Flora of Iraq Vo!. 9 Gramineae by N.L. Bor. Min. Agric. Iraq, 588 pp. Tueller, P.T., G. Lorain, K. Kipling & C. Wilkie (172), Methods for measuring vegetation changes on Nevada rangelands. Report no. T. 16, Agric. Exp. Sta. Univ. of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, 55 pp. UNESCO, (1955), Plant ecology. Reviews of Research. Arid Zone Research VI. UNESCO, Paris.

425

UNESCO (1960a), Plant- water relationships in arid and semi-arid conditions. Reviews of Research. Arid Zone Research XV. UNESCO, Paris. UNESCO (1960b), Medicinal plants of the arid zones. Arid Zone Research XIII., UNESCO, Paris, 96 pp. UNESCO (1969), Vegetation map of the Mediterranean region. Arid Zone Research XXX. UNESCO, Paris, 90 pp. UNESCO (1973), International classification and mapping of vegetation. UNESCO, Paris, 96 pp. UNESCO (1975), Iraq, contributions on natural resources research. Report no. FMR/SC/ OPS/76/218 (UNDP), UNESCO, Paris, 286 pp. United Nations (1970), Nomadic populations in selected countries in the Middle East and related issues of sedentarization and settlement. pp. 105 - 117 in: Studies on selected development problems in various countries in the Middle East, 1970. U.N. Econ. and Soc. Office, Beirut. Uresk, D.W., R.O. Gilbert & W.H. Richard (1977), Sampling big sagebrush for phytomass. J. Range Manage. 30 : 311 - 314. USDA (1975), Soil Taxonomy, a basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys. USDA Soil Conservation Service Agric. Handbook no. 436, 754 pp. USDA (1976), National Range Handbook. Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Dept. Agric., Washington D.C. US Dept. of the Interior (1966), Salt desert shrub symposium, Cedar City, Utah, August 1 - 4, 1966, USDA, Bureau of Land Management, 292 pp. Uvarov, B.P. (1933), Ecology of the Moroccan Locust in Iraq and Syria and the prevention of its outbreaks. Bull. Entom. Res. 24 : 407 - 418. Vallentine, John F. (1971), Range development and improvement. Brigham Young University Press, Provo, Utah, 516 pp. Van Dersal, William R. (1972), Soil cover and stabilization. pp. 82 - 87 in: Wildland Shrubs - Their Biology and Utilization, An Int. Symp., Utah, USDA Forest Service General Tech. Rep. INT - 1,1972. Veen, J.P.H. van der (1957), Forage research in Iraq. FAO report, fodder Crops Section Field Crops Division, Min. Agric., Iraq, 6 pp. (mimeo). Veen, J.P.H. van der (1959), Forage crops and cultivated pastures in Iraq. Bull. 4 Dir. Gen. Research and Projects, Min. Agric., Iraq, 40 pp. Veen, LP.H. van der (1960a), International development of grazing and fodder resources. J. Brit. Grassl. Soc. 15 : 137 - 144. Veen, J.P.H. van der (1960b), Report to the Government of Iraq on pasture and fodder development. FAO / ETAP Report no. 1292, FAO, Rome, 51 pp. (mimeo). Veen, J.P.H. van der (1962), Some aspects of land use for livestock production in southwest Asia with particular reference to Iraq. Land Economics 38 : 356 - 369. Veen, J.P.H. van der (1964), SO}TIe aspects of plant succession in the wadi AI-Aazib range station and surrounding areas. Proc. 5th week of sciences, pp. 1 - 10. Dec. 1964, High Council of Sciences. SAR Damascus. Veen, J.P.H. van der (1965), Research and development activities on range management and fodder production in the Syrian Arab RepUblic 1962 - 65. 31 pp. (typescript). Veen, J.P.H. van der (1967), Preliminary results of a grazing trial in the Syrian Steppe. Neth. J. Agric. Sci. 15 : 198 - 206. Verstappen, H.Th. (1977), Remote sensing in geomorphology. Elsevier Sci. Publ. Compo Amsterdam, 210 pp. Vesey-Fitzgerald, Desmond Foster (1955), Vegetation of the Red Sea coast south of Jedda, Saudi Arabia. J. Ecol. 43: 477 - 489. Vesey-Fitzgerald, Desmond Foster (1957a), The vegetation of the Red Sea coast north of Jedda, Saudi Arabia. J. Eco!. 45 : 547 - 562. Vesey-Fitzgerald, Desmond Foster (1957b), The vegetation of Central and Eastern Arabia. J. Eco!. 45 : 779 - 798. Vink, A.P.A. (1975), Land use in advancing agriculture. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 392 pp.

426

VOllte, Caesar Czn. (1957), A prehistoric fmd near Razzaza (Karbala Liwa). Sumer XIII: 135 - 156. Wallen, C.C. (1969), Arid Zone Meteorology. Ch. III in: Arid Lands, a geographical appraisal. Methuen & Co. Ltd. London, 461 pp. Walter, H. & H. Lieth (1960), Klimadiagramme Weltatlas. Gustav Fischer Verlag. Jena. Walton, K. (1969), The arid zones. Hutchinson University Library, London, 175 pp. Warren, Andrew & Judith K. Maizels (1977), Ecological change and desertification, pp. 169260 in: Desertification: Its causes and concequences. Pergamon Press, Oxford. Weinert, Erich & Majeed R. Al-Hilli (1975), The vegetation of Jabal Sanam, South Iraq. Bull. Coll. Sci. Baghdad 16 : 3 - 27. Werger, M.J.A. (1973), Phytosociology of the Upper Orange River Valley, South Africa. A syntaxonomical and synecological study. Thesis, University Nijmegen, The Netherlands, 222 pp. Westhoff, Victor & Eddy van der Maarel (1973), The Braun-Blanquet approach. pp. 617 -726 in: Ordination and classification of communities, Handbook of vegetation science Vo!' 5, R.H. Whittaker (cd.), Dr. W. Junk b.v. Pub!. The Hague, The Netherlands. Whittaker, Robert H. (ed.) (1973), Ordination and classification of communities, Handbook of vegetation science Vo!' 5, Dr. W. Junk b.v. Pub!. The Hague, The Netherlands, 737 pp. Whittaker, R.H. & G.M. Woodwell (1968), Dimension and production relations of trees and shrubs in the Brookhaven Forest, New York. J. Eco!. 56 : 1 - 25. White, Gilbert F. (cd.) (1956), The future of arid lands. Pub!. no. 43 A.A.A.S., Washington D.C., 445 pp. Whyte, R.O. (1961), Evolution of land use in south-western Asia. pp. 57 -118 in: A history of land use in arid regions. L. Dudley Stamp (ed.), Arid Zone Research XVII, UNESCO, Paris. Wierenga, T. (1977), Phytomass and species richness in a Hammadetum and a Zygophylletum on the loessial plain of Sde Zin in a dry year. Report to Lab. Plant Ecology, State University, Groningen, 21 pp. (typescript). Williams, W.F. (1971), Principles of clustering, Ann. Rev. Eco. and Syst. 2 : 303 - 326. Williams, W.T. (ed.) (1976), Pattern analysis in agricultural science. CSIRO Melbourne, Elsevier Sci. Pub!. Comp., Amsterdam, Oxford, New York, 331 pp. Williams, Robert E., B.W. Allred, Reginald M. Denio & Harold A Paulsen Jr. (1968), Conservation, development and use of the world's rangelands. J. Range Manage. 21 : 355 - 360. Winkworth, R.E. (1969), Plant ecology, Institute for Applied Research on Natural Resources, Abu Ghraib, Final Report Expert to UNESCO, Paris, 33 pp. (typescript). Winkworth, R.E. (1971), The nature of rangelands, pp. 109 - 111 in: Proc. Seminar on integrated surveys, range ecology and management. Jodhpur, India, 9 - 27 Nov. 1970. Pub!. by UNESCO Field Science Office for South Asia, New Delhi. Wirth, Eugen (1962), Agrargeographie des lrak. Hamburger Geographische Studien. Inst. fUr Geographie und Wirtschafts geographie der Universitiit Hamburg. 193 pp.

Yacoub, Salah M. (1971), Sedentarization and settlement of the nomadic populations in selected Arab countries. Pamphlet no. A.E.S. 8, Fac. Agric. Sci., American Univ. Beirut, 44 pp. (mimeo). Yahia, H.M. (1971), Soils and soil conditions in sediments of the Ramadi Province (Iraq), their genesis, salinity, improvement and use-potential. Pub!. no. 18 Fysisch-Geografisch en Bodemkundig Laboratorium van de Universiteit van Amsterdam, 227 pp.

Zohary, M. (1940), Geobotanical analysis of the Syrian Desert. Palest. J. Bot. 2 : 46 - 96. Zohary, M. (1941), The flora of the desert to the south and west of Basra, Mesopotamia, Proc. Linn. Soc. Part I, 153 : 99 - 108. Zohary, M. (1950), The flora of Iraq and its phytogeographical subdivision. Dep. Agric. Iraq Bull. 31 : 1 - 201.

427

Zohary, M. (1962), The plant life of Palestine (Israel and Jordan), Chronica bot., N.S.PI. Sci. Books 33 : VI, The Ronald Press Co. New York, 262 pp. Zohary, M. (1973), Geobotanical foundations of the Middle East, Vol. I and II. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart, Swets & Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, 739 pp. Zonneveld, I.S. (1972), Land evaluation and land(scape) science. ITC Textbook of photointerpretation VII4, lTC, Enschede, The Netherlands, 106 pp. Zonneveld, I.S. (1974), On abstract and concrete boundaries, arranging and classification. pp. 17 - 42 in: Tatsachen und Probleme der Grenzen in der Vegetation. Int. Symp. Rinteln April 1968. W.H. Sommer & R. Tiixen (eds.) J. Cramer Verlag, Lehre. Zonneveld, I.S. (i.p.), Land evaluation terminology and classification theory. A proposal for sound language use in land attribute classification and land evaluation. lTC-Journal (in press). Zonneveld, I.S., H.A.M.J. van Gils & D.C.P. Thalen (i.p.), Aspects of the lTC-approach to vegetation survey. Festschrift Prof. R. Tiixen (in press).

428

INDEXES

AUTHOR INDEX Aart, R. van, 18 Abdulaziz, A.I., see AI-Ani, T.A. Aboona, S.H., see KhawaJa, A.K. Abu EI-Souod, S., 125 Abul-Fatih, H. (Hussain) A., 23, 34, 84, 121,141,161 Agnew, A.D.Q., 22, 31, 33, 34, 197, 314, 315,322,328,329,335,341 Ahmed, Adnan M., 67, 87, 96 Ahmed, Mohammed M.A., 118, 349, 352, 354,358 Ainsworth, W. esq., 300, 389 AI-Amari, Ahmed Shehab, 36 AI-Ani, Hikmat A., 33 AI-Ani, T. (Tariq) A., 7, 23, 34,43,79,121, 122, 132, 174, 185, 186,187,205,230, 235,236,237,240,241 see AI-Mufti, M.M. see Clor, M.A. see Habib, I.M. AI-Barazanchi, Jamal Nuri, see AI-Amari, Ahmed Shehab AI-Charchafchi, F.M.R., see AI-Ani, T.A. see Clor, M.A. AI-Dessoubi, F., see Kassir, S.M. Alexander, L.T., see Clawson, M. AI-Hadad, A., see Sykes, J.G. AI-Hashirni, M.H., 36, 107, 354 AI-Hilli, Majeed R., see Hilli Ali, K. (Khalid) T., 36, 107 see Fine, N.e. see Sarsam, N.H. Ali, Omar Amin, see Fine, N.e. Alikhan, J., see Kassir, S.M. AI-Izzi, H., see Hassawy, G.S. AI-Jaff, F., see Kassir, S.M. AI-Jibouri, L., 207 AI-Kasab, Nafi Nasser, 30, 37, 65, 77, 111, 112, 115, 293, 295, 297, 298, 299, 370 AI-Khateeb, M., 31 Allen, Shirley Walter, 349 Allouse, B.E., 100 Allred, B.W., 378 see Williams, Robert E. AI-Morany, K., see Sykes, J.G. AI-Mufti, M.M., 7, 34, 35,43, 171, 180, 187, 204, 207, 208, 213, 253, 258, 260, 263,265,270,313,314,328,330 see AI-Ani, T.A. see Habib, I.M. AI-Nouri, H., see Sykes, J.G. AI-Oubaidi, Khalid S., see Jones, Richard G. AI-Rawi, A. (Ali), 31

see Townsend, e.C. AI-Roumi, Hikmat A., 349, 354 AI-Sabi, Ismail M., see Jones, Richard G. Altaie, F. (Flayeh) H., 76, 77, 78, 79, 82, 85,366 AI-Tawil, B.H., see Habib, I.M. AI-Tikriti, H., 31 AI-Uthman, Hilmi Sabir, 104 AI-Zubaidi, A., see Chaudri, 1.1. Anderson, C.A., 35, 270, 313 Asadi, R.F., see Khawaja, A.K. see Labib, A.1. Ashraf, A., 363 Aucher Eloy, P.M.B., 30 Babayev, A., see Kharin, N.G. Baig, M. Shabbir, 261, 364, 373, 375 Bakr,Z.Y., 169,185, 186, 187, 188 Bannink, J.F., 125 Barbour, Michael G., 186, 187, 188, 190,204 Barclay, A.S., 14 Barnes, R.F., 232 Bashir, N., see Kassir, S.M. Batanouny, K.H., 24, 33, 82,121,125,132, 133,141,145,151,156,173,174,301, 310 Bazilevich, N.I., 12, 13 see Rodin, L.E. Beard, John S., 131 Beaudelaire, J.P., 249 Beaumont, Peter, 16, 18 Beek, K.J., 363, 364, 368, 370, 371, 373 Beek, M.A., 18 Bell, Gertrude, 112 Bennema, J., 363 Blair, Robert M., see Short, Henry L. Blair Rains, A., 230, 231, 241 Blaisdell, James P., see McKell, Cyrus M. Blake, Gerald H., see Beaumont, Peter Blakelock, R.A., 8, 12,29,30 Bodenheimer, F.S., 32 Boissier, P.E., 31 Bor, N.L., 23,43, 159,228,229,322 Bormann, F.H., 124 Bornmiiller, J., 30 Box, Thadis W., see Stoddart, Laurence A. Braidwood, R.J., 109 Braun-Blanquet, J., 33, 132, 134, 136, 137, 140, 141 Brice, W.e., 16 Brichambaut, G. Perrin de, 22,36,293,295, 299,303 Brinkman, R., 363 Brown, Dorothy, 45, 106, 124, 249, 261, 378 431

Bruguiere, J.G., 30 Bryan, H.M., 35 Burdon, David J., 99 Buringh, P., 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 30, 53, 74, 76,77,79,84,85,108,148,296,366 Burkart, Leonard, see Short, Henry L. Buschbom, U., see Kappen, L. Butzer, K. (Karl) W., 108, 109

Falcon, N.L., 17 Faraj, Mohammed, see Fine, N.e. Fine, N.C., 36 Firmin, R. 274 Fisher, W.B., 15 Floret, C. (Christian), 259, 260, 379 Flux, John, E.C., 197 Fosberg, F.R., 131 Freitag, H., 171, 269

Cain, S.A., 125 Castro, G.M. de 0., 125 Chakravarti, H.L., 31 Chapline, W.R., 14 Chapman, G.W., 21, 22 Chapman, R.A., 383 Chapman, V.1., 23 Chaudri, LL, 23, 34 Cheesman, R.E., 100, 102 Chesney, F.R., 30 Clawson, M., 5,16,18,349 Clifford, H.T., 137 Clor, M.A., 43, 183, 185, 186, 188, 189, 204,205,211 Condon, R.W., 374 see Moore, R.M. Cook,C. Wayne, 14, 230,238,240 Cooke, Ronald U., 74 Crampton, E.W., 230, 231

Gangopadhyahya, M., 53, 293 Gehrke, Ulrich, 113 Georg, P.V., 100,101,105 Gilbert, R.O., see Uresk, D.W. Gillett, J.B., 34, 165, 226, 228, 229,276, 303,304 . Gils, H.A.M.J. van, see Zonneveld, I.S. Gimingham, C.H., 250 Girgis, W.A., 131, 145 Goldman, Bram J., see McGinnies, William G. Good, R., 174 Goodall, D.W., 134, 137 Goodin, Joe R., see McKell, Cyrus M. Goosen, D.1., 377 Gounot, M., 134 Gounot, P., 6 Green, Christine R., 9 Greig-Smith, P., 44,124,125 Grigorshenko, LA., see Kharin, N.G. Grimsdell, J.J.R., 378 Gronovius, J.F., 30 Guest, E. (Evan) R., 8, 12, 14, 21, 22, 23, 24, 29,30, 31, 32, 33,34,43,53,60,65, 67,77,94,101,121,126,132,141,147, 150, 151, 153, 154, 155,157,158,160, 161, 165, 169, 178, 226, 228, 270, 274, 275,276,301,304,330 see Townsend, C.C.

Dakshini, K.M.M., 11 Dapper, 0., 30 Davis,P.H., 171, 174 Denio, Reginald M., see Williams, Robert E. Dennis, P.E., 53 Dickson, V., 110, 173, 174, 182, 197 Dietz, Donald, R., 14 Dijk, A. van, 377 Diskin, S., 251, 255 Doughti, Charles M., 110 Dougrameji, 1.,76, 150, 178 Draz, Omar, 371 Dregne, Harold E., 74, 75, 145 Dudley Stamp, L., 7, 349 Dijksterhuis, E.1., 133 Dzerdzeevski, B.L., 9 Eig, A., 30, 32, 161, 165 Elfyn Hughes, R., 127, 128,250 Ellenberg, Heinz, 45, 121, 122, 124, 125, 131,135 Emberger, L., 9, 36 Engel, e.G., 70 Evenari, M., see Kappen, L Everist, Selwyn L., 11 432

Habib, LM., 23, 34, 82 see AI-Ani, Tariq A. Hadac, E. (Emil), 22, 29, 31 Haddad, Sharif Y., 33 Haines, R.W. (Wheeler), 33, 34, 167, 169, 182,183,212,335,341 Hammouda, M.A., 169, 185, 186, 187,188 Handel-Mazzetti, H.F. von, 21, 22,30,31, 304 Hanna, A.Y., see Chaudri, 1.1. Harris, Grant A., 350 Harris, L.E., 230, 231 Harris, S.A., 23, 34 Harrison, D.L., 99, 100, 101, 102,103 Hasan, M.S., IH, 115 Haseeb, K., 106, 107, 352, 353, 354, 355,

356,357 Hassan, A. Hassan, 58 Hassawy, G.S., 23, 31 Hatt, Robert T., 99, 100, 101, 102, 105 Heady, Harold F., 219, 260, 265, 270, 349 Hielkema, J., 377 Hilli, (AI-) M. (Majeed) R., 24, 33,34,121, 132,133,141,145,147,150,151,156 Hills, E.S., 5 Hitti, Philip K., 392 Holt, A.L., 113 Hooker, J. (Joseph) D. (Dalton), 170, 171 Horwitz, W., 47 Hoste, C.H., 37, 106, 261, 266 Houerou, H.N. Ie, 11,37,106,132,111, 174, 259, 261, 263,265, 266, 270, 273 Hutchings, Selar, S., 379 Huzayyin, S., 111 Hyder, D.N., 12 Ibrahim, K.M., 29, 35, 36, 349 Jaccard, P., 136 Jackson, M.L., 47,48 Jacob, Georg, 390 Jamali, M.FJ., 111 Jawad, Maeda S., 230, 235, 237, 240 Johnson, Douglas L., 47,109 Johnson, Kendall L., see Morris, Meredith J. Jones, L., 18 Jones, Quentin, 14 Jones, Klcnard G., 354 Kappen, L., 171,212 Kareem, H.A., see Chaudri, l.l. Kassas, M. 131, 145 Kassir, S.M., 354 ~ul, R.N., 5,7,14,30,34,76,121,122, 150, 169, 171, 178, 180,204,207,208, 213, 253, 258, 260, 262, 263, 265, 270, 299, 314, 328, 329, 349, 354, 370, 379, 392 see AI-Ani, T.A. see AI-Mufti, M.M. Kellersohn, Heinrich, 36 Kernick, M.D., 37, 151,152,155,156,169, 173, 174, 178, 179, 209, 226, 228, 229, 260,261,265,270,274,349 Kershaw, Kenneth A., 125 Keulemans, N.C., see AI-Amari, Ahmed Shehab Kevork, Ohannes K., 104 Kharin, N.G., 379 Khawaja, A.K., 230, 233, 236, 241 Kinsinger, Floyd E., 127, 379 Kipling, K., see Tueller, P.T.

Kittani, H., 22 Knetsch, G., 6 Koppen, W., 9 Koster, Klaas, see Jones, Richard G. Kotchy, T., 30 Kozlowski, T.T., 243, 244 Krader,Lawrence,110 Kraft, Walter, 67, 87, 96 Kreeb, Karlheinz, 29 Krochmal, Arnold, 14 Kuhn, Gustav, 113 Labib, A.I., 230 Landsberg, H.H., see Clawson, M. Lange, O.L., see Kappen, L. Larfrere, L., 11 Larson, Gary E., 103 Lawless, R.I., 18, 114,115 Lawrence, T.E., 390 Lebon, J.H.G., 18,37,115 Lees, G.M., 17 Leigh, J.H., see Moore, R.M. Lewis, James K., 7, 350 Leys, H.N., see Bannink, J.F. Lieth, H. (Helmuth), 12, 13,65 Long,G.A.,35,36, 178, 270,314 Longrigg, S.H., 114, 115, 118 Lorain, G., see Tueller, P.T. Maarel, Eddy van der, 121, 125, 132, 140, 141 Mac Fadyen, W.A., 53, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92,94 Mahdi, Nuri, 100, 101, 105 Mahmood, Ghazi, 36 Maizels, Judith K., 5, 269, 340, 344, 349, 391 Malcolm R.T., see Post, W.S. Martonne, E. de, 9, 11,65 Mashkour, Mustafa, 58 Mason, Lamar R., 379 Matti, S.A., see Khawaja, A.K. see Labib, A.I. McFetridge, D.G., see Kassir, S.M. McGinnies, William G., 5,11,29,30 McKell, Cyrus M., 12 McLeroy, G.B., see Sarsam, N.H. Meigs, P., 9, 10, 11, 13 Michaux, A., 30 Michener, C.D., 136 Miller, G.R., 250 Milner, C., 127, 128, 249 Miroshnichenko, Yu.M., see Rodin, L.E. Mitchell, Raoul C., 67 Mobayen, S., 151, 174 433

Moen, Aaron N., 230, 231 Mokhtar, K.M., see Khawaja, A.K. Monakhov, M.A., 33,121 Mooney, H.F., 21 Moore, R.M., 7, 11 Morris, Meredith, 378 Mountfort, Guy, 100,104 Mueggler, Walter F., 371 Mueller-Dombois, Dieter, 45,121,122,124, 125,131,135 Musil, Alois, 110 Nabelek, Fr., 31 Nasserula, Sabah M., 34, 121, 141 Neal, Donald L., see Morris, Meredith J. Neale, P.E., 36 Noble, A.H., 87 Novikoff, G., 266, 273 Noy-Meir, Imanuel, 213, 253, 255, 266 Oedekoven, K.H., 22 Olivier, G.A., 30 'Oraim, Abdul Jabbar, 115 Orshan, G., 171, 212, 251, 255 . see Tadmor, N.H. Ouda, N., see AI-Ani, T.A. Paulsen, Harold, A. Jr., see Williams, Robert E. Paylore, Patricia, see McGinnies, William G. Pearse, C. Kenneth, 349 Pechanec, J.F., 350 Peppelenbosch, P.G.N., 110 Perry, R.A., 7,44,45,124,390,391 Petrov, M., 11, 270 Pitman, C.R.S., 100 Po1unin, N., 31 Pontanier, R., 259 Poore, M.E.D., 145, 173, 174, 178, 180, 304,349 Post, G.E., 43 Post, W.S., 36 see Al-Amari, Ahmed Shehab Poulton, C., 377 Preston, R.L., 230 Quezel, P. (Pierre), 170, 173, 174 Rasw:m. Carl R., I! 0, 112, 118 Rauwolff, L., 30 Rawitz, E., see Tadmor, N.H. Rechinger, K.H., 31, 43, 44,147,169,171 Regel, C. von, 31, 32 Reitan, Clayton H., 9 Rice, E.L., 135 434

Richard, W.H., see Uresk, D.W. Richards, L.A., 48 Risser, P.G., 135 Robertson, V.C., 145, 173, 174, 178, 180, 304,349 Robinette, W. Leslie, 14 Rodin, L.Y., 171, 253, 255 see Bazilevich, N.1. Roux, Georges, 30, 109 Rozov, N.N., see Bazilevich, N.1. Salek, K.M., see Labib, A.I. Sankary, Mohamed Nazir, 186, 187, 188, 190,204 Santa, S., 173 Sarsam, N.H., 36, 107 Schimper, A.F.W., 11 Schmidt-Nielsen, K., 243 Schulze, E.D., see Kappen, L. Schumacher, F.X., 383 Schwan, H.E., 35, 270 Serkahia, S.Y., 31, 36, 151, 165, 222, 223, 226,228 Sestini, l' Abbe, 30 Shantz, H.L., 11, 12, 13 Sharif, C.M., 243 Sharp, R.P., 70 Sheikh, M.Y., 33, 121, 141, 145 Shimwell, David W., 131 Short, Henry L., 14 Shreve, F., 145 Skouri, M., see Novikoff, G. Sluijs, A.A. van der, 30, 87, 97, 370 Smith, Arthur D., see Stoddart, Laurence A. Smyth, A.J., 363 Sobolev, L.N., 125 Soest, P.J. van, 232 Sokal, R.R., 136 Solecki, Ralph S., 108,109 Sorensen, T.A., 136 Soriano, Alberto, 11 Sprague, Howard S., 371 Springfield, H.W., 21, 33, 35, 36, 351, 352,358 Srivastava, A., 29 Stoddart, Laurence A., 230, 231, 243,261, 373,389,390,391 Stoops, G., see Altaie, Flayeh Strickler, Gerald S., 379 Suliman, 1., see Sykes, J.G. Sweet, Louise E., 118 Sykes, J.G., 354 Sys, H.C., see Altaie, Flayeh Tiickholm, Vivi, 43,169,173,174

Tadmor, N.H., 145 Takessian, B.A., see Habib, I.M. Tammimi, S.A., see Hassawy, G.S. Tammo, K. (Khairi), H. (Habib), see Ai-Amari, Ahmed Shehab see Post, W.S. Texier, C., 30 Thalen, D.C.P., 7, 30, 34, 35, 41,43,45, 79, 103, 121, 122, 169, 258, 260, 262, 263, 270, 313, 314, 330,349,354,366, 370,374,377,379,386,392 see Ai-Ani, T.A. see AI-Mufti, M.M. see Dijk, A. van see Zonneveld, I.S. Thornthwaite, C.W., 9, 11 Tigner, James R., 103 Tome, Rajaa Y., see Jones, Richard G. Townsend, C.C., 31, 43, 169 Tregubov, V., 151, 174 Tueiler, P.T., 378 Tukhaikh, Jabbar Kadhem, see Ai-Amari, Ahmed Shehab

Wagner, F.H., see Novikoff, G. Wagstaff, J. Malcolm, see Beaumont, Peter Wallen, e.e., 9, 293, 295, 299, 303 Walter, H., 65 Walton, K., 9 Warren, Andrew, 5, 74,269,340,344,349, 391 Weinert, Erich, 121, 141, 147, 150, 151, 156 Werger, M.J.A., 125, 133, 140, 162 West, Neil E., 243 Westhoff, Victor, 121, 125, 132, 140, 141 White, Gilbert F., 5 Whittaker, R. (Robert) H., 12, 13, 125, 130, 131,379 Whyte, R.O., 14, 108 Wierenga, T., 379 Wilkie, e., see Tueiler, P.T. Williams, Robert E., 349 Williams, W.F., 134, 137 Winkworth, R.E., 7, 30,41,270 Wrrth,Eugen, 16, 18,30,37,293, 299,306 Woodweil, G.M., 379

Ulrich, A., 47 Uresk, D.W., 379 Utekhin, V.D., 125 Uvarov, B.P., 32

Yacoub, Salah M., 115, 116 Yahia, H.M., 77, 84, 85,147 Yossef, S.H., see Labib, A.1.

Vailentine, John F., 7. 99 Van Dersal, William R., 14 Veen, J.P.H. van der, 36, 37,165,171,259, 265,270,273,274,310,349,354 Verstappen, H.Th., 377 Vesey Fitzgerald, Desmond Foster, 155, 169,173,174,178,179,182,195,210 Vink, A.P.A., 364 VOllte, Caesar Czn., 108

Zaki, M.A.F., 301, 310 Zand, G., 171, 212 Zohary, M., 21, 22, 23, 29, 30, 32, 65, 74, 75, 77, 121, 126, 132, 133, 141, 147, 150, 151, 156, 158, 165,167,169,171, 173,174,180,276 Zonneveld, I.S., 131, 363, 371, 377, 392 see Bannink, J.F. see Dijk, A. van

435

GENERAL INDEX Figures in italics refer to information in tables or figures. Abu Dhabi, 173, 174 Abu Dibbis, 23, 71, 79, 84, 104, 108, 150, 161,275,288,382,383 air humidity, 63, 64 air temperature, 64 soil temperature, 58 Abu Ghraib, 6, 127, 197 Abu Kemal, 73 Acacia iraquensis, 274 Acantholimon, 21,270 accessibility, 87, 176, 371 Achillea, 24,229,304,308 A. conferta, 143, 161,301,302,331 A. fragrantissima, 36, 14i, 143, 148,155, 158,160,179,222,226,229,233,234, 235, 236, 240,248, 277,307, 309,327, 328,329,330,338 Achillea fragrantissima - Artemisa herba· alba type, 160-161 Acinomyx jubatus Schreber, 102, 117 adaptive characteristics (of key species), 209-214 Adhaim river, 24, 276 Adonis dentata, 32 Aellenia subaphylla, 143 Aeluropus lagopoi"des, 23,141,143, 147, 161,228,248 Aeluropus littoralis, 23 aerial photography (interpretation), 43, 376,377,378 infra·red false colour, 378 large scale, 378, 386 aesthetic value, 14,350 afforestation, 97 Afghanistan, 171, 174,269 afterripening, 204, 211 Agathophora alopecuroides, 151, 315 agro-climatic regions (of Iraq), 351, 352 'ahrash',22 Aidaha, 42, 116 Ain Hamud, 87 Al Barit (AI Bereed), 94, 302 Al Dahnaii, 111 Aleppo, 30 alfalfa, 88, 241 Algeria, 173, 253, 259, 263, 270 Alhagi mannifera (A. maurorumj, 24, 137, 143, 161,301,302,331 Al Hajara Stony Plain, 68,69, 70,71,82, 84

Al Hamad Plain, 68, 71 Al Haniya Ridge, 70 Al Jauf, 174, 179 Alopecurus, 23 Al Qaim, 77,84 Amara, 22 Ana, 30,42, 53,100, 116 evaporation, 66 rainfall,59 Anabasis articulata, 212,255 Anabasis setifera, 104,143,151,222,226, 315,315,319,321,326 Anaiza, 174 Andrachne telephioides, 137, 143, 330, 331 Aneza (tribe), 112,296 animal unit, 106, 108,258, 261,357,358, 374 annuals (annual species, ephemeral species), 24,65,126,180,221,244,249,315,335 contribution to forage, 255-257, 255, 256-257 moisture content, 249, 250 in vegetation classification, 132-134 in vegetation types, 150-162 Ansab,42, 92, 116,275 Anvil/ea garcini, 143, 235,236, 240,315, 321 Aqarquf, Hor of, 111 aquifer, 96 Arabia, 100, 110,111,114,117,173,174, 178 see Saudi Arabia Arabian Gulf, 15, 17,54,63, 174 Arabian Plateau, 15 Arfajiya, 165 arid areas (general) delineation, 9-11 general characterizarion, 8 major plant formations, 13 world distribution, 10 Aristida obtusa, 36 Aristida plumosa, 36,100,125,315,321, 322 see Stipagrostis plumosa Armenian·Anatolian mountain region, 15 Arnebia decumbens, 250 Ar Rahab, 68,71,73,178 Artemisia, 270-304 A. absinthium, 300 A, fragrans, 300 A, herba·alba, 24, 32, 34, 36, 140,141, 143, 147,148,157,158,159,159,160, 160, 162, 165-214 (see specification below), 255, 265, 304, 314, 328, 338, 437

342,343 adaptive characteristics, establishment, 211, 212 maintenance, 212, 213 physiological, 212 reproduction, 209, 210, 211 chemical analysis and nutritive value, 233-240 description, 170-171 distribution, edaphic conditions, 177, 179-180,180 Iraq, 174-176, 175 general, 171-174 estimating biomass and production, 378-385 forage preference, 222, 223, 224, 225, 229, 229 forage production, 251,252, 253,260 forage value, 226 fuel, 277 germination, afterripening 204, 211 hydration and dehydration, 205, 205 process, 204 temperature, 205 grazing impact, 263, 263,264 (see Rutba exclosure) moisture content. 248, 249 phenology 181-182,181 protection, 328 (see Rutba exc1osure) rootsysteem, 213 seedling development, 205,206, 206, 207, 207,208,209 seed production and dispersal,204, 211 uprooting for cultivation, 294 Artemisia herba-alba - Helianthum lippii type, 158 Artemisia herba-alba- Salsola spp. type, 158-159 Artemisia scoparia, 24, 36, 73, 126, 140, 141, 147,148,156,157,158,159,160, 221,226,229,236,240,248,277,300, 301, 301,302,308,309,328,331,338, 343, Artemisia scoparia - Peganum harmala type, 161 artifacts, 108, 389 ash (minerals, content in forage), 230-231, 232,233,235, 236, 237,240,241,242, 372 Ash Shihiyat, 165 As Salman, 36,42, 53,70, 90, 102, 116, 271,275,275,314,341 rainfall, 60 Assyria, 30, 100 438

Astragalus, 21,174 A. spinosus, 33, 36, 141, 143, 153, 156, 157, 158,167,220,221,223,227,229, 229,248,270,328,338,339 Athaman, 43,276,309,309 Atriplex, 143, 236 A. leucaciada, 137,160,236,237 A. polycarpa, 187 Australia, 11, 12, 374,390,391 Avena, 23 A. barbata, 327 Baaj,42, 161,296,297,302 Baghdad, 6, 15, 18, 24, 30, 31, 42, 54, 101, 111, 112, 121, 145, 176, 270, 354,376 air humidity, 63, 64 air temperature, 56 evaporation, 65, 66 radiation, 55 rainfall, 59,60 soil temperature, 57 sunshine, 55 Bahrein, 173, 174 Baiji (Badji), 42, 76, 101 rainfall, 59 sand dunes, 34, 75-76,121,150 Balad Sinjar, see Sinjar Baluchistan, 171, 364 'barbak', 76, 88, 89 Barguth (depression), 74 Basra(h), 15, 18,22, 32, 42, 53, 54, 79, 111,151,176,198,276 air humidity, 63, 64 air temperature, 55 evaporation, 65,66 rainfall, 59, 60, 63 snowfall, 63 sunshine, 55 Bedouin(s), 88, 90, 95, 102, 104, 221, 223,243,271,272,273, 276,277,286, 296,297,335,340,349,390-391 changing population, 114-115 origin, 109-110 settling, 111-113, 116 sources of income, 113 Bienertia cycioptera, 34,143 birds, 103-105 Boara (Bouara) depression (salt lake), 23, 74,84,86 Boghars (depression), 74 Botswana, 43,366 boundaries (ofIraq), 15, 113-114, 118 Braun Blanquet approach, 132-134, 137, 140, 141 browse (browsing), 219, 374

see note page 219 buffalo (water-), 105,106,352-356 Busaiya (Bsaia), 35,42, 53,68,70,81, 94, 116, 151,152,153, 155,165,176, 178,195,201,271,274,275,276,277, 314,341 rainfall, 60 bustard, 104, 117 calcium (in forage), 231,232,235,236

Calendula aegyptiaca, 250 Calligonum comosum, 72,141,143, 150,

151, 180,227, 235,236, 240,276,277

Calligonum comosum - Cornulaca leucacantha type, 150-151

camel(s}, 23, 99, 105, 107, 111, 112, 113, 370 contribution to national income, 352359 numbers, 106 see grazing Canis aureus L., 102 Canis lupus L., 102 Capparis spinosa, 308, 310 caracal, 102, 103 Caracal caracal schmitzi Matschi, 102, 117 caravans, 113,301 carbohydrates, 230-231, 232, 240, 241, 242 Carex stenophylla, 24,32,161,222,327, 330,331 carrying capacity, 36 see grazing capacity Carthamus oxycanthus, 329 cattle, 99, 105, 106, 107, 112,352-356 census, agricultural, 107 human population, 18, 115 livestock population, 106, 107-108 Central Asia, 11, 270 charcoal,269, 270,276,350 cheetah, 102, 103, 117, 389 chemical analysis, plant material, 47 soils, 47-48 water, 97-99 see chemical composition chemical composition (of forage), 230243,236 differences in shrub species, 232-237 proximate analysis, 230-232 seasonal variation, 237-239 shrubs compared to other feeds, 240-243 chert, 70 Chlamydotis undulata Jacquin, 104-117

Citrullus colocynthis, 83, 221, 229, 329, 373 classification of vegetation, 130-142 characteristics, 130-134 dendrograms, 134, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141 guiding principles, 130-131 similarity indices, 135-137, 138, 139 syntaxonomy,141-142 climate, arid zone classification, 9-10 desert areas ofIraq, 53-67 factor for community types, 148-150 factor in land evaluation, 369-371 fluctuations, 70, 108 Iraq (general), 17 subdivision study area, 65-66 clustering (in vegetation classifications), 134,137 community type(s}, see vegetation types Cornulaca, 126, 150, 153,236,248, 301, 302, 321 C. leucacantha, 141, 143, 147, 148, 150 C. monacantha, 143,315 Cousinia spp., 143, 270,321 Crepis, 300 Cressa cretica, 23, 79, 161 crude fibre, see fibre crude protein, see protein Cynodon spp., 329 C. dactylon, 329 Cyperus, 100,152 C. conglomeratus, 100, 141, 143, 151, 152,152,248 Dahama,179 Darb Zubaida, 89 dates (date palms), 22, 88, 358 'decreasers', 133 dendrogram, see ciassfication of vegetation desert (definition), 8 desertification,S, 339-344, 349 see fuel (cutting) see grazing see ploughing desert monitor, 104 desert pavement, 74-75, 82, 179, 344 desert varnish, 70, 75 Dhahran, 173 Dibdibba (Plain) (area), 67,68,68, 69, 70, 71,76,79,97,154 digestibility, 230, 231,240,242 Diwaniya, 42 air humidity, 64 evaporation, 66 439

rainfall 59, 60, 63 snowfall, 63 Diyala river, 24 Diyala Liwa, 111 Dociostaurus maroccanus, 32 domestication, 17, 109, 350 dominance types (in vegetation classification), 131-132 donkeys, 105,106,270,271,276,352 Dulaim (tribe), 296, 300 dunes, see sanddunes see Euphrates sand-belt dung, 14,271,352 East Atrica. 378 EC (electrical conductivity) in soils, 48, 81,127,145,147,314 economic evaluation, 350-359 Egypt, 151, 173, 174, 185, 212, 301, Egyptian Desert, 131, 145 electrical conductivity, see EC Ephedra alata, 83, 104, 140, 141, 143, 147,150,153,153,155,155,156,158, 221, 223,227, 229,236,248, 270,277, 279, Ephedra alata - Rhanterium epapposum type, 152-153 Ephedra alata - Haloxylon salicornicum type, 155-156 ephemerals (ephemeral species), see annuals Equus hemionus hemippus Geoffroy, 100 Erodium sp., 331 E. cicutarium, 32,250, 327 E. deserti, 327 erosion, 17, 71, 74, 133,274,296,307, 309, 335,337, 338,340,341,342-343, 373,375 Eucalyptus, 275 Euphrates (river), River Euphrates, 15, 16, 17,30,67,70,71,73,77,87,88,110, 116,117,293,296,391 Euphrates sanddune- belt, 68, 68, 71, 72, 79,82,276 soil profile, 81 vegetation, 150-151 evaluation of range resources, 350-359 evaporation, 17, 18, 64, 66, 84, 145 exclosures (fenced areas), 34, 36, 212, 255,304,307,313-332,335,341 see Ha tra ex closure see Khedr-el-Mai ex closure see Rutba exclosure see Shabicha exclosure Fagonia bruguieri, 315,315

440

Faidhat al-Jeez, 157, 221, 279, 287, 309,338,339 Faidhat al-Mesad, 326 Fakka (exclosure), 314 Falco cherrug Gray, 104 falcons, 104 Falluja, 24,42, 175 Falluja Desert, 24, 33 fats (in forage), (Ether Extract), 230-231, 232,235,236,240,241,242 fauna, 99-108,117,369 Felis chaus Giildenstaedt, 102, 103 fibre, 230-231,232,234,235,236,237, 238, 239, 239-240, 241, 242 Filago spathulata, 32 firewood, see fuel floristics, in classification of vegetation, 131-134 species identification, 43-44 fodder crops, 36,241,241,295,351,370 Foothills zone, 16, 17,18,32 forage (production), 249-266, 328, 350 between year variability, 253-254,252, 372 contribution of annuals, 255, 255-257, 256-257 demand and supply, 257 - 266 estimation from plant attributes, 378386 exclosures, 318 land evaluation, 372 seasonal aspects, 251-253, 252, 372 see grazing forest, 19, 21-22, 25 foxes, 102 frost, 17 fuel (cutting), 14, 22, 23, 127, 148, 149, 269-289,269,277,278,279,288,295, 308,309,318-319,335-344,350,391 experimental fuel cutting, 41, 272, 278289,336,337 extent of the cutting, 272-274 fuel requirement, 272-273 fuel value of different vagetation types, 150-162 species involved, 274-277 use of the fuel, 270-271 Gagea reticulata, 32,154 game (animals), 100, 102, 350 see under the species Garrhadiolus hedypnois, 32 gas, 14, 392 Gazella spp., 100, 117 G. dorcas, 101,102

G. gazella, 101 G. subguttorosa, 101,102 gazelles, 100, 101,102,117,389 geological structure (of the study area), 67 gerbil, 103 Gerbillus spp., 103 G. dasyurus mesopotamiae Harrison, 103 germination, 209, 210, 211,335 Achillea fragrantissima, 330 Artemisia herba~alba, 204~205 Haloxylon salicornicum, 185~189 Rhanterium epapposum, 195, 196, 197~200

Ghurfa Desert, 24,33,121,132,133,145 goat~23,99, 105,106,109,370 contribution to national income, 352359 numbers, 106 see grazing granite, 178 grazing, 12,34,35,36,94,112,127,133, 148, 149, 208, 219~266, 270, 283, 289, 296,299, 300,308,319,322,327,329, 333,335~344,369,370,373

value of different vegetation types, 150-162 grazing capacity, 219, 257-266, 373, 374~375, 391 grazing pressure, 257-266, 326, 329.330 Greater Zab (river), 299 Great Nafud, 179 groundwater, 84, 87, 88, 99, 329, 330, 368 recharge, 96-97 gypsum, 48,73, 76, 79,81, 82,85,86, 97,127,147,148,179,314 (pumping station), 42,53,84 rainfall, 60 H-2 (pumping station), 42, 53 rainfall, 59 H~3 (pumping station), 42, 53 rainfall, 60 Habbaniya, 42, 53, 71,252, 254 air humidity, 64 rainfall, 59 snowfall, 63 Habbaniya Lake, 84, 176 Habbariya,42, 94,96,103 Haditha,42, 53, 77,84, 101, 116 rainfall, 59 Hadramaut. 110, 111 Halocnemum strobilaceum, 23 Halogetonalopecuroi"des, 141, 143,151, 226,248,277,315,315,317,319,321, H~1

324,325,326

373 halophytic vegetation, 19, 23, 82, 178 see vegetation types Haloxylon ammodendron, 36, 151, 226, 276,341 Haloxylon articulatum, 24, 36,143, 156, 160, 186, 187, 188,190,227,229, 233, 234,235,235,236,248,277,294,301, 304,309,327,338,339 Haloxylon persicum, 276 Haloxylon salicornicum, 24, 32, 33, 34, 36,83, 104, 140,141, 143, 147, 150, 151,153,155, 155,156,157,157,158, 162, 165~214 (see specification below), 301, 304,315, 315,328,331,335,338, 338,341,343,373,390 adaptive characteristics, establishment, 211-212 maintenance, 212-213 physiological, 212 reproduction, 209 ~ 21 chemical analysis and nutritive value,

Halogeton~poisening,

232~243

descnption of the species, 165~169 distribution edaphic conditions, 176~181, 177, 180 general, 171~174 Iraq, 174~ 176,175 estimating biomass and production, 378-384 forage preference, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225,229,229 forage production, 252, 252, 253,254, 260,316, 317~319,318 forage value, 227 fuel cutting, 271, 272, 273, 276, 277, 278-289,319,336,337 germination, 185~189 hydration and dehydration, 188, 188 influence of seedwing removal, 186 light conditions, 187 optimal temperature, 186, 187 seed size, 188 rate, 185 moisture content, 244, 245~248, 246, 248 phenology, 181~182, 181 protection, see Khedr~el-Mai exclosure root development (root system), 190, 193,212,213 seed harvest methods, 189 seed, insect damage to, 184 seed morphology, 185 441

seed production and dispersal, 183 seed viability and longevity, 185 seedling development and establishment, 189,190,191,192,211 shoot development, 190,191,192,194 Haloxylon salicomicum - Artemisia herba· alba type, 157-158 Haloxylon salicomicum - Artemisia sco· paria type, 157 Haloxylon salicomicum - Astragalus spi· nosus type, 156-157 Haloxylon salicomicum - Halogeton alopecuroiiJes type, 151 Haloxylon schmittiana, 173 Haloxylon schweinfurthii, 212 hammada, 75, 76, 82, 133 Hammada elegans, 169 Hammada salicomica, 169 Haplophyllum sp.,315, 315 H. tuberculatum. 143 hare, 103 Hatra,42, 123,150,296,297,298, 300, 302

Hatra exciosure, 300,313, 314,330-331 Hejaz,391 Helianthemum, 229, 327 H. ledifolium. 250 H.lippii, 141, 143,148,151,152,153, 154,248, 315,315,321,322,324,325 H. salicifolium, 32,250 Heliotropium bacciferum, 143, 315,321, Heliotropium persicum, 315,321 Heliotropium ramosissimum, 236, 321 'Hema'-system, 371, 391 Herbarium, College of Agriculture (Abu Ghraib), 30, 175,182,197 College of Science (Baghdad), 30, 175 Faculty of Pharmacy (Tehran Univer· sity), 174 Geneva, 30 Kew,30,31,175,182 Leyden, 30 National - of Iraq (Abu Ghraib), 30, 31, 36,43,175,182 Paris, 30 Rustam, 30, 31 University of Basra, 30 University of Mosul, 30 Vienna, 30 Hieracium, 300 Hit,42, 87,116 rainfall, 59 Hordeum, 23 H. glaucum, 327 442

H. pratense, 300 H. sativum, 295 horses, 99,105,106, 107,111,353 houbara, 104 humidity, 63-64 hunting, 100, 104, 109,370 Husaiba, 42, 121,145 Hyaena hyaena L., 102, 117 hyena, 102, 117,389 hygrophilous vegetation, 21, 22-23 Hypecoum pendulum, 250

importance value, 135-136 'increasers'. 133 indicator value of vegetation, 23, 24 see under the separate species Indo-Pakistan, 11, 270 industrial value of shrubs, 14, 19 Institute for Applied Research on Natural Resources, 6, 230 'invaders', 13 3 Iran (Persia), 15, 112,151,171,173,174 Iraq (general), area, 15 boundaries, 15 climate, 17 environment, 14-17 general description, 14 - 25 land use, 18-19,19 physiographic regions, 16 population, 17-18 position in South West Asia, 15 vegetation, 19-25 Iris sisyrinchium, 154 irrigated agriculture, 18, 86, 293, 370 Iskandarya Desert, 33 Jabal .... , see Jebel ... jackal (Asiatic), 102 loculus spp., 103 'jalta',88 jarboa, 103 Jarmo, 109 Jebel Anaiza (Anazeh), 67, 70, 71, 108 Jebel Hamrin (Hamrin Mountains), 73, 111,112,276 Jebel Makhel (Makhul), 73,299 Jebel Sanam, 121, 147, 150, 152 Jebel Shammar, 391 Jebel Sinjar, 73, 297,299 Jeddah.173 Jezira Plains, 68,71,73,73-74 Joe Liban, 152,153, 201 Jordan, 15, 15,67,70,71,145,173,174, 178,180,304,353

Judaidat Arar (Judaidat at Al'ar), 42, 90, 94, 116,155, 174, 176 Jumaima, 42, 116 jungle cat, 102 K-3 (pumping station), 102 Kalahari Desert, 366, 389 Kasim (of Nejd), 391 Kerba1a, 23, 42, 53, 82, 104, 108, 116, 175,179,252,253,254 rainfall,59, 60,62 Kesrah, 101, 102 Khabrat ibu Ghamain, 94 Khedr-el-Mai, 35,42, 116,123,151,152, 176, 179,180,256,25~ 331 Khedr-el-Mai exclosure (fenced area), 122, 212,213,250,255,255,313,314-326,

335,336,341 Kirkuk,30 Koeleria phleoi"des, 32 Kufeh,111 Kuwait, 15, 15,37,67,68,97,116,147, 151,152, 155, 156,169,173,174,178, 179,209,238,239,259,260,265,270, 274

Lagonychium farctum (= Prosopis jizrcta, =Prosopis stephaniana), 23,24,32,143, 161,248, 301,302,328,329,330,331, 331 land evaluation, 363-375, 365, 367, 392 land qualities, 366,367, 368,371-375 LANDSAT-satellite, 297, 299,376 land use planning, 363, 364-375,365, 367 land utilization types, 364, 366,367, 368371,375,377 Lasiurus hirsutus, 100,228 Lebanon, 353 Lepus, L. arabicus, 103 L. capensis, 103 L. europeaus, 103 Lesser Zab (river), 299 Libya, 171, 173,270 Libyan Desert, 125, 173 lime, 79,81, 82,85,127,147,148,314 limestone, 17,70,71,73,74,75,82,85, 96,97,99,147,148,178,179,328 lion (Asiatic), 100, 102. 389 livestock population, 105, 106, 107-108, 352,358,390-391 Lower Wadian (Plain), 68, 70,71,73,82, 84 Lusuf,42 Lycium barbarum, 32,143

Lycium depressum, 274,275 Machmi,94 magnesium (in forage), 231, 232, 235, 236 Malva, 23,222,229 M parviflora, 327,342 mammals, 99 marls, 70, 71, 85, 147, 178 Matthiola oxyceras, 250 Matricaria, 23,229 M. aurea, 250 meat consumption, 354 meat prices, 354 meat production, 354-355,355 Medicago, 21,23,229 medicinal value, 14,350 Medina (of the Hejaz), 391 Mesopotamian Plain (Lower-), Mesopotamia, 16, 16,17,18,23,24,30,31,32 34, 68, 73, 76, 82, 84, 87, 100, 109, 112,175,275 Mia sittien, 42, 158,184 minerals (in forage), see ash minimal area, 125, 127 moisture content of vegetation, 243-249, 244,246,247,248 Moltkiopsis ciliata, 143, 155 monitoring, 364,365, 366,369,375,376, 378,386 Mosul, 15, 18,30,32,42, 53,54,87,296, 300,302

air humidity, 64 air temperature, 55,56 evaporation, 66 radiation, 55 rainfall,59, 60, 63 sunshine. 55 mountainous area (in Iraq), 17,18 see Zagros mountains Mugr an Naam, 42, 102, 116 mules, 105,106,353 Muscat, 173 Najd,113 Najaf,42, 53,73,82,116,254, 276 Najaf (saline) depression, 23, 34, 84, 121 Nasiriyah, 35,42,53,87,103,116,150, 176,178,275 air humidity, 64 air temperature, 55,56 evaporation, 66 radiation, 55 rainfall, 59,60 snowfall, 63 443

natural resources (definition), 349 Negev, 145 Nejd, (=Arabia), 111,391 Nerium oleander, 22 Neurada procumbens, 211 Neutral zone, 15, 70,81,116,153, 176 Nitraria retusa, 23, 104, 235,236, 237, 240,277 Noea mucronata, 143, 159,227,248 nomadism (nomadic pastoralism), see Bedouin(s) North Africa, 11, 14, 37, 170, 173, 174, 259,265,269,270,378 North America, II Nukhaib, 36,42, 43, 53,83, 87, 90, 102, 116, 123, 150, 151, 155, 156, 158, 161, 167, 176,180, 193. 222, 224,254,271, 272,279,279,309,314 rainfall,59, 59 watering points, 93, 94,96 numerical processing, 134, 140 nutritive value, 14,230-243,372,374 see chemical composition oasis, 88, 113 oil,14,87,116,118,357,392 Oman, 110, 173 onager,389 Onobrychis, 21 organic matter (in soils), 76, 79, 81, 82, 85,296 Ornothogalum ulopnyllum, 32 oryx (Arabian oryx), 100, 389 Oryx leucoryx Pallas, 100 ostrich, 104, 117,389 Otis tarda L., 104, 117 overgrazing, 274, 331, 335-344 see grazing pressure Pakistan, 171, 174,364,375 Panicum turgidum, 228 Panthera leo persica Meyer, 102 Paronychia arabica, 315 pastoral nomadism, see Bedouin(s) Peganum harmala. 24,73,141,143, 147, 148,160,221,229,248,300,301,301, 302,302, 303, 328,331, 331,338,339, 373 Penjwin,58 PersiaJee Iran petroCaiClC nonzon, 82 pH (of soils), 48, 81, 127 phenology (of key species), 181, 181-183 Phoenix dactyli[era, 22 phosphorus (in forage), 231, 236, 237, 238,240 444

Phragmites communis (=P. australis), 22 phryganosphere, 340 physiognomy (in vegetation classification),

131

physiography (physiographic units), 15-17, 1~67~4,77,82,145

Picris babylonica, 250 piosphere, 340 Pistacia, 304 Plantago, spp., 154, 222, 229, 250, 327, 342 P. Boissieri, 250 P. ciliata, 250 P. ovata, 250 plant introduction, 7 Platanus orientalis. 22 ploughing (for dryland cultivation), 127, 148,149, 161,293-310,335-344 Central and Upper Jezira, 296-305 general process, 294-296 Lower Jezira, Western and Southern Deserts, 305-310 overall effect, 310 pluvial periods, 108, 117 Poa bulbosa, 24, 32, 222, 228, 304, 330, 331 Poa sinai'ca, 36,159,161,228, 327 population (human), Baghdad,18 distribution, 18 increase, 18,354 Iraq, 17, 18, 110,115 nomadic, 110-ll5, 115, 116 Populus euphratica, 22 Populus nigra, 22 potassium (in forage), 231,232, 233,235, 236 Poterium spinosum, 255 precipitation, see rainfall predators, 14, 100, 103, ll7, 118, 373 primary production, see forage production proper use factor, 372, 374 Prosopis [areta, see Lagonychium [arctum protein (crude protein, D.C.P.), 230,232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237,238, 239, 239240,241-242, 372 proximate analysis (of forage), 230-232 Prunus, 304 pseudosands,76 Pterocles spp., 104

Qa'ara depression, 67,71,96,108 quartz, 79 Quercus aegilops, 21 Q. calliprinos, 304

Q. infectoria, 21 Q. libani, 21 raids (raiding), 113, 118 rainfall (precipitation), amount, 58-59, 61 changes, III Iraq (general), 17 minimum for cultivation, 293-294, 293 seasonal distribution, 59-63 rainfed agriculture, 18,293,296,297,370, 391 Ramadi,42, 73,94,100,101,116,151, 158,175,176,191,192,193 Ram1a,94 range (land) definition, 7 range resources, 349-352 range site, 378 Ranunculus asiaticus, 32, 161. 300 Rawa,42, 100,116 Razzaza, 108 recharge, see groundwater reconnaissance survey, 7, 258, 365, 366, 376-377 recreation, 349, 350, 373 reg, 75,75,82 relative importance percentage (RIMPvalue), 135-136, 137,141,143,162 reptiles, 103-105 Reseda muricata, 143 reSl11ence (of vegetation), 372-373 resource value of rangelands, 349-352 resource value of shrubs, 12-14 Rhanterium epapposum. 9, 24,32,34,36, 46,69,79,81,140,141,143,147,148, 150,151,152, 152,153,153,154,154, 162, 165-214 (see specification below), 255,265,341 adaptive characteristics establishment, 211, 212 maintenance, 212, 213 physiological, 212 reproduction, 209, 210, 211 chemical analysis and nutritive value, 232-243 description, 169-170 distribution, edapIJic conditions, 177, 179-180 general, 171-174 Iraq, 174-176,175 estimating biomass and production, 378384 forage production, 251, 253, 260 forage value, 226 fuel cutting, 276, 277, 285-286, 285,

287 germination, description, 196, 197,198 rate and temperature, 198,199 moisture content, 245-248,247,248 phenology, 181-182,181 rootsystem,201, 203,213 seed longevity, 200 seed production and dispersal, 195, 195, 210 seedling development and establishment, 200, 201, 202, 211 Rhanterium epapposum - ,--yperus conglomeratus type, 151-152 Rhanterium sua volens, 170,260 Riyadh, 174 rodents, 103, 183 see under species name root (rootsystem), 12, 211,212-213,301, 330 Artemisia herba-alba, 207 Haloxylon salicornicum, 190,193 Rhanterium epapposum, 201-202,201 Rosa can ina, 22 ruderal vegetation, 21, 23-24 Rumaitha, 165 runoff (water), 18, 24,75,96, 145, 159, 176,180,183,274,294,305,310,315, 340,344,370 Rutba, 36, 42, 53, 54, 71, 87, 94, 102, 108, 116, 123, 150,156,158,159,167, 176,180, 191, 192,193, 198,206,252, 254,263,264,27l air humidity, 63, 64 air temperature, 55,56 evaporation, 66 rainfall, 59,59, 60, 63 snowfall,63 soil temperature, 57 watering points, wells, 90, 94, 96 Rutba exc10sure (fenced area), 122, 160, 160,213,222,307,313,314,326-328, 341,383,385,385 Safwan, 79, 176,233 Sahel (Sahelian countries), 340, 391 salinization (salinity), 18,23,84,146, 147 Salix, 22 Sa/sola spp., 126,141,143,147,158,248, 277,302,331 S. baryosma, 143 S. crassa, 34 S. rigida, 36, 222, 223, 224, 225, 227, 229,236,341 S. subaphylla, 248 445

S. vermiculilta, 36,143, 187,227 Samah, 9,42,81,116,123,154,195,198, 200, 201, 247, 250,251,255,256,257, 275,285,28~ 383,384 Samarra,42, 74,112,276 Samawa (Samaweh), 42,71,111,116 rainfall, 59 sampling of vegetation, 44, 121 habitat characteristics, 127 information recorded, 126 precision, 127-130 sample plots, 124-126 selection of stands, 122-123 sanddunes (sanddune area), 71-73, 72, 74, 76,81,82,85,142,147,150-151 sandgrouse, 104 sandstone, 70, 85, 99,147,178 Saudi Arabia, 15, 15,54,67,70,71,79, 89, 92, 102, 111, 116, 155, 156, 169, 170,179,195,260,270,294,353,371, 378 Savignya parvijlora, 250 Schanginia aegyptiaca, 143, 150 Schimpera arabica, 250 Schismus arabicus, 250 Schismus barbatus, 250 Scrophulilria deserti, 143, 302 Scrophulilria xanthoglossa, 330,331 scrub, 12 seed, 301, 325, 330 see Artemisia herba-alba see Haloxylon salicomicum see Rhanterium epapposum seedling development see Artemisia herba-alba see Haloxylon salicomicum see Rhanterium epapposum segetal vegetation, 21, 23-24 Seidlitzia rosmarinus, 23,34,178 selectivity (in grazing), 219-229 Shabicha (Ash Shabicha), 36,42, 53, 70, 90,102,116,271,274 .rainfalL 60 Shabicha tlxclosure, 313, 314,328-330 Shamiya,391 Shanidar cave, 109 Shammar (tribe), 112,296,300 Shatt al Arab, 112 sheep, 23,99, 105, 107, 108, 109, 112, 118,370 contribution to national income, 352-359 see grazing Shanifiya,276 Shinana,94 Shitatha (Shitathe), 23,42, 88, 108,269, 446

275 siltstone, 71 Sinjar (Balad Sinjar), 42, 53, 100,296,298 rainfall, 59, 60 snakes, 104 snowfall, 63 socio-ecological (species) groups, 140,143 sodium (in forage), 231,232,233,235,236 soils chemical analysis, 48,85,147 classification, 77 in the study area, 74-86 Jezira, 85-86 maps, 76-77,80, 366 protection, 14 sampling, 4748, 127 Southern Desert, 79-82 suitability for agricultural use, 18, 19, 20, 76 taxonomic units, 78 Western Desert, 82-85 soil texture, 142-145,144,177, 178,179,

180,180,314

see soils solar radiation, 54-55 South Africa, 125, 133 South America, 11 South West Asia, 5, 11, 14,15,29,259, 269,392 Spain, 174 spiny tailed lizard, 104, 179 springs. 87-88, 94 steppe, 11,12,21,24,31,65,67,110, 174,304,351 Stipa,229 S. capensis, 250 Stipagrostis, 24,143 S. plumosa, 24,100,125,150,151,152, 153,228,248,315,321,322 Struthio camelus, L., 104, 117 stubble grazing, 23 Suaeda spp., 178 S. baccata, 23 S. vermiculilta, 23,178 Sulaimaniya, 22 Sunaisala (depression), 74 sunshine, 54-55 supplementary feeding, 14,265 supplementary irrigation, 18,293,370 Suq as Shuq, 103 surface sealing, 296, 307,340,344 surface water, 88-89,89, 95,375,389 Syria, 15, 15,30,37,70,71,73,84,109, 174,259,270,273,310,353,371 Syrian Desert, 15,32,161,165

Syrian wild ass, 100 survey, 7,41,76-77, 122, 258,364-378, 392

see reconnaissance survey Takhadid,42 Tammam,111 Tamarix, 22,97,100,141,143,147,161, 274,275 T. aphylla, 275 T. articulata, 32 Tamarix sp. - Aeluropus lagopoides type, 161 Tar Kshaife, 108 Taurus, 110 Tel Afar, 42,53,296,297,298 Tel Lachm, 150, 178,276 temperature, air -, in the study area, 55-57,64 data collection, 48 Iraq (general), 17 soil-, in the study area, 57-58 Tethys Sea, 17 Teucrium oliverianum, 36 Teucrium polium, 36,143,227,236,237, 302 'thaqab',88 Tharthar (Wadi Tharthar, Tharthar depression, Lake Tharthar), 73,74,85,97,101, 151,175,276,389 thorn-cushion vegetation, 21 Tigris (river), River Tigris, 15, 16, 17, 24, 30,74,97,110,111,276,296,299 Tikrit,42 toxicity of forage (poisenous plants), 373 Traifawi,42, 116,178,302,303 Tribulus terrestris, 327 Trifolium, 21,23,229 Trigonella, 23,229 T. stellata, 250 Triticum durum, 295 Tunisia, 259, 260,270,273 Tuquiyid, 70 Turkey, 15,15,171,174 Typha angustifolia, 22 Ukhaidir (area), 34, 42, 108, 121, 123, 158,179,184,252,254,382,383 air humidity, 63, 64 air temperature, 64 soil temperature, 58 Urn Quasr, 151,152, 152,169,233 Umm Rahal, 73 Upper Wadian (Plain), 68, 70-71, 82 uprooting, 286-288, 294

see fuel t cutting) Ur, 32, 42, 67, 73, 79, 81, 151, 276,277 urbanization, 114, 116 Uromastix aegyptius L., 104,179 USA (United States of America), 12, 35, 231,371,373,378,391 USSR, 174, 378 utilization (of the rangelands), 219-344 see fuel (cutting) see grazing see ploughing Varanus griseus Daudin, 104 vegetation types, 41, 121-162 classification 130-142 description, 142-162 (seperately given under the species) sampling for -, 122-130 Vicia, 23 Vitis vinifera, 22 Vulpes rilppelli sabaena Pocock, 102 Vulpes vulpes L., 102 Vulpes vulpes arabica Thomas, 102

Wadi AI-Auja, 94 Wadi AI-Khir, 70, 82 Wadi AI-Muhammadi, 94 Wadi AI-Walej, 71,94 Wadi Batin (AI-Batin, Batn), 70, 71, 94, 97,370,391 Wadi Ghadef, 70 Wadi Hamdh, 178 Wadi Hauran, 70, 71, 108 Wadi Rumh, 391 Wadi Sidr, 275 Wadi Tibel mbal), 224, 308 Wadi Ubaiyidh, 10; 71, 83, 157, 193, 276, 279,28~306, 309,338 Wadian (Plain), 94 see Upper Wadian Plain see Lower Wadian Plain watering points, see wells see surface water water quality, 90, 96, 97-99, 98,373 water resources, 87-99 weeds, 23, 125,330 wells, 87, 89-94, 95, 96, 97, 113, 116, 118,270,276,284,301,329,338,340, 344,368,391 drilled, 90, 91-94, 93,95,96 hand~ug,89,91,92,93,94,95,96

in land evaluation, 373 wolf, 102 Yemen, 110, 111,391 447

Zagros mountains, 16, 16,17,58,110 Zarga area, 103 Zilla spinoSQ, 36, 143, 156, 158, 160, 178, 179,221,229,248,307,310,328,338 Zizyphus nummularia, 32,33,36,88,221, 274,275, 275 zoochory, 183, 197

448

Zubarr, 36,42, 79,97,116,156,271,275 Zygophyllum coccineum, 34, 141, 143, 147, 148, 156, 235, 236, 237, 240,248 Zygophyllum coccineum - Cornulaca leucacantha type, 156 Zygophyllum dumosum, 255 Zygophyllum propinquum, 147, 156