Earned Value Management (EVM) • EVM adalah teknik pengukuran kinerja proyek yang mengintegrasikan lingkup, waktu, dan data biaya • Mengingat dasar (rencana semula ditambah perubahan disetujui), Kita dapat menentukan seberapa baik proyek memenuhi tujuan-nya • Kita harus memasukkan informasi aktual secara berkala menggunakan EVM • Semakin banyak organisasi di seluruh dunia menggunakan EVM untuk membantu biaya proyek pengendalian
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Earned Value Management Terms • Planned Value/nilai direncanakan (PV), biasanya disebut biaya yang dianggarkan dari pekerjaan yang dijadwalkan/budgeted Cost of Work Schedule (BCWS), juga disebut anggaran, adalah bahwa sebagian dari total perkiraan biaya yang disetujui direncanakan akan dihabiskan untuk kegiatan selama periode tertentu • Actual Cost/biaya aktual (AC), biasanya disebut biaya aktual dari pekerjaan yang dilakukan/Budgeted Cost of Work Performed (BCWP), adalah total biaya langsung dan tidak langsung yang dikeluarkan dalam melaksanakan pekerjaan pada kegiatan selama periode tertentu • Earned Value/nilai yang diperoleh (EV), biasanya disebut biaya yang dianggarkan untuk pekerjaan yang dilakukan (BCWP), adalah nilai perkiraan nilai fisik benar-benar selesai dikerjakan • EV didasarkan pada biaya yang direncanakan asli untuk proyek atau kegiatan dan tingkat di mana tim ini menyelesaikan pekerjaan pada proyek atau kegiatan untuk tanggal 2
Rate of Performance • Tingkat kinerja/Rate of Performance (RP) adalah rasio pekerjaan yang sebenarnya diselesaikan dengan persentase pekerjaan yang direncanakan telah selesai pada waktu tertentu selama hidup proyek atau kegiatan • Brenda Taylor, Project Manager Senior di Afrika Selatan, menunjukkan istilah ini dan pendekatan untuk memperkirakan nilai yang diperoleh • Misalnya, instalasi server ini separuh selesai pada akhir minggu 1: tingkat kinerja akan menjadi 50% karena pada akhir minggu 1, jadwal yang direncanakan mencerminkan bahwa tugas harus 100 persen lengkap dan hanya 50 persen pekerjaan yang telah selesai 3
Table 7-4. Earned Value Calculations for One Activity after Week One
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Table 7-5. Earned Value Formulas
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Figure 7-5. Earned Value Chart for Project after Five Months
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Project Portfolio Management • Banyak organisasi mengumpulkan dan mengontrol seluruh paket proyek atau investasi sebagai satu set kegiatan yang saling terkait dalam portofolio • Lima tingkat untuk manajemen portofolio proyek 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Menempatkan semua proyek Anda dalam satu database Memprioritaskan proyek-proyek dalam database Anda Membagi proyek menjadi dua atau tiga anggaran berdasarkan jenis investasi Mengotomatisasi repositori Menerapkan teori portofolio modern, termasuk alat risk-return yang memetakan risiko proyek pada kurva
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Using Software to Assist in Cost Management • Spreadsheets are a common tool for resource planning, cost estimating, cost budgeting, and cost control • Many companies use more sophisticated and centralized financial applications software for cost information • Project management software has many cost-related features, especially enterprise PM software • Portfolio management software can help reduce costs
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Chapter Summary • Project cost management is a traditionally weak area of IT projects, and project managers must work to improve their ability to deliver projects within approved budgets • Main processes include: – Estimate costs – Determine the budget – Control costs
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Six Sigma Defined •
Six Sigma is “sistem yang komprehensif dan fleksibel untuk mencapai, mempertahankan dan memaksimalkankesuksesan bisnis (Business success.) Six Sigma bersifat unik didorong oleh pemahaman
pendekatan dekat kebutuhan pelanggan (customer needs,), disiplin penggunaan fakta, data, dan analisis statistik, dan perhatian rajin untuk mengelola, meningkatkan, dan menciptakan kembali proses bisnis (business processes).”*
*Pande, Peter S., Robert P. Neuman, and Roland R. Cavanagh, The Six Sigma Way. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000, p. xi
DMAIC
Keunikan Six Sigma • Memerlukan komitmen seluruh bagian organisasi • Organisasi memiliki kemampuan dan keinginan untuk mengadopsi sasaran yang berbeda, misalnya mengurangi error dan melakukan pekerjaan dengan lebih cepat • Merupakan filosofi operatif yang customer-focused dan membuang operasi tidak berguna, meningkatkan kualitas, serta meningkatkan performansi finansial pada level breakthrough
Examples of Six Sigma Organizations • Motorola, Inc . pioneered the adoption of Six Sigma in the 1980s and saved about $14 billion
• Allied Signal/Honeywell saved more than $600 million a year by reducing the costs of reworking defects and improving aircraft engine design processes • General Electric uses Six Sigma to focus on achieving customer satisfaction
Six Sigma & Manajemen Proyek • Joseph M. Juran stated that “all improvement takes place project by project, and in no other way” • Sangat penting melakukan pemilihan proyek dengan hati-hati dan menerapkan kualitas yang lebih tinggi • Proyek Six Sigma harus berfokus pada masalah kualitas proyek atau “gap” antara keadaan sekarang dan keadaan yang diinginkan • Setelah memilih proyek Six Sigma, konsep, tools dan teknik manajemen yang ada dapat digunakan. Seperti membuat business cases, project charters, schedules, budgets , etc.
Quality Control Charts and the Seven Run Rule • Control chart: tampilan data secara grafis yang
mengilustrasikan hasil proses terhadap waktu. Grafik ini membantu mencegah cacat dan menentukan apakah sebuah proses terkendali/ tidak • Seven run rule: jika tujuh poin data seluruhnya di bawah
atau di atas rata-rata, atau meningkat atau menurun, maka proses perlu dikaji untuk masalah non-random
Contoh Quality Control Chart
Testing/ Pengujian
• Banyak digunakan dalam proyek-proyek IT • Banyak profesional IT yang melakukan testing hanya di bagian akhir pembuatan produk • Testing seharusnya dilakukan pada tiap tahapan dalam siklus hidup pembangunan produk
Testing Tasks in the Software Development Life Cycle
The Importance of Human Resource Management • Many corporate executives have said, “People are our most important asset” • People determine the success and failure of organizations and projects
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What is Project Human Resource Management?
• Making the most effective use of the people involved with a project • Processes include: – Developing the human resource plan: identifying and documenting project roles, responsibilities, and reporting relationships – Acquiring the project team: getting the needed personnel assigned to and working on the project – Developing the project team: building individual and group skills to enhance project performance – Managing the project team: tracking team member performance, motivating team members, providing timely feedback, resolving issues and conflicts, and coordinating changes to help enhance project performance
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Figure 9-1. Project Human Resource Management Summary
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Keys to Managing People • Psychologists and management theorists have devoted much research and thought to the field of managing people at work • Important areas related to project management include: – Motivation theories – Influence and power – Effectiveness
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Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation • Intrinsic motivation causes people to participate in an activity for their own enjoyment • Extrinsic motivation causes people to do something for a reward or to avoid a penalty • For example, some children take piano lessons for intrinsic motivation (they enjoy it) while others take them for extrinsic motivation (to get a reward or avoid punishment)
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • Abraham Maslow argued that humans possess unique qualities that enable them to make independent choices, thus giving them control of their destiny • Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs which states that people’s behaviors are guided or motivated by a sequence of needs
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Figure 9-2. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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Herzberg’s Motivational and Hygiene Factors • Frederick Herzberg wrote several famous books and articles about worker motivation; he distinguished between: – Motivational factors: achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth, which produce job satisfaction – Hygiene factors: cause dissatisfaction if not present, but do not motivate workers to do more; examples include larger salaries, more supervision, and a more attractive work environment
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Table 9-1: Examples of Herzberg’s Hygiene Factors and Motivators
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McClelland’s Acquired-Needs Theory
• Specific needs are acquired or learned over time and shaped by life experiences, including: – Achievement (nAch): achievers like challenging projects with achievable goals and lots of feedback – Affiliation (nAff): people with high nAff desire harmonious relationships and need to feel accepted by others, so managers should try to create a cooperative work environment for them – Power (nPow): people with a need for power desire either personal power (not good) or institutional power (good for the organization); provide institutional power seekers with management opportunities
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McGregor’s Theory X and Y • Douglas McGregor popularized the human relations approach to management in the 1960s • Theory X: assumes workers dislike and avoid work, so managers must use coercion, threats, and various control schemes to get workers to meet objectives • Theory Y: assumes individuals consider work as natural as play or rest and enjoy the satisfaction of esteem and selfactualization needs • Theory Z: introduced in 1981 by William Ouchi and is based on the Japanese approach to motivating workers, emphasizing trust, quality, collective decision making, and cultural values
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Ways to Influence that Help and Hurt Projects • Projects are more likely to succeed when project managers influence with: – Expertise – Work challenge
• Projects are more likely to fail when project managers rely too heavily on: – Authority – Money – Penalty 30
Power • Power is the potential ability to influence behavior to get people to do things they would not otherwise do • Types of power include: – Coercive – Legitimate – Expert – Reward – Referent 31
Developing the Human Resource Plan • Involves identifying and documenting project roles, responsibilities, and reporting relationships • Contents include: – Project organizational charts – Staffing management plan – Responsibility assignment matrixes – Resource histograms
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Figure 9-3. Sample Organizational Chart for a Large IT Project
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Responsibility Assignment Matrices • A responsibility assignment matrix (RAM) is a matrix that maps the work of the project as described in the WBS to the people responsible for performing the work as described in the OBS • Can be created in different ways to meet unique project needs
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Figure 9-5. Sample Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM)
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Figure 9-6. RAM Showing Stakeholder Roles
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Table 9-2. Sample RACI Chart
R = responsibility A = accountability, only one A per task C = consultation I = informed Note that some people reverse the definitions of responsible and accountable.
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Staffing Management Plans and Resource Histograms • A staffing management plan describes when and how people will be added to and taken off the project team • A resource histogram is a column chart that shows the number of resources assigned to a project over time
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Figure 9-7. Sample Resource Histogram
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Acquiring the Project Team • Acquiring qualified people for teams is crucial • The project manager who is the smartest person on the team has done a poor job of recruiting! • It’s important to assign the appropriate type and number of people to work on projects at the appropriate times
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Resource Assignment • Staffing plans and good hiring procedures are important, as are incentives for recruiting and retention – Some companies give their employees one dollar for every hour a new person they helped hire works – Some organizations allow people to work from home as an incentive
• Enrollment in U.S. computer science and engineering programs has dropped almost in half since 2000, and one-third of U.S. workers will be over the age of 50 by 2010 • CIO’s researchers suggest that organizations rethink hiring practices and incentives to hire and retain IT talent
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Resource Loading • Resource loading refers to the amount of individual resources an existing schedule requires during specific time periods • Helps project managers develop a general understanding of the demands a project will make on the organization’s resources and individual people’s schedules • Overallocation means that more resources than are available are assigned to perform work at a given time
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Resource Leveling • Resource leveling is a technique for resolving resource conflicts by delaying tasks • The main purpose of resource leveling is to create a smoother distribution of resource usage and reduce overallocation
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Figure 9-9. Resource Leveling Example
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Benefits of Resource Leveling • When resources are used on a more constant basis, they require less management • It may enable project managers to use a just-in-time inventory type of policy for using subcontractors or other expensive resources • It results in fewer problems for project personnel and accounting department • It often improves morale
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Developing the Project Team • The main goal of team development is to help people work together more effectively to improve project performance • It takes teamwork to successfully complete most projects
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Tuckman Model of Team Development • • • • •
Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning
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Training • Training can help people understand themselves, each other, and how to work better in teams • Team building activities include: – Physical challenges – Psychological preference indicator tools
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Reward and Recognition Systems • Team-based reward and recognition systems can promote teamwork • Focus on rewarding teams for achieving specific goals • Allow time for team members to mentor and help each other to meet project goals and develop human resources
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Managing the Project Team • Project managers must lead their teams in performing various project activities • After assessing team performance and related information, the project manager must decide: – If changes should be requested to the project – If corrective or preventive actions should be recommended – If updates are needed to the project management plan or organizational process assets
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Tools and Techniques for Managing Project Teams • • • • •
Observation and conversation Project performance appraisals Conflict management Issue logs Interpersonal skills
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General Advice on Teams • • • •
Be patient and kind with your team Fix the problem instead of blaming people Establish regular, effective meetings Allow time for teams to go through the basic team-building stages • Limit the size of work teams to three to seven members
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Five Dysfunctions of a Team •
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Patrick Lencioni, author of several books on teams, says that “Teamwork remains the one sustainable competitive advantage that has been largely untapped”* The five dysfunctions of teams are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Absence of trust Fear of conflict Lack of commitment Avoidance of accountability Inattention to results
*Lencioni, Patrick, “Overcoming the Five Dysfunctions of a Team,” Jossey-Bass: San Francisco, CA (2005), p. 3. 53
Using Software to Assist in Human Resource Management • Software can help in producing RAMS and resource histograms • Project management software includes several features related to human resource management such as: – Assigning resources – Identifying potential resource shortages or underutilization – Leveling resources 54
Chapter Summary • Project human resource management includes the processes required to make the most effective use of the people involved with a project • Main processes include: – Develop human resource plan – Acquire project team – Develop project team – Manage project team
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Classifications for Communication Methods • Interactive communication: Two or more people interact to exchange information via meetings, phone calls, or video conferencing. Most effective way to ensure common understanding • Push communication: Information is sent or pushed to recipients without their request via reports, e-mails, faxes, voice mails, and other means. Ensures that the information is distributed, but does not ensure that it was received or understood
• Pull communication: Information is sent to recipients at their request via Web sites, bulletin boards, e-learning, knowledge repositories like blogs, and other means 56
Reporting Performance • Performance reporting keeps stakeholders informed about how resources are being used to achieve project objectives – Status reports describe where the project stands at a specific point in time – Progress reports describe what the project team has accomplished during a certain period of time
– Forecasts predict future project status and progress based on past information and trends
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Controlling Communications • The main goal of controlling communications is to ensure the optimal flow of information throughout the entire project life cycle • The project manager and project team should use their various reporting systems, expert judgment, and meetings to assess how well communications are working. If problems exist, the project manager and team need to take action, which often requires changes to the earlier processes of planning and managing project communications • It is often beneficial to have a facilitator from outside the project team assess how well communications are working
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Suggestions for Improving Project Communications • Develop better communication skills • Run effective meetings • Use e-mail and other technologies effectively
• Use templates for project communications
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Developing Better Communication Skills • Most companies spend a lot of money on technical training for their employees, even when employees might benefit more from communications training • Individual employees are also more likely to enroll voluntarily in classes to learn the latest technology than in classes that develop soft skills • As organizations become more global, they realize they must invest in ways to improve communication with people from different countries and cultures • It takes leadership to improve communication
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Running Effective Meetings • • • • •
Determine if a meeting can be avoided Define the purpose and intended outcome of the meeting Determine who should attend the meeting Provide an agenda to participants before the meeting Prepare handouts and visual aids, and make logistical arrangements ahead of time • Run the meeting professionally • Set the ground rules for the meeting • Build relationships
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Sample Collaborative Tools • A SharePoint portal allows users to create custom Web sites to access documents and applications stored on shared devices • Google Docs allow users to create, share, and edit documents, spreadsheets, and presentations online • A wiki is a Web site designed to enable anyone who accesses it to contribute or modify Web page content 62
Using Templates for Project Communications • Many technical people are afraid to ask for help • Providing examples and templates for project communications saves time and money
• Organizations can develop their own templates, use some provided by outside organizations, or use samples from textbooks • Recall that research shows that companies that excel in project management make effective use of templates
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Sample Template for a Project Description
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Sample Template for a Monthly Progress Report
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Final Project Documentation Items
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Lessons Learned Reports • The project manager and project team members should each prepare a lessons-learned report – A reflective statement that documents important things an individual learned from working on the project
• The project manager often combines information from all of the lessons-learned reports into a project summary report
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Chapter Summary • The goal of project communications management is to ensure timely and appropriate generation, collection, dissemination, storage, and disposition of project information • Main process include: – Plan communications management – Manage communications – Control communications
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Activity Lists and Attributes • Activity list adalah tabulasi kegiatan untuk dimsukkan pada jadwal proyek yang meliputi: – Nama kegiatan – Identifier kegiatan atau nomor kegiatan – Deskripsi singkat dari aktivitas • Activity attributes memberikan informasi lebih seperti pendahulunya, penerus, hubungan logis, kebutuhan sumber daya, kendala, kapan diberlakukan, dan sumsi terkait dengan kegiatan Information System Project Management Milestones • milestone adalah peristiwa penting yang biasanya tidak memiliki durasi • Milestone sering membutuhkan beberapa kegiatan dan banyak pekerjaan untuk menyelesaikannya • Hal ini merupakan alat yang berguna untuk menetapkan tujuan jadwal dan memantau kemajuan • Contohnya termasuk memperoleh pelanggan sign-off pada dokumen kunci atau penyelesaian produk tertentu
Three-Point Estimates • Three-point estimate, yaitu kita memperkirakan durasi sebuah tugas dengan memperhatikan tiga hal yaitu optimis, kemungkinan besar, dan perkiraan pesimis, seperti tiga minggu untuk optimis, empat minggu untuk paling mungkin, dan lima minggu untuk perkiraan pesimis • Three-point estimate diperlukan untuk PERT dan Monte Carlo simulasi Information System Project Management Developing the Schedule • Menggunakan hasil dari proses manajemen waktu lain untuk menentukan tanggal awal dan akhir proyek • Tujuan utamanya adalah untuk membuat jadwal proyek yang realistis yang menyediakan dasar untuk kemajuan proyek pemantauan untuk dimensi waktu proyek • Alat penting dan teknik termasuk Gantt chart, analisis jalur kritis, dan kritis rantai penjadwalan, dan analisis PERT
Gantt Charts • Gantt charts menyediakan format standar untuk menampilkan informasi jadwal proyek dengan daftar kegiatan proyek yang berhubungan dan menyelesaikan tanggal dalam format kalender • Symbols include:– Black diamonds: milestones – Thick black bars: summary tasks – Lighter horizontal bars: durations of tasks – Arrows: dependencies between tasks Information System Project Management Critical Path Method (CPM) • CPM adalah teknik jaringan diagram yang digunakan untuk memprediksi durasi total proyek • critical path untuk sebuah proyek merupakan serangkaian kegiatan menetukan waktu yang paling awal dimana proyek dapat diselesaikan • The critical path adalah jalur terpanjang melalui diagram jaringan dan memiliki sedikit slack atau float
