Transport Demand M Management t Iwan P. Kusumantoro November 2010
TRANSPORTATION SUSTAINABILITY
Deakin (Berkeley, 2001): Concerns about Environmental Quality, Social Equity Equity, Economic Vitality Vitality,, and the threat of climate change have converged to produce a growing interest in the concept of sustainable development. In nations with more advanced economies,particular attention is being paid to the critical roles played by transportation, transportation land use, use and activity systems systems. Transport Canada (1999): The Goal of Sustainable Transportation is to ensure that environment, social and economic considerations are factored into decisions affecting transportation activity ti it TRANSPORTATION IMPACT ON SUSTAINABILITY Economic
Social
Environmental
Traffic congestion Mobility barriers Crash damages Transportation facility costs Consumer transportation costs Depletion of non-renewable resources
Inequity of impacts Mobility disadvantaged Human health impacts Community cohesion Community livability Aesthetics
Air pollution Climate change Habitat loss Water pollution Hydrologic impacts Noise pollution
60 000 60,000 55,807 50,000
Private passenger transport energy consumption Per-capita in global cities, 1990
40,000 33,562 30,893
30,000
20 000 20,000
17,218
10,000
7,258 0
Sumber: Susantono, 2004
5,832
KOTA OECD 1. London g 2. Los Angeles 3. New York 4. Tokyo ASIA TIMUR 1. Seoul 2. Beijing 3. Jakarta 4 Bangkok 4. 5. Manila ASIA SELATAN 1. Karachi 2. Mumbai 3. Delhi AMERIKA LATIN 1. Lima 2. Mexico City 3. Sao Paulo 4. Buenos Aires 5. Rio de Janeiro ASIA TENGAH & AFRIKA 1 Teheran 1. 2. Cairo 3. Lagos 4. Moskow Keterangan :
POLUTAN CO
NOx
Timbal
SPM
SO2
INTENSITAS PENCEMARAN UDARA Kota-kota Kota kota di Dunia
O3
t.a.d
t.a.d
t.a.d t.a.d
t.a.d t.a.d t.a.d
t.a.d t.a.d
Kota-kotadi Dunia
t.a.d
tad t.a.d t.a.d parah sedang
t.a.d t.a.d t.a.d
t.a.d t.a.d t.a.d
rendah tidak ada data
Kota Jakarta
Sumber: World Bank, 2002
Polutan
Sumber: Soedomo (2001)
Total (ton / tahun)
Industri (%)
Permukiman (%)
Persampahan (%)
Transportasi (%)
CO
325.578
0,10
0,10
1,00
98,80
THC
14.593
1,20
2,20
7,70
88,90
NOx
20.456
15,90
9,60
1,10
73,40
TSP
7.071
14,60
33,00
8,40
44,10
SOx
24.710
62,70
10,70
0,20
26,50
Pb
110
0,00
0,00
0,00
100,00
POLUSI UDARA
POLUTAN Carbon Monoksida Black Smoke (Asap Hitam) Volatile Organic Compounds Nitrogen Oksida Carbon Dioksida Lead
+ 42 + 85
PROPORSI JALAN TERHADAP SELURUH SUMBER EMISI 90 % 46 %
+ 13
41 %
+ 71 + 44 - 67
51 % 19 %
KENAIKAN AKIBAT PERTAMBAHAN KENDARAAN
EFEK Morbidity, Fertility Morbidity Toxic Trace Substances Acid Rain Global Warning Mental Development
Keterangan: Perkembangan tahun 1978 1978-1988 1988 Sumber: Departement of Transport UK (1992) dalam Barnister & Barnister, 1995
Emission factors of NOx, PM10, and SO2 in Jakarta for each vehicle category (in g/km) NOx Motorcycle Passenger car Taxi Microbus Bus Van Pick up Truck 2-axle Truck 3-axle PM10 Motorcycle Passenger car Taxi Microbus Bus Van Pick up Truck 2-axle Truck 3-axle SO2 Motorcycle Passenger car Taxi Microbus Bus Van Pick upp Truck 2-axle Truck 3-axle
Source: JICA, 1997.
10-15 0.08 2.77 2.39 6.69 14.25 3.10 3.01 9.10 19.50
T Travel l speedd in i km/hr k /h 15-25 25-40 40-60 0.09 0.10 0.0 2.24 2.25 2.22 2.00 1.98 1.94 6.21 5.97 8.06 11.73 10.00 10.77 2.95 3.10 3.38 2.83 2.93 3.17 7.21 5.88 5.67 15.45 12.60 12.15
60-80 0.0 3.39 2.72 7.45 10.30 4.40 4.09 5.53 11.85
0.01 0.17 0.22 0.84 1.40 0 17 0.17 0.27 1.40 1.40
0.01 0.17 0.22 0.80 1.40 0 17 0.17 0.27 1.40 1.40
0.01 0.16 0.22 0.76 1.40 0 16 0.16 0.27 1.40 1.40
0.01 0.16 0.21 0.74 1.40 0 16 0.16 0.27 1.40 1.40
0.01 0.16 0.22 0.77 1.40 0 16 0.16 0.27 1.40 1.40
0.01 0.16 0.25 0.66 2.42 0.12 0.27 1.76 3.96
0.01 0.13 0.21 0.56 2.09 0.10 0.23 1.52 3.42
0.01 0.10 0.16 0.46 1.76 0.07 0.19 1.28 2.88
0.00 0.08 0.13 0.38 1.43 0.06 0.16 1.04 2.34
0.01 0.09 0.15 0.40 1.54 0.07 0.17 1.12 2.52
Supply
Dema and
Balance Demand- Supply
Terminologi
Transportation demand management (TDM) is the art of modifying
travel behavior, behavior, usually to avoid more costly expansion of the transportation system. TDM is not a panacea, but it can help ease some transportation problems. TDM requires the cooperation of many actors, actors, who may include developers; landowners; employers; business associations; and municipal, county, regional, and state levels of government. TDM organizational forms, forms, including transportation management associations, trip reduction ordinances, and negotiated publicpublic-private agreements. g TDM evaluation is difficult, because reductions in trip generation rates, i.e., relative changes in travel demand, are not easy to measure. measure. Evidence suggests that TDM can be applied in a wide variety of situations, situations, with equally q y variable,, and sometimes quite q good, g , overall results. TDM strategies that often have proven to be effective include onon-site employee transportation coordination, parking management provisions, and alternative work schedules.
Eric Ferguson, 2006
Transportation Demand Management (TDM) includes various strategies that increase travel, choices and encourage consumers to use each option for what it does best best. TDM helps create a more balanced, less automobile dependent transport system (Todd Litman Litman,, 1999) TDM is anyy action or set of actions aimed at influencing g people's p p travel behavior in such a way that alternative mobility options are presented and/or congestion is reduced (Meyer, 1997)
TDM is term used for describe various strategies in order to modify travel behavior (Ferguson, 1997) TDM is a term applied to broad range of strategies that are primarily intended to reduce and reshape demand (use) of our transportation system (Washington h State S Department off Transportation, 2000)
So that that, we can identify that TDM focus on: – Modification of travel behavior as intervention in demand, not in modification of transportation supply – Various strategies g can be used as choice of mobilityy – Element of planning for policy input in transportation field
TDM differs from TSM in that its focus is exclusively on travel demand rather than on transportation supply. supply Travel demand management responds to changes in transportation supply; hence, the two approaches are complementary rather than competing strategies to achieve more efficient transportation system utilization.
ALTERNATIF PEMECAHAN DGN TDM 1
CONGESTION CHARGING
2
FUEL PRICING
3
REGULATING USE OF VEHICLES
4
VEHICLE OWNERSHIP RESTRAINT
5
PARKING CONTROL
6
CAR POOLING
7
PHYSICAL RESTRAINT
8
LAND USE CONTROL
9
TELEMATICS
10
PUBLIC TRANSPORT
CONGESTION CHARGING
CC : kebijakan penerapan biaya (pricing) terhadap para pengguna jalan untuk mengendalikan perjalanan (demand) pada saat terjadinya kondisi kemacetan pada jaringan jalan perkotaan Mekanisme CC: (i) pembedaan pajak kendaraan (differential fuel taxation), (ii) pajak karyawan (employee tax), ) (iii) pajak parkir (parking tax), ) (iv) tiket harian (daily licences), dan (v) pembiayaan langsung (direct pricing) Pengalaman negara lain, yang merupakan alt. terbaik adalah: Pengendalian parkir (Amerika) Berbasis zona, waktu tertentu (Inggirs) Lokasi ditetapkan, waktunya dipilih dgn pembedaan biaya saat puncak/tidak p / ((Singapura) g p ) Perlu penegakan hukum untuk monitor dan mengatur pembiayaan Perlu teknologi untuk integrasi pengumpulan biaya dan penegakan hukum Perlu data base yang akurat dan upup-toto-date
FUEL CHARGING
Fuel pricing melalui pengenaan pajak bahan bakar Besarnya FP ditentukan oleh jarak yang telah ditempuhnya Kendaraan bermotor yang telah melampaui batas jarak tempuh tertentu harus membayar pajak dengan jumlah tertentu setiap liternya
REGULATING USE OF VEHICLES
Mengatur jenis penggunaan kendaraan Harus didukung dengan perbaikan sistem pelayanan angkutan umum, pengendalian parkir dan pedestrianisasi Efektifitas pembatasan tersebut akhirnya semakin menurun akibat banyaknya izin pengecualian bagi perjalanan tertentu, seperti pemukim (residents), kendaraan pengirim barang penting (delivery vehicles) maupun pengguna off off--street parking pribadi. Tujuan T j peningkatan i k t pengisian i i ((occupancy)) di disiasati i ti d dengan jjokijoki ki-joki j ki Tujuan pembatasan dgn mengatur plat nomor disiasati dgn memiliki plat lebih dari 1.
VEHICLE OWNERSHIP RESTRAINT
Mengurangi tingkat kepemilikan kendaraan dan menekan laju pertumbuhannya Pembatasan dapat dilakukan dengan pengaturan fiskal, yaitu yaitu:: – kebijakan pajak impor yang tinggi (high import duties) – biaya pajak tahunan (high annual charges) – struktur biaya (charge) yang diarahkan untuk melakukan scrapping bagi kendaraan usia tua – membedakan b d k mobil bil pribadi ib di d dan mobil bil perusahaan h – dikecualikan untuk bus kota dan kendaraan darurat (emergency vehicles).
PARKING CONTROL
Mengatur kapasitas parkir dan menentukan lokasi yang sesuai mekanisme dgn pentaripan banyaknya parkir yang tidak dikendalikan oleh pemerintah untuk kepentingan umum dgn tarif yang berbedaberbeda-beda dan hub dgn P d h Pemda hanya d dg mekanisme k i b bagii h hasil. il Perlu car car--pool/ vanvan-pool khususnya bagi perjalanan komuter melalui park and ride Harus H tersedia t di alternatif lt tif angkutan k t yang memadai d i untuk t k mencapaii kawasan pembatasan, sehingga tidak mengurangi daya tarik ekonomi kawasan tersebut, disi lain efisiensi dan efektifitas transportasi dapat dicapai. dicapai
CAR POOLING
Two or more people sharing a ride in a car constitutes a carpool. Carpooling is a type of ridesharing that tend to be an informal arrangement. If you carpool in the Dallas area, you are eligible to travel on the High High-Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes, lanes, which enables you to avoid rush hour slow slow--downs and reduce travel times Carpoolers can use one car owned by one driver. The riders and driver agree g to an amount paid p periodically p y to the driver,, to cover operating costs for the daily commute. Carpoolers can rotate car use so that each person's vehicle and driving time is shared equally. No money is exchanged in this arrangement. t Carpoolers can also make arrangements to meet at parkpark-and and--ride locations to begin their shared ride.
PHYSICAL RESTRAINT
Mengurangi kenyamanan dan kemudahan bagi kendaraan yang tidak efektif dan efisien (terutama kendaraan pribadi dengan okupansi rendah) Mekanisme dilakukan melalui p pembatasan fisik,, perambuan p dan sosialisasi penggunaan kendaraan tidak bermotor. Pembatasan ini akan menyebabkan satu bentuk sistem sel, sehingga menjauhkan akses langsung g g bagi g kendaraan bermotor Pembatasan dilakukan dgn mengurangi lajur kendaraan pribadi bagi angkutan umum Pada saat bersamaan bersamaan, pelayanan angkutan umum ditingkatkan ditingkatkan.
LAND USE CONTROL
kebijakan dilakukan melalui penempatan lokasi tata guna lahan yang sesuai kebijakan ini membutuhkan koordinasi dan kerjasama yang kuat dalam perencanaan dan implementasi pengendalian penggunaan lahan untuk lokasi pembangunan baru masih lebih memungkinkan, krn dapat dilakukan dengan meningkatkan kemudahan akses angkutan umum, dan membatasi jumlah parkir
TELEMATICS
Telecommuting consists of working at home or another offoff-site location. There are various forms of telecommuting, such as working at home or working at a telework center; all have in common a more flexible work pattern determined by where work can best be done. Benefit of telecommuting: – It can save employers money in parking and office space costs – It allows a more flexible work arrangement for employees, thereby increasing ttheir e p productivity oduct ty – It reduces absenteeism and sick leave – It can save on employee commuting costs – It helps to reduce automobile congestion and improve air quality
Telecommuting typically is right for employees that: – – – – – – –
have tasks that can be done at home need little face face--to to--face contact with customers are sales or field workers have access to the equipment they need to work at home are self self--starters can work with little supervision don don'tt need to be around people every day
PUBLIC TRANSPORT
Public transport menjadi tulang punggung pengendalian lalulalu-lintas Indikator pelayanan: tingkat penggunaan bahan bakar dan ruang lalu intas dengan public transport harus lebih optimal dibandingkan dengan kendaraan pribadi
Travel Impacts of Common TDM Strategies (Todd Litman, 1999) Strategy
Travel Impact
Increased automobile user charges (fuel, VMT and parking charges).
Reduced automobile use, including reduced total travel and shifts to other modes.
Congestion pricing.
Reduces vehicle travel on congested roads, including changes in travel times, routes, and modes, and reductions in total travel
Transit service improvements and promotion.
Increased bus use, use mode shifts from automobile, automobile improved service for existing transit users, increased travel by non non--drivers.
Rideshare matching and promotion
Increase vehicle occupancy, reduced automobile use.
Pedestrian and bicycle facility improvements and promotion.
Increased walking and bicycling, mode shifts from automobile.
Flextime promotion promotion.
Automobile trips shifted from peak to offoff-peak. peak
Telecommuting promotion.
Reduced commute travel. Some increases in other types of travel.
Transportation--efficient land use. Transportation
Reduced vehicle trips and trip lengths.
Comprehensive TDM programs.
Various combinations of reduced travel, mode shifts, and changes in travel time.
TDM Effectiveness (Litman, 1999) Measure
VMT
Trips p
CO2 Emissions
Congestion Pricing (10¢ /mile)
- 2.3%
- 2.2%
- 5.5%
Parking Pricing, Non work
- 4.2%
- 5.4%
- 4.6%
Parking Pricing Pricing, Work Work, $1/day
- 1.0% 1 0%
- 1.1% 1 1%
- 1.1% 1 1%
Parking Pricing, Work, $3/day
- 2.7%
- 3.0%
- 2.9%
Fuel Tax Increase, $0.50/gallon
- 4.1%
- 4.0%
- 9.1%
Fuel Tax Increase Increase, $2.00/gallon $2 00/gallon
- 13.3% 13 3%
- 12.8% 12 8%
- 31.8% 31 8%
Mileage--Based Emission Fee Avg. 1¢ /mile Mileage
- 1.8%
- 1.6%
- 7.2%
VMT Fee Averaging 2¢ /mile
- 4.4%
- 4.2%
- 4.5%
Mileage--Based Vehicle Insurance Mileage
- 10.0% 10 0%
- 10.0% 10 0%
- 10.0% 10 0%
Employer Trip Reduction
- 1.0%
- 0.8%
- 0.9%
HOV Lanes
- 1.4%
- 0.5%
- 1.1%
T Transit it Improvements I t
- 1.0% 1 0%
- 0.8% 0 8%
- 0.9% 0 9%
Compressed Work Week
- 0.8%
- 0.7%
- 0.7%
Park and ride Lots
- 0.5% 0
-0
- 0.3%
Telecommuting
- 1.1%
- 1.0%
- 1.0%
Area--wide Ridesharing Area
- 0.4%
- 0.3%
- 0.4%
Aspect of travel
TDM objective
Trip generation
Eliminate trip entirely.
Trip p distribution
Shift trip p from a more congested g destination to a less congested g one.
Mode choice
Shift trip from a lower lower--occupancy mode of travel (e.g., drivealone) to a higherhigher-occupancy one.
Route selection(spatial)
Shift trip from a more congested route to a less congested one.
Route selection(temporal)
Shift trip from a more congested time period to a less congested one. one
Aspect of travel
TDM implementation strategies
Trip generation
Land use: use: growth control (eliminate specific activities associated with trip making). Transportation: telecommunications substitution for travel (telecommuting (telecommuting, teleshopping,teleconferencing) (eliminate trip making associated with specific activities).
Trip distribution
Land use: zoning restrictions that limit density of development, type of land use, etc., thus shifting the location of activities within urban or regional areas.Transportation: trip chaining, satellite activity locations (satellite work locations, onon-site daycare facilities, personal services services, cafeterias cafeterias,restaurants, restaurants etc etc.))
Mode choice
Land use: increasing allowable density of development (to improve the market for high occupancy vehicle facilities). Transportation: modemode-specific incentives and disincentives, such as parking pricing, carpool, vanpool, and transit subsidies; bicycle and pedestrian amenities; guaranteed ride home programs; etc.
Route selection(spatial)
Land use: street quietening (removal of through traffic from residential streets through creation of permanent or temporary barriers). Transportation: smart highways and vehicles (technologies capable of the instantaneous delivery of current route information, including identification of the route with the shortest travel time, based on ambient traffic conditions before or during the trip).
Route selection(temporal)
Land use: mixed use development, jobs/housing balance (where different land uses exhibit different peaking characteristics of trip generation).Transportation: alternative work, schedules (flexible work hours, staggered work shifts, and compressed work weeks).
TDM Taxonomy 1. Todd Litman (2000)
TDM Taxonomy 2. Michael D. Meyer (1999)
TDM Taxonomy 2. Erik Ferguson (2000)
2. Washington State Department of Transportation (2000) ( )
