BIOLOGI UMUM. Fakultas Pertanian UGM Kode: BIO1101. Keanekaragaman Hayati

BIOLOGI UMUM Fakultas Pertanian UGM Kode: BIO1101

Keanekaragaman Hayati

Oleh : Donan Satria Yudha, S.Si., M.Sc. Rury Eprilurahman, S.Si., M.Sc. Laboratorium Sistematika Hewan, Fakultas Biologi, UGM

PENTING! HARAP DIPERHATIKAN! Materi kuliah ini hanya untuk kalangan sendiri

(Mahasiswa S1 Fakultas Pertanian UGM yang menempuh / mengambil MK Biologi Umum) Materi kuliah ini JANGAN DI UPLOAD / UNGGAH di blog pribadi / akun SOSMED kalian, karena

banyak

materi

&

gambar

yang

DICANTUMKAN COPYRIGHT-NYA!!

BELUM

KEANEKARAGAMAN HAYATI BIODIVERSITY? The variety of life, at all levels of organization, classified both by evolutionary (phylogenetic) and ecological (functional) criteria. The variety of species and ecosystems on Earth and the ecological processes of which they are a part – including ecosystem, species, and genetic diversity components. The variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia (among other things), terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.

KEANEKARAGAMAN HAYATI Levels of organization = Levels of biodiversity Three levels of biodiversity a) Genetic diversity b) Species diversity c) Ecosystem diversity

KEANEKARAGAMAN HAYATI Three levels of biodiversity a) Genetic diversity Genetic diversity is the variety of genes within a species. Each species is made up of individuals that have their own particular genetic composition. This means a species may have different populations, each having different genetic compositions. To conserve genetic diversity, different populations of a species must be conserved. It refers to the variation of genes within a species. The genetic diversity enables a population to adapt to its environment and to respond to natural selection. The amount of genetic variation is the basis of speciation. Genetic diversity within a species often increases with environmental variability.

Genes are the basic units of all life on Earth. They are responsible for both the similarities and the differences between organisms.

KEANEKARAGAMAN HAYATI Three levels of biodiversity a) Genetic diversity Not all groups of animals have the same degree of genetic diversity. Kangaroos, for example, come from recent evolutionary lines and are genetically very similar. Carnivorous marsupials, called dasyurids, come from more ancient lines and are genetically far more diverse. Some scientists believe that we should concentrate on saving more genetically diverse groups, such as dasyurids, which include the Tasmanian Devil, the Numbat and quolls. If we lose one species of dasyurid, we lose a substantial genetic resource. Several species of dasyurids are endangered and at least one, the Tasmanian Tiger, has disappeared forever since Europeans arrived in Australia.

KEANEKARAGAMAN HAYATI


Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii)

Numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus)


Quoll (Dasyurus sp.)

Tasmanian tiger (Thylacinus cynocephalus)



KEANEKARAGAMAN HAYATI Three levels of biodiversity b) Species diversity Species are distinct units of diversity each playing a specific role in the ecosystem. Species diversity refers to the variety of species within a region. In nature, both the number and kind of species, as well as the number of individuals per species vary, leading to greater diversity. Species diversity is the variety of species within a habitat or a region. Some habitats, such as rainforests and coral reefs, have many species. Others, such as salt flats or a polluted stream, have fewer. In Australia, more than 80% of plant and animal species are endemic, which means that they only occur naturally in Australia.

KEANEKARAGAMAN HAYATI Three levels of biodiversity b) Species diversity Species are grouped together into families according to shared characteristics. In Australia, it is not just the individual species that are endemic - whole families of animals and plants are endemic. Seven families of mammals, four of birds and twelve of flowering plants are endemic to Australia. No other country has as many endemic flowering plant families as Australia.



KEANEKARAGAMAN HAYATI Three levels of biodiversity b) Ecosystem diversity The variety of habitats, natural communities and ecological processes in the biosphere. Ecosystem diversity is the variety of ecosystems in a given place. An ecosystem is a community of organisms and their physical environment interacting together. An ecosystem can cover a large area, such as a whole forest, or a small area, such as a pond. An ecosystem is a community of organisms and their physical environment interacting together. An ecosystem may be as large as the Great Barrier Reef or as small as the back of a spider crab's shell, which provides a home for plants and other animals, such as sponges, algae and worms.





SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI SISTEMATIKA? 1. Studi yang digunakan untuk memahami sejarah evolusi kehidupan di bumi.

2. Studi mengenai organisme yang secara khusus mempelajari hubungan organisme sepanjang waktu, diperlukan pemahaman dan pembelajaran mengenai temuan fosil. 3. Studi mengenai diversifikasi kehidupan di bumi, baik lampau maupun masa kini, dan hubungan diantara makhluk hidup sepanjang waktu.

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI TUGAS UTAMA SISTEMATIKA • • •

Menentukan (dengan jalan membandingkan) ciri-ciri unik dari setiap spesies dan takson yang lebih tinggi Menentukan ciri-ciri yang dimiliki bersama oleh taksa tertentu dan apakah penyebab biologis dari persamaan atau perbedaan ciri-ciri tersebut. Mengkaji variasi-variasi didalam taksa.

Sistematika merupakan gabungan dari taksonomi, evolusi dan sejarah filogeni; yang utama adalah taksonomi.

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI TAKSONOMI 1. Taxonomy is the aspect of systematics that deals with the correct application of scientific names. 2. Teori dan praktek klasifikasi organisme. 3. Studi mengenai penggambaran, identifikasi, pengelompokan, dan penamaan suatu organisme.

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PERAN TAKSONOMI • • •

• •

Satu-satunya ilmu yang menyajikan gambaran yang jelas tentang keberadaan keanekaragaman organisme di bumi. Menyediakan sebagian besar informasi yang diperlukan untuk rekonstruksi filogeni kehidupan. Mengungkapkan fenomena-feniomena evolusioner yang menarik, yang dapat dimanfaatkan oleh cabang ilmu biologi lainnya. Menyediakan informasi yang dibutuhkan oleh berbagai cabang biologi. Menyediakan klasifikasi, yang mempunyai nilai penjelasan dan heuristik yang sangat penting bagi hampir semua cabang biologi.

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI KLASIFIKASI •

Proses pengelompokkan organisme ke dalam takson-takson yang sesuai (secara induktif).

• Penyusunan organisme kedalam kelompok-kelompok atas dasar hubungan kekerabatannya. • Pengelompokan organisme kedalam kepemilikan bersama suatu atribut/ciri.

kelas-kelas

berdasarkan

• Studi yang memfokuskan pada penempatan suatu organisme ke dalam suatu grup yang menunjukkan kesamaan hubungan/karakter dengan organisme lain.

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI SISTEM KLASIFIKASI Standar Amerika menggunakan sistem 6 kingdom (Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea, dan Bacteria) Standar Inggris, Australia dan Kolumbia memakai 5 kingdom (Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, dan Prokaryota atau Monera)

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI ARCHAEA? → kuliah minggu kedua (Sel 1 – Jenis, Struktur & Fungsi) • • •

Archaea merupakan prokariota, apa itu prokariota? Karakter/ ciri organisme Archaea? Apasaja kesamaan ciri Archaea dengan Prokariota dan Archaea dengan Euakryota?

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI Prokariota – Archaea (Archaebacteria) • Typically characterized by membranes that are branched hydrocarbon chains (many also containing rings within the hydrocarbon chains) attached to glycerol by ether linkages. • The cell walls contain no peptidoglycan. • Archaea are not sensitive to some antibiotics that affect the Bacteria, but are sensitive to some antibiotics that affect the Eukarya. • Archaea contain rRNA that is unique to the Archaea as indicated by the presence molecular regions distinctly different from the rRNA of Bacteria and Eukarya.

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI Archaea Similarities to Prokaryotes

Similarities to Eukaryotes

Size

Few plasmid

Shape

RNA polymerase/promoters

Lack nucleus

Translation machinery: ribosome and tRNA

Single chromosome

Genes in operons No introns

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI Prokariota – Bacteria (Eubacteria) • Like the Eukarya, they have membranes composed of unbranched fatty acid chains attached to glycerol by ester linkages. • The cell walls of Bacteria, unlike the Archaea and the Eukarya, contain peptidoglycan. • Bacteria are sensitive to traditional antibacterial antibiotics but are resistant to most antibiotics that affect Eukarya. • Bacteria contain rRNA that is unique to the Bacteria as indicated by the presence molecular regions distinctly different from the rRNA of Archaea and Eukarya.

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI Eukariota The eukaryotic cell is much more complex and it contains many membrane bound organelles to perform specific functions. It contains a nucleus isolated from cytosol and enclosed in a well defined double membrane. Eukaryotic cells are larger, more complex and more evolutionarily recent than prokaryotes. Whereas prokaryotes are bacteria and Archaea, eukaryotes are literally everything else... amoebae, earthworms, mushrooms, grass, bugs, you. Eukaryotes also have specialized energy producing organelles called mitochondria and plants also have chloroplasts. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts are believed to have evolved from prokaryotes that began living symbiotically within eukaryotic cells long ago.

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI Organisms are classified into three Domains and into one of six Kingdoms of life. These Kingdoms are Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Organisms are placed into these categories based on similarities or common characteristics. Some of the characteristics that are used to determine placement are cell type, metabolism, and reproduction.

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI ARCHAEA (ARCHAEBACTERIA) Component Organisms Cell type

Archaea (Archaebacteria) Detailed information Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermophiles, Psychrophiles. Prokaryotic.

Metabolism

Depending on species - oxygen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, sulfur, sulfide may be needed for metabolism.

Nutrition acquisition

Depending on species - nutrition intake may by absorption, nonphotosynthetic photophosphorylation, or chemosynthesis.

Reproduction

Asexual reproduction by binary fission, budding, or fragmentation.

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI BACTERIA (AEUBACTERIA) Component Organisms Cell type Metabolism Nutrition acquisition

Reproduction

Bacteria (Eubacteria) Detailed information Bacteria, Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), Actinobacteria. Prokaryotic. Depending on species - oxygen may be toxic, tolerated, or needed for metabolism. Depending on species - nutrition intake may by absorption, photosynthesis, or chemosynthesis. Asexual reproduction.

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA Component Organisms Cell type Metabolism Nutrition acquisition

Reproduction

Protista Detailed information Amoebae, green algae, brown algae, diatoms, euglena, slime molds. Eukaryotic. Oxygen is needed for metabolism. Depending on species - nutrition intake may be by absorption, photosynthesis, or ingestion. Mostly asexual reproduction. Meiosis occurs in some species.

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA 1. Protists possess eukaryotic cells with well defined nuclei and organelles 2. Most are unicellular, however there are multi-cellular forms 3. They are diverse in their structure 4. They vary in size from microscope algae to kelp that can be over 100 feet in length 5. They are diverse (like bacteria) in the way they meet their nutritional needs A. Some are photosynthetic like land plants -are autotrophic B. Some ingest their food like animals -heterotrophic by ingestion C. Some absorb their food like bacteria and fungi -heterotrophic by absorption D. One species -Euglena -is mixotrophic meaning that it is capable of both autotrophic and heterotrophic life styles.

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA 6. Reproduction in Protists A. is usually asexual by mitosis B. sexual reproduction involves meiosis and spore formation and usually occurs only when environmental conditions are hostile C. spores are resistant and can withstand adverse conditions 7. Some protozoans form cysts -a type of resting stage 8. Photosynthetic protists (mostly algae) are part of plankton. Plankton are those organisms suspended in fresh and marine waters that serve as food for heterotrophic animals and other protists

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA 9. There are diverse opinions on how to classify members of the Kingdom Protista. 10. However, members of the Kingdom Protista can be divided into 1 major groups A. Algae B. Protozoans

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA Animal-like Protista • The heterotrophic, single celled eukaryotes are called animal-like protists • These organisms are generally grouped by their means of locomotion Ex: 1. Ciliophora – Paramecium 2. Zoomastigina 3. Sporozoa 4. Sarcodina

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA Animal-like Protista – Ciliophora •

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•

Members of the phyla Ciliophora are animal like protists that use cilia by means of locomotion Cilia are finger like projections that act like miniature oars and paddles that propel the ciliates through water They are found in both fresh and saltwater Ciliates use an organelle called a contractile vacuole to expel excess water They have a small gullet area where food is taken in, placed into a food vacuole, and later brought to a lysosome for digestion

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA Animal-like Protista – Ciliophora

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA Animal-like Protista – Zoomastigina •

•

• •

The Zoomastigina phylum consists of animal-like protists that move by means of a flagella A flagella is a whip-like structure that propels and organism through the water  Flagella will either whip back and forth or spin like a boat propeller They may have one or many flagella They absorb food through their membranes

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA Animal-like Protista – Zoomastigina

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA Animal-like Protista – Sporozoa (Apicomplexa) •

• • •

Members of the phylum Sporozoa are sessile (non-motile), meaning they don’t move They are ALL parasitic Many have complex life cycles involving multiple hosts They reproduce by means of spore production which attach to the host parasitically

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA Animal-like Protista – Sporozoa

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA Animal-like Protista – Sporozoa

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA Animal-like Protista – Sarcodina • • • •

The animal-like protists that belong to this phylum have pseudopodia Pseudopodia (literally meaning “false foot” are used for locomotion and engulfing food A pseudopod behave similar to what science fiction calls a blob They also use contractile vacuoles to push water through their cell membrane allowing movement

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA Animal-like Protista – Sarcodina

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA Plant-like Protista • All members of the Plant-like protists are single celled (except multicellular algae) eukaryotic autotrophs • They also are often grouped by locomotion Ex: 1. Euglenophyta – Euglena 2. Pyrrophyta (Dinoflagellata) 3. Chrysophyta

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA Plant-like Protista – Euglenophyta • • • •

The animal-like protists that belong to this phylum have pseudopodia Pseudopodia (literally meaning “false foot” are used for locomotion and engulfing food A pseudopod behave similar to what science fiction calls a blob They also use contractile vacuoles to push water through their cell membrane allowing movement

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA Plant-like Protista – Euglenophyta

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA Plant-like Protista – Pyrrophyta •

• • • •

The members of the phylum Pyrrophyta are generally called “fire protists”, and are commonly called dinoflagellates Most are autotrophic, but a few members have lost their chloroplasts and are now completely heterotrophic They move by means of 2 flagella They often have a thick protective shell, giving them an odd shape They cause RED TIDES

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA Plant-like Protista – Pyrrophyta

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA Plant-like Protista – Chrysophyta •

• • •

Members of the phylum Chrysophyta are called the golden protists or even more commonly, the diatoms Diatoms tend to produce thick, shell-like cell walls that contain silicon, giving them a glass appearance Often times these appear like glass boxes under a microscope They are used in many fine jewelry cleaners

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PROTISTA Plant-like Protista – Chrysophyta

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI FUNGI Component Organisms Cell type Metabolism Nutrition acquisition Reproduction

Fungi Detailed information Mushrooms, yeast, molds. Eukaryotic. Oxygen is needed for metabolism. Absorption. Asexual reproduction or sexual occurs in some species.

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI PLANTAE Component Organisms Cell type Metabolism Nutrition acquisition Reproduction

Plantae Detailed information Mosses, angiosperms (flowering plants), gymnosperms, liverworts, ferns. Eukaryotic. Oxygen is needed for metabolism. Photosynthesis. Some species reproduce asexually by mitosis. Other species exhibit sexual reproduction.

SISTEMATIKA & TAKSONOMI ANIMALIA Component Organisms Cell type Metabolism Nutrition acquisition Reproduction

Animalia Detailed information Mammals, amphibians, sponges, insects, worms. Eukaryotic. Oxygen is needed for metabolism. Ingestion. Sexual reproduction.

BIOLOGI UMUM. Fakultas Pertanian UGM Kode: BIO1101. Keanekaragaman Hayati

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