Volume 5 No. 2 NOVEMBER 2010 ISSN JURNAL ILMU LINGKUNGAN OURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. Dasmin Sidu... 79

Volume 5 No. 2 NOVEMBER 2010

ISSN 1907-5626

ECOTROPHIC JURNAL ILMU LINGKUNGAN OURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

/ PENGANTAR REDAKSI MEMBANGUN SENAPAS DENGAN ALAM..................................................................................................................................

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Model Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Sekitar Kawasan Hutan Lindung Jompi Kabupaten Muna, Provinsi Sulawesi Tenggara Dasmin Sidu...........................................................................................................................................................................

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DAMPAK SOSIAL EKONOMI KERUSAKAN HUTAN CYCLOOPS PADA MASYARAKAT DI DISTRIK SENTANI, KABUPATEN JAYAPURA Hutajulu Halomoan .............................................................................................................................................................

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HUBUNGAN FAKTOR LINGKUNGAN DAN PERILAKU MASYARAKAT DENGAN KEBERADAAN JENTIK NYAMUK PENULAR DEMAM BERDARAH DENGUE (DBD) DI WILAYAH KERJA PUSKESMAS KUTA UTARA Mardiyani Nugrahaningsih, N Adi Putra, I W Redi Aryanta.............................................................................................

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EVALUASI PENGELOLAAN REFRIGERAN CFC, DAN HFC DENGAN MESIN 3R DAN UJI UNJUK KERJA MESIN PENDINGIN STUDI KASUS PADA BENGKEL AC MOBIL DI DENPASAR – BALI I Made Rasta, I W. Kasa dan I Gede Mahardika.................................................................................................................

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SELEKSI DAN PEMANFAATAN ACTINOMYCETES SEBAGAI MIKROBA ANTAGONIS YANG RAMAH LINGKUNGAN TERHADAP Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense SECARA IN VITRO I Made Sudarma....................................................................................................................................................................

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ANLISIS KUALITAS AIR DAN LINGKUNGAN FISIK PADA PERLINDUNGAN MATA AIR DI KERJA PUSKESMAS TABANAN, KABUPATEN TABANAN I Ketut Aryana, Made Sudiana Mahendra, I Gede Mahardika.........................................................................................

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Identification of the Stock/Population of Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) in the Sukamade (East Java) Nesting Beach Hidayatun Nisa, Purwanasari, IB Windia Adnyana............................................................................................................

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MAKROZOOBENTHOS DI TUKAD BAUSAN, DESA PERERENAN, KABUPATEN BADUNG, BALI Ni Made Suartini, Ni Wayan Sudatri, Made Pharmawati dan A. A. G. Raka Dalem.......................................................

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STUDY OF PREVALENCE ON CORAL BLEACHING AND DISEASES Eghbert Elvan Ampou...........................................................................................................................................................

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PREDICTION OF MONTHLY RAINFALL BASED ON THE TRMM PRECIPITATION RADAR SATELLITE DATA OVER REGION OF INDONESIA R. Prasetia, T. Osawa, I W. S. Adnyana................................................................................................................................

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IDENTIFIKASI SEKS RASIO TUKIK PENYU HIJAU (Chelonia mydas) DAN PENYU BELIMBING (Dermochelys coriacea) DI BERBAGAI PANTAI PENELURAN UTAMA DI INDONESIA

Studi kasus di pantai Sukamade - Jawa timur; Pulau Sangalaki - Kalimantan Timur dan Suaka Marga Satwa Jamursba Medi - Papua Barat

Dwi Suprapti , I.B. Windia Adnyana, I. Wy. Arthana ........................................................................................................

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THE ETHNOECOLOGICAL STUDY OF SATOYAMA I Putu Gede Ardhana............................................................................................................................................................

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PETUNJUK PENULISAN NASKAH.................................................................................................................................................

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Volume 5 No. 2 NOVEMBER 2010

ECOTROPHIC

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JURNAL ILMU LINGKUNGAN JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

m Penanggung Jawab Direktur Program Pascasarjana Universitas Udayana Ketua PENYUNTING Dr. Ir. I Wayan Arthana, MS. Penyunting Penyelia Prof. Dr. Ir. I Wayan Redi Aryanta,MSc. Penyunting Pelaksana Prof. Dr. Ir. Made Sudiana Mahendra, MAppSc. (Pencemaran) Prof. Dr. Ir. I Wayan Kasa, M.Rur.Sc (Biologi Lingkungan) Prof. Dr. Ir. I Nyoman Merit, M.Agr. (Lingkungan Tanah) Prof. Dr. I Wayan Ardika, MA. (Lingkungan Sosial-budaya) Prof. Dr. Ir. I Wayan Suarna, MS. (Pencemaran) Prof. Dr. Ir. Made Antara, MS. (Ekonomi Lingkungan) Prof. Dr. Ir. I Wayan Sandi Adnyana, MS. (Konservasi Tanah dan Air) Prof. Dr. Made Arya Utama, SH, MH. (Hukum Lingkungan) MITRA BESTARI Prof. Dr. Bonar Pasaribu (IPB) Prof. Dr. Susumu Kanno (Tokai University) Dr. Alan Wilson (INI RADEF) Pengelola Dr. I W. Budiarsa Suyasa, MS. Drh. I Ketut Suada, MSi. Dra. Ida Ayu Alit Laksmiwati, MSi. Kesekretariatan Putu Martini I Wayan Nampa I Made Karsika INSTITUSI PENERBIT Program Studi Magister Ilmu Lingkungan Program Pascasarjana Universitas Udayana ALAMAT REDAKSI Jl. P.B. Sudirman Denpasar Telp. (0361) 261182/255345 Fax. (0361) 261182 Email : [email protected] Jurnal Ilmu Lingkungan ECOTHROPIC merupakan media publikasi bagi hasil-hasil penelitian, artikel dan resensi buku di bidang ilmu lingkungan yang diterbitkan dua kali setahun, yaitu bulan Mei dan November.

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PENGANTAR REDAKSI

MEMBANGUN SENAPAS DENGAN ALAM

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embangunan adalah menunjang kehidupan yang semakin berkembang, membangun hendaknya seiring dengan napas alam. Paradigma membangun yang senada dengan alam adalah pengembangan ekowisata atau sering juga disebut dengan ekoturisme, atau wisata ekologi. Rumusan ‘ecotourism’ sudah ada sejak 1987 yang dikemukakan oleh Hector Ceballos-Lascurain yaitu sbb: “Nature or ecotourism can be defined as tourism that consist in travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific objectives of studying, admiring, and enjoying the scenery and its wild plantas and animals, as well as any existing cultural manifestations (both past and present) found in the areas.” “Wisata alam atau pariwisata ekologis adalah perjalanan ketempat-tempat alami yang relatif masih belum terganggu atau terkontaminasi (tercemari) dengan tujuan untuk mempelajari, mengagumi dan menikmati pemandangan, tumbuh-tumbuhan dan satwa liar, serta bentuk-bentuk manifestasi budaya masyarakat yang ada, baik dari masa lampau maupun masa kini.” Rumusan di atas hanyalah penggambaran tentang kegiatan wisata alam biasa. Rumusan ini kemudian berkembang dengan paradigma ekowisata adalah perjalanan yang bertanggung jawab ketempat-tempat yang alami dengan menjaga kelestarian lingkungan dan meningkatkan kesejahtraan penduduk setempat “Ecotourism is responsible travel to natural areas which conserved the environment and improves the welfare of local people.” Pengembangan yang menggambarkan kegiatan wisata di alam terbuka, dengan kandungan unsur-unsur kepedulian, tanggung jawab dan komitmen terhadap kelestarian lingkungan dan kesejahtraan penduduk setempat. Ekowisata merupakan upaya untuk memaksimalkan dan sekaligus melestarikan pontensi sumber-sumber alam dan budaya untuk dijadikan sebagai sumber pendapatan yang berkesinambungan. Dengan kata lain ekowisata adalah kegiatan wisata alam plus plus. Adanya unsur plus plus di atas yaitu kepudulian, tanggung jawab dan komitmen terhadap kelestarian lingkungan dan peningkatan kesejahtraan masyarakat setempat ditimbulkan oleh: 1. Kekuatiran akan makin rusaknya lingkungan oleh pembangunan yang bersifat eksploatatif terhadap sumber daya alam. 2. Asumsi bahwa pariwisata membutuhkan lingkungan yang baik dan sehat. 3. Kelestarian lingkungan tidak mungkin dijaga tanpa partisipasi aktif masyarakat setempat. 4. Partisipasi masyarakat lokal akan timbul jika mereka dapat memperoleh manfaat ekonomi (‘economical benefit’) dari lingkungan yang lestari. 5. Kehadiran wisatawan (khususnya ekowisatawan) ke tempat-tempat yang masih alami itu memberikan peluas bagi penduduk setempat untuk mendapatkan penghasilan alternatif dengan menjadi pemandu wisata, porter, membuka homestay, pondok ekowisata (ecolodge), warung dan usaha-usaha lain yang berkaitan dengan ekowisata, sehingga dapat meningkatkan kesejahtraan mereka atau meningkatkan kualitas hidpu penduduk lokal, baik secara materiil, spirituil, kulturil maupun intelektual. Selanjutnya berkembang Ekowisata Berbasis Komunitas (community-based ecotourism) merupakan usaha ekowisata yang dimiliki, dikelola dan diawasi oleh masyarakat setempat. Masyarakat berperan aktif dalam kegiatan pengembangan ekowisata dari mulai perencanaan, implementasi, monitoring dan evaluasi. Hasil kegiatan ekowisata sebanyak mungkin dinikmati oleh masyarakat setempat. Jadi dalam hal ini masyarakat memiliki wewenang yang memadai untuk mengendalikan kegiatan ekowisata Desa Budaya Kertalangu yang terletak di Desa Kesiman Kertalangu Kota iii

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Den­p asar ini menganut sistem tersebut untuk dikembangkan dengan konsep tersebut. Prinsip dasar pengembangan ekowisata adalah lima prinsip pengembangan ekowisata dari sembilan prinsip utama pengembangan ekowisata yang telah dipenuhi sesuai dengan lokakarya ekowisata se-Bali di sanur 3-5 September 2002, yaitu: memiliki kepedulian, komitmen & tanggung jawab terhadap konservasi alam & warisan budaya, peka & menghormati nilai-nilai sosial budaya dan tradisi keagamaan masyarakat setempat, mentaati peraturan perundang-undangan yang berlaku, pengembangannya didasarkan atas persetujuan masyarakat setempat melalui musyawarah, sistem pengelolaan yang serasi dan seimbang sesuai dengan konsep Tri Hita Karana. Sedangkan empat prinsip yang belum dipenuhi, yaitu: memberdayakan dan mengoptimalkan partisipasi serta sekaligus memberikan kontribusi secara kontinyu terhadap masyarakat setempat, menyediakan pemahaman yang dapat memberikan peluang kepada wisatawan untuk menikmati alam dan meningkatkan kecintaannya terhadap alam, secara konsisten memberikan kepuasan kepada konsumen, dipasarkan dan dipromosikan dengan jujur dan akurat sehingga sesuai dengan harapan (pemasaran yang bertanggung jawab). Redaksi

Model Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Sekitar Kawasan Hutan Lindung Jompi Kabupaten Muna, Provinsi Sulawesi Tenggara Dasmin Sidu

Staf Pengajar Pascasarjana dan Jurusan Agribisnis Universitas Haluoleo Kendari serta Staf Ahli Lingkungan Hidup Bidang Sosial Ekonomi Di Kab. Buton Utara dan Kab.Kolaka Utara Provinsi Sulawesi Tenggara

ABSTRACT Forest as an asset of national development is really beneficial for life and livelihood. It brings benefits ecologically, culturally, and economically on condition that the forest is properly exploited. For that purpose, forest should be managed, protected, and exploited continuously for the sake of the people’s welfare, not only for the present but also for the next generation. Jompi Preserved Forest Area is one of the preserved forest areas in Muna Regency, which is now in very bad condition. The people living around the forest are powerless. This research aims: to formulate a model of community empowerment adjusted to the local condition. The technique of collecting samples used is cluster sampling, covering 226 heads of family. The analysis used is correlation analysis of Rank Spearman (rs), Multiple Regression, and Path Analysis. The result of analysis shows that the people’s productivity and capability are still relatively low. This condition is resulted from the physical, human, and social capitals in the community. Similarly, the low capability of the empowerment facilitators and empowerment process also contribute to this situation. The effective empowerment model for the community around the preserved forest is the one that integrates the physical, human, and social capitals, and the facilitators’ capability and empowerment process to create the power that can improve the productivity and capability of the community living around the Jompi Preserved Forest Area. Keywords: Empowerment, Preserved Forest Area, powerless, and stakeholders. PENDAHULUAN Berdasarkan fungsinya, hutan dibagi menjadi hu­ tan konservasi, hutan lindung dan hutan produksi. Hu­tan dengan fungsi konservasi dan lindungnya berperan dalam mempertahankan dan meningkatkan ketersediaan air dan kesuburan tanah. Ketersediaan air dan kesuburan tanah merupakan urat nadi kehidupan mahluk yang ada di muka bumi ini (UU RI No. 41 Tahun 1999). Hutan juga memiliki fungsi ekologi yaitu sebagai penimbun karbon melalui kegiatan fotositensisnya dapat mengubah gas CO2 di udara menjadi karbohidrat yang merupakan sumber energi bagi mahluk hidup, termasuk manusia (Ida & Carol, 2003). Oleh karena itu, hutan memiliki manfaat yang nyata bagi kehidupan dan penghidupan masyarakat, baik manfaat ekologi, sosial budaya maupun ekono­ mi. Untuk itu, hutan perlu dilindungi, dikelola dan dimanfaatkan secara berkesi-nambungan untuk kese­ jah­teraan masyarakat, baik generasi sekarang maupun yang akan datang. Kerusakan hutan telah terjadi sejak lama, sebagai akibat dari aktivitas manusia yang tidak mempertimbangan kelestariannya, seperti pembalakan liar (illegal logging) dan perambahan. Pembalakan liar dan perambahan semakin marak seiring dengan semakin bertambahnya jumlah penduduk, desakan kebutuhan semakin meningkat, kebutuhan akan lahan pertanian dan perkebunan meningkat, kebutuhan lahan pemukiman baru terus bertambah, dan lain sebagainya. Ke-

rusakan hutan saat ini tidak hanya terjadi di kawasan hutan produksi dan hutan konservasi tetapi juga sudah merambah pada kawasan hutan lindung. Pada hal, hutan lindung mempunyai fungsi pokok sebagai perlindungan sistem penyangga kehidupan untuk mengatur tata air, mencegah banjir, mengendalikan erosi, mencegah intrusi air laut, dan memelihara kesuburan tanah. Luas kawasan hutan Kabupaten Muna sebesar ± 237.377 ha atau 51,3% dari seluruh luas wilayah Kabupaten Muna. Dari luas kawasan hutan tersebut, ± 46.363 ha atau 19,53% adalah kawasan hutan lindung. Kawasan hutan lindung Jompi memiliki luas ± 1.927 ha atau 4, 2% dari luas kawan hutan lindung di Kabupaten Muna. Dari luas Kawasan hutan lindung Jompi tersebut, ± 1.233 ha atau 63,99% adalah hutan jati alam dan ± 694 ha atau 36,01% adalah hutan campuran. Kawasan hutan lindung Jompi telah mengalami kerusakan yang cukup serius, ± 1.080 ha atau 56,05% (seluruhnya hutan jati) sudah rusak dan ± 263 ha atau 13,65% terancam rusak dan ± 578 ha atau 30% dalam keadaan aman (Dinas Kehutanan Kabupaten Muna, 2006). Kawasan hutan lindung Jompi secara admnistrasi berbatasan dengan lima kecamatan, yakni: Kecamatan Batalaiworu di sebelah Utara, Kecamatan Katobu di sebelah Timur, Kecamatan Duruka di sebelah Selatan, Kecamatan Kontunaga dan Watuputeh di sebelah Barat. Berdasarkan data dari BPMD Kabupaten Muna menunjukkan bahwa sebagian besar kelurahan/desa di lima kecamatan tersebut tergolong miskin dan tidak 79

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2. Saran Perlu dilakukan penelitian lebih lanjut dalam jangka panjang untuk mengetahui keberadaan makrozoobenthos tersebut secara lebih mendalam. DAFTAR PUSTAKA Butot, L. J. M. 1955. The Mollusc of Panaitan (Prinseneiland) Land and Freshwater Molluscs. Treubia Vol. 23, Part 1, Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense: Bogor. Cummins KW. 1975. Chapter VIII. Macroinvertebrates. dalam Whitton B. A. (ed.). River Ecology. Studies in Ecology. Vol. II. Blackwell Scient. Publ. Oxford. Djajasasmita, M. 1999. Keong dan Kerang Sawah. Penerbit Puslitbang Biologi-LIPI. Dharma, B. 1988. Siput dan Kerang Indonesia (Indonesian Shell). PT. Sarana Graha: Jakarta. Dharma, B. 1992. Siput dan Kerang Indonesia (Indonesian Shell II). PT. Sarana Graha: Jakarta. Lind OT. 1985. Handbook of Common Methods in Limnology. Second Edition. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. Dubuque, Iowa.

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Mann KH. 1982. Ecology of Costal Water: System Approach. Blackwell Scientific Publisher. London. Montagna P.A., J.E. Bauer, D .Hardin and R.B. Spies. 1989. Vertical Distribution of Microbial and Meiofaunal Populations in Sediments of Natural Coastal Hydrocarbon Seep. Journal of Marine Science. 47:657-680. Odum EP. 1993. Dasar-Dasar Ekologi. Edisi Ketiga. Gajah Mada University Press. Yogyakarta. Pennak RW. 1989. Fresh-Water Invertebrates of the United States. Protozoa to Mollusca. Third Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. Rosenberg DM, VH Resh. 1993. Freshwater Biomonitoring and Benthic Macroinvertebrates. Chapman and Hall, New York. London. Suwignyo S, B Widigdo, Y Wardianto, M Krisanti. 1998. Avertebrata Air. Jilid 2. Institut Pertanian Bogor, Fakultas Perikanan dan Ilmu Kelautan . Bogor. Van Benthem Jutting, W. S. S. 1956. Systematics Studies on the Non-Marine Mollusca of the Indo-Australian Archipelago. Treubia Vol 23 Part 2. Zoologicum Museum: Amsterdam. Welch P.S. 1952. Limnological Methods. Mc. Graw-Hill Book Company. Inc. New York.

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STUDY OF PREVALENCE ON CORAL BLEACHING AND DISEASES Eghbert Elvan Ampou*

*Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries - Institute for Marine Research and Observation Marine Conservation Research Team, Bali, Indonesia E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract The prevalence monitoring on coral bleaching and diseases must be important threats to be executed intensively because in Indonesia as one country in CTI (Coral Triangle Initative) region, information about that is relatively new. On the field using time swim method in 2 different depth (5 and 10 metres) by 30 minutes, field data analysis was done using prevalence formula. In Raja Ampat Prevalence: 5m=30,67%; 10m=23,50% in November 2009. Bunaken National Park Prevalence: 5m=55,47%; 10m=83,73% in August 2009 and Runduma Island-Wakatobi National Park Prevalence: 5m=23,55%; 10m=50,94% in October 2009. Bleaching and diseases was occured. The dominant coral bleaching and diseases were Porites and Acropora, otherwise Pocillopora and Montipora were not dominant. Keywords: : coral bleaching, time swim, prevalence. Abstrak Monitoring nilai prevalence karang yang mengalami pemutihan dan penyakit sangat perlu dilakukan secara intensiv di Indonesia yang juga masuk dalam kawasan CTI, informasi tentang hal ini boleh dikatakan relatif belum banyak dilakukan orang. Metode yang dipakai selama survey adalah time swim dimana dibagi pada 2 kedalaman (5 dan 10 meter) selama 30 menit, untuk analisis data digunakan rumus prevalence. Nilai Prevalence karang yang mengalami pemutihan dan penyakit di Raja Ampat pada kedalaman 5m=30,67%; 10m=23,50% di bulan November 2009. Taman Nasional Bunaken kedalaman 5m=55,47%; 10m=83,73% di bulan Agustus 2009 dan di Pulau Runduma-Taman Nasional kedalaman 5m=23,55%; 10m=50,94% di bulan Oktober 2009. Jenis karang yang dominan mengalami pemutihan dan penyakit adalah genus Porites dan Acropora, sedangkan tidak dominan adalah genus Pocillopora dan Montipora. Kata kunci: pemutihan karang, time swim, prevalence. INTRODUCTION Coastal zone and Indonesian seas have a potential and high biodiversity (mega biodiversity) in the world also include in CTC (Coral Triangle Center) region. The highly biodiversity comprise in genetic, species and other ecosystem to develop Indonesia economics, environment, sustainability and carrying capacity also Law reinforcement (Anonimous, 2007). Based on characterize coastal ecosystem is natural or man made. The natural ecosystem located on the coastal zone, ex: coral reefs, mangrove forest, seagrass beds, sandy beach, barringtonia formation, estuary, lagoon, delta and small island ecosystem. (Dahuri, 2003). Coral diseases and syndromes generally occur in response to biotic stresses such as bacteria, fungi and viruses, and/or abiotic stresses such as increased sea water temperatures, ultraviolet radiation, sedimentation and pollutants. One type of stress may exacerbate

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the other (Santavy and Peters, 1997). Major Reef-Building Coral Diseases The frequency of coral diseases appears to have increased significantly over the last 10 years, causing widespread mortality among reef-building corals. Many scientists believe the increase is related to deteriorating water quality associated with anthropogenic pollutants and increased sea surface temperatures. This may, in turn, allow for the proliferation and colonization of disease-causing microbes. However, exact causes for most coral diseases remain elusive. The onset of most diseases likely is a response to multiple factors (Peters, 1997). This section discusses, in alphabetical order, the most prevalent coral diseases and syndromes currently known and under study: black-band disease, coral bleaching, dark-spots disease, red-band disease, whiteband disease, white-plague disease, white pox and yellow-blotch disease. Additional information on these 125

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diseases and others can be found on NOAA’s Coral Disease Identification and Information Web site. Coral Bleaching Healthy tissue of most stony corals ranges from yellow to brownish in color, a function of the photosynthetic pigments of their symbiotic zooxanthellae. When corals are inordinately stressed, they often expel their zooxanthellae, or the concentration of photosynthetic pigments declines. This response is known as bleaching (Glynn, 1996). During a bleaching event, a coral’s coloration disappears or becomes pale, and the white of the coral skeleton shows through the translucent coral tissue. In some species, such as the massive starlet coral Siderastrea sidereal, the tissue can appear pinkish or bluish, due to pigments within the animal tissue. Localized bleaching has been observed since at least the beginning of the 20th century. However, beginning in the 1980s, regional and global bleaching affecting numerous species has occurred on reefs worldwide. Bleaching usually is not uniform over single coral colonies within coral communities or across reef zones, and some species are more susceptible to bleaching than others under the same conditions (Glynn, 1996). In some instances, only the upper surface or lower surface of the colony is affected. In others, bleached tissue appears as a circular patch or in the shape of a ring or wedge. Localized bleaching has been attributed to exposure to high light levels, increased ultraviolet radiation, temperature or salinity extremes, high turbidity and sedimentation resulting in reduced light levels, and other abiotic factors (Glynn, 1996). In addition, bleaching in some species has occurred in response to a bacterial infection (Kushmaro et al., 1996). However, the seven major episodes of bleaching that have occurred since 1979 have been primarily attributed to increased sea water temperatures associated with global climate change and el Niño/la Niña events, with a possible synergistic effect of elevated ultraviolet and visible light (Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999). Debilitating effects of bleaching include reduced skeletal growth and reproductive activity, and a lowered capacity to shed sediments and resist invasion of competing species and diseases (Glynn, 1996). Prolonged bleaching can cause partial to total colony death. If the bleaching is not too severe, and the stressful conditions decrease after a short time, affected colonies can regain their symbiotic algae within several weeks to months (Glynn, 1996). One predicted effect of climate change is increased coral bleaching (whitening), which is caused by the disruption of the symbiotic relationship between polyps and zooxanthellae resulting in the expulsion of zooxanthellae and loss of photosynthetic pigments. Stresses that can cause this include freshwater flood126

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ing, pollution, sedimentation, disease and, most importantly, changes in light and temperature. If stresses continue for long enough, corals and whole reefs can suffer reduced fecundity and growth rates, and eventually even mortality. Once sections of the coral reef die they become vulnerable to further structural degradation by algal overgrowth and bioerosion. Overall, though, the bleaching phenomenon is extremely patchy and can vary greatly according to location, environmental conditions, season or species composition. (Douglas, 2003). Based on the background, the aims of this research are 1) To Investigate about prevalence on coral bleaching and diseased, and 2) To determine dominant of the genus/species experience of bleaching and diseased. METHODS Study Area Research location was consisted in 3 sites: TN Bunaken (North Sulawesi) in August 2009, TN. Wakatobi (Southeast Sulawesi) in October 2009 and KKP Raja Ampat (Birdshead of Papua) in November 2009.

group of diseases or for all diseases lumped together. What is calculated depends on the question asked. – Prevalence(P) = (# diseased colonies/total # colonies) x 100 – Total Prevalence (P) = (# diseased colonies/total # colonies) x 100 / ∑ Location A prevalence value is estimated for each area-sample unit. An average prevalence value with standard deviation can then be calculated for habitats, zones or reefs (depending on the stratification and the question) using the sample unit prevalence value (Coral Diseases handbook, 2008). Table 1. Prevalence category coral bleaching and diseases No 1 2 3 4

Prevalence (%)/location/Genus-Spesies 0 – 50 51 – 75 76 – 100 >100

Category good medium poor Poorly/serious condition

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Bunaken Island Total Prevalence at depth 5m 55,47%/Location/ Genus-Sp. The dominant bleaching & diseased is Porites sp and Acropora in Ron’s point. Prevalence = 113,33% and Muka Kampung = 80%. Less Prevalence in Celah-celah = 7% and Lekuan 2 = 6,6%. Total Prevalence on 10m = 83,73%/Lokasi/Genus-Sp. Dominant bleaching & diseased average from genus :Acropora, Pocillopora and Montipora. Which are dominant it was occurred in Lekuan 2 especially species Symphyllia radians. With Prevalence = 133,33% . Whereas less 50% in Celah-celah=39,44%, Lekuan 1=33,71% dan Fukui=16,66%.

Figure 2. Prevalence in 5m 3 Muka Kampung

N 1’ 35” 38.0 E 124’ 46” 28.4

4 Lekuan 1

N 1’ 35” 41.6 E 124’ 46” 16.3 N 1’ 36” 22.3 E 124’ 44” 09.4

5 Ron’s Point 6 Fukui

N 1’ 36” 44.1 E 124’ 44” 22.9

Acropora palifera, Goniastrea retiformis, Pocillopra verrucosa, Acropora Formosa, Acropora millepora, Goniastrea minuta, Pocillopora verrucosa, Porites stephensoni Acropora millepora Acropora palifera, Porites stephensoni, Stylophora pistillata, Pocillopora, Isopora sp Acropora yongei, Pocillopora verucosa, Montipora sp, Porites lutea

Table. 2. Species Encountered in 5m depth Figure 1. Survey location map from 3 site study to support data validation. A. Bunaken Island as the one part of Bunaken National Park-North Sulawesi., B. Marine Protected Area are so called Kawasan Konservasi Perairan (KKP) in Raja Ampat (Waisai) Bird’s Head of Papua C. Runduma Island northeast from Wakatobi district as the one region of Wakatobi National Park–Southeast Sulawesi. (Google map 2010).

Time Swims Diver swim with given time. In this survey used 30 minutes to collect data especially bleaching/diseases and dive in 2 depths (5 and 10 meters). Diseased Prevalence Diseased Prevalence is the proportion of diseased colonies to the total measured population of colonies. It can be calculated for individual populations, species or genera, or for the coral community as a whole, as well as for each particular disease/syndrome, similar

No Location 1 Celah-Celah 2 Lekuan 2 3 Muka Kampung 4 Lekuan 1 5 Ron’s Point 6 Fukui

Coordinates N 1’ 35” 56.9 E 124’ 46” 00.0 N 1’ 36” 58.0 E 124’ 45” 54.0 N 1’ 35” 38.0 E 124’ 46” 28.4 N 1’ 35” 41.6 E 124’ 46” 16.3 N 1’ 36” 22.3 E 124’ 44” 09.4 N 1’ 36” 44.1 E 124’ 44” 22.9

Genus/Species Acropora brueggemani, Physogyra Acropora palifera Porites sp, Pocillopora sp, Goniopora sp Porites mayeri Porites mayeri, Acropora brueggemanni,Goniastrea minuta, Goniastrea retiformis Oxypora lacera, Acropora prostate, Oxypora lacera

Figure 2. Prevalence in 10m

Total Prevalence at depth 10m 83,73%/Location/ Genus-Sp. The dominant coral was bleaching & diseased average is :Acropora, Pocillopora and Montipora. It was occured at loacation Lekuan 2: Symphyllia radians, with Prevalence = 133,33% . Otherwise less Prevalence under 50% was occured at Celah-celah=39,44%, Lekuan 1=33,71% and Fukui=16,66%.

Table. 3. Species Encountered in 5m depth No Location 1 Celah-Celah 2 Lekuan 2

Coordinates N 1’ 35” 56.9 E 124’ 46” 00.0 N 1’ 36” 58.0 E 124’ 45” 54.0

Genus/Species Montipora foliosa, Montipora informis, Acropora nobilis, Acropora palifera Acropora palifera, Tubastrea micrantha, Symphyllia radians

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Genus-Sp. The dominant coral was bleaching & diseased average is Porites sp in Runduma Anano 1 with Prevalence = 74,59%

Figure 8. Prevalence in 10m

Figure 3. Acropora palifera at Celah-celah dive site at depth 10m with “unusual bleaching patterns”

Figure 5. Acropora at 5m depth in Saonek Monde with white band diseased.

Raja Ampat

Figure 11. Stoney coral genus Porites at 5m depth with pigmentation response. Table. 6. Species Encountered in 10m depth

Table. 4. Species Encountered in 5m depth No Location Coordinates 1 Saonek Monde (SN) unrecord 2 Tanjung Saleo (TS) 000 26.475’ 1300 46.222’ 3 Waisai 1 (WTC1) 000 26.019’ 1300 49.293’ 4 Waisai 2 (WTC2) 000 25.431’ 1300 50.868’ 5 Saonek (SNK) 000 28.201’ 1300 47.281’

Genus/Species Porites, Acropora (3x), Porites Acropora (2x), Porites

No Location 1 Runduma 1

Acropora sp (3x), Porites (3x), Acropora cylindrica, Porites (4x), Acropora (5x)

2 Runduma 2

Acropora, Platygyra, Porites

4 Runduma Anano 2

3 Runduma Anano 1

Figure 9. Montipora in Tanjung Saleo at 10m depth with “white syndrome”. Figure 6. Acropora at 5m depth with prey gastropoda (Drupella cornus).

5 Runduma Anano 3

Coordinates 050 21. 115’ 1240 21. 583’ 050 20. 843’ 1240 20.073’ 050 17. 396’ 1240 17. 186’ 050 17. 789’ 1240 17. 312’ 050 18. 238’ 1240 17. 930’

Genus/Species Porites sp (5x) Porites sp, Pocylopra Porites sp (4x), Lobophyllia Pocylopora sp (2x), Acropora sp, Montipora Porites sp (2x), Acropora sp (2x)

Runduma Island (Wakatobi) Table. 5. Species Encountered in 5m depth No Location 1 Runduma 1 2 Runduma 2 3 Runduma Anano 1

Figure 4. Prevalence in 5m

Total Prevalence at depth 5m 30,67%/Location/ Genus-Sp. The dominant coral was bleaching & diseased average is Porites sp and Acropora. High category of prevalence was occurred in Waisai 1=82,13%. Otherwise in Saonek prevalence=5,26%. Is indicate that 5m depth include very good ecosystem ex: water quality, etc. Table. 5. Species Encountered in 10m depth No Location Coordinates 1 Saonek Monde (SN) unrecord 2 Tanjung Saleo (TS) 000 26.475’ 1300 46.222’ 3 Waisai 1 (WTC1) 000 26.019’ 1300 49.293’ 4 Waisai 2 (WTC2) 000 25.431’ 1300 50.868’ 5 Saonek (SNK) 000 28.201’ 1300 47.281’

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Genus/Species Acropora (2x), Hydnopora Porites (2x), Montipora Sand Sand Acropora (2x), Porites (2x)

4 Runduma Anano 2 5 Runduma Anano 3

Coordinates 050 21. 115’ 1240 21. 583’ 050 20. 843’ 1240 20.073’ 050 17. 396’ 1240 17. 186’ 050 17. 789’ 1240 17. 312’ 050 18. 238’ 1240 17. 930’

Genus/Species Porites sp, Pocyllopora Pocylopora, Porites sp, Acropora Porites sp (6x) Pocylopora sp Porites sp, Lobophyillia, Acropora

Total Prevalence at 5m depth 23,55%/Location/

Figure 7. Porites in Saonek Monde at 5m depth with Pigmentation Response. (Photo: E. Ampou)

Total Prevalence at 10m depth 23,50%/Location/ Genus-Sp. The dominant coral was bleaching & diseased average is Acropora and Porites. The area with high prevalence was occured at Tanjung Saleo=61%. Otherwise in Saonek Monde=11,83% (less prevalence). At 10m depth the level of biodiversity especially coral reef very rare or may even unexist in site: Waisai 1 and 2

Figure 12. Prevalence in 10m

Total Prevalence at 10m depth 50,94%/Location/ Genus-Sp. The dominant coral was bleaching & diseased average is Porites sp. In Runduma 1 with Prevalence = 185,42%. CONCLUSION

Figure 10. Prevalence in 5m

1. The high prevalence was occurred at Bunaken National Park especially at 10m depth : 83,73 (poor), low prevalence in Raja Ampat at 10m depth : 23,50 (good). 2. The coral dominant bleaching and diseased is Porites and Acropora, otherwise Pocillopora and Montipora 129

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REFERENCES

Figure 13. Porites with bleaching pattern. (Foto: E. Ampou)

undominant. SUGGESTION 1. The ideal approach to studying coral diseases/ bleaching and their impacts, given sufficient funding and qualified personnel, is a well designed, integrated, multi component survey. 2. The result of this research need to be continued in the future such as long term monitoring at the same location to gathering more significant data. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors grateful to Balai Riset dan Observasi Kelautan – BRKP, DKP with DIPA funding, we would like to sincerely thank to Head of BROK for reviewers, comments and suggestions significantly improved the manuscript and Marine Conservation Research Team BROK, TNC-WWF Wakatobi, Conservation International Raja Ampat and Marine Affairs and Fisheries District North Sulawesi, Wakatobi, Raja Ampat for cooperation during collecting data.

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Anonimous. 2007. Siaran Pers : Enam Negara Sepakati Kerjasama Kelola dan Konservasi Segitiga Karang. No 90.PDSI/XII/2007. Anonimous. 2010. Coral Bleaching. Di unduh dari Wikipedi http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_bleaching pada tanggal 6 Januari 2010 .Buchheim J., 1998. Coral Reef Bleaching. Marine Biology Learning Center Publications. Di unduh dari http:// www.marinebiology.org/coralbleaching.htm pada tanggal 10 januari 2010. Buddemeier, RW and Wilkinson, CR. (1994) Global Cimate Change and Coral Reefs: Implications for people and reefs. IUCN: Gland (Switzerland), 107 pp. Coral Disease Handbook, Guidelines for Assesment & Management. 2008. www.gefcoral.org Dahuri, R . 2003. Keanekaragaman Hayati Laut aset pembangunan berkelanjutan Indonesia. PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Jakarta. Glynn, P.W. 1996. Coral reef bleaching: Facts, hypotheses and implications. Global Change Biology 2:495-509. Kushmaro, A., Y. Loya, M. Fine, and E. Rosenberg. 1996. Bacterial infection and coral bleaching. Nature 380:396. Hiroya Yamano*, Masayuki Tamura. 2003. Detection limits of coral reef bleaching by satellite remote sensing: Simulation and data analysis. Social and Environmental Systems Division, National Institute for Environmental Studies, Ibaraki, Japan. Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (1999) Climate Change, coral bleaching and the future of the world’s coral reefs. Greenpeace: Sydney (Australia), 28 pp. Juliann Krupa. Coral Bleaching and the Affect of Temperature Change on Coral Reef Predator-Prey Interactions. Di unduh dari : http://www.resnet.wm.edu/~jxshix/ math345/juliann-Coral-Bleaching.ppt pada tanggal 12 Januari 2010 Peter J. Mumby,*, William Skirving, Alan E. Strong, John T. Hardy, Ellsworth F. LeDrew, Eric J. Hochberg, Rick P. Stumpf, Laura T. David .Remote sensing of coral reefs and their physical environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin 48 (2004) 219–228 Peters, E.C. 1997. Diseases of coral reef organisms. In: Birkeland, C. (ed.), Life and Death of Coral Reefs. New York: Chapman & Hall. pp.114-139. Santavy, D.L. and E.C. Peters. 1997. Microbial pests: Coral disease research in the western Atlantic. Proc. 8th Int. Coral Reef Symp. 1:607-612. Tyler R. L. Christensen, 2008. Coral bleaching, satellite observations, and coral reef protection. Di unduh dari http://www.eoearth.org/article/Coral_bleaching,_satellite_observations,_and_coral_reef_ protection pada tanggal 8 Januari 2010 The Nature Conservancy. www.coraltrianglecenter.org/. 10 Agustus 2008 http://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/ http://coralreefwatch.noaa.gov/satellite/virtual_stations/ coral_triangle_virtualstations.html

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PREDICTION OF MONTHLY RAINFALL BASED ON THE TRMM PRECIPITATION RADAR SATELLITE DATA OVER REGION OF INDONESIA 1)

R. Prasetia1)2), T. Osawa2), I W. S. Adnyana2)3)

Indonesian Meteorology, Climatology, and Geophysics Agency (BMKG) Bali 2) Center for Remote Sensing and Ocean Science, Udayana University 3) Environmental Research Center, Udayana University

ABSTRAK Kepulauan Indonesia merupakan wilayah yang mendapatkan curah hujan sepanjang tahun, namun jaringan stasiun pengukuran curah hujan di wilayah ini tidak sepadat atau sebanyak seperti di benua besar lainnya. Oleh karena itu, satelit pengamatan curah hujan merupakan solusi terbaik untuk pengamatan dengan cakupan temporal dan spasial yang memadai. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk validasi dan prediksi curah hujan bulanan berdasarkan data satelit Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Precipitation Radar (TRMM PR). Data yang digunakan adalah curah hujan bulanan dari satelit TRMM PR Level3A25 dan in situ data dari BMKG selama periode tahun 2004 - 2008. Hasil validasi menunjukkan bahwa data satelit memberikan nilai lebih rendah dari data observasi, kecuali di wilayah anti-monsunal (C) dimana data satelit memberikan nilai lebih besar dari data observasi. Pola time series rata-rata hujan bulanan berdasarkan 39 lokasi selama periode lima tahun (2004-2008) menunjukkan pola yang sangat mirip dengan data observasi, dengan memberikan nilai korelasi yang tinggi (r = 0,82-0,98) dan RMSE (Root Mean Squared Error) kurang dari 50 (mm/bulan). Hasil prediksi curah hujan bulanan dengan menggunakan metode ARIMA (Autoregressive integrated moving average) menunjukkan nilai yang lebih besar dari data observasinya dan pola curah hujan bulanannya untuk periode satu tahun (Januari-Desember 2009) memiliki pola kemiripan dengan data observasi. Kata kunci: prediksi, hujan, Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Precipitation Radar (TRMM PR), ARIMA (Autoregressive integrated moving average) ABSTRACT The Indonesian archipelago is characterized as a huge amount of rainfall throughout the year. Rain gauge measurement networks at Indonesian archipelago are not as dense or regular as in other major continent. Therefore, satellite observations of rainfall are the best solution for adequate temporal and spatial coverages. The aims of this research were validation and prediction of monthly rainfall over region of Indonesia based on the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Precipitation Radar (TRMM PR) satellite data. Data used are monthly rainfall derived from Satellite TRMM PR Level3A25 and in situ data from BMKG in 2004 to 2008 period. The validation showed that the satellite gave an underestimated condition than the gauge data, except in the anti-monsoonal type (C) the satellite gave an overestimated condition than gauge data. The pattern of average time series monthly rainfall based on 39 locations and five years period (2004 to 2008) showed quite similar pattern with gauge data, and the relationship of monthly average rainfall pattern measured by TRMM PR and rain gauge showed very good agreements with the ground reference giving high correlation (r=0.82-0.98) and RMSE was less than 50 (mm/ month). The results of prediction monthly rainfall using ARIMA (Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average) method based on TRMM PR3A25 and rain gauge data showed an overestimated condition. The patterns of monthly rainfall between prediction and gauge data for one year period (January to December 2009) showed similar pattern with rain gauge data. Keywords: prediction, rainfall, Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Precipitation Radar (TRMM PR), ARIMA (Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average) INTRODUCTION The Indonesian archipelago is characterized as a huge amount of rainfall throughout the year, and plays the essential role as a center of atmospheric heat source of earth climate system (Ramage, 1971). The informa-

tion about the global rainfall is necessary for the study of climatology, the prediction of flood and the problem of water resource. In general, rain gauge observations yield relatively accurate point measurements of rainfall but also suffer from sampling error in representation areas means. 131