INDONESIAN JOURNAL FOR ISlAMIC STUDIES
!SLAM AND MEDICAL SCIENCE: EVIDENCE FROM MALAYSIAN AND INDONESIAN FATAWA
M. B. Hooker ISLAMIC LEGAL LITERATURE AND SUBSTANTIVE LAW IN INDONESIA
Nur Ahmad Fadhil Lubis AN EMPIRICAL ASSESSMENT OF DIVORCE LAW REFORM IN INDONESIA
Mark Cammack INDONESIANS IN SAUDI ARABIA: WORSHIP AND WORK
LaurenceHusson ISSN 0215-0492
Volume 4, Number 4, 1997
STUDlA ISLAMIKJ\ lndonesran Joumal for Islamic Studies Volume 4, Number 4, 1997 EDITORIAL BOARD Hamn Nasuliou Mastubu M Quraisb ~brbab A Aziz Dab/an
M. Strlria Jijfelldi Vabilah Lubir M. l'tt~l(/11 I usuf Komartuldin Hidaytrl M Dm !!J:ram~uddill
Muslim .Vaslllion \fl'flhib Mu'lbi
EDITOR-IN-CIIIEF Az)'ltmardi tb'ra EDITORS \'ai[rrf ,l1ujalll flrmdro Pras~t) o .ftJban H. Alc!lllrmtm Didltr ~)'afrruldin
.'\II Mrmbanif ASSISTANTS TO THE EDITOR: AriefSubbau 01111111 l-atburrabma11 Nrml NttrOIIf
ENC.LISH LANGUAGF. ADVISOR. Donald Pourr
AI!ABIC l.ANGCAGE ADVISOR N111'$WIIU(/
COVER DESIGNER S. Prinka ~TUUIA ISLAMlKA (ISSN 0215-!H92) is a journal published quarterly by the /nstitut Agama Islam Ni!geri (WN. lhe St:lle Instirute lor lsl:umc SIUdies) Syarif Hida)'lltULIJh,Jakarta (STT DEPPEN No. Jl9i5K/Dl1JEN/PPG/STT/1976) and sponsored by the Deparm1cnt of Reli!lious Affairs of the Republic ollndone~ia . It speclahzes in Indonesian Islamk studies, and is imcndcd ro communicare onginJI researches and current issues on the subjccr !his )ournO!l warmly welcomes contribuuons from scholars of rdatcd discrplines. All articles publrshcd do not neccssanly represent the views of tht: journal. or other institutions to wh1ch it1s arf1hared Thcrare solclv the: views of the authors. The aruclcsconts~ned in this journal have hct:n refcn:cd by the Board of Editors.
Emzi Netri
AI-Tafk!r al-Islam! 'an Ta}:lr1r al-Mar'ah bi Indun!siya
Abstrac: 7he generally weak positton ofwomen in M~JSiim soaety h.ts given
lm-cb to ..l mO'Uement and thought among Indonesian Muslims concernmg women's emancipation. Prominent figures have criticizedMtJS!im understandzng ofwomen's position inherited from generation to generation for inferior and subordinate posttion ofwomen m society. According to thesefigures, !slam is God's mercy for all and, as such, Islam cannot possibly treat men as special whtle regarding women as having a lower stattfS. Although critical ofhow Islam rmdmtood women's staltfS, d1eir conceptualization and artiotlation of the problem has differed accm·ding to the historical period and comext m question Women's inferior place irl Muslim society, for example, can be seen in the "kitab kuning-" (or yellow books-Islamic classical texts thac bave become yellow becatJSe ofage) 17Je kitab kuning, widely used by muiitional kiyai and 'ulama' (religiolfS scholars/leaders} ofthe pesantren (Islamic boarding schoolj, haveasu/ftciently clear albeit not absolute point ofview which regard~ women's status as below that ofmen. An illuscration ofthis viewpoint is the text Uqud ai-Lujayn f) Bayan f:iuqug al-Jawzayn, by Nawawf al-Bantant, a zext widely read m the pesamren ofjava. In many matters, this text stresses a wife's duty to her btiSband rather than the other war round. The men are positioned as the sub;ect ofthe text, women as the ob;ect. According to the text, one ofthe main duttes ofwomen is to serve their husbands in bed RejiJSal ofsex witb her hus· band represents a woman's great sin. Nawaw£, basing his opmion on the Qur'an and (ladfth, greatly stressed an attitude ofa woman's total obedience and enslavement to her husband. Indonesian responses to an opinion such as that held by Nawawf can be divided mto three phases. The first phase occurred between the end ofthe 19th amtu?y and tbe beginning ofthe twentieth. 7he second phase was in the 1960s and 1970s and the third phaseafier the 1980s. The first phase of Indonesian Muslim disc01me represents that ofpioneer thinkers. Attention during this perzod was directed to the improvement ofttr· gent and basic problems that women confronted including m areas ofeducation,freedom from traditional discrimination, and imprO'Uement nfindivid~ial 177
Swdiahlmmkn, \fu/ 1(, Nn. 4, /?17
liS
f.m• Sttr:
and socUil stttcus in rruzrriage-especially regarding the issue ofpolygamy. Although .Mus!im aspirations foy em;1napation were not as strong as those held by secu!a1· women's groups, figttres such as Rohant1 Kudu.s a11d Rahmab elYuni{.St)yab quue clearly demaruled tmprm)emen t ofapportunities fm-women. Beginning with "iqra" or the command to read the Qur'Jn, Rohana Ktdus expwined that reading fmd writing was not the specUil right ofmen, but also a b,wc right that women should recezve. From a youthful age, she was .-tlrearly aaive struggling/or u•omens education. In addzt10n, she diSatssed po!ttzul rights for women ~tsing women's achievements internationally as a model on which lo base her ideas. She was strongly owosed to the practice by tbe Dutch in. tbe Indies ofkeeping "second wives" and improper treatment ofwomen workers on Deli plantations. 17Je second phase of Mztslim discourse concerned the theme ofwomen and development. 'J7Jis pe1iod was marked by lndoneszan women's efforts to gain what is called "partnel'Ship in development."' One figure representative ofthis second phase ofstruggle was Zakiah Darajat. 7Akiah re;ected the opinion that women cannot mvolve themselves m national development and wider socUil acti~1itzes, or that they should be rest?7.Cted from tbe same rights and duties of men to demand knowledge. Rough!)' during this period, !ndonesian intellectu· als began to use the tenn feminism and gender in established scholarship. 17Je third phase possessed its own specific cbamcte1·, as there was greate1· ar· tzad,tllOn ofeman.cipatzon by exponents ofMttslim thought. They intensi~1ely sought tn hold Mwslzm dialogue in relation to women's soaal reality. They criticized religious mrerpretaciom responsible for gender injustice. Promznent figHres during this period were Wardah Hafidz, BudJTY Munawar· Rachman and Mamour hqih. They were convinced chat certain religiozts understand· ings 1-epresenced soczal constructions. WardaJJ Hafuiz,for instance, has argued that verses oftbe Qr,w'an or /:Jadd.th that give the impression oflowmng women's stattLS mttsl 'zot be scm solely in normative tetrrl5 bztt shot-tUI also be viewed fivm bistmical/culturallsociallpolitical context. For WarckJJ and like-minded thinkers, there existed an urgent need for reinwpretation ofreligwus values, coinciding with the need for economic, political, and legal or stmctural transformation that would permit women to become tbe subject ofsocial behavim· and discourse. According to 'XIardah, there was a need to socialize more just religwus understandmgs that cook mto account the tmerests ofwomen's groups. These three histoncal phases u·ere interrelated, as each phase spawned the next. Mltslim thought regarding emancipation began with a conviction that all tbat i~ at for.tlt concerning male/female relations must be corrected. Yet, in each historical fle'iod there has never been an unsurpassed imerpretation of male female social and tndividual relations.
Emzi
Net~-i
Al-Tafk!r al-Islam! 'an Tabr!r al-Mar'ah bi Indun!siya
Abstraksi: Posrsz perempuan yang umumnya lemab dalam masya?·akat
telah mendorong !ahtmya pemikzran dan gerakan emanstpasz perempuan da·ri kalangan Muslim Indonesia. Para tokob utamanya menggugat pemahaman Islam tentangperempuan yang diwariskan dari satu generasi ke generasi karena dinilai be?·tanggungjawab atas irzferio?·itas dan pomi subordinatifperempuan di ten.gah·tengab rnasya1·akat. Menurut keyakinan mereka, Islam adalah rahmat bagz semua. Karena iw, Islam tidak mungkin mengisumewakan laki-lakr dan merendahkan pe1·empuan. Semua tokoh ini kritis terhadap pemahamarz Islam dalam lmbungannya derzgan posist pe?·empt~an, sekalipun artikulasi pemikirannya dalam menanggapi penoalan tersebttt berbeda·heda sesuai dengan perbedaan zaman dan konteksnya. Pe1nahaman Islam yang memberi tempat rendah pad,t perempuan misalnya dapat dtlihat dalam 'kitabkuning': "Kitabkuning"yang meluas dipakai kiyaz dan ulama tradislOnal dengan basis pesantren, memandang bahwa kedudttkan perempuan berada di bawab faki-laki. Penggambt1rarz demikian dapat dilLhat misalnya cU!fam kitab 'Uqud al-Lujayn fl Bayan f-:iuquq al-Jawzayn, karya Nawawt al-Bantani, yang merupakan salah satu kitab yttng banyak dibaca di pesantren-pesanlren dz ]awa. Dalttm banyak hal, kitab t(?Ysebu t banyak menekankan kewajiban isteri atas suam i daripttda sebaliknya. Laki-laki dalam kitab ini diposisikan sebagai subyek, sedangkan perempuan sebagai obyek. Respons aLas pemahaman semacam iw, di Indonesia, apabila dilibat dari temanya, Japat dibagi kepada tig,t gelombang. Gelombang pertama 179
Studu lsl~m.lt.1. Vol 4. Nu 4, /997
180
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ter;adt ,1khrr abad ke-19 d4n awal abad 20. Gelombang kedua ialah ksmm 1960-an dan 1970-an dan gelombang ketiga adalah periode pasca tahun 1980-an. Diskursus Islam gelombang pertama mempakan plktran-prkiran pelopor d,m penggagas. Pada pe1·iode ini perhatian tertuju pada perbaikan persoa/an mendesak dan meruiasar bagi pe·rempuan meliputi pendidtkan, pembebasan dan disk1iminasi tradm dan perbaikan status indwidual dar1 sostal dalam perkawinan seperti kasus poligami. Wal,u~pun aspirasinya tidaksekuat da1't perempuan golongan sekuler, tokoh gerakan gelombang iniseperti Rohana Kudus dan Rahmah el-Yunusiyyah dengan sangat jelas menzmwt perbaikan kesempatan bagi perempuan. Rohana Ku.dtts bertolak dari '~qra" atau perimah membaca dalam af-Qur)an, menegaskan bahwa tulis-baca bt~kanlab bak isttmewa pihak lakz-fakt, akan Letapi juga hak mendasar yang han-ts diterima perempuan. Diskunus Islam gelombang kedt~a ber-kisar tema perempuan dan pembangunan. Penode ini ditandar oleb waha perempuan Indonesia untuk memperoleh apa yang disebut "micra dalam pembangtman ".Salah seorang tokoh yang dapat disebsa ia!ab Zaktah Daradjat. Tokoh ini menolak anggapan sementara orang yang berpandangan babwa perempuan tidak dapat berkiprah dalam pembangunan nasional atau dalam lapangan so,~ial febib luas. Juga terhadap pandnngan yang membatasi perempuan dan· hak dan kewajiban11ya unwk bersama laki· laki memmtut ilmu. Yang peming dicatat, lebzb kurang pada pe1·iode inilah iklim intefektual Indonesia mulai menggunakan istilah feminisme dan gen.de1· sebagai istilah teknis keilmuan. Celom bang ketiga memtliki kekhasan karena pada masa ini eksponen pemikiran Islam tentang emansipasi lebih artikufatif. Mereka dengan incens berusaha mendialogkan Islam vis-a-vis realitas sonaf perempuan dan segala sematu yang terkazt dengannya. Mereka menggugat penafiiranpent:tfiimn keagamaan yang telah bertanggung jawab alas ketidakadi lan gender. Tokoh terkemuka perzode ini di antaranya ialah Wardah HafidzJ Budhy Munt:twar Racbman dan Mansour Faqtb. Mereka umumnya meyakini, pemahaman keagamaan tertentu pada dasa.rnya merupakan kontntksi sosial. Bagi tokoh·tokob gelombang keciga, reimerpretasi nilainilai agama sangat mendesak dilaku.ka.n, namtm pa.da saat yang sama juga hart<S dilakukan transformasi struktur ekonomi) politik dan hukum yang mem ungkinkan perempuan sehagai subyek.
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'E'.)i.: (Imam Botyol) Jr..J:'
