DISKRIMINASI PASAR TENAGA KERJA
! Perbedaan upah (earning) dan kesempatan kerja
(employment
opportunities)
untuk
pekerjaan yang sama, ! Disebabkan : ras, gender, suku bangsa, dll.
TABEL 1 KONDISI PASAR TENAGA KERJA AMERIKA (1997) WHITE Pria Wanita
BLACK Pria Wanita
HISPANIC Pria Wanita
Lulusan SMU 82,9 83,2 73,5 76,0 54,9 54,6 (%) Lulus S1 (%) 27,0 22,3 12,5 13,9 10,6 10,1 TPAK (%) 77,5 59,9 72,2 64,0 84,1 57,0 Pengangguran 3,6 3,7 8,5 8,8 6,1 7,9 (%) Upah Tahunan $36.942 $21.208 $24.510 $18.785 $23.038 $16.459 (Part Time) Upah Tahunan $45.131 $29.817 $30.560 $25.026 $27.985 $23.193 (Full Time)
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Labor Market Discrimination - 1
Kondisi pasar tenaga kerja : ! Terjadi perbedaan upah antara pekerja pria dan wanita " Gender ! Terjadi perbedaan upah antara pekerja kulit putih, hitam dan hispanic " Ras ! Perbedaan juga ditimbulkan karena tingkat pendidikan
Negara lain : ! CANADA
" Upah pria kulit hitam lebih
rendah 18 % daripada pria kulit putih. ! INGGRIS
" Imigran non kulit putih
menerima 10-20 % lebih rendah dari imigran kulit putih dengan skill yang sama. ! HUNGARY
" ratio upah wanita-pria 0,65
! SWEDIA
" ratio upah wanita-pria 0,77
! AUSTRALIA " ratio upah wanita-pria 0,73
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Labor Market Discrimination - 2
THE DISCRIMINATION COEFFICIENT # Dikemukakan Gary Becker dalam
The Economics of Discrimination (1957) # Konsep dasar : perbedaan selera # Type TK : White Workers dengan upah wW dan Black Workers dengan upah wB
# Apabila tidak suka Black Workers maka upah yang sebenarnya wB untuk 1 jam, seolah-olah menjadi wB (1 + d)
# Nilai d positif, disebut Discrimination
Coefficient # Contoh : upah Black Workers per jam
wB = $10 dengan d=0,5 ; menyebabkan seolah-olah employer membayar $15 per jam.
# Nepotism Coefficient " wB (1 – n )
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Labor Market Discrimination - 3
A. EMPLOYER DISCRIMINATION # Asumsi :White Workers dan Black Workers, keduanya Perfect Subtitutes in Production. # Fungsi produksi :
q = f ( EW + E B ) q EW EB
" output firm " jumlah white workers " jumlah black workers
Analisis Firm Non Diskriminasi # White Workers dan Black Workers memiliki Value of Marginal Product (VMPE) sama. # Employer akan merekrut yang lebih murah # Employer akan merekrut sampai upah TK sama dengan Value of Marginal Product. # Misal : wW > wB
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Labor Market Discrimination - 4
Gambar 1 Keputusan Rekrutmen Black Workers pada Firm Non Diskriminasi Dollars
wB
VMPE Employment
EB*
Analisis Firm Diskriminasi # Misal : Employer tidak suka black worker, maka upah " wB (1 + d) # Keputusan rekrutmen : perbandingan antara wW dengan wB (1 + d) $
• Rekrut hanya BW " wB (1 + d) < wW • Rekrut hanya WW " wB (1 + d) > wW
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Labor Market Discrimination - 5
# All-white workforce " White Firms # All-black workforce " Black Firms # Misal : wW < wB
Gambar 2 Keputusan Rekrutmen White Workers pada White Firm (Diskriminasi) Dollars
ww
VMP
E
* EW
Employment
# Pada kondisi wW < wB ; semakin besar d maka
semakin
banyak
merekrut
white
workers, dan sebaliknya.
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Labor Market Discrimination - 6
Gambar 3 Keputusan Rekrutmen Black Workers pada Black Firm (Diskriminasi) Dollars
wB (1 + d1 ) wB (1 + d0 ) wB VMP
E
EB1
EB0
EB*
Employment
DISCRIMINATION and PROFITS Kerugian white firm (Gb. 2) : • Employer seharusnya dapat merekrut black worker dalam jumlah yang sama dengan upah lebih rendah " Kesalahan Jumlah • Profit seharusnya dapat meningkat bila non diskriminasi
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Labor Market Discrimination - 7
Kerugian Diskriminasi : ! Merekrut pekerja ‘’Wrong Color’’ ! Merekrut “Wrong Number” $ Menyebabkan tidak tercapainya ProfitMaximizing Level of Employment ( EB*)
Gambar 4 Profit dan Discrimination Coefficient Dollars
πmax
πw Black Firm
0
White Firm
dW
Discrimination Coefficient
The Most Profitable Firm " Zero Discrimination
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Labor Market Discrimination - 8
LABOR MARKET EQUILIBRIUM Firm dengan Discrimination Coefficient : ! Rendah
" cenderung Black Firm
! Tinggi
" cenderung White Firm
Gambar 5 Ratio Upah Black/White dalam Pasar Tenaga Kerja Black-White Wage Ratio
S
(wB / wW ) 1
D'
R
(wB / w W )* D
0
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N
Black Employmoent
Labor Market Discrimination - 9
Kondisi : ! (wB / wW ) > 1 " Tidak ada employer merekrut black workers. ! Asumsi : Supply Black Worker Perfectly Inelastic " sejumlah N Black person tidak terpengaruh tingkat upah.
B. EMPLOYEE DISCRIMINATION ! Diskriminasi dilakukan oleh “Fellow Worker” ! Misal :
White worker yang bekerja pada
Black Firm dengan upah wW akan merasa mendapat upah wW (1- d). ! Tidak berpengaruh terhadap “Profitability of Firms” karena white worker dan black worker adalah
perfect
subtitutes
sehingga
firm
membayar jumlah upah yang sama.
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Labor Market Discrimination - 10
C. CUSTOMER DISCRIMINATION ! Keputusan membeli tidak ditentukan oleh Actual Price ( p ) tapi oleh The Utility-Adjusted Price " p (1 + d). ! Employer dapat mengatur tenaga penjualan sesuai kondisi. ! Survey yang dilakukan di Atlanta, Boston, Detroit dan Los Angeles :
HUBUNGAN ANTARA CUTOMER DISCRIMATION DENGAN PERSENTASE BLACK WORKER BARU TYPE FIRM Customer & worker bertemu Customer & worker tidak bertemu Perbedaan
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> 50 % BLACK CUSTOMER
> 75 % WHITE CUSTOMER
PERBEDAAN
58,0 %
9,0 %
49,0 %
46,6 %
12,2 %
34,4 %
-
-
14,6 %
Labor Market Discrimination - 11
CUSTOMER DISCRIMINATION and the NBA Nearly three-quarters of the players in the National Basketball Asociation (NBA) are black, and many of the highest-paid players are also black. In the last few years, a number of black rookies have signed eye-popping multiyear contract, such as Shaquille O’Neal’s $40 million deal with the Orlando Magic, Chris Webber’s $74 million deal with the Golden State Wariors, and Larry Johnson’s $84 million deal with the Charlotte Hornets. There ara also more black coaches in the NBA than any other sport. Most fans of the NBA, however, are white. Because baskerball players are very visible to the fans who attend the games, the team owners cannot disguise the racial composition of the team by strategically placing players in “far-off” positions. Moreover, there seems to be scarcity of talented white players who could notoceably change the racial composition of an NBA team. Customer discriminations by fans, therefor, will increase the relative salaries of white players because owners wishing to cater the the white fans will compete for the few white players available. It turns out that the racial composition of the basketball team has a strong impact on game attendance. A study of attenance records indicates that replacing a black player with an eqqually talented white player bring in about 9,000 additional fans per year. At $50 a head (a very conservative estimate of ticket prices and concession revenues), the racial switch would increase annual team revenues by roughly $450,000. It is also the case that black players earn less than white players in the NBA. The typical white player earns about 20 percent more than black who play in the same position and have equal ability (as measured by the ream statistics that sports fans are so fond of memorizing). The average annual salary in the NBA is now over $ 2 milion, so the impact of customer discrimination in the wages of basketball players may substantial. Sources : Lawrence Kahn and Peter Sherer, “Racial Differences in Professional Basketball Players’s Compensation,” Journal of Labor Economics 6 (January 1998);40-61; Andrew E. Serwer, “How High,” Sport Illisutrated, November 8, 1993, pp. 88-91
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Labor Market Discrimination - 12
MEASURING DISCRIMINATION Asumsi : Tenaga kerja terdiri dari ___
# Male, dengan average wage WM ___
# Female, dengan average wage WF Diskriminasi : selisih average wage, yaitu : ___
___
___
∆ W = WM − W F Pengembangan model : Schooling mempengaruhi pendapatan Earning function : # Male : wM = α M + β M S M # Female : wF = α F + β F S F
β M menyatakan pendapatan pria meningkat bila mendapatkan tambahan 1 tahun pendidikan. Model Regresi : ___
___
___
∆ W = WM − WF = α M + β M s M − α F − β F s F
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Labor Market Discrimination - 13
Gambar 6 Measuring the Impact of Discrimination on the Wage Dollars Men's Earnings Function M
Skill
w
w* F Women's Earnings Function
αM -
wF
αF
0
•
s F
s M
Schooling
Male mendapat wage lebih tinggi meskipun samasama tidak bersekolah.
•
Male bersekolah lebih lama sehingga perbedaan ___
antara Male dan Female "
___
wM − wF ___
•
Diskriminasi akibat Skill "
wM − wF* ___
•
Diskriminasi akibat School "
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w − wF * F
Labor Market Discrimination - 14
TREND IN FEMALE-MALE WAGE RATIO (1930-1990) 0.72 0.69 0.66 0.63 0.60 0.57 0.54 1930
1940
1950
1970
1960
1980
1990
Year
WAGES AND EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF HISPANIC WORKERS (1997) MEN
HISPANICS Mexicans Puerto Ricans Cubans Central or South American Origin Other Hispanics Non-Hispanics
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HOURLY WAGE ($)
12,78 12,20 14,11 14,58 13,00 15,31 19,44
WOMEN
YEAR OF SCHOOLING
HOURLY WAGE ($)
YEAR OF SCHOOLING
12,8 10,1 12,2 13,1 11,2 12,8 13,7
11,53 9,90 12,67 14,21 10,67 12,01 13,63
11,5 10,9 12,8 13,2 11,8 12,9 13,7
Labor Market Discrimination - 15
