CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
A. Mindset According of Encarta electronic dictionary, Mindset consists of two words mind and set. Mind is seat of thought and memory the center of consciousness that generates thoughts, feelings, idea, and perceptions, and stores knowledge and memories. Moreover, set is a preference for or increased ability in a particular activity. Therefore, Mindset is beliefs that affect somebody’s attitude: a set of beliefs or a way of thinking that determine somebody behavior and outlook. (Adi, 2008:13) Mindset sebenarnya kepercayaan (belief), atau sekumpulan kepercayaan (set of beliefs), atau cara pikir yang mempengaruhi perilaku(behavior) dan sikap (attitude) seseorang, yang akhirnya akan menentukan level keberhasilan hidupnya. (According definition above mindset is belief, set of beliefs, or thinking way influence behavior and attitude that determine the success level in his life ).(Adi, 2008:14) For this statement, it can be concluding that mindset is belief; belief means anything we think that is true. Belief can influence the attitude and can be elementary decision, act, choice and behavior. So can be determined the success in live. Manusia menurut filosofi Transformational thinking, terdiri dari tiga system: system perilaku (behavior system), system berfikir (thinking system), dan system kepercayaan
(belief
system).
(According
to
Transformational
Thinking
Philosophy that human consist of three systems: Behavior System, Thinking
10
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System and Belief System). (Adi, 2008:15) Behavior System is interaction way with outside. Behavior can influence the experience and experience can influence thinking system. Meanwhile, Thinking System is act as filters to translate event or experience be a belief and belief can influence the act. Belief System is anything that we belief that is true. Belief is a key to change our life. If belief is change, self-talk, perception, state, and emotion will change also. Therefore, behavior will be change. “Piaget, bapak psikologi pada satu kesimpulan bahwa belief system memainkan peran yang sama penting atau bahkan lebih penting daripada kemampuan berfikir logis membentuk pola pikir seseorang. (Piaget is father of psychology conclude that belief system is important or more important from logical thinking skill to make people mindset)”. (Adi, 2008:19). It means belief system is important to make the human mindset than logical thinking because belief system is core of reality, truth, and live value. Belief system is corps of belief, belief influence decision, attitude, act and behavior. Therefore, can be means mindset made by belief. Plato interprets thinking as ideational activity. Therefore, thinking is an activity because subject of thinking is active. Activity itself is ideational description it means used ideas and not sensory and motorist activity but can with that both activity. Another interprets thinking as put connection activity of terms knowledge. The terms of knowledge, we have in the forms of understanding and conception. Thinking is dynamic process (Maramis: 1990). Thinking included judgment process, comprehension and reasoning. Saanin (1976) interpret thinking process
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included judgment, understanding and conception. While, Suryabrata (1984) thinking process divide in 3 steps: 1. Understanding establishment 2. Opinion establishment 3. Conclusion establishment
UNDERSTANDING ESTABLISHMENT Understanding establishment process by means of three steps:
a) Analyze the characteristic from same object Ex. Want to make understanding of bird so we must take several of bird and we analysis the characteristic. b) Compare the characteristic to find another characteristic What is same or is not same characteristic etc. c) Shorten Separate out or throw the different characteristic, save the same characteristic etc.
OPINION ESTABLISHMENT Opinion formed means put two understanding or more connection.
Opinion distinguished in three kinds: a) Affirmative opinion It means positive opinion or agrees with the statement b) Negative opinion Denying opinion or explain there is not same characteristic. c) Modality opinion Opinion is explains about possibility.
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CONCLUSION ESTABLISHMENT Conclusion establishment can called draw a conclusion decision is capability
to make new opinion according of another opinion we have. Decision is different into three kinds: a) Deductive decision Take decision from common decision to specific decision. Exp: small turtledove can fly, dove can fly and weaverbird can fly so all bird can fly. b) Inductive decision Take decision from specific decision to common decision. Exp: all birds can fly so dove can fly, weaverbird can fly. c) Analogy decision This decision can take from compare or adjust with specific decision. Exp: Small turtledove have good sound, is expensive. Weaverbird have good sound, is expensive. So pigeon have good sound is expensive also. It can conclude that thinking is blending process of knowledge so be an opinion and understanding and the result thinking being a conclusion or can called mindset while mindset sourced from belief. Thinking is a process can organization, managed with systematic. In normal thinking process, contain of idea, symbol or association, which directed to purpose and orientation in fact. While, abnormal process thinking, that organization is difficult or disorganization. Disorganization thinking marked: 1. Connect irrelevant concepts.
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2. Unite irrelevant concepts. 3. Cannot difference between fantasy and fact. 4. Cannot difference between concrete and abstract. 5. Use many symbolic. 6. Use many subjective explanations exp: words have not meaning. Human thinking process influenced by factors ex: somatic factor (brain hindrance, weariness, or sick), psychologies factor (emotion hindrance, memory or psychosis) and social factor (noise, nature atmosphere and house hood atmosphere). TROUBLE KINDS IN THINKING 1. Dereisme Any misappropriate between individual way of thinking process with theirs grow up experience. The way of thinking process not based on fact, logic or experience. 2. Autistic There is any failure to differentiate between facts with fantasy. The thinking process influenced by wishes exceed fact limit. 3. Kinds of unrealistic think. Kind thinking is not conformed to fact. Exp: will flying only with his bird drawing to moon. In autism cases, thinking process is abnormal. Autism children or people cannot organization their thinking. They usually connection and unite irrelevant concept, cannot difference between fantasy and fact, concrete and abstract. Their thinking process always influenced by their wishes also. Autism is abnormal growing or annoyed before 3 years old as be showing by delay or abnormal
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function in sign little bit: (1) social interaction, used language in social growing, (2) used language in social communication, or (3) symbolic or imagination game The criteria autism used in definition of world health organization in ICD-10 (international classification of disease) in 10th edition (WHO, 1987) and the DSMVI (diagnostic statistical manual, 4th edition by American psychiatric association) (APA, 1994) 1. Gangguan kualitatif dalam interaksi sosial yang ditunjukkan oleh paling sedikit dua diantara yang berikut ini: a) Ciri gangguan yang jelas dalam penggunaan berbagai perilaku nonverbal (bukan lisan) seperti kotak mata, ekspresi wajah, gestur, dan gerak isyarat untuk melakukan interaksi sosial. b) Ketidakmampuan mengembangkan hubugan pertemanan sebaya yang tidak sesuai dengan tingkat perkembangannya. c) Ketidakmampuan turut merasakan kegembiraan orang lain. d) Kekurangmampuan dalam berhubugan emosional secara timbal balik dengan orang lain.(Theo Peeters, 2012:1-2) 2. Gangguan kualitatif dalam berkomunikasi yang ditunjukkan oleh paling sedikit salah satu dari yang berikut ini: a) Keterlambatan atau kekurangan secara menyeluruh dalam berbahasa lisan (tidak disertai usaha untuk mengimbanginya dengan penggunaan gestur atau mimik muka sebagai cara alternatif dalam berkomunikasi). b) Ciri gangguan yang jelas pada kemampuan untuk memulai atau melanjutkan pembicaraan dengan orang lain meskipun dalam percakapan sederhana).
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c) Pengunaan bahasa yang repetitif (diulang-ulang) atau stereotip (meniru-niru) atau bersifat idiosinktratik (aneh). d) Kurang beragamnya spontanitas dalam permainan pura-pura atau meniru orang lain yang sesuai dengan tingkat perkembangannya. (ibid, P.2) 3. Pola minat perilaku yang terbatas, repetitif, dan stereotip seperti yang ditunjukkan oleh paling tidak satu dari yang berikut ini : a) Meliputi keasyikan dengan satu atau lebih pola minat yang terbatas atau sterotip yang bersifat abnormal baik dalam intensitas maupun fokus. b) Kepatuhan yang tampaknya didorong oleh rutinitas atau ritual spesifik (kebiasaan tertentu) yang nonfungsional (tidak berhubungan dengan fungsi). c) Perilaku gerakan stereotip dan repetitif (seperti terus menerus membuka-tutup
genggaman,
memutir
jari
atau
tangan
atau
mengerakkan tubuh denga cara yang kompleks). d) Keasyikan yang terus-menerus terhadap bagian-bagian dari sebuah benda. (ibid) In the first growing for child (0 – 3 year old) is very important because mind children’s grow up and in this situation children use subconscious thinking so all will be permeated 100% in their mind and this situation called imprint.”Imprint mengacu pada proses tertanamnya ide atau konsep dengan sangat kuat kedalam pikiran bawah sadar seseorang sehingga memengaruhi pola perilaku, berfikir, dan perasaannya. (Imprint relate of the idea planted or concept in subconscious
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thinking strongly someone so influence behavior, thought, and emotion”. (Adi 2008:32). From that explanation, it shows all input in children mind in first growing will be their mindset. If input is bad so the output is bad and if input is god, the output will be god. Children in this first growing will memorize all events or experiences in their life. And it can be influence their mindset because children learn with their perception as use emotion, attention, and use their hearing, seeing and etc. So if someone ask to a child in this growing that she is stupid, it can be her memorize that she is stupid and it can be influence this growing. For autism children, they have trouble in their growing and it placed in pervasive growing trouble category. The characteristic of pervasive growing trouble are dominant trouble in difficulty cognitive learning, language, motor (movement), and social interaction. “Pervasive” means someone has trouble deeply in all himself. And this is autism trouble. Autism is growing trouble, pervasive or understanding trouble, and not insane ill. In understanding of Autism or can called cognition. Autism children have different cognition style to access the information. They hearing, seeing, and felling but her mind accesses the information with different way because many autism children have mental handicap. Mental handicap can be showing with late growing. Mental handicap (cacat mental) is different with mental trouble (gangguan mental). Gangguan mental adalah penyakit – penyakit jiwa yang menyebabkan penderita tidak sanggup menilai degan baik kenyataan, tidak dapat lagi menguasai dirinya untuk menggangu orang lain atau merusak atau menyakiti dirinya sendiri (Mental trouble is insane ill who cause patient cannot evaluate the fact good,
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cannot dominate himself to disturb somebody else or damage, and hurt himself. (M.I.F. Baihaqi, 2005:2). Autism patients try to find and understanding this world with different way. They try to use their thinking with bizarre language but this is having meaning to autism patients. This autism thinking called echolalia. Echolalia is show idea with bizarre language having meaning for autism because can be communication tool for difficult communication people. Autism children use different way with different cognitive way with normal child. Autism child learn about this world with memorize and to find this world continuity can predict, give peaceful to them: pacification. If rules are difficult to understand by them, they will make rules by self because autism child is perfectionist and all must be true. This is compare between autism imagination developments with normal imagination development. Usia dalam bulan
Perkembangan Normal
Perkembangan
dengan
Gejala Autisme 6
Perilakunya tidak berbeda terhadap sebuah benda pada saat yang sama.
8
Perilaku
dibedakan Pengulangan
gerakan
berdasarkan karakteristik motorik
mungkin
benda. Menggunakan dua mendominasi
kegiatan
buah
benda
kombinasi
(tidak
dalam sadar. tepat
digunakan secara sosial)
19
12
Perilaku terhadap benda Agak sesuai
secara
sosial penasaran/eksplorasi
(kegunaan benda). Dua terhadap lingkungan. benda
atau
lebih Penggunaan mainan yang
dihubungkan secara tepat.
tidak
biasa
seperti
memutar, menjentik dan membariskan benda. 18
Sering
berprilaku
simbolik
(pura-pura
minum,
berbicara
ditelepon, dan lain-lain). 24
Sering
menerapkan
permainan
pura-pura
dengan boneka, mainan binatang (misalnya purapuramenyetrika). Rangkaian perilaku purapura
berkembang
(
memberi makan boneka, menimang
dan
membaringkannya ditempat tidur). Berpurapura
main
tembak-
tembakan dengan benda
20
yang ada. 26
Permainan simbolik yang Terus menerus menjilati sudah direncanakan lebih benda-benda. dahulu-memberitahukan
Tidak
ada
permainan
maksutnya dan mencari simbolik. benda yang dibutuhkan Terus menerus melakukan untuk itu. Mencari benda gerak pengganti
repetitif
(misalnya mematung,
menggunakan
seperti memutar,
kotak berjingkat da lain-lain.
sebagai pengganti mobil).
Kekaguman
visual
Benda diperlakukan alat terhadap benda, menatap yang
dapat
melakukan cahaya lampu, dan lain-
kegiatan bebas (misalnya: lain. boneka dibuat agar dapat Menunjukkan
banyak
mengangkat gelas sendiri) kekuatan
yang
berhubungan
dalam
manipulasi visual/motorik, misalnya puzzle. 48
Permainan sosiodramatis, Penggunaan pura-ura bermain dengan terhadap dua anak lain atau lebih. Mengunakan untuk
Beberapa
fungsional benda-benda.
aksi
lansung
pantomim terhadap boneka atau orag
mewakili
benda lain;
kebanyakan
21
yang
diperlukan
misalnya
( melibatkan
anank-anak
pura-pura sebagai alat perantara.
menuangkan air karena Permainan simbolik, jika tidak ada teko). Kehidupan
nyata
ada,
terbatas
dan
dan sederhana serta diulang-
khayal dapat membantu ulang. peranan
untuk
yang lama.
waktu Selama
permainan,
keterampilan yang lebih sulit berkembang, tetap membutuhkan
banyak
waktu dibanding kegiatan lebih mudah. Beberapa
diantaranya
tidak mengkombinasikan alat
permainan
dalam
bermain. 60
Bahasa berperan penting Tidak dapat berpantomim. dalam menciptakan tema, Tidak
bermain
menegosiasikan peran dan sosiodrama. bermain drama.
Autism is different but not too different as their repeated behavior. To help autism people must be understand about their and enter to their mind as their echolalia expressions because echolalia expression have meaning.
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Meaning of Echolalia expressions are: 1. Do something just for happiness only. Example: seeing busses with same color, love thing surface, like pattern of colors and arrange their toys in rows etc. 2. Desire cannot be refuse. 3. Avoid of failure and self protect to difficulty and sadly. Example: an autism do repetitive behavior because she belief that she cannot failed do something that she chose by herself 4. Learn more with their self-way. Autism learns with college of fact because fact is certain as memorize the rain schedule, memorize of weather report etc. 5. Stress face. Go to habit and rule can restrain appear of anxious and himself control. 6. Giving a way to pushed curiosity. In normal development, the children enter something into their mouth. They learn with taste before theirs sight be dominant. For autism stopped in this development in long period, so autism will be taste in their mouth with long period. 7. Keep possibility will happen. This is a reason to search stability. In autism world must be same condition as theirs felling before. Conditions cannot be change quickly. 8. Do communication with someone behavior. Parent can see with their physic movement that shows that the child is hungry, want to go to sleep etc.
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9. Escape from difficult situation. Certain behavior and repetitive behavior by autism seldom is mechanical to avoid, example: when someone ask with difficult question, autism child will be kiss the questioner. The autism mindset is source from their belief even not logical belief because autism child learn with memorize and to find this world continuity can predict, give peaceful to them: pacification. So all theirs memorize are theirs belief and can be theirs mindset.
B. Characterization. According to Abrams the meaning of character are the persons presented in a dramatic or narrative work, who are interpreted by the reader as being endowed with moral and dispositional qualities that are expressed in what they say - the dialogue - and what they do - the action (1981:2). It means character interpreted as real people who exist in society as communication, dialogue, and have moral value in their action. Character is important element because can give certain situation because he or she show their emotion. Perrine (1970) in his book “story and structure” explains that character in the story relatively flat and round. He defines flat character characterized by one or two traits; he can be sum up in a sentence. The round character is complex and many sided; he might require an essay for full analysis. Round character have many point in which they touch life but flat character touch life at only one or two points but it can be memorable in the hand of an expert by giving more details like appearance, gesture, or speech. Kennedy and Gioia “ Flat character that has only outstanding trait or feature, or at
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most a few distinguishing marks, who always stays the same in the story” while round character refer to the one “who often change- learn or become enlightened grow or deteriorate.”(2005:92). DiYanni explain that character in the stories based on the importance can divided into two part i.e. the major character and minor character (2001:55). Mayor character is a character at the center of the narrative act or topic. Minor character is also supporting character, giving support and help to the major character, consider as “partly to illuminate the major character” (2001:55). Koesnosoebroto explain also that Characters can divide into two kindly major or main character and minor character. Major character is the most important character in a story. A story is about this character, but he cannot stand on his own; he needs other characters to name the story more convincing and lifelike. Minor characters are characters of less important than those are the main (1988:67). According that statement above major character is important character but major character still need another character and this character is minor character and minor character is supporting major character to develop the story. Perrine (1970) also adds character classification as static or developing. Static character defined as the same sort of person from beginning until the end of the story. Developing character usually called dynamic character. The character experiences a permanent change in his or her character, personality or outlook. It may be large or small change; it may be for better or for worse but it is something essential. Perrine (1970) says that in order to convincing a change a must meet three conditions:
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“(1) it must be within be the possibilities of the character who make it, (2) it must be sufficiency motivated by the circumstances in which the character finds himself, and (3) it must be allowed sufficient time for a change of it magnitude believed to take place(1970:70) It seldom found that human character change suddenly. There should be reason or circumstances that slowly change the character. For example, a good boy who changes into a bad boy, the reason of the change may be his parents divorced so he wants his parents to pay attention to him, or he influenced by his neighborhood. The circumstance should be something that believable so that the readers can imagine is as it if real. Characterization is a way how a writer of a story writes, presents, and reveals their characters in the story that they write. There are two ways of how a writer gives a characterization, direct presentation and indirect presentation. Direct presentation is characterization that the writer exposes the characters directly by giving out all their personality from narrative point of view or from another character point of view. Indirect presentation is characterization that the writer exposes the character indirectly by showing the characters action and reaction in the story, so the reader is the one who analyze what the characters are like by themselves (DiYanni, 2001; Perrine, 1998).
