2012

Law, Economics, History, Political Science, Linguistics, International Relations

Vol 2/2012

European Offroads of Social Science je recenzovaný odborný vědecký časopis. Časopis je preferenčně zaměřen na širší oblast témat sociálních věd. Preferována jsou zejména témata interdisciplinárního charakteru a témata s mezioborovým přesahem svého využití. Cíleně je také podporována publikační činnost mladých vědeckých pracovníků a odborných prací vytvořených v

mezinárodní

spolupráci.

Všechny

publikované

vědecké práce jsou také veřejně dostupné na stránkách www.euoffroads.cz European Offroads of Social Science is a peer reviewed scientific journal aimed mainly at publishing social science papers either containing views of multiple branches of science or leading to an application within the realms of multiple areas of interest. We encourage young researchers into publishing with us and prefer papers based on international collaboration. All works published are also freely available on-line at www.euoffroads.cz

Redakční rada časopisu: doc. JUDr. Zbyněk Švarc, Ph.D. Vysoká škola ekonomická v Praze prof. JUDr. Martin Boháček, CSc. Vysoká škola ekonomická v Praze prof. JUDr. Stanislava Černá, CSc. Právnická fakulta Univerzity Karlovy prof. JUDr. Richard Pomahač, CSc. Právnická fakulta Univerzity Karlovy doc. JUDr. Mikuláš Sabo, CSc. Ekonomická univerzita v Bratislavě doc. Ing. Hana Mikovcová, Ph.D. Vysoká škola ekonomická v Praze prof. Ing. Ladislav Jakl, CSc. Metropolitní univerzita Praha doc. MUDr. Valér Džupa, CSc. Fakultní nemocnice Královské Vinohrady v Praze doc. MUDr. Václav Báča, Ph.D. Univerzita Karlova v Praze Šéfredaktor: Ing. David Leiss Vysoká škola ekonomická v Praze

Obsah str. 4

Prof. Dr. Riadh H. AL-Dabbagh

Potential Role of UAE in Promoting Environmental Technology

str. 24

Doc. JUDr. Zbyněk Švarc, Ph.D.

Právo WTO jako nástroj vyváženého rozvoje mezinárodních

ekonomických vztahů

str. 34

Dr. Ajay Kumar Singh and Mrs. Nidhi Kapoor

Work Life Balance: An Empirical Analysis of Select Organizations


Potential Role of UAE in Promoting Environmental Technology Prof. Dr. Riadh H. AL-Dabbagh Ajman University of Science and Technology

Abstract Depletion of the ozone layer, climate change and use of natural resources are key indicators of the global environmental changes. Measuring changes in the global environment and keeping track of these changes is an important first step in raising awareness and addressing issues of concern. The UAE is focusing on the environment and sustainability in all aspects of life in the seven Emirates. For example, Abu Dhabi’s vision 2030 establishes a clear path for sustainability as a foundation for new developments within the Emirate. Dubai’s strategic plan 2015 also adheres to international environmental standards and presents an overarching outline preserving the Emirate’s resources and natural beauty. Furthermore, both major Emirates, Abu Dhabi and Dubai, have various environmental watchdog organizations that ensure these standards are upheld. Additionally, the UAE is promoting and awarding endowments to companies specialized in the environmental technology and services field and government contracts continually search for the appropriate provider of environmental technology and services for almost all national projects. This paper introduces the concept of ‘environmental technologies’ and the potential role of UAE in promoting these technologies, whereas the messages of the paper could be summarized in the following points: • Environmental degradation should be reduced • Environmental technologies have a potential for it; they have been improved • New environmental technologies a usually very costly at the beginning; but it is efficient to invest into it, it pays back. • UAE is leader in promoting and introducing the modern environmental technologies, it will bring benefits to the other countries in the future. Chapter two of this paper intents to describe the major environmental problems, especially the global ones, which concern UAE, while chapter three brings definitions of the environmental technologies whereas chapter four sheds light on the top emerging environmental technologies and chapter five focuses on the environmental technologies in the UAE.

Keywords Environmental technologies, Total quality environmental management (TQEM): Industrial ecosystems, Sustainable development, Red List Index (RLI) of Threatened Species

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1 Introduction Industrial activities of the past half century have created serious ecological problems. The list includes global warming, ozone depletion, loss of biodiversity, natural resource scarcity, air pollution, acid rain, toxic wastes, and industrial accidents. These problems are expected to worsen in the next 50 years when the world population will double to 11 billion. There are many philosophies of environmentalismthat advocate different solutions to theseecological problems. One solutionthat has received positive support from many environmental camps is the concept of sustainable development (SD). Sustainable development involves control over population growth, providing worldwide foodsecurity, preserving ecosystem resources, and reorienting energy use and industry to ecologically sustainable directions. Sustainability means meeting our current needs without jeopardizing the ability of future generations to meet theirs. The demand for environment-related products is estimated to grow to about $200 billion peryear by the end of this decade (EPA, 1990). The Japanese government expects that nearly 40percent of world economic production by the middle of the twentyfirst century will come from energy- and environment-related products and technologies(Gross, 1992; Miller and Moore, 1994; Ministry of International Trade and Industry, 1988). There are conflicting opinions on the competitive impacts of environmental regulations. Higher environmental standards can trigger innovation and upgrading of technologies, making companies more efficient. Environmental regulations and costs are alreadyshaping strategic decisions about sourcing rawmaterials, locating production facilities, managingenergy and wastes, in environmentally sensitiveindustries, such as chemicals, oil, forest products,metals, and mining. One strategic variable that fundamentally changes environmental impacts, risks, and costsof companies is the choice of technologies. Product and production technologies determine the basic parameters of costs and ecological impacts. They determine thetype of raw materials that can be used, production efficiencies, pollution emitted from productionprocesses, worker health and safety, public safety, and management of wastes. The UAE is focusing on the environment and sustainability in all aspects of life in the seven Emirates. For example, Abu Dhabi’s vision 2030 (http://www.estidama.org) establishes a clear path for sustainability as a foundation for new developments within the Emirate. Dubai’s strategic plan 2015 (http://www.uaetrade-usa.org) also adheres to international environmental standards and presents an overarching outline preserving the Emirate’s resources and natural beauty. Furthermore, both major Emirates, Abu Dhabi and Dubai, have various environmental watchdog organizations that ensure these standards are upheld. Additionally, the UAE is promoting and awarding endowments to companies specialized in the environmental technology and services field and government contracts continually search for the appropriate provider of environmental technology and services for almost all national projects. This paper introduces the concept of ‘environmental technologies’ and the potential role of UAE in promoting these technologies, whereas the messages of the paper could be summarized in the following points: • Environmental degradation should be reduced • Environmental technologies have a potential for it; they have been improved 5


New environmental technologies a usually very costly at the beginning; but it is efficient to invest into it, it pays back. • UAE is leader in promoting and introducing the modern environmental technologies, it will bring benefits to the other countries in the future. Chapter two of this paper intents to describe the major environmental problems, especially the global ones, which concern UAE, while chapter three brings definitions of the environmental technologies whereas chapter four sheds light on the top emerging environmental technologies and chapter five focuses on the environmental technologies in the UAE.

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2 Key Environmental Indicators Depletion of the ozone layer, climate change and use of natural resources are key indicators of the global environmental changes.Measuring changes in the global environment and keeping track of these changes is an important first step in raising awareness and addressing issues of concern. Today we often need to measure and monitor before we can identify and manage problems. Many people argue that ecosystems and biodiversity are not being managed properly because they are undervalued, and therefore are not adequately reflected in economic systems and accounting mechanisms.

2.1 Depletion of the Ozone Layer The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer has served as an effective instrument for protecting the stratospheric ozone layer. It provides an international framework for phasing out ozone-depleting substances (ODS), including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). The world consumption of ozone-depleting substances has decreased by almost 94% between 1989-2010 (UNEP, 2011a). Globally, HFC emissions are currently growing at a rate of 8 percent per year. The use of HFCs could potentially wipe out all the climate benefits gained through phasing out CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances (UNEP, 2011a).

2.2 Climate Change Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from the burning of fossil fuels are a major contributor to climate change. Per capita emissions of CO2 continue to be highest in North America, followed byWest Asia and Europe, and are lowest in Africa causing global warming. Global CO2 emissions are continuing to increase, reaching 32.1 billion metric tons in 2008, an increase of 2.4 percent compared withthe previous year and 42 percent compared with 1990. In the last decade the increase has been most significant in the Asia and the Pacific region. With increasing emissions, CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere have gone from an estimated 280 ppm in pre-industrial times, and 315 ppm in 1958, to 390 ppm in 2011IEA (2011a). One of the clearest signals of global warming is the melting ofglaciers in several parts of the world. Between 1980-2010, the mountain glacier mass balance was decreased by 16m of water equivalent (WGMS,2008). The rapid,possibly accelerated, melting and retreat of glaciers has 6


severeimpacts on water and energy supply, sea level fluctuations,vegetation patterns, economic livelihoods and the occurrence ofnatural disasters. Dramatic glacier shrinkage may lead to thedeglaciation of large areas of many mountain ranges by the endof this century. Fossil fuels such as oil, coal and gas continue to dominate global energy supply. Notwithstanding gains in energy efficiency and greater use of renewable energy sources, total use of fossil fuels currently makes up about 80 percent of the primary energy supply.

2.3 Natural Resource Use The depletion of natural resources continues in many ways andin many parts of the world. Water, land and biodiversity areunder great pressure almost everywhere. Exploitation of fishstocks is an example. It is estimated that thepercentage of overexploited, depleted or recovering stocks hasbeen increasing for many years, reaching 33 percent in 2008 – tothe detriment of underexploited or moderately exploited stocks. By 2009, global aquacultureproduction had risen to 51 million tons while the global totalfish catch remained below 90 million tons. Aquaculture hassignificant benefits for many people and economies, but thereare disadvantages: among other impacts, large quantities ofwild-caught fish are used for feed, mangroves in coastal areasare lost when fish farms are created, and significant amounts ofchemicals and pharmaceuticals (including antibiotics) may beused and discharged to the environment. Pressures on marine and coastal ecosystems are further increased by progressive ocean acidification resulting from higher levels of CO2 in the atmosphere. As atmospheric CO2 increases, the oceans absorb more of it, increasing the partial pressure of CO2 and causing a decrease in pH. An increase in ocean acidification can have significant consequences on marine organisms, which may alter species composition, disrupt marine food webs and ecosystems, and potentially damage fishing.Given these trends, the clock is ticking on the sustainability of global fish stocks and marine biodiversity. Although the overall rate of deforestation is slowing down, large forest areas are still declining, particularly in Latin America and Africa. However, the extent of marine protected areas remains low, with only 7 percent of coastal waters and 1.4 percent of oceans protected. New global targets have been set for the extent of protected areas. Governments agreed in 2010 to protect 17 percent of terrestrial and inlandwaters, and 10 percent of coastal and marine areas, by 2020. Biodiversity loss continues to be an issue of major concern, as indicated by the Red List Index (RLI) of Threatened Species. The Red List measures the risk of extinction ofspecies in seven classes, ranging from Least Concern to Extinct. The highest numberof threatened vertebrates is found in thetropical regions. Uncontrolled discharges of sewage to surface water have a directimpact on water quality. Levels of dissolved oxygen in surfacewaters are a good indicator of environmental conditions for aquaticlife. Eutrophication or nutrient over-enrichment may raise theconcentrations due to increased productivity from phytoplankton,while organic pollutants would increase oxygen demand and lowerthe concentration. Whereas the effects are often local,the cumulative impact on the quality of freshwater bodies is beingacknowledged as a major global concern. A country’s total water footprint is the total volume of freshwater used to produce the goods and services consumed by that country’s population. It may partially originate outside the 7


country. Apart from water use for human consumption (“blue water”), water is needed to sustain ecosystems and the services they provide to society (“green water”). The total water footprint has been increasing in many regionsthus putting pressure on water resources in the exporting regions. The main use of water is in the agricultural sector, followed by industry and households. The amount and number of chemicals and waste that end up in our environment are increasing. Plastic debris ending up in the ocean is of growing concern because of its possible chemical impacts. The production of plastics is a proxy for the amount of plastic debris that may eventually find its way to waterways and the ocean. Municipal waste collection is highest in Europe, with the amount having increased steadily toabout 552 million tons in 2007. Based on average figures for the 2002-2009 period, in other regions the amount of waste collected is less(UNEP, 2011a). . To address the environmental threats, measuring the changes in global environment and tracking them raises the awareness and help in identifying the potential causes of environmental problems. The use of HFCs could destroy all the climate remuneration gained through gradual stopping of CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances. Additionally, emissions of CO2are rising and causing global warming. Furthermore, water, land and biodiversity are facingtremendous pressure almost everywhere. Although the general rate of deforestation is decreasing, large forest areas are still waning whereas thequantity and number of chemicals and waste that wind up in our environment are growing.

3 Environmental Technologies Environmental technologies are defined as production equipment, methods and procedures, product designs, and product delivery mechanisms that conserve energy and natural resources, minimize environmental load of human activities, and protect the natural environment. They include both hardware, such as pollution control equipment, ecological measurement instrumentation, and cleaner production technologies. They also include operating methods, such as waste management practices (materials recycling, waste exchange), and conservation-oriented work arrangements (car pooling, flextime), used to conserve and enhance nature (Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 16, 183-200, 1995). Environmental technologies are evolving both as a set of techniques (technologies, equipment, operating procedures) and as a management orientation. As techniques they are used for pollution abatement, waste management, energy, water and material conservation, and for improving technological efficiency of production. Asa management orientation, environmental technologies have spawned environmentally responsible approaches towards product design, manufacturing, environmental management, technology choice, and design of industrial systems. Environmental technologies incorporate environmental considerations into many aspectsof business operations, and thereby affect the competitive landscape in most sectors of the economy. Asa source of new product ideas and material/energy conservation, such as solarheaters and electric cars, they can create and expand market demand. Asa source of productionprocess improvements, such as cleaner technologies and pollution control, they can change the production cost function within firms and industries. By making products and packaging more environmental friendly such as ‘all-natural soaps’ or ‘CFCfree air conditioners’, they can enhance product quality and attractiveness. And by reducing waste, 8


pollution, and hazards they can make firms more attractive to communities. The environmental problems addressed by these technologies are widespread; consequentlythese technologies have wide applicability across industries. Since environmental problems are likely to last a long time, environmental technologies will have sustained impacts. In the coming years we will see these technologies affecting the competitiveness of many industries and countries. In recognition of this important role of environmental technologies, countries such as Japan, Germany, Sweden, and Denmark are targeting them for rapid development. Environmental technologies are discussed in terms of five themes. These themes areconstructed to capture broad approaches to managing environmental problems. They are constituted of more specific environmental management techniques, such as product design, cleaner production, environmental auditing, costing, and impact assessment. The five environmental technology themes which are discussed in more details in the rest of this chapter are design for disassembly; manufacturing for the environment; total quality environmental management; industrial ecosystems and technology assessment (Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 16, 183-200, 1995).

3.1 Design for disassembly Increasing waste, depletion of natural resources, and limited landfill spaces are an important ecological problem. Waste also increases cost of production. In some products, such as used tires,95 percent of what is discarded as waste is usable energy. Similarly, discarded automobiles have many reusable components and materials. But they are simply scrapped because currently it is too expensive to recover them. Driven by these concerns, product designers have developed a new design philosophy popularly labeled ‘design for disassembly’. This approach seeks to build products that have a maximum useful life, and that are easy to disassemble and recycle. The objective is to maximize the use of materials in the form of products and recycled materials. This design philosophy is in stark contrast to past design approaches that sought planned obsolescence of products, functional redundancy, and overdesigning for aesthetic and product differentiation. Designers are using design for disassembly to develop many products, including automobiles,computers, home appliances, furniture, consumer electronics, and even prefab homes. Xerox Corporation pioneered in developing modular ‘disassemblable’ products (copying machines). Since it leases (rather than sells) and takes back most of its products after customers have used them, efficient disassembly and refurbishment methods provide a source of cost reduction and competitive advantage to Xerox. BMW has innovated a fully recyclable automobile. It joined hands with major auto scrap yards in Germany to establish a comprehensive program for auto recycling and material recovery. With this significant competitive advantage, it is now lobbying the government to make auto recycling mandatory for all auto manufacturers. Different guidelines apply, depending on whether manual or mechanical separation is carried out. As a general rule, however, products with a low Material Removal Rate (MRR) – less than 2.26kg/minute for plastics – benefit from mechanical disassembly, whereas it is more economical to manually disassemble products with a high MMR (approx 4.5kg/minute)(Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 16, 183-200, 1995).

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3.2 Manufacturing for the environment An important focus of environmental technologies is to improve the ecological performance of manufacturing processes. This is achieved by redesigning production systems to reduce environmental impacts, using cleaner technologies, using higher-efficiency production techniques, minimizing waste at source, and maximizing fuel and energy efficiency. In addition, regular preventive maintenance, industrial hygiene, and safe workingconditions enhance ecological and health conditions within organizations (United Nations Environment Program, 1993, UNESCO, 1992). The potential for designing manufacturing systems that are environmentally sound is illustrated by Ecover, a Belgian detergent manufacturer. Ecover has created what it calls the ‘ecological factory’. The entire factory is made from materials with low energy content which can be separated for recycling when the factory is dismantled. The factory uses alternative energy sources and practices strict energy conservation. It is energy self-supporting. It uses a closed water cycle operating on solar energy, without either a chimney or a waste water discharge pipe (UNESCO, 1992). The opportunity for making such dramatic improvements comes only with new buildingsand facilities. Converting old facilities to make them environmentally sound is the more commonplaceand also the more difficult and costly problem, and a significant focus of the manufacturing-for-the-environment approach.

3.3 Total quality environmental management Total quality environmental management (TQEM) combines and extends the above two ideas of environmentally oriented product design and manufacturing. TQEM applies a total systems perspective and quality management principles to environmental problems. Environmentally responsible vision includes ecocentric values and culture that seek harmonious organization-nature relations. In such a vision nature is not simply a source of expendableresources to be exploited. Instead, nature and organizations are part of a web of mutually interdependent entities. The health and long-term welfare of each depends on the other. Environmental vision is operationalized through concrete environmental missions, objectives, and policy statements. Organizational inputs include energy, rawmaterials, labor, and capital. TQEM seeks tomanage all these inputs in an ecologically soundmanner. It strives for energy conservation, use of renewable energy and materials, and renewal of natural resources. It establishes health- and safety-conscious human resource practices. It seeks ecologically sensible use of capital. Companies implement environmentally responsible input management through energy conservation programs,and waste reuse and recycling programs. They may switch to environmentally safer materials, and inventory management that avoids large quantities of hazardous materials. Throughputs include the production, storage, and transportation of goods and services. TQEMseeks ecologically efficient throughput systems. This is achieved by using cleaner productiontechnologies, pollution prevention, effluent control, and environmental risk management. Organizational outputs include products, packages, and wastes. TQEM seeks to developenvironment-friendly products and packages, and minimize waste by reducing total life cycle costsof products from cradle to grave. This involves new product/package designs, and integrated waste management using recycling, incineration, and land filling. 10


TQEM prevents shifting environmental effects from one element to another. In line with the total quality management philosophy it encourages continuous improvement.

3.4 Industrial ecosystems Industrial ecosystems are a new innovation in designing interorganizational linkages. Theyconsist of a network of organizations linked to each other through an ecological logic. Organizations within the network use each other’s wastes, byproducts, and outputs, to reduce the total use of energy and natural resources, and reduce the total waste and pollution from the system. Through interorganizational cooperation they collectively minimize their impacts on the environment. The idea is to mimic natural ecosystems in which several organisms live in mutual interdependence to create stable and life-sustaining ecosystems. In the United States several experiments are underway to create ‘waste exchanges’ amongregional firms. A more elaborate form of industrial ecosystem is a group of companies in Kalundborg, Denmark. The coal-fired Asnaes power plant is the heart of the system. It is linked to an enzyme plant, a refinery, a chemical plant, a wallboard plant, a fishery, and some local farms. These plants use one another’s wastes and byproducts as raw materials(Allenby,1993). The power plant sells its used steam to the enzyme plant, the refinery, the fishery, and the city, instead of condensing and dumping it. The power plant sells its fly ash to a cement company, and its high-sulfur gas emissions to the chemical plant for making sulfuric acid. It removes pollutants from its smokestacks and sells the limestone-rich ash to the wallboard plant and cement plant, reducing the use of virgin gypsum. The refinery in turn supplies Asnaes with treated waste water for cooling and desulfurizednatural gas for fuel, saving 30,000 tons of coal a year. Local farms use wastes from the fishery and from the enzyme plant as fertilizer. This industrial ecosystem is an experimental prototype. It was costly to set up and needed new institutional mechanisms for interorganizational coordination (provided by the city of Kalundborg). At this early stage these considerations act as barriers for many companies to create such ecosystems and embrace environmental technologies more enthusiastically. But as experienceof industrial ecosystems accumulates (several are currently being developed), they are expectedto become more cost effective and competitive. They will then change the competitive dynamicsof industries within bioregions by leveraging ecological efficiencies for network firms.

3.5 Technology assessment A significant element of technology management is the selection of newtechnologiesand transfer of technologies across organizational divisions, across organizations, and across nations. Inchoosing and transferring technologies management is increasingly faced with issues of environmental appropriateness of technologies in their new locations. Environmental risks emanatingfrom a technology are a function of both attributes of the technology and attributes of its location. Technology assessment is an analytical toolused to understand the likely impact of the useof a new technology by an industry, region,country, or society. It examines costs and benefitsof the technology, its environmental impacts, itseffects on institutions, and its social and politicalimpacts. With respect to the environment itassesses environmental and health risks, impactsof specific projects and facilities, potential foreffluents, releases and hazardous wastes, andproduct life cycle 11


costs. Technology assessment originated as a policytool to aid governmental decision making, withregard to technology transfer, technology importpolicy, industrial licensing, environmental regulationsand monitoring, and environmental. Ithas now expanded into a valuable tool for makingbusiness portfolio decisions. In making strategicbusiness portfolio choices companies have traditionallyused market share and industry growthrate as key parameters. British Petroleum, for example, does technologyassessment using futures-scenario analysistechnique, to forecast which fuel/energy technologieswill be used in coming years. They use thisassessment to develop their product plans andinvestment programs. General Electric doestechnology assessment in specific countries tojudge the market potential for its technologies. By the end of this decade it expects 50 percentof its revenues to come from developing countries(particularly Mexico, China, and India)(Shrivastava and Hart, 1994).

4 Top Emerging Environmental Technologies Environmental technologies are taking long steps but inefficient energy policies, excessive useof resources, shortage of water, climate change, deforestation and pollution are just some of the issues that need to be dealt with in order to have a sustainable future. Activists and scientist are constantly innovating and coming up with feasible new ideas to address the problemsthe world is struggling against. In this chapter, the top 4 emerging technologies are introduced.

4.1 Biofiltration Biofiltration is a low-cost and highly effective air pollution control (APC) technology in which vapor-phase organic contaminants are passed through a bed of porous media and adsorb to the media surface where they are degraded by microorganisms in the media.

4.2 Bioremediation It is the use of microorganism metabolism to remove pollutants. Technologies can be generally classified as in situ or ex situ. In situ bioremediation involves treating the contaminated material at the site, while ex situ involves the removal of the contaminated material to be treated elsewhere. The bioreactor is the mostly used technology of bioremediation.

4.3 Renewable Energy: 4.3.1 Solar Power It is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the photoelectric effect. For example, the global solar energy growth between 2006 was 5 Gigawatts while in 2011 it increased to almost 70 Gigawatts (IEA, 2011a). 12


4.3.2 Wind Power Itis the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using: wind turbines to make electricity, windmills for mechanical power, windpumps for water pumping or drainage, or sails to propel ships.

Fig. 1- Regional Distribution of wind power demand – Reference Scenario, 2020 and 2030 (IEA, 2011a). The advancedglobal wind energy outlook scenario for 2020 indicates that the percentage of world electricity (Energy efficiency) would be 12.6% creating 2.21 million jobs and an annual CO2saving of 1,591 million tons, while the scenario for 2050 would increase the world electricity (Energy efficiency) to 29.5% and jobs increase to 2.98 million and an annual CO2saving reaching 5,453 million tons (IEA, 2011a).

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4.3.3 Hydroelectricity It is the term referring to electricity generated by hydropower; the production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the most widely used form of renewable energy, accounting for 16 percent of global electricity consumption, and 3,427 terawatt-hours of electricity production in 2010, which continues the rapid rate of increase experienced between 2003 and 2009.

4.3.4 Biofuels They are type of fuel whose energy is derived from biological carbon fixation. Biofuels include fuels derived from biomass conversion, as well as solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases. Biofuels are gaining increased public and scientific attention, driven by factors such as oil price hikes, the need for increased energy security, concern over greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels, and support from government subsidies. The world biofuels production is estimated to increase from 29 billion gallons in 2011 to 65 billion gallons in 2021(IEA, 2011a). Global investment in renewable energy is growing sharply. As visible from Fig.2, it stood at $211 billion in 2010, more than five times the amount in 2004. While the overall share of renewable energy is currently just over 13 percent, there has been a spectacular increase in the use of solar and wind energy, as well as of biofuels, in recent years.

Fig. 2 - Investment in renewable energy, 2004-2011(UNEP, 2011a).

As observed from Fig. 3, although use of renewable energy is still modest compared to that of fossil fuels, at13 per cent in 2008, recent increases are significant. Use of solar energy, particularly photovoltaics, has grown exponentially over the last years. Global use of other forms of renewable energy also continue to increase, with the exception of energy generated from tide, waves and the ocean (IEA, 2010).

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Fig. 3 – Renewable energy supply index 1990 – 2009 (1990 = 100)(IEA 2010).

5 Environmental Technologies in UAE Massive investments in renewable energy projects will allow the UAE to maintain its leadership in this field in the region in 2011 despite mammoth projects planned by other Middle East countries. The UAE, which controls the world’s fifth largest oil and gas deposits, has already been a regional leader in renewable energy and a global pioneer in undertaking such clean energy projects as Masdar City. There are three main factors that made UAE invest in renewable energy. The first one is to satisfy its needs of energy, which represent the corn stone of sustainable development. The second factor is calls for the need to deal more effectively with environment problems, work on decreasing greenhouse gases and facing environmental threats like climate change and global warming, which increase every day. The third factor is continuous increase in oil and gas prices and the expectations that its production costs will increase in the future with the decrease of renewable energy costs. Furthermore, this field provides new investment opportunities whether directly, by investing in this activity, or indirectly, through services and products required by this industry. Additionally, it provides job opportunities. Renewable energy is not a magical solution for all problems related to energy. Despite benefits of these alternatives, there are some difficulties in its usage, as it is not always available on demand, 15


because it is seasonal, it requires large initial investments and requires structural changes in energy infrastructure. However, renewable energy stills a strategic option to ensure future power supply, knowing that there are accelerated developments in this field and that researches and studies made a large decrease in its production costs, whether initial or operational costs. Global investment in renewable power and fuels increased 17% to a new record of $257 billion in 2011. Developing economies made up 35% of this total investment, compared to 65% for developed economies (Frankfurt School of Finance & Management gGmbH 2012). In the UAE, Abu Dhabi is pumping billions of dollars into developing renewable energy and lessening dependence on the oil income (www.middleeastelectricity.com). Despite there are huge oil and gas reserves enough to continue production with the current rates for more than a century, and the increase in oil and gas prices according to analyses, UAE believes in the necessity to work hard to find alternatives for traditional energy to be integrated with available sources to satisfy future needs for the country. All indicators refer to an increase in local demand on different energy sources in UAE, especially in electric power generation and water desalination as a result to expansion in infrastructure and industrial structures and other sectors. For example, Abu Dhabi seeks to better exploit available energy sources and resources, including Solar and Wind energy in the first place. The UAE has invested about 7 billion dollars in 2008 in clean energy projects and plans to increase its investments to 50 billion dollars by 2015. UAE also plans to increase the contribution of renewable energy sources to 7 percent to satisfy its energy needs by 2020 (Renewables 2010 Global Status Report, REN21). UAE has already started some projects to generate electrical power and desalinate sea water using renewable energy, such as (Umm Al Nar) plant in Abu Dhabi that represents a scientific and practical example for one of water desalination technologies using solar energy. It also announced the commencement of generating electrical power from the largest power generator using wind power in the Middle East, on “Seer BaniYas” island with a capacity of more than 850 KW/H. This power is currently used to supply island’s utilities with electricity in addition to power supplied by national network. Additionally, Abu Dhabi announced launch of Zayed Future Energy Prize with an amount of 2.2 million dollars annually. The prize is presented to honor individuals, companies, institutions and non-governmental entities that make great contributions to develop sustainable innovations and solutions to meet current needs and future requirements of energy all over the world.

5.1 Renewable Energy Projects There are three essential factors that make countries invest in renewable energy. The first one is to satisfy their needs of energy, the second one calls for the need to deal efficiently with environment problems, work on decreasing greenhouse gases and facing environmental threats where renewable energy can satisfy the needs and decrease greenhouse gases at the same time. The third factor is the uninterrupted increase in oil and gas prices and the expectations that production costs will increase in the future with the decrease of renewable energy costs due to advancement of renewable energy production technology. As shown in Fig. 4, of the $3.37 billion UAE renewable projects market, Abu Dhabi’s share is 86.1% while 13.9% is Dubai’s share.

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Fig. 4– UAE renewable projects market (MEED Projects).

5.1.1 Masdar’s Renewable Energy Projects in Abu Dhabi The technology used by Masdar for these renewable energy projects in Abu Dhabi are photovoltaic (PV), concentrated solar power (CSP) and wind either onshore or offshore. SHAMS 1 It is the world’s largest concentrated solar power (CSP) plant and first in the Middle East, located 120 Km southeast of Abu Dhabi (UAE) and extends over an area of 2.5km² with a capacity of 100MWel (Fig. 5). The solar field has 768 parabolic trough collectors with a total aperture of 627,000 m2with annual electricity generation of 210 GWh. Furthermore, almost 80% of the construction has been completed.

Fig. 5 – Shams 1 design (www.utilities-me.com). 17


Main Challenges of the Project The challenges facing this project include the difficult natural boundary conditions for this type of technology in Abu Dhabi; sandy soil which requires expensive site preparation; lack of water for wet cooling requiring the construction of an air cooled condenser; high dust deposition resulting in high cleaning frequency and no legislation in place when project was kicked off. Sir BaniYas Sir BaniYas is a natural Island located 250 km southwest of Abu Dhabi city. The first project is anonshore wind farm with capacity of 30 MW. Masdar has an agreement with TDIC to develop renewable energy projects on the island and promoting the island as a premier tourist destination while EPC contract negotiations are almost concluded. Noor 1 It is one of the world’s largest photovoltaic plants, located east of Al Ain (UAE), extending over an area of 3km²with a capacity of 100MWel. The annual electricity generation is expected at 170 GWh. Masdar City Masdar City will host the headquarters of the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). The city is designed to be a hub for cleantech companies. Its first tenant is the Masdar Institute of Science and Technology, which has been operating in the city since it moved into its campus in September 2010. The city as a whole was originally intended to be completed by 2016 but that date has now been pushed back to 2025. Masdar will employ a variety of renewable power resources. Among the first construction projects will be a 40 to 60 megawattsolar power plant, built by the German firm Conergy, which will supply power for all other construction activity. This will later be followed by a larger facility, and additional solar panels will be placed on rooftops to provide supplemental solar energy totaling 130 megawatts. Wind farms will be established outside the city’s perimeter capable of producing up to 20 megawatts, and the city intends to utilize geothermal energy as well. In addition, Masdar plans to host the world’s largest hydrogen power plant. Water management has been planned in an environmentally sound manner as well. A solarpowered desalination plant will be used to provide the city’s water needs, which is stated to be 60 percent lower than similarly sized communities. Approximately 80 percent of the water used will be recycled and waste water will be reused “as many times as possible,” with this greywater being used for crop irrigation and other purposes. The city will also attempt to reduce waste to zero. Biological waste will be used to create nutrient-rich soil and fertilizer, and some may also be utilized through waste incineration as an additional power source. Industrial waste, such as plastics and metals, will be recycled or repurposed for other uses.

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5.1.2 Sheikh Mohammad Bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park The Dh12 billion solar park will generate 1,000 megawatts of power by 2030.Dubai Electricity and Water Authority (DEWA) awarded a contract to ILF Consulting Engineers to provide consultancy services for the Arabian Gulf’s largest solar park, which is to be built on a 48 km2 area (e-services.dewa.gov.ae).

5.2 Bee’ah Bee’ah is an Environmental Public Private Partnership Company (PPP), founded in 2007 andheadquartered in the Emirate of Sharjah. Bee’ah was established in accordance with the UAE Lawof Commercial Companies (Federal law No.8 of 1984) and its amendments (Federal Law No.13 of1988 and No.4 of 1990).Bee’ah has already started with the concern of waste, by investing over 300 million dirhams to date in tools and infrastructure to overcome the UAE’s challenges. The company is the process of gearing up towards a 100% landfill diversion target set for the Emirate of Sharjah by the end of the first quarter of 2015 (www.beeah-uae.com).

5.2.1 Bee’ah Waste Management Complex – Al Saj’ah The Bee’ah waste management complex is located off Al Dhaid Road in the Al Saj’ah area of Sharjah. The waste management complex is home to some of the world’s finest and largest waste recovery and recycling facilities.Facilities at the waste management complex (WMC) include following six units: The Material Recovery Facility (MRF) The Bee’ah MRF is a sorting plant that separates recyclable materials using state-of-theart technology, industry best practices. The MRF started operations in the first quarter of 2010 and currently operates one 8 hour shift receiving between 18,000 and 20,000 tons of MSW per month. It is the largest such facility in the Middle East and the third largest in the world. The Tyre Recycling Facility (TRF) There are currently more than 8 million tires stored at the WMC and there are about 2,500 new tires coming in daily. These tires consume valuable land space, act as a fire hazard, and when comingled with garbage, provide a habitat for mosquitoes, rats and other vermin. To curtail the adverse effects of sending tires to landfill, Bee’ah built a state of the art cryogenic tyre recycling facility. In the cryogenic process, tires are cut using a shredder to sizes of around 50 mm. The shreds are then fed into a freezing chamber where the rubber is subjected to liquid nitrogen to make it as brittle as glass, and is then crushed into very fine particles by cracker mills. Steel and fibers are separated from the rubber using magnetic separators and are sold separately. The rubber can then be reduced to sizes varying between 0.6mm in size to 4mm and can be packaged into 4 required output sizes. The rubber produced, known as crumb rubber or 19


groundrubber, is sold for use in many applications including: • Cover in horse arenas / stables / racetracks • Cover in playgrounds • Infill in synthetic turf fields • Blend in making roads • A raw material to molded /extruded products The Construction and Demolition Waste (CDW) Plant The CDW plant has a capacity to process 1,500 tons ofCDW per day. In Sharjah approximately 70,000 tonsa month of CDW is generated, around 40% of the CDWcomes to the CDW plant. The applications of this plant can be in road base, in cement kilns and as aggregate products. An Engineered Landfill Al Saj’ah landfill is said to be one of the world’s largest. The landfill is continually reshaped to increase the side-slope stability and for it to appear more visually appealing. Standard operating procedures including daily landfill cover, litter picking and processing materials at a quick pace, all reduce the negative environmental impacts of landfill. Landscaping of the landfill is an ongoing process in order to ensure the site is aesthetically acceptable. Oil Lagoons The process starts by discharging hydrocarbon-based water into the oil lagoon. Eventually the oil will fragment from the water and will be skimmed, collected and resold. The water will then be pumped into the water lagoon and pumped into the mobile tankers for dust suppression on site. This is a safe and efficient solution for the use of the grey water. The Compost Plant The Compost plant turns organic and vegetation waste into fertilizer and compost. Both these end-products are then processed and used for irrigation and farming, including the greening of Sharjah City’s pavements and streets.

5.3 Solar Desalination The Environment Agency - Abu Dhabi built 22, small-scale solar desalination plants. The effort is part of a plan to construct a total of 30 such systems in remote parts of the country The systems use photovoltaic panels, which can transform sunlight into energy. The energy provides power for a pump that brings groundwater to the surface. The groundwater, which is too salty for consumption, is then pumped under pressure through a membrane, which removes the salt. This process, which is called reverse osmosis, is commonly 20


used in desalination plants. Each of the solar desalination plants - some 300 meters in size - produces about 6,600 gallons of water per day. Under the process, once the groundwater is purified, it is pumped into a pond. The waste from the desalination process, comprising hyper-saline brine, is pumped into a separate evaporation pond. The solar desalination systems are installed in a remote area in the Western Region, where the agency has been releasing the Arabian Oryx, an antelope species that has been extinct in the wild since 1972. Since then, the species has been bred in captivity, and a process of reintroducing it into semiwild areas has been taking place since 2007. The water from the solar desalination plant is used to create watering holes for the newlyintroduced oryx, as well as to irrigate shrubs and plants that have been cultivated to provide food and shelter for the animals.

6 Conclusion Environmental Technologies are supposed to contribute to addressing several major socioeconomic challenges: Global Change, Depletion of Resources, Living in a Healthy Environment, Competitivenessand Growth. Jointly, they impose with sometimes conflicting objectives and requirements forEnvironmental Technologies. The key long-term challenge for the future consists of realizing system innovations, i.e. combinations of radical technological and organizational/social innovations in many areas of economic activity, that allow reconciling economic, social and environmental objectives. On the way to realizing system innovation, however, the requirements of competitiveness need to be met. Environmental Technologies cover a broad spectrum of technological development. In the past, Environmental Technologies were mainly associated with individual sectors, but increasingly emerging generic technologies are being recognized as crucial (biotech, nanotechnology, materials,). In addition, cross-cutting developments like new environmentally oriented productservices and environmental and resource management are likely to grow further in importance. A fundamental change must also be seen in the shift in perspective from environmental impactanalysis to the analysis of ecology-society interactions, where system boundaries for assessingenvironmental impacts are drawn more widely and lead to different conclusions. Environmental Technologies are not only of outstanding importance for any country, but represent a major and fast growing world market that offers significant export opportunities. The governments of the UAE and its constituent Emirates have established a strong domestic agenda of investing in clean energy, adopting renewable energy technologies and promoting energy efficiency. The UAE is taking steps to reduce carbon emissions while meeting its growing energy demand and diversifying its economy through major initiatives that comprise a mix of solutions including:clean fossil fuels, and renewable energy. In 2005 the UAE ratified the Kyoto Protocol to the UNConvention on Climate Change, becoming one of thefirst major oil-producing countries to do so. In addition to finding other sources for meeting energy demands, it is critical to also aggressivelypursue conservation initiatives in an effort to reduce the UAE’s usage and carbon footprint. For example,buildings are often a source 21


of energy waste. To tackle this challenge within the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, theEmirate’s Urban Planning Council has set energy efficient and environmentally friendly requirements for all new developments including communities, villas, schools and offices. In Dubai, the government is developing its master environmental plan that will ensure that growth andprogress are achieved while protecting the environment. Demand-side-management of electricity will play a role, as will increased public transportation. In fact, Dubai is developing the region’s most extensive light rail system, to move cars off the road and reduce pollution. The Government of Abu Dhabi has invested more than $20 billion in perhaps the world’s most ambitious clean energy program – The Masdar Initiative. The Masdar Initiative focuses on the development and commercialization of technologies in renewable energy, energy efficiency, carbon management and monetization, water usage and desalination. The UAE is playing a leading role in the global arena around clean energy issues as well. As a country that has taken a bold step in pursuing renewable energy and energy efficient technology, the UAE has quickly been recognized as a valuable contributor to the global debate. Abu Dhabi’s Masdar City was selected as the headquarters for the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), the first multilateral agency dedicated to renewable energy.

7 References ALLENBY, B. R., 1993, Industrial Ecology. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. BRINGER, R. P. and D. M. BENFORADO, 1994, Pollution prevention and total q u a l i t y environmental management: Impact on the bottom line and competitive position.In: KOLLURU, R. (ed.), Environmental Strategies Handbook. McGraw - Hill, New York. Deutsche GesellschaftfürTechnischeZusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH,RENEWABLES 2010 GLOBAL STATUS REPORT, REN21, Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century REN21. 2010. FEELY, R.A., DONEY, S.C. and COOLEY, S.R., 2009, Ocean Acidification: Present Conditions and Future Changes in a High-CO2 World. Oceanography, 22(4), 36-47 FSMF, 2012,Global trends in renewable energy investment 2012, Frankfurt School of Finance & Management gGmbH, (FSMF). GROSS, N., 24 February 1992, The green giant? It may be Japan, Business Week, pp. 74-75. IEA, 2011a, Energy balances for OECD and non-OECD countries (2011 edition), pre- release version, November 2011. MILLER, A. and C. MOORE, 1994, Strengths and limitation of governmental support for environmentaltechnology in Japan, Industrial and EnvironmentalCrisis Quarterly, 8(2), pp. 155-170. MITI, 1988, White Paper on Industrial Technology:Trends and Future Tasks in Japanese Industrial Technology. Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), Tokyo. 22


SHRIVASTAVA, P.,1995,C- 7 Department of Management, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 16, 183-200. REES, W.E., 1990, The Ecology of Sustainable Development. The Ecologist, (20)1, 18-23. SCHMIDHEINY, S., 1992, Changing Course: A GlobalBusiness Perspective on Development and the Environment. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. SHRIVASTAVA, P. and S. HART,1994, Greening organizations-2000, International Journal of Public Administration, 17, pp. 3 and 4. UNEP, 2011a, Production and Consumption of Ozone Depleting Substances under the Protocol. UNEP, Ozone Secretariat, Nairobi.

Montreal

UNESCO (1992). ‘Towards cleaner production methods’, Nature and Resources, 28,

p. 4.

UNITED NATIONS, UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME, THE GOVERNING COUNCIL, New York, 1993

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WGMS, 2008, Global Glacier Changes: facts and figures. In: ZEMP, M., ROER, I., KAAB, A., HOELZLE, M., P., F. and HAEBERLI, W. (eds.). UNEP, World Glacier Monitoring Service, Zurich. World Bank, 2011, State and Trends of the Carbon Market 2011. Washington, D.C. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGIES ANDCOMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE. H.E. Salim Al Owais, Chairman,www.beeah-uae.com, 13th March, 2013. Dubai Electricity and Water Authority,e-services.dewa.gov.ae,19th November, 2012. Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council,www.estidama.org, 10th March, 2010. Masdar City,www.masdar.ae, 5thDecember, 2012. Middle East Economic Data, www.meedprojects.com, 8th August, 2012 Middle East Electricity,www.middleeastelectricity.com, 25th November, 2012. Michael Palmer, www.utilities-me.com, 16th November, 2011. UAE Trade Office in the USA,www.uaetrade-usa.org, 15th August, 2011.

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Právo WTO jako nástroj vyváženého rozvoje mezinárodních ekonomických vztahů Law of WTO as a Tool of Balanced Development of International Economic Relations

Doc. JUDr. Zbyněk Švarc, Ph.D. Vysoká škola ekonomická v Praze

Abstrakt Zapojování států do mezinárodních politických a ekonomických vztahů vede k tomu, že uskutečňovat hospodářskou politiku mohou a musí státy i v rovině mezinárodní. Nástroje a opatření hospodářské politiky státu mají právní povahu, což v oblasti mezinárodních ekonomických vztahů zvyšuje úlohu mezinárodních smluv. Na jejich tvorbě se podílí i mezinárodní organizace, mezi nimi významnou měrou i WTO. Za její účasti počet uzavřených mnohostranných smluv a především jejich obsahový význam opravňují vymezení práva WTO jako samostatného odvětví mezinárodního práva. K tomuto závěru přispívá fakt, že vedle práva hmotného je tvoří i úprava řešení sporů vznikajících v souvislosti s plněním uzavřených dohod (právo procesní).

Abstract Participation of states in international political and economical relations results in the need to pursue the economic policy simultaneously at the international level. Tools and measures of a state’s economic policy have a legal character which improves significantly the role of international treaties in the field of international economic relations. Especially international organisations, and among them also WTO, participate substantially in their creation. The amount of multilateral international treaties accepted in presence of the WTO and especially their content importance give good reason for defining the law of WTO as an independent (or at least separate) branch of international law. The fact that apart from the substantive law it also involves the regulation of disputes’ resolution emerging with regard to the fulfilment of signed agreements (procedural law) merely contributes to this conclusion.

Klíčová slova smlouvy, WTO, právo WTO, řešení sporů

Keywords international treaties, WTO, law of WTO, settlement of disputes 24


1 Úvod Prohlubující se mezinárodní spolupráce zejména v ekonomické oblasti vede ke zvyšování významu mezinárodních smluv jako jednoho z nástrojů hospodářské politiky státu, a to jak ve vztahu ke státům ostatním, tak ve vztahu k regulaci vztahů podnikatelských subjektů. Jejich rostoucí význam i počet se odráží ve skutečnosti, že se v rámci mezinárodního práva (veřejného) konstituují některá „odvětví“, mezi nimi i mezinárodní ekonomické právo. Vzhledem k roli, kterou v oblasti mezinárodních ekonomických vztahů má Světová obchodní organizace (WTO), s přihlédnutím k její aktivitě při vytváření mezinárodních smluv, včetně její činnosti při řešení sporů, se v rámci zmíněného mezinárodního ekonomického práva začíná hovořit o právu WTO. V návaznosti na uvedené, se tento příspěvek zaměřuje nejprve na charakteristiku a typologii mezinárodních smluv, jako nástroje regulace makro a mikroekonomických vztahů. Následně se zabývá právem WTO, a to jak právem hmotným, tak právem procesním, vytvářeným na mnohostranném základě a navazujícím na pozitivní zkušenosti z činnosti GATT. V závěru se zabývá aplikací hmotného práva WTO, včetně specifik při rozhodování sporů.

2 Mezinárodní hospodářská politika a její nástroje Úlohou státu, jako politické a mocí vybavené organizace společnosti, je zajišťovat průběžné a pokud možno co nejméně konfliktní fungování vztahů v rámci ekonomické a sociální struktury dané společnosti. Odrazem či spíše výrazem plnění této úlohy jsou činnosti, které stát vykonává a které jsou zpravidla označovány jako funkce státu. Přes různá dělení funkcí státu a rozdílnou terminologii (Klíma, Schelle, Spirit), lze považovat za nesporné, že jednou z funkcí státu (či její součástí), je ingerence státu do ekonomiky. Hospodářská politika, kterou můžeme definovat jako „souhrn cílů, nástrojů a rozhodovacích procesů a opatření státu v jednotlivých oblastech hospodářské reality“1 ), má jak makroekonomický aspekt (zejména v oblasti fiskální a monetární politiky, při ovlivňování míry inflace, míry nezaměstnanosti), tak aspekt mikroekonomický, který vyplývá z toho, že stát přijímá opatření, která působí na chování subjektů (podnikatelů, spotřebitelů), na jejich rozhodování a tím na dílčí i všeobecnou tržní rovnováhu. Nezbytnost zapojování států do mezinárodních politických a ekonomických vztahů vede k tomu, že uskutečňovat hospodářskou politiku mohou a musí státy nejen v rovině vnitrostátní, ale i v rovině mezinárodní. Za prvořadý cíl mezinárodní hospodářské politiky můžeme považovat překonávání překážek v dosahování požadované efektivnosti, a tím i v dosahování vyváženého rozvoje států i mezinárodního společenství jako celku. Vyjdeme-li z uvedené definice hospodářské politiky a budeme-li uvažovat o nástrojích a opatřeních státu 2), resp. o jejich formě, musíme podle našeho názoru dospět k závěru, že všechny nástroje a opatření mají podobu právních aktů. Může se jednat jak o právní akty individuální povahy, zejména akty aplikace práva, tak akty obecně závazné, které jsou pramenem práva. Za jednu z překážek, které ovlivňují cíle mezinárodní hospodářské politiky, je považována rozdílnost právních systémů, resp. právní úpravy. Vycházíme-li z výše uvedeného konstatování o právním charakteru opatření v rámci hospodářské politiky, je zřejmé, že se tím zvyšuje

1 2

Soukupová, J., Hořejší, B., Macáková, L., Soukup, J.: Mikroekonomie, 3.vydání, Management Press, Praha 2002, ISBN 80-7261-061-9, str. 507 samozřejmě na mysli právní stát, tzn. stát, ve kterém se uplatňuje legalita, stát, který charakterizují základní rysy: vázanost státu právem, lidská práva, dělba moci a demokratický charakter státu.

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úloha právních aktů, které směřují k harmonizaci a unifikaci právní úpravy – na prvém místě mezinárodních smluv.

2.1 Mezinárodní smlouvy Mezinárodní smlouva je obecně definována jako ujednání dvou nebo více subjektů mezinárodního práva (tzn. států, popř. mezinárodních organizací) o jejich vzájemných právech a povinnostech v oblasti jejich suverénní moci (u mezinárodních organizací v mezích jejich pravomocí) (Potočný, Čepelka). Státy, stejně jako mezinárodní organizace, jsou v těchto mezích, nejen subjektem mezinárodního práva veřejného, adresátem jeho norem, ale jsou současně jejich tvůrci (zákonodárci) a vykonavateli. Ačkoli, z definice mezinárodní smlouvy vyplývá, že předmětem její úpravy nejsou vztahy mezi “nesuverénními” subjekty, mezi fyzickými či právnickými osobami z různých států, má mezinárodní právo veřejné, jeho prameny, zejména pak mezinárodní smlouvy, značný vliv na vnitrostátní právní úpravu celé řady oblastí. Pro právní úpravu ekonomických vztahů při podnikatelské činnosti je jejich význam nesporný. Předně tím, že vytváří právní rámec pro hospodářskou spolupráci států samých a tím následně dávají možnost vytvářet vztahy mezi jejich podnikatelskými subjekty. Za druhé tím, že přímo zakotvují pravidla, která jsou sjednocenou (unifikovanou) právní úpravou vztahů v různých oblastech hospodářské činnosti podnikatelských subjektů. V důsledku toho jsou mezinárodní smlouvy pramenem nejen mezinárodního práva (veřejného), ale stávají se (po provedené transformaci) i pramenem práva vnitrostátního. V tomto kontextu, i z hlediska jejich role jako nástroje hospodářské politiky, můžeme podle předmětu úpravy konstatovat existenci tří základních skupin mezinárodních smluv. Jejich společným rysem je postup jejich sjednávání a přijetí. Ten se řídí Vídeňskou úmluvou o smluvním právu z roku 1969 (vyhláška č.15/1988 Sb.). Na uzavírání smluv mezi státy a mezinárodními organizacemi bude (po vstupu v platnost) aplikována Vídeňská úmluva o smluvním právu mezi státy a mezinárodními organizacemi nebo mezinárodními organizacemi navzájem z roku 1986. Prvou skupinu tvoří mezinárodní smlouvy, které lze označit jako smlouvy „klasické“. Řadí se k nim ty mezinárodní smlouvy, které v souladu s uvedenou definicí stanovují práva a povinnosti států samých, popř. práva a povinnosti mezinárodních organizací. K takovýmto smlouvám lze počítat mezinárodní obchodní smlouvy, vytvářející zpravidla dlouhodobý právní rámec pro mezinárodní hospodářskou spolupráci, obchodní dohody, obvykle uzavírané na základě a v rámci obchodních smluv, celní a platební úmluvy a smlouvy o hospodářské a vědeckotechnické spolupráci,. Druhá skupina zahrnuje mezinárodní smlouvy, které obsahují sjednocené (unifikované) přímé normy upravující soukromoprávní vztahy s mezinárodním prvkem, tzn. normy zakotvující práva a povinnosti “nesuverénních” subjektů - právnických či fyzických osob, které v dané oblasti hospodářských vztahů vystupují samostatně a které nesou za své jednání právní odpovědnost. Jsou to smlouvy, které se nejvýznamněji podílí na odstraňování překážek mezinárodního obchodu plynoucích z rozdílnosti právních úprav, zejména podnikatelských vztahů. Příkladem mohou být např. Úmluva OSN o mezinárodní koupi zboží – sdělení č, 160/1991 Sb., Úmluva o přepravní smlouvě v mezinárodní silniční nákladní dopravě (CMR) – vyhláška č. 11/1975 Sb., Úmluva o sjednocení některých pravidel o mezinárodní letecké dopravě (Montrealská úmluva) sdělení č. 123/2003 Sb.m.s. Do třetí skupiny lze zařadit mezinárodní smlouvy, které mají smíšený charakter. Jedná se 26


o smlouvy upravující na jedné straně vztahy mezi státy, na druhé straně zakotvující přímo i určitá práva a povinnosti právnických či fyzických osob vůči státům, a to nejen těm, jejichž jsou příslušníky. K těmto smlouvám v hospodářské oblasti lze zařadit zejména smlouvy o zamezení dvojího zdanění a smlouvy o podpoře a ochraně investic. Význam posledně dvou uváděných skupin mezinárodních smluv pro úpravu vztahů, které vznikají při hospodářské spolupráci se zahraničím, vyplývá ze zásady vyjádřené v právní úpravě většiny států, podle níž mají mezinárodní smlouvy, které daný stát přijal a které byly transformovány do jeho právního řádu, přednost před jeho vnitrostátními právními předpisy, resp. před vnitrostátními prameny práva.3)

2.2 Akty mezinárodních organizací Na tvorbě a přijímání mezinárodních smluv se, jak již bylo uvedeno, vedle států významnou měrou v současnosti podílí i mezinárodní organizace. V souvislosti s otázkami podpory a rozvoje mezinárodních ekonomických vztahů lze připomenout zejména OSN, EU, WTO, ILO. Vedle iniciativní role mezinárodních organizací při tvorbě mezinárodních smluv, vzrůstá význam a podíl aktů, které mohou samy přímo vytvářet. Jejich vytváření v rámci pravomocí a prostředky, které v souladu se „zakládacími“ smlouvami, státy mezinárodní organizaci určily, slouží především k naplňování jejích cílů, zejména k vyváženému rozvoji vzájemných vztahů. Jejich adresáty jsou zpravidla samotné mezinárodní organizace a jejich členské státy. Za specifické lze v této souvislosti označit právní akty EU. A to jak z hlediska jejich tvorby, tak z hlediska adresátů.4)

3 Právo WTO Aktivita států již při založení WTO vedla v roce 1994 vedle podpisu „Závěrečného aktu zahrnujícího výsledky Uruguayského kola mnohostranných obchodních jednání“ k přijetí několika desítek dohod, deklarací a rozhodnutí, které mají naplňovat cíle této organizace. Ty vymezuje preambule „Smlouvy o založení WTO“5, která stanoví: „Strany této dohody uznávajíce, že by jejich vztahy v obchodní a ekonomické oblasti měly být zaměřeny na zvýšení životní úrovně, dosažení plné zaměstnanosti a vyšší a stále rostoucí úrovně reálného obchodu a efektivní poptávky a na zvýšení výroby a obchodu zbožím a službami, což umožní optimální využití světových zdrojů v souladu s cílem trvalého rozvoje, majíce v úmyslu zároveň ochraňovat a zachovat životní prostředí a rozvíjet prostředky k tomu určené tak, aby to bylo slučitelné s jejich potřebami a zájmy, vztahujícími se k různým úrovním ekonomického rozvoje, rozhodnuty vytvořit komplexní, životaschopnější a trvalejší mnohostranný obchodní systém, zahrnující Všeobecnou dohodu o clech a obchodu, výsledky Uruguayského kola mnohostranných obchodních jednání …“. Za účel splnění těchto cílů, byl WTO dán prostor pro uzavírání dohod týkajících se podstatného snížení celních sazeb, odstranění ostatních překážek obchodu a odstranění diskriminace v mezinárodních obchodních vztazích. S přihlédnutím k tomu, že ani mezinárodní právo (veřejné) již není jednotným systémem, ale lze je členit, obdobně jako právo vnitrostátní, podle okruhu regulovaných vztahů na „odvětví“, 3 4 5

Srovnej např. čl. 10a Ústavy České republiky Podrobněji např.: Tichý, L. et. al.: Evropské právo, 4. vydání, Praha, C.H.Beck, 2011, s.231 a násl. Sdělení MZV č. 191/1995 Sb.

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např. právo mezinárodních organizací, právo smluvní, diplomatické právo, právo mořské apod., začíná se i v teorii (Luff, Jackson) hovořit o právu WTO.6) Opodstatněnost vyčlenění práva WTO jako samostatného odvětví mezinárodního práva je odůvodňována nejen počtem uzavřených smluv, ale především jejich obsahovým významem, počtem států, které jsou jimi vázány, a v neposlední řadě i tím, že zahrnuje i úpravu řešení sporů vznikajících v souvislosti s jejich plněním. Vzhledem k okruhu a rozsahu vztahů, které dohody WTO upravují lze hovořit jak o hmotném, tak i procesním právu WTO.

3.1 Hmotné právo WTO Hmotné právo WTO představují mnohostranné dohody, které je možné rozdělit do tří základních skupin.7) První, kterou lze považovat, nejen co do rozsahu úpravy za stěžejní, je skupina „GATT 1994“. Do druhé skupiny patří „Všeobecná dohoda o obchodu se službami - GATS“ spolu s přílohami, do třetí pak „Dohoda o obchodních aspektech práv duševního vlastnictví – TRIPS“. Členění hmotného práva WTO a jeho vnitřní uspořádání, včetně koncepce úpravy, je složitější, než je zde naznačeno. Aniž bychom zacházeli do podrobností, toto konstatování lze dokumentovat na samotných základních dokumentech. Všeobecná dohoda o clech a obchodu 1994 (GATT 1994), která byla přijata především s cílem odstranit všechny bariéry mezinárodního obchodu, je sama souhrnem několika právních dokumentů, resp. jejich částí. Zahrnuje předně převzatá ustanovení Všeobecné dohody o clech a obchodu z roku 1947, spolu s převzatými protokoly a rozhodnutími z téhož roku, ujednání o výkladu čl.II, odst. 1, čl. XII, čl. XVII, čl. XVIII, čl. XXIV, čl. XXV, čl. XXVIII a Marrákéšský protokol ke GATT 1947. Dohodu GATT 1994 doplňují dohody uvedené v Příloze 1A Smlouvy o založení WTO (např. Dohoda o zemědělství, Dohoda o technických překážkách obchodu, dohoda o obchodních aspektech investičních opatření, Dohoda o pravidlech původu, Dohoda o ochranných opatřeních, Dohoda o dovozním licenčním řízení). GATS se stejně jako GATT 1994 snaží o odstranění překážek při poskytování služeb přes hranice, bez ohledu na to, zda jsou poskytovány veřejnoprávními nebo soukromoprávními subjekty. Vlastní text dohody doplňuje řada příloh, které se zabývají specifickými službami, např. finančními, telekomunikačními nebo službami v letecké a námořní dopravě. Dohoda o obchodních aspektech práv duševního vlastnictví (TRIPS), je jen rámcovou dohodou, jejímž účelem je podpora technických inovací a odstraňování problémů, vyplývajících z porušování práv k duševnímu vlastnictví, které by mohly být překážkami obchodu. Odvolává se přitom, na základní mezinárodní smlouvy upravující oblast duševního vlastnictví, tj. na Pařížskou úmluvu na ochranu průmyslového vlastnictví z roku 1967 (vyhl. č. 64/1975 Sb.), Bernskou úmluvu na ochranu děl literárních a uměleckých z roku 1971 (vyhl. č. 133/1980 Sb.) a Pařížský akt k ní (vyhl. č. 134/1980 Sb.), Římskou úmluvu o ochraně výkonných umělců, výrobců zvukových záznamů a rozhlasových organizací z roku 1961 (vyhl. č. 192/1964 Sb.) a na Smlouvu o duševním vlastnictví

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6 7

Skutečnost, že právo WTO je součástí mezinárodního práva (veřejného) potvrzuje samotná podstata WTO jako mezinárodní organizace, a také skutečnost, že mezinárodní dohody jsou sjednávány v souladu s výše uvedenými Vídeňskými úmluvami o smluvním právu. Toto dělení bývá někdy, po vzoru bývalé struktury v rámci svých pravomocí a prostředky, které v souladu se „zakládacími“ smlouvami, jim byly státy určeny,Evropských společenství a jeho práva označováno jako pilířové (Lanoszka), ke kterému je připojována, jako čtvrtý pilíř, ještě skupina původně čtyř, nyní dvou platných mnohostranných dohod, a to dohody o obchodu civilními letadly z roku 1979 a dohoda o vládních zakázkách z roku 1994.


v oboru integrovaných obvodů z roku 1989 (dosud nevstoupila v platnost). 8)

3.2 Procesní právo WTO a jeho role při aplikaci práva WTO Stejně jako v jiných oblastech právní úpravy i v případě práva WTO není důležitá jen jeho samotná existence, to, že existuje úprava určitých společensko-ekonomických vztahů, ale především to, zda je tato právní úprava realizována v konkrétních vztazích mezi jejími adresáty, popř. jak je aplikována orgány k tomu příslušnými, zejména při řešení konfliktů. V procesním právu WTO je základním pramenem „Ujednání o pravidlech a řízení při řešení sporů“ z roku 2001.9) I v této souvislosti lze konstatovat složitější systém úpravy procesních pravidel. Ani ta totiž nejsou zahrnuta jen v Ujednání o pravidlech a řízení při řešení sporů. Rozhodující orgány DSB (Dispute Settlement Body – dále DSB) jsou vázány i dalšími procesními ustanoveními, která obsahují některé ze smluv, tvořících přílohu GATT 1994 (např. Dohoda o textilu a ošacení, Dohoda o technických překážkách obchodu, Dohoda o subvencích a vyrovnávacích opatřeních, resp. její příloha). Právě existenci procesních pravidel můžeme považovat za specifický rys postavení WTO v oblasti aplikace práva WTO, který z této oblasti právní regulace činí významný a efektivní nástroj mezinárodní obchodní politiky států. Zde máme na mysli v prvé řadě právo vytvářet „orgány“, které jsou oprávněny rozhodovat ve sporech vzniklých mezi státy z titulu porušení norem stanovených v hmotném právu WTO, a dále stanovení samotných procesních pravidel. Tuto skutečnost zdůrazňuje samotné Ujednání o pravidlech a řízení při řešení sporů, které v článku 3.2 stanovuje: „Systém řešení sporů WTO je zásadním elementem pro zajištění bezpečnosti a transparentnosti mnohostranného obchodního systému. Členové (rozuměj smluvní státy) uznávají, že poslouží ochraně práv a závazků vyplývajících pro Členy z uvedených dohod a vyjasnění existujících ustanovení těchto dohod, v souladu se zvykovými pravidly výkladu mezinárodního práva veřejného.“ Za stěžejní způsob řešení sporů v rámci WTO, který je řadou autorů (Kalínská, Oftedahl, Pauwelyn) považován za jedinečný, je DSB zahrnující panelové a na ně navazující odvolací řízení.10) Panel11) je orgánem vytvářeným ad hoc pro řešení jednotlivých případů a tvoří jej vybraní členové (v počtu 3 popř. 5) z řad rozhodců, jejichž seznam vede Sekretariát WTO. Odvolací orgán, který má 7 stálých členů z různých států (s přihlédnutím k jejich právním systémům), rozhoduje o procesních stížnostech a důvodech odvolání proti rozhodnutí panelu. Jedinečnost DSB spočívá: a) v exkluzivitě jurisdikce – členské státy WTO se dohodly, že veškeré spory založené, resp. vyplývající z mnohostranných a vícestranných dohod WTO budou řešit výhradně prostřednictvím DSB

8 9 10

11

Dohoda TRIPS vychází z fikce, že ochraně práv podle uvedených úmluv podléhají všechny státy WTO a jejich subjekty soukromého práva, bez ohledu na to, zda tyto dohody ratifikovaly či nikoli. V roce 1995, kdy začal DSB působit, byla používána původní verze Ujednání o řešení sporů, s dílčími úpravami. Vedle nich ale Ujednání o pravidlech a řízení při řešení sporů upravuje další – možno říci „tradiční“ způsoby řešení sporů. K nim počítá, vedle přímého jednání stran, dobré služby (good office), zprostředkování, vyšetřování, smírčí řízení a rozhodčí řízení. Alternativní způsoby řešení sporů - dobré služby, zprostředkování a smírčí řízení mohou být využity i před samotným vytvořením panelu. Označení „panel“ vychází z anglického textu Dohody o zřízení WTO. Český překlad používá termín „skupina odborníků“, který lze považovat za „matoucí“ ve vztahu k termínu „skupina expertů“, kterým jsou označováni odborníci vystupující v řízeních jako poradci („znalci“) v určitých otázkách, kteří ale nemají žádné rozhodovací pravomoci.

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b) ve dvoustupňovitosti řízení – proti rozhodnutí panelu (orgánu rozhodujícímu v prvním stupni) se strany mohou odvolat k Odvolacímu orgánu c) ve vykonatelnosti rozhodnutí – rozhodnutí orgánů jsou přímo vykonatelná (Ujednání o pravidlech a řízení při řešení sporů v této souvislosti apeluje na státy, aby samy nerozhodovaly o tom, zda druhý stát porušuje pravidla WTO a bez svolení nepřijímaly opatření vůči danému státu. Má tak být dán prostor a čas pro zjednání nápravy v souladu s pravidly v Ujednání o pravidlech a řízení při řešení sporů). Úloha DSB při uplatňování a posilování úlohy hmotného práva WTO je nesporná. Jednak při samotném rozhodování sporů, v procesu aplikace práva, jednak v případě Odvolacího orgánu při dotváření přijatých pravidel a „vyplňování mezer“ v právní úpravě. Svoji úlohu hraje i skutečnost, že dřívější rozhodnutí jsou panely běžně zvažována, což potvrdil i Odvolací orgán. Vyjádřil tak podporu principu „legitimního očekávání“ stran, resp. států. Četnost mezinárodních smluv tvořících hmotné právo WTO a jejich strukturovanost, vnáší do aplikace práva WTO problémy, které se v jiných oblastech mezinárodně právní úpravy neobjevují, resp. nejsou tak významné.12) Máme zde na mysli především dva okruhy konfliktů, které spolu souvisí, a to konflikt normativní a konflikt aplikační. Za konflikt normativní označujeme rozpor dvou, popř. více ustanovení smluv hmotného práva. Problém jeho odstranění spočívá především v tom, rozhodující orgány musí objektivně posuzovat všechny dohody, které se týkají řešené stížnosti. Přitom při vzniku WTO bylo státy dohodnuto, považovat (k roku 1994) všechny dohody za přijaté současně. Proto nelze při jejich aplikaci nelze postupovat podle zásady lex posterior derogat priori; tu lze uplatnit jen ve vztahu dohodám přijímaným v pozdějších letech. Proto lze za stěžejní zásadu interpretace v této souvislosti považovat zásadu, lex specialis derogat generalis. Z dosavadní převažující rozhodovací praxe, ale vyplývá, že není používána „doslovně“, ale její uplatnění je podmíněno primárním subsumováním daného problému pod základní právní úpravu GATT 1994, GATS nebo TRIPS.13). Konfliktem aplikačním můžeme označit situaci, kdy jsou k řešení předkládány případy na hranici, resp. za hranicí rozhodovací pravomoci panelů. Ta vychází z cílů WTO, které jsou vymezeny velmi široce a obecně. Bylo by proto možné vztáhnout rozhodovací pravomoci i na oblasti explicitně v cílích WTO nevyjádřené a relativně vzdálené (např. ochrana životního prostředí, ochrana lidských práv). Z hlediska legitimity a závaznosti vydávaných rozhodnutí, by příliš extenzivní výklad pravomoci rozhodovacích orgánů byl podle našeho názoru kontraproduktivní, a mohl mít negativní vliv na posuzování legitimity samotné WTO.

4 Závěr Právo WTO, a to jak hmotné, tak procesní se stalo a je nástrojem přispívajícím k vyváženému rozvoji mezinárodních ekonomických vztahů. Zda jím zůstane a tuto úlohu bude mít i v následujícím období je podle našeho názoru závislé především na dvou skutečnostech. Předně, zda státy, zejména při hledání způsobů řešení krize, nebudou ve větší míře přijímat „ochranářská“ opatření, která budou v rozporu s cíli WTO. To by nepochybně vedlo k nárůstu sporů a lze se domnívat i k prodloužení doby jejich řešení. Tím by současná efektivita působení práva WTO výrazně

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Výklad dohod WTO musí vycházet ze zvykových pravidel výkladu mezinárodního práva veřejného (srov. čl.3.2. Ujednání o pravidlech a řízení při řešení sporů), která jsou, jak deklaroval i Odvolací orgán, kodifikována v čl. 31 a 32 Vídeňské úmluvy o smluvním právu. Příkladem může být otázka určení aplikovatelné dohody v případě kdy státem přijaté opatření a z něj pramenící spor se týká plnění (závazků) spočívajících v dodávkách zboží spolu se službami


poklesla. Druhou skutečností by mohlo být již zmíněné rozšiřování rozhodovacích pravomocí WTO nad rámec jejích cílů. I zde pak hrozí nárůst sporných případů, navíc pak i otevření diskuse o legitimitě rozhodování WTO a tím závaznosti a účinnosti přijímaných rozhodnutí.

Použitá literatura BALAŠ, V. (2004): Řešení sporů v rámci GATT a WTO. In Časopis pro právní vědu a praxi [online]. [cit. 2012-11-20]. Dostupné z . BALAŠ, V., ŠTURMA,P. (1997): Kurs mezinárodního ekonomického práva. 1. vydání. Praha: C.H.Beck. ISBN 80-7179-150-4 ČEPELKA, Č., ŠTURMA, P. (2003): Mezinárodní právo veřejné. 1. vydání. Praha: Eurolex Bohemia. ISBN 80-86432-57-2. ČEPELKA, Č (2000): Právo mezinárodních smluv - Vídeňská úmluva o smluvním právu (1969) - s komentářem. Praha: Karolinum. ISBN 8071849707. DAVEY, W.,J. (2005): The WTO Dispute Settlement System: The First Ten Years. In Journal of International Economic Law [online]. [cit. 2012-11-20]. Dostupné z . HUDEC, R. E. (1993): Enforcing international trade law: The Evolution of modern GATT legal system. Salem: Butterworth Legal Publishers. ISBN 1880633558. JACKSON, J., H. (2006): Sovereignty, the WTO, and Changing Fundamentals of International Law. Washington DC: Cambridge University Press, Georgetown University. ISBN 9780521860079. JACKSON, J., H. (2004): International Law Status of WTO Dispute Settlement Reports: Obligation to Comply or Option to „Buy-Out“? In The American Journal of International Law [online]. [cit. 2012-11-20]. Dostupné z . KALÍNSKÁ, E. et al. (2010): Mezinárodní obchod v 21. století. Praha: Grada. ISBN 978-80247-3396-8. KLÍMA, K. (2011): Funkce státu. In Státověda. Plzeň: Aleš Čeněk. ISBN: 978-80-7380-296-7. pp. 196-208. KLÍMA, K. (2006): Ústavní právo. 3. vydání. Plzeň: Aleš Čeněk. ISBN: 80-7380-000-4. LANOSZKA, A. (2009): Excerpted from The World Trade Organization: Changing Dynamics in the Global Political Economy. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. ISBNs: 978-1-58826-628-6 hc [online]. [cit. 2012-11-20]. Dostupné z .14 31


LUFF, D. (2004): Le droit de l’Organisation mondiale du commerce: Analyse critique. Bruxelles: Emile Bruylant. ISBN 2802717979. MAVROIDIS, P., C. (2000): Remedies in the WTO Legal System: Between a Rock and a Hard Place. In European Journal of International Law [online]. [cit. 2012-11-20]. Dostupné z . pp. 763 -813. ORTINO, F. – PETERSMANN, E., U. (2004): The WTO dispute settlement system, 1995 – 2003 [online]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International. ISBN 904112232. [cit. 2012-11-20]. Dostupné z . OFTEDAHL, T. (2007): The World Trade Organization : A Developing Country Perspective on the Law and Practice of Negotiations, Decision-Making, and Patent Protection on Pharmaceuticals[online].[cit.2012-11-20].Dostupn éz . PAUWELYN, J. (2000): Enforcement and Countermeasures in the WTO: Rules are RulesToward a More Collective Approach. In The American Journal of International Law.Vol. 94, No. 2. pp. 335-347. [cit. 2012-11-20]. Dostupné z . PETERSMANN, E., U (1994): International trade law and the GATT/WTO dispute settlement system. The Hague: Kluwe Law International. ISBN 9041106847. POTOČNÝ, M. (1962): Co jsou mezinárodní smlouvy. In Abeceda mezinárodních vztahů – Svazek 16. Praha: Nakladatelství politické literatury. POTOČNÝ, M., ONDŘEJ, J. (2011): Mezinárodní právo veřejné. Zvláštní část. 6. vydání. Praha: C. H. Beck. ISBN 978-80-7400-398-1. ROSAS, A. (2001): Implementation and Enforcement od WTO Dispute Settlement Findings: An EU Perpective. In Journal of International Economic Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ROZEHNALOVÁ, N. – VALDHANS, J. et. al. (2010): Právo Světové obchodní organizace a další kapitoly z mezinárodního ekonomického práva. 1. vydání. Brno: Masarykova univerzita. ISBN 978-80-210-5154-6 ROZEHNALOVÁ, N. (2006): Právo mezinárodního obchodu. 2. vydání. Praha: ASPI. ISBN 807357196X. ŘÍHOVÁ, K. (2009): The Alternative Dispute Settlements Methods Conatined in DSU of the WTO. In Dny práva – 2009 [online]. Brno: MU. [cit. 2012-11-20]. Dostupné z . 32


SOUKUPOVÁ, J. et. al. (2002): Mikroekonomie. 3. vydání. Praha: Management Press. ISBN 80-7261-061-9. SPIRIT, M. (2012): Základy práva pro neprávníky. 3. vydání. Plzeň: Aleš Čenek. ISBN: 97880-7380-391-9. ŠTURMA, P. – BALAŠ V. – ČEPELKA Č. (2011): Právo mezinárodních smluv. Plzeň: Aleš Čeněk. ISBN 978-80-7380-341-4. WOLFRUM, R. – STOLL, P., T. – KAISER, K. (2006): WTO: institutions and dispute settlement. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 900414563. WTO (2004): A handbook on the WTO dispute settlement system. 1. vydání. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521602920 YERXA, R. – WILSON, B. (2005): Key issues in WTO dispute settlement : the first ten years. 1. vydání Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521861594

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Work Life Balance: An Empirical Analysis of Select Organizations Dr. Ajay Kumar Singh and Mrs. Nidhi Kapoor Univerity of Delhi

Abstakt Purpose - Work-life balance is about living a fulfilled life inside and outside paid work, having control over your time so you can achieve that. It has become important to demonstrate the benefits that employers can derive from such employment policies and practices supporting work-life balance and how they can be used for mitigating the negative effects on the business management. This study was designed to know if there is any difference in perception about presence or absence of work life balance programs due to the demographic variables (age, gender, and marital status) and if the perception about availability or non-availability of work-life balance programs leads to any difference on perception of the employees related to scheduling control, job satisfaction, and mental health level. Design / methodology / approach – A structured questionnaire was used to analyze if the perception about availability of work-life balance practices depends on the respondents’ demographic variables and if the perception about availability of work-life balance programs leads to a significant difference in perception of employees’ about the autonomy available in scheduling their time and work, job satisfaction, and mental health. The study was conducted on a sample of 30 employees each from 13 organizations totaling 390 respondents. Findings – The survey instrument was found to be reliable using Cronbach’s alpha test. Statistical analytical tools such as chi-square, Mann Whitney, and other descriptive statistical scores were used for analyzing the data and hypotheses testing. The results of the data revealed significant difference in perception about availability of work-life balance programs on the basis of marital status in IT and FMCG sector and on the basis of age in FMCG sector. However, the strength of such relationship was found to be negligible. Also, a significant difference was found in perception about scheduling control and mental health on the basis of perception about presence of work-life balance programs. Research limitations – All the limitations of a sample study are applicable on this study also. Practical implications – The study provides help to the organizations in understanding the demographic variables that lead to difference in the perception of employees about the work-life balance programs and also the impact that such perception creates in the scheduling control, and mental health of the employees. The organizations should have communication strategies to make sure that all the employees are made aware about the availability of work-life balance programs and when and how can they be availed. Originality/Value – This research is probably first of its kind in India which studies the difference caused by perception about availability or non-availability of work-life balance programs on the scheduling control, job satisfaction, and mental health of employees.

Keywords work–life balance, scheduling control, job satisfaction, mental health 34


1 Introduction Work-Life Balance is one of the major issues in HRM policies as it is central in promoting individual and organizational effectiveness. The concept is based on the belief that the paid work and personal life are complementary elements of one’s life and should not be seen as competing priorities. Work–life balance is a broad concept including proper prioritizing between “work” (career and ambition) on the one hand and “life” (Health, pleasure, leisure, family, social, environmental, and spiritual development) on the other. It is defined as an employee’s perception that multiple domains of personal time, family care and work are maintained and integrated with a minimum of role conflict. It is one of the central support mechanisms available to employee in managing work and family demands. As per the Work Foundation: Work life balance is achieved when an individual’s right to a fulfilled life inside and outside paid work is accepted and respected as the norm, to the mutual benefit of the individual, business, and society. This definition focuses on valuing the employee for their contribution to the workplace, not for their work pattern. Various other terms are used to refer to work-life balance including work-family balance, work-family conflict, work-family integration, and family friendly policies. In the past few years, the growth in information technology, competitive work environment, intense pressures due to fast paced changes and constant deadlines have led to a substantial increase in work pressures. The culture of organizations has become performance oriented where more and more is expected from the employees. The concept is being emphasized a lot due to growing globalization and the changing nature of work. There is a rise in the women workforce which has led to a tremendous rise in the number of dual career couples. The average income of the families has increased, raising the standards of living. The individuals are striving not only for better work atmosphere but also improved family and personal life. Work-Life balance concept refers to ‘the extent to which individuals are equally involved in- and equally satisﬁed with — their work role and family role’1 It suggests that giving equal priority to work as well as family roles could help in resolving the work-family conflicts. Any practice in the workplace that, intentionally or otherwise, increase the ﬂexibility and autonomy of the worker in adjusting their attention (time) and presence in the workplace can be termed as a work-life balance practice, while work–life balance policies exist where such practices are intentionally designed and implemented. By focusing on employees with family responsibilities, however, the notion of work–family balance was considered in practice as triggering off a backlash in the workplace among non-parents.2 However, a shift has been seen in the phenomenon and now it is majorly referred to as work-life balance as the need of maintaining a balance is no more restricted to men and women with families or having responsibility of child/ eldercare but has also extended to include employees who are single but desire to balance for non-work activities such as sports, study, and travel. The term work-life balance is commonly used as a more comprehensive expression to describe policies that have been previously termed ‘family-friendly’, but are now extended beyond the scope of the family. Work-life balance refers to the flexible working arrangements that allow both parents and non-parents to avail of working arrangements that provide a balance between work responsibilities and personal responsibilities. The term ‘work-life balance’ is preferred due

1 2

GREENHAUS, J.H. & SINGH, R. 2003. Work–family linkages. Sloan work and family research network, viewed on Oct. 21, 2011 available online at http://wfnetwork.bc.edu/ encyclopaedia_entry.php, p.2 HAAR, J. & SPELL, C.S. 2003. Where is the justice? Examining work–family backlash in New Zealand: the potential for employee resentment. New Zealand Journal of Industrial Relations (28): 59–75.

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to the fact that it encompasses the experiences and needs of parents and non-parents alike, and is a more progressive theoretical framework in which to think about new ways of living and working that are satisfactory to all. In practice, it involves “adjusting work patterns so that everyone, regardless of age, race or gender can find a rhythm that enables them more easily to combine work and their other responsibilities and aspirations” 3. Work-life balance debates have progressed rapidly and are changing people’s lives gradually. But they need to keep progressing: over a third of people think they are policies just for parents, undermining the wider relevance of work-life balance and misunderstanding what it is for. Worklife balance is about living a fulfilled life inside and outside paid work, having control over your time so you can achieve that. Despite the increased profile of work-life balance, most workers still face a time squeeze, women are still bearing the brunt of domestic labour and a new lowpaid female labour market is being created to prop up the way we’re working. It’s not sustainable. By putting work-life at the heart of an organizational strategy, and reflecting wider social shifts towards a 24X7 society and employee needs, organizations can use work-life balance as a powerful lever for change on a range of levels. Organizations that can catch up with the 21st century, with women being in paid work, and with the fact that a 24X7 life doesn’t have to mean 24X7 working, can gain competitive advantage. But these policies are also about social equity, and future worklife balance debates in organizations need to shift the focus away from proving the business case towards recognizing importance of the social benefits4. It has become essential to conceptualize the approach involving consideration of the needs of employees as well as of employers. It is important to demonstrate the benefits that employers can derive from such employment policies and practices supporting work-life balance and how they can be used for mitigating the negative effects on the business management. The work-life balance contributes to employees’ job satisfaction, mental health, and organizational commitment, which in turn contributes to higher productivity and lower turnover. As per World Health Organization (2006), “Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” Thus, the work-life balance policies in the organizations do serve as a great means for maintaining the employees’ health. Work-life balance policies are often referred to in practice as ‘flexible working’, and include the following different ways of working: • Part-time working- A part-time job is a form of employment that carries fewer hours per week than a full-time job. Workers are considered to be part time if they commonly work fewer than 30 or 35 hours per week. • Job sharing- It is an employment option that lets two people share the responsibilities of one full-time position. • Flexitime- It is a variable work schedule, in contrast to traditional work arrangements requiring employees to work a standard 9am to 5 pm day. • Shift working- It is an employment practice designed to make use of the 24 hours of the clock. As per International Labour Organization it is a method of organization of working time in which

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3 4

PILLINGER, J. 2001. Work-Life Balance: Towards a new politics of work and time, viewed on Oct. 11, 2011; available online at http://ebookbrowse.com/pillinger-work-life-balance-towards-a-new-politics-of-work-and-time2001-doc-d39328933 4. JONES, A. 2003. About Time for Change. The Work Foundation, viewed on September 25, 2011, available online at http://workfoundation.net/assets/docs/publications/177


workers succeed one another at the workplace so that the establishment can operate longer than the hours of work of individual workers. • Annualised hours- A form of compressed work schedule or reduced hours, in which employees (either full or part-time) work a certain number of hours per year rather than per week. Employees can take advantage of their seasonal interests, by taking certain parts of the year off. • Compressed week- It enables employees to work full-time in fewer than five days a week. Scheduling can take different forms. • Tele-working / e-working- It refers to the use of home computers, telephones, etc., to enable a person to work from home while maintaining contact with colleagues, customers, or a central office. • Career breaks- It is a short period of time when employee decides not to work in profession due to some reasons. • Study leave- It refers to the leave allowed by the employer so that the employee can take up further studies. • Zero hours contracts- they are the contracts of employment that do not specify the number of hours an employee would be required to work. S/he may be called up for work whenever requirement arises and is paid only for the time when work is being actually done. • V-Time- It refers to voluntary reduced work-time and is a type of alternative work arrangement which allows employees to work fewer hours according to a prearranged schedule, with a corresponding reduction in salary and benefits. After a specified time limit, the employees may return to their full time status.

2 Review of literature Jang et al. (2011) examined the association between availability of work-life balance programs in the organizations, the authority that employees have in scheduling their work hours, job satisfaction, and mental health. The study added to the evidence that there is a positive relationship between availability of scheduling control and work life balance policies on one hand and between job satisfaction and mental well-being on the other. The various control variables at individual level were used including occupation, job status, gender, marital status, wages, and union membership. At the company level company size and industry were taken as control variables. Babazono et al. (2005) conducted a study related to influences of Work place stress on Mental Health. They used “work requirement degree control model” which is one of the well regarded workplace stress theories and found that significant items leading to problematic mental health for factory workers were “too much competition” (high degree of work requirement), “cannot keep up with new technology” (lack of control) and for R&D or office workers “too much trouble at work” (high degree of work requirement) and “feel pressed for time” (loss of control). Madsen et al. (2005) in a study “Work-Family Conflict and Health: A Study of Workplace, Psychological, and Behavioral Correlates” suggest that high work-family conflict is related to lower levels of desirable work and non-work factors (e.g., organizational commitment, health); however, they did not study the direction of these relationships. These results also support the spillover theory that states that negative spillover from one role to another is demonstrated when the problems, conflicts, or energy in one role has strained and preoccupied an individual, making 37


it difficult to effectively and positively participate in another, and positive spillover is just the opposite. The research suggests that work-to-family and family-to-work conflict are related to organizational commitment. The study also suggests that mental health and physical health are related to organizational commitment. All the three components of organizational commitment (loyalty, involvement, and identification) contribute towards the relationship with mental health. Physical health is also related to organizational commitment, but not because of loyalty. The overall results indicated when employees feel good; they are more loyal, involved, and committed to their organizations. Thus, improving employees’ health may be one of the methods that can help increase the overall organizational commitment. Abbott and Cieri (2008) depicted the perspectives of work-life balance held by employee and management. Their research indicated a high level of congruence between the managements’ and employees’ perspectives. The findings show that the influences on WLB are inter-related and, depending on specific organizational circumstances, some factors will have more influence on stakeholder support for WLB than do others. Kirkwood and Tootell (2008) conducted a study to find if the entrepreneurship is the answer to achieving work-life balance. They interviewed 58 entrepreneurs in New Zealand, out of which 32 were women. They tried to explore the work-family conflict faced by the entrepreneurs, the techniques they use to achieve work–family balance and the effectiveness of these strategies. It was found that women entrepreneurs employed a number of flexible work practices such as when and where to work and even with whom to work so that they could manage well their roles within the family as well. The researchers concluded that entrepreneurship may not be a panacea for achieving work-family balance. However, it was concluded that in the pursuit of work–family balance, entrepreneurs encounter an additional type of work–family conflict to deal with – that of their own employees. Parkes and Langford (2008) conducted a survey on 16,000 Australian employees and tested if the work-life balance is important for engaging and retaining employees in the context of other aspects of organizational climate. The analysis concluded that out of 28 organizational climate factors, work-life balance was least related to employee engagement and employees’ intention to stay in the organization. The research concluded that creating work–life alignment through congruent goals and values, fostering corporate social responsibility, looking after the health and safety of employees, improving reward and performance appraisal systems to more accurately reflect performance outcomes (rather than time in the office), developing fair and supportive supervisors, and facilitating participation and involvement in decision-making among all employees, would increase employee engagement and retention generally, reduce the impact of diversity and flow on to greater satisfaction with work–life balance. Hayman (2009) studied the relationship between the perceived usability of flexible work schedules and work/life balance for office-based employees. A direct link was found between perceived usability of flexible work schedules and the three dimensions of work-life balance (work interference with personal life, personal life interference with work, and work/personal life enhancement). Employees working under flexible work schedules were found to have higher levels of work-life balance as compared to their counterparts who were working under fixedhours schedule. The research depicted that while individual flexible work schedules may have 38


a marginal overall positive impact on employee work/life balance, the perceived usability and availability of these work schedules appears to be a key element in achieving work/life balance for many office-based employees.

3 Rationale of the Study There is dearth of studies on work-life balance conducted in India. Moreover, majority of studies undertaken relate to the aspects such as, which work-life balance programs have been made available in the organizations and which programs are preferred by the employees and at which stages of their lives. There are very few studies and probably none in India that attempt to capture the impact of availability of work-life balance programs on job satisfaction and mental health of employees. This study was undertaken to analyze if the demographic variables lead to a difference in perception about availability of work-life balance programs and does this perception lead to a difference in employees’ levels of scheduling control, job satisfaction, and mental health. Objectives and Hypotheses of the study 1. To study the independence of demographic variables (age, gender, and marital status) and perception about availability of work-life balance programs in the organizations, taking company’s sector as control variable. HO1a: The perception about availability of work-life balance programs is independent of respondents’ age, for various industrial sectors. HA1a: The perception about availability of work-life balance programs is dependent on respondents’ age, for various industrial sectors. HO1b: The perception about availability of work-life balance programs is independent of respondents’ gender, for various industrial sectors. HA1b: The perception about availability of work-life balance programs is dependent on respondents’ gender, for various industrial sectors. HO1c: The perception about availability of work-life balance programs is independent of respondents’ marital status, for various industrial sectors. HA1c: The perception about availability of work-life balance programs is dependent on respondents’ marital ststus, for various industrial sectors. 2.

To study if there is a statistical significant difference in perception of scheduling control, job satisfaction, and mental health on the basis of perception about availability of work life balance programs. HO2a: There is no significant difference in perception about scheduling control on basis of the perception about availability of work life balance programs. HA2a: There is significant difference in perception about scheduling control on basis of the perception about availability of work life balance programs. HO2b: There is no significant difference in perception about job satisfaction on basis of the perception about availability of work life balance programs. HA2b: There is a significant difference in perception about job satisfaction on basis of the perception about availability of work life balance programs. 39


HO2c: There is no significant difference in perception about mental health on basis of the perception about availability of work life balance programs. HA2c: There is a significant difference in perception about mental health on basis of the perception about availability of work life balance programs. Research Methodology Sample Size Total sample size of 390 employees was selected for the study. The industries were selected using stratified sampling. Data was collected from 13 companies (4 from F.M.C.G. sector, 6 from I.T. sector, and 3 from telecom sector). 30 respondents from each organization were chosen randomly resulting into total sample size of 390. Questionnaire and Statistical tests Primary data was collected using a structured closed-ended questionnaire adapted from a study by Jang et al. (2011). Firstly, the scheduling control, job satisfaction, and mental health scores were checked for their normality using the Shapiro- Wilk statistic and it revealed that the data was not normally distributed. Thus, for testing the hypothesis, non-parametric tests including chi-square and MannWhitney have been applied. The Phi and Cramer’s V statistics have also been used. The questionnaire contained the following set of measures which have been tested for the purpose of analysis: Scheduling Control This variable was measured at individual level by an average of two items: (a) I can determine my time schedules. (b) I can determine my work schedules. These two items were constructed to specifically measure the perception of respondents of having an influence on timing and scheduling of work. They were a variant of 5-point scale previously used by Krausz et al. (2000). The 5-point scale consisted of responses ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (5) where higher values indicated that employees could more easily control work. Job Satisfaction It was measured at the individual level to determine the level of satisfaction and happiness derived by the respondents from their job. Five items were chosen from the Job Descriptive Index 5specifically related to the job itself. The items in the index related to satisfaction from supervision, coworkers, promotion, and pay. The specific items were as follows: (a) I’m satisfied with my job. (b) I enjoy my current job. (c) My job gives me a sense of accomplishment. (d) My job is very boring. (e) I am always exhausted after my job. They had a 5-point Likert-type scale and the responses ranged from “strongly disagree (1)” to “strongly agree (5).” The last two responses were reverse coded. Then, the responses to all five items were summed and averaged into a composite score with higher scores indicating greater job satisfaction. Mental Health It is another variable, measured at the individual level. To measure this construct five items were chosen from the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) developed by Goldberg in the

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5

SMITH, P.C., KENDALL, L.M., & HULIN, C.L. 1969. Measurement of Satisfaction in Work and Retirement. Chicago: Rand McNally and co publications.


1970s (Goldberg & Williams, 1988). The GHQ assesses the extent to which respondents have experienced a list of somatic and affective symptoms over the past three months. The items have a 5-point scale. The responses ranged from “strongly disagree (1)” to “strongly agree (5).” They were reverse coded and then summed and averaged into a composite score. Higher scores indicate better mental health. The construct consisted of the following items: (a) I could not concentrate on whatever was occurring around me. (b) I could not sleep well because of concerns. (c) I’ve felt constantly under strain. (d) I’ve been feeling unhappy and depressed. (e) I have lost my confidence. Work-Life Balance Programs The employees were asked if their company provides any work-life balance programs in order to measure the perception of individuals about the availability of any such programs in their respective organizations. It was coded as 1 if the employee responded that any such program is available in the company and 0 otherwise. Demographic Variables At individual level, the age, gender, and marital status were studied. Age was code in one of 3 categories (Upto 25, 26-34, and above 34). Male employees were coded 0 and female employees 1. Married employees were coded as 1 and unmarried as 0. The pie charts show the data related to age categories, gender and marital status.

There were 27.88% respondents of less than 25 years in age. 56.27% respondents were in category of 26-34 years & 14.58% were above 34 years. 62.15% respondents were male & 37.60% were female. 50.38% respondents were unmarried whereas 48.85% were married. Reliability Inter-consistency of the various scale items were assessed by computing cronbach’s alpha (Table 1). All the reliability coefficients were found to be satisfactory. TABLE 1: RELIABILITY STATISTICS Cronbach’s Alpha Scheduling Control 0.719 Job Satisfaction 0.652 Mental Health 0.878

N of Items 2 5 5

Hypotheses Testing To study the independence of demographic variables (age, gender, and marital status) and 41


perception about availability of work-life balance programs in the organization, chi-square test was applied. The results revealed that age and perception of availability of work-life balance programs were dependent and; the marital status and perception of availability of work-life balance programs were dependent. However, when the strength of these relationships was tested using Phi and Cramer’s V statistic, it was found that the strength of these relationships was negligible. Thus, it was decided to take the company’s sector as control variable and then study the independence of demographic variables (age, gender and marital status) and perception about availability of worklife balance programs. Table 2a, 2a (i), 2b, 2c, and 2c (i) lays down the results for same. Table 2a shows that the age and perception about availability or non-availability of work-life balance programs are independent in case of IT and TELECOM sector. However, in case of FMCG sector, the age and perception about availability or non-availability of work-life balance programs are found to be dependent. Thus, we accept the null hypothesis 1a (HO1a) for IT and TELECOM sector but reject it for the FMCG sector. TABLE 2a: CHI- SQUARE TEST FOR INDEPENDENCE OF AGE AND PERCEPTION ABOUT AVAILABILITY OF WORK-LIFE BALANCE PROGRAMS COMPANY SECTOR Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) a .981 2 IT Pearson Chi-Square .038 .981 Likelihood Ratio .038 2 .851 Linear-by-Linear Association .036 1 N of Valid Cases 178 .022 2 FMCG Pearson Chi-Square 7.652b .030 Likelihood Ratio 6.987 2 .010 Linear-by-Linear Association 6.675 1 N of Valid Cases 120 .402 2 TELECOM Pearson Chi-Square 1.822c .399 Likelihood Ratio 1.835 2 .542 Linear-by-Linear Association .371 1 N of Valid Cases 87 a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 5.27. b. 1 cells (16.7%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 3.83. c. 2 cells (33.3%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.70. As the age and perception about availability of work-life balance programs was found to be dependent in FMCG sector, the Cramer’s V statistic was studied to assess the strength of this relationship. The results in Table 2a (i) shows that the strength is negligible. Thus, on the basis of results obtained we may conclude that although the chi-square tests reveal dependence between age and perception of employees in FMCG sector but, the strength of such dependence is negligible.

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TABLE 2a (i): CRAMER’S V STATISTIC COMPANY SECTOR FMCG Nominal by Nominal Phi Cramer’s V Contingency Coefficient N of Valid Cases 120

Value .253 .253 .245

Approx. Sig. .022 .022 .022

TABLE 2b: CHI- SQUARE TEST FOR INDEPENDENCE OF GENDER AND PERCEPTION ABOUT AVAILABILITY OF WORK-LIFE BALANCE PROGRAMS COMPANY SECTOR Value df Asymp. Sig. Exact Sig. Exact Sig. (2-sided) (2-sided) (1-sided) IT Pearson Chi-Square .546a 1 .460 Continuity Correctionb .338 1 .561 Likelihood Ratio .548 1 .459 Fisher’s Exact Test .531 .281 L i n e a r - b y - L i n e a r .543 1 .461 Association N of Valid Casesb 179 FMCG Pearson Chi-Square .009c 1 .925 Continuity Correctionb .000 1 1.000 Likelihood Ratio .009 1 .924 Fisher’s Exact Test 1.000 .560 L i n e a r - b y - L i n e a r .009 1 .925 Association N of Valid Casesb 120 TELECOM Pearson Chi-Square .106d 1 .745 Continuity Correctionb .008 1 .929 Likelihood Ratio .106 1 .744 Fisher’s Exact Test .816 .467 L i n e a r - b y - L i n e a r .105 1 .746 Association N of Valid Casesb 90 a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 27.35. b. b. Computed only for a 2x2 table c. c. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 9.20. d. d. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 10.69. The values show that availability of work-life balance programs and gender are independent and thus, we accept the null hypothesis 1b (HO1b). 43


Table 2b lays down the results for testing independence of gender and perception about availability of work-life balance programs for the three industrial sectors. As it is a 2 X2 matrix, so for analysis purpose, we will look at values of Fisher’s exact test.

TABLE 2c: CHI- SQUARE TEST FOR INDEPENDENCE OF MARITAL STATUS AND PERCEPTION ABOUT AVAILABILITY OF WORK-LIFE BALANCE PROGRAMS COMPANY SECTOR Value df Asymp. Sig. Exact Sig. Exact Sig. (2-sided) (2-sided) (1-sided) IT Pearson Chi-Square 5.437a 1 .020 Continuity Correctionb 4.743 1 .029 Likelihood Ratio 5.467 1 .019 Fisher’s Exact Test .022 .015 Linear-by-Linear Association 5.407 1 .020 N of Valid Casesb 179 FMCG Pearson Chi-Square 6.493c 1 .011 Continuity Correctionb 5.350 1 .021 Likelihood Ratio 6.431 1 .011 Fisher’s Exact Test .017 .011 Linear-by-Linear Association 6.439 1 .011 N of Valid Casesb 120 TELECOM Pearson Chi-Square .050d 1 .823 Continuity Correctionb .000 1 1.000 Likelihood Ratio .050 1 .823 Fisher’s Exact Test .827 .499 Linear-by-Linear Association .050 1 .824 N of Valid Casesb 88

a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 33.43. b. b. Computed only for a 2x2 table c. c. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 9.58. d. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 13.50. Table 2c shows the results of chi-square test for independence of marital status and respondents’ perception about availability of work-life balance programs for each industrial sector. As it is a 2 X2 matrix, so for analysis purpose, we will look at values of Fisher’s exact test. The results in the table 2c depict that perception about availability of work-life balance programs is dependent on marital status in IT and FMCG sector. So, we reject the null hypothesis 1c (HO1c) for IT and FMCG sector but, accept it in case of TELECOM sector. In order to analyze the strength of dependence in IT and FMCG sector, the phi statistic was applied and the results in Table 2c (i) shows that the strength of this relationship is negligible in both the sectors. 44


TABLE 2c (i): PHI STATISTIC COMPANY SECTOR IT Nominal by Nominal Phi Cramer’s V Contingency Coefficient N of Valid Cases FMCG Nominal by Nominal Phi Cramer’s V Contingency Coefficient N of Valid Cases

Value -.174 .174 .172 179 -.233 .233 .227 120

Approx. Sig. .020 .020 .020 .011 .011 .011

The 2nd hypothesis was framed to study if there is any statistically significant difference in perception of scheduling control, job satisfaction, and mental health on the basis of employees’ perception about availability of work life balance programs. The hypothesis was tested by applying Mann- Whitney test. In order to apply the test, firstly ranks were assigned to the averaged scores of scheduling control, job satisfaction and mental health. Table 3a shows that there is a statistical significant difference in scheduling control score on the basis of perception of employees’ about availability of work-life balance programs. Thus, we reject null hypothesis 2a (HO2a). TABLE 3a: MANN-WHITNEY TEST FOR SCHEDULING CONTROLa AVERAGE SCHEDULING CONTROL SCORE Mann-Whitney U 15922.000 Wilcoxon W 30628.000 Z -2.564 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .010 a. Grouping Variable: Program for work-life balance available Table 3b shows that there is no statistical significant difference in job satisfaction score on the basis of perception of employees’ about availability of work-life balance programs. Thus, we accept null hypothesis 2b (HO2b). TABLE 3b: MANN-WHITNEY TEST FOR JOB SATISFACTIONa AVERAGE JOB SATISFACTION SCORE Mann-Whitney U 16961.000 Wilcoxon W 40832.000 Z -1.533 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .125 a. Grouping Variable: Program for work-life balance available 45


Table 3c shows that there is a statistical significant difference in mental health score on the basis of perception of employees’ about availability of work-life balance programs. Thus, we reject null hypothesis 2c (HO2c). TABLE 3c: MANN-WHITNEY TEST FOR MENTAL HEALTHa AVERAGE MENTAL HEALTH SCORE Mann-Whitney U 15422.000 Wilcoxon W 39293.000 Z -2.931 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .003 a. Grouping Variable: Program for work-life balance available Summary Findings and Conclusions The following conclusions have been drawn from the study on the basis of results of the data analyzed: 1. Age and the perception of employees about availability of work-life balance programs in IT and TELECOM sector were found to be independent but, in case of FMCG sector, they were found to be dependent. However, the strength of such dependence in FMCG sector was negligible. 2. Gender and the perception of employees about availability of work-life balance programs were found to be independent in all the three industrial sectors. 3. Respondents’ marital status and the perception of employees about availability of work-life balance programs in TELECOM sector were found to be independent but, in case of IT and FMCG sector, they were found to be dependent. However, the strength of such dependence in both the sectors was negligible. 4. From the above points, it can be seen that the demographic variables (age, gender and marital status) and the perception about availability of work-life balance programs are independent in most of the cases. In few instances, wherein they were found to be dependent, a further analysis revealed that the strength of such dependence is negligible. 5. It was found that the perception about scheduling control and mental health is statistically significantly different with the presence or absence of work life balance programs in the organizations. Majority of respondents who perceived that the worklife balance programs were available scored high on the scheduling control (52.6%) and mental health score (51.5%) as well. Thus, it is important for the companies to realize that the perception of employees about availability of programs would help in maintaining their mental well being. 6. The perception about presence or absence of work life balance programs in the organizations does not create a difference in job satisfaction level of the employees. Thus, the availability of work-life balance programs does not act as a motivator for impacting the satisfaction derived from the job.

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4 Recommendations 1. It is vital for an organization to not only make work life balance programs available for benefit of employees but also make them aware about their availability as has been observed in the data collected that in the same organization certain employees perceive that the work-life balance programs are available; others believe that they are not. The organizations should have communication strategies to make sure that all the employees are made aware about the availability of work-life balance programs and when and how can they be availed. 2. As observed from the results that there is no dependence between any of the demographic variables studied and the perception of employees about availability or non-availability of work-life balance programs thus, the work-life balance programs should be made available to employees’ from all age categories, males as well as females and irrespective of marital status. 3. It has also been found that there is statistically significant difference in scheduling control and mental health score of employees on the basis of their perception about availability of work-life balance programs. Thus, the organizations must realize that making the work-life balance programs available and making the employees’ aware about such availability would lead to a change in their perception and would result in betterment of the employees’ mental well-being. This would further help the organizations in increasing their productivity level.

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balance programs on job satisfaction and mental health. International Journal of Social Welfare, (20): 135- 143. JONES, A. 2003. About Time for Change. The Work Foundation, viewed on September 25, 2011, available online at http://workfoundation.net/assets/docs/publications/177 KIRKWOOD, J. & TOOLTEL, B. 2008. Is Entrepreneurship the answer to achieving workfamily balance? Journal of Management and Organization, (14): 285- 302. KRAUSZ, M., SAGIE, A., & BIDERMANN, Y. 2000. Actual and Preferred Work Schedule and Scheduling Control as Determinants of Job-Related Attitudes. Journal of Vocational Behavior (56): 1–11. MADSEN, S., JOHN, C. & MILLER, D. 2005. Work family conflict and health: a study of workplace, psychological and behavioural correlates. Journal of Behavioural and Applied Management (6): 225- 247. PAERKES, L. P. & LANGFORD, P. H. 2008. Work-Life Balance or Work-life Alignment. Journal of Management and Organization (14): 267-284. PILLINGER, J. 2001. Work-Life Balance: Towards a new politics of work and time, viewed on Oct. 11, 2011; available online at http://ebookbrowse.com/pillinger-work-life-balance-towards-anew-politics-of-work-and-time-2001-doc-d39328933 SMITH, P.C., KENDALL, L.M., & HULIN, C.L. 1969. Measurement of Satisfaction in Work and Retirement. Chicago: Rand McNally and co publications. World Health Organization. 2006. Constitution of the World Health Organization - Basic Documents (45): supplement.

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Autoři: Prof. Dr. Riadh H. AL-Dabbagh Ajman University of Science and Technology Doc. JUDr. Zbyněk Švarc, Ph.D. Vysoká škola ekonomická v Praze Dr. Ajay Kumar Singh and Mrs. Nidhi Kapoor Univerity of Delhi

ISSN 1804-6592 TROAS, s.r.o

2012

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