Tujuan Pembelajaran MANAJEMEN PRODUKSI-OPERASI “Strategi Proses”
1. Menjelaskan 4 strategi proses 2. Menghitung titik potong antara garisgaris proses yang berbeda (BEP) 3. Menggunakan aneka tool untuk analisis proses 4. Menjelaskan interaksi pelanggal dalam proses di bidang jasa 5. Mengidentifikasi perkembangan terkini di bidang teknologi produksi
Harley-Davidson Pekerjaan Manufaktur Secara Berulang
Diagram Alir Proses Frame tube bending
►
►
Frame machining
Hot-paint frame painting
THE ASSEMBLY LINE TESTING 28 tests
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Frame-building work cells
Incoming parts
Satu-satunya perusahaan motor besar AS Menekankan kualitas dan manufaktur ramping Menggunakan sistem Material Materials as Needed (MAN)
►
Memungkinkan banyak variasi produk
►
Lini produksi berulang yang telah terjadwal secara masif
Air cleaners
Oil tank work cell
Fluids and mufflers
Shocks and forks
Fuel tank work cell
Handlebars
Wheel work cell
Fender work cell
Engines and transmissions Arrive on a JIT schedule from a 10-station work cell in Milwaukee
Roller testing Crating
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Strategi Proses
Strategi Proses ►
Tujuannya adalah untuk menciptakan sebuah proses dalam rangka menghasilkan produk yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan pelanggan dalam batasan biaya dan batasan manajerial lainnya
►
Variasi Tinggi one or few units per run, (allows customization)
Perubahan pada atribut (such as grade, quality, size, thickness, etc.) long runs only
Proses Berulang
Process Focus projects, job shops (machine, print, hospitals, restaurants) Arnold Palmer Hospital
Perubahan pada modul modest runs, standardized modules
Volume Tinggi Mass Customization (difficult to achieve, but huge rewards) Dell Computer
Repetitive (autos, motorcycles, home appliances) Harley-Davidson Poor Strategy (Both fixed and variable costs are high)
Sesuai atau melebihi kebutuhan pelanggan
►
Sesuai dengan biaya yang tersedia dan tujuan manajerial lainnya
Dampak strategi proses: ►
Efisiensi dan fleksibilitas produksi
►
Biaya dan kualitas
Kaitan Prioritas Bersaing dengan Strategi Manufaktur
Volume Volume Rendah
►
Pola Keputusan pada Manufaktur
Proses, Volume, dan Variasi Figure 7.1
Bagaimana cara menghasilkan produk atau menyediakan layanan yang
Product Focus (commercial baked goods, steel, glass, beer) Frito-Lay
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Prioritas Bersaing
Pilihan Proses
Top-quality, on-time delivery, and flexibility
Job process or small batch process
Low-cost operations, consistent quality, and delivery speed
Large batch, line, or continuous flow process
Prioritas Bersaing
Strategi Produksi dan Persediaan
Top-quality, on-time delivery, and flexibility
Make-to-order
Delivery speed and variety
Assemble-to-order
Low-cost operation and delivery speed
Make-to-stock
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Strategi Produksi dan Persediaan RAW MATERIAL
COMPONENT
SEMI FINISHED GOOD
FINISHED GOOD
MTS
ATO
Strategi Proses 4 Strategi Dasar: 1. Process focus
2. Repetitive focus 3. Product focus
MTO
ETO
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4. Mass customization 4 strategi dasar ini dapat diimplementasikan dengan berbagai macam cara
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Process Focus ►
Facilities are organized around specific activities or processes
►
General purpose equipment and skilled personnel
►
High degree of product flexibility
►
Typically high costs and low equipment utilization
►
Product flows may vary considerably making planning and scheduling a challenge
Process Focus
(low-volume, high-variety, intermittent processes)
Many inputs (surgeries, sick patients, baby deliveries, emergencies)
Many departments and many routings
Arnold Palmer Hospital
Many different outputs (uniquely treated patients)
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Repetitive Focus ►
Facilities often organized as assembly lines
►
Characterized by modules with parts and assemblies made previously
►
Modules may be combined for many output options
►
Repetitive Focus
Raw materials and module inputs (multiple engine models, wheel modules)
Few modules (modular) Harley Davidson
Less flexibility than process-focused facilities but more efficient Modules combined for many Output options (many combinations of motorcycles)
Product Focus ►
Facilities are organized by product
►
High volume but low variety of products
►
Long, continuous production runs enable efficient processes
►
Typically high fixed cost but low variable cost
►
Generally less skilled labor
Product Focus
Few Inputs (corn, potatoes, water, seasoning)
(high-volume, low-variety, continuous process) Frito-Lay
Output variations in size, shape, and packaging (3-oz, 5-oz, 24-oz package labeled for each material)
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Mass Customization ►
►
Mass Customization
The rapid, low-cost production of goods and service to satisfy increasingly unique customer desires Combines the flexibility of a process focus with the efficiency of a product focus
TABLE 7.1
Mass Customization Provides More Choices Than Ever NUMBER OF CHOICES
ITEM
1970s 18
1,212
Bicycle types
8
211,000
Software titles
0
400,000
Web sites
0
255,000,000
Movie releases per year New book titles Houston TV channels Breakfast cereals Items (SKUs) in supermarkets LCD TVs
Mass Customization
Many parts and component inputs (chips, hard drives, software, cases)
Dell Computer
267
744
40,530
300,000
5
185
160
340
14,000
150,000
0
102
Mass Customization ►
Imaginative product design
►
Flexible process design
►
Tightly controlled inventory management
►
Tight schedules
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Responsive supply-chain partners
Many modules (high-volume, high-variety)
21ST CENTURY
Vehicle styles
Many output versions (custom PCs and notebooks)
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Comparison of Processes TABLE 7.2 PROCESS FOCUS (LOW-VOLUME, HIGH-VARIETY)
Comparison of Processes
Comparison of the Characteristics of Four Types of Processes
REPETITIVE FOCUS (MODULAR)
PRODUCT FOCUS (HIGH-VOLUME, LOW-VARIETY)
MASS CUSTOMIZATION (HIGH-VOLUME, HIGH-VARIETY)
1. Small quantity and large variety of products
1. Long runs, usually a standardized product from modules
1. Large quantity and small variety of products
1. Large quantity and large variety of products
2. Broadly skilled operators
2. Moderately trained employees
2. Less broadly skilled operators
2. Flexible operators
Comparison of Processes TABLE 7.2 PROCESS FOCUS (LOW-VOLUME, HIGH-VARIETY)
PRODUCT FOCUS (HIGH-VOLUME, LOW-VARIETY)
PROCESS FOCUS (LOW-VOLUME, HIGH-VARIETY)
Comparison of the Characteristics of Four Types of Processes
REPETITIVE FOCUS (MODULAR)
PRODUCT FOCUS (HIGH-VOLUME, LOW-VARIETY)
MASS CUSTOMIZATION (HIGH-VOLUME, HIGH-VARIETY)
3. Instructions for each job
3. Few changes in the instructions
3. Standardized job instructions
3. Custom orders requiring many job instructions
4. High inventory
4. Low inventory
4. Low inventory
4. Low inventory relative to the value of the product
Comparison of Processes
Comparison of the Characteristics of Four Types of Processes
REPETITIVE FOCUS (MODULAR)
TABLE 7.2
MASS CUSTOMIZATION (HIGH-VOLUME, HIGH-VARIETY)
5. Finished goods are made to order and not stored
5. Finished goods are made to frequent forecasts
5. Finished goods are made to a forecast and stored
5. Finished goods are build-to-order (BTO)
6. Scheduling is complex
6. Scheduling is routine
6. Scheduling is routine
6. Sophisticated scheduling accommodates custom orders
TABLE 7.2
Comparison of the Characteristics of Four Types of Processes
PROCESS FOCUS (LOW-VOLUME, HIGH-VARIETY)
REPETITIVE FOCUS (MODULAR)
PRODUCT FOCUS (HIGH-VOLUME, LOW-VARIETY)
7. Fixed costs are low and variable costs high
7. Fixed costs are dependent on flexibility of the facility
7. Fixed costs are high and variable costs low
MASS CUSTOMIZATION (HIGH-VOLUME, HIGH-VARIETY)
7. Fixed costs tend to be high and variable costs low
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Break-Even Analysis
Crossover Chart Example ▶ Evaluate three different accounting software
Hubungan antara Biaya Proses dan Volume Produk
TOTAL FIXED COST
DOLLARS REQUIRED PER ACCOUNTING REPORT
Software A
$200,000
$60
Software B
$300,000
$25
Software C
$400,000
$10
Total cost (dollars)
products ▶ Calculate crossover points between software A and B and between software B and C
Process 2: Special-purpose equipment Break-even quantity
Process 1: General-purpose equipment
F2 F1
Units per year (Q) 26
Crossover Charts Variable costs
$
Variable costs
Variable costs
$
Low volume, high variety Process A
Contoh Analisis Titik Potong 200,000 + ( 60)V = 300,000 + ( 25)V 1
V1 = 2,857
Fixed costs
Repetitive Process B
High volume, low variety Process C
►
( )
V2 = 6,666
300,000 ►
200,000 Fixed cost Process A (2,857)
( )
15V2 = 100,000
400,000
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Software A is most economical from 0 to 2,857 reports
300,000 + 25 V2 = 400,000 + 10 V2
$
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1
35V1 = 100,000
$
Fixed costs
Fixed costs
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V1
V2 (6,666)
Fixed cost Process B
Fixed cost Process C
Software B is most economical from 2,857 to 6,666 reports
Volume
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Contoh Kasus
INTENSITAS MODAL Otomatisasi → mengarahkan pada penetapan
BBC hendak memutuskan apakah akan menyambung (las) rangka sepeda buatannya secara manual atau menggunakan mesin las otomatis (robot). Jika secara manual memerlukan biaya investasi $10,000 untuk peralatan dan biaya tenaga kerja $50 per rangka. Di sisi lain, jika menggunakan robot untuk mengerjakan pekerjaan yang sama perlu biaya investasi peralatan sebesar $400,000, dan biaya operasional $20.00 per rangka.
Biaya tetap Biaya variabel
Las Manual
Las Otomatis (robot)
$10,000
$400,000
$50
$20
komposisi modal dan tenaga kerja Dampak proses manufaktur otomatis (padat teknologi) akan menggantikan proses padat karya Otomatisasi umumnya memerlukan volume dan biaya produksi yang tinggi Namun otomatisasi tidak selalu sesuai dengan prioritas cara bersaing perusahaan.
Tentukanlah volume (unit rangka) yang harus diproduksi yang memberikan total biaya yang sama antara mengelas secara manual dan menggunakan robot? 29
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Otomatisasi tetap (fixed) hanya memproduksi 1 tipe
Diperlukan modal (investasi) untuk otomatisasi
produk atau komponen dalam sebuah alur produksi yang tetap. Otomatisasi yang demikian umumnya tidak fleksibel dan memerlukan investasi yang besar. Otomatisasi yang fleksibel dapat diubah-ubah untuk menangani produk yang bermacam-macam → mesin CNC. Robot industrial adalah contoh klasik tentang otomatisasi yang fleksibel. 31
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proses layanan. Investasi yang dilakukan dapat dijustifikasi dengan penurunan biaya dan peningkatan pilihan pelanggan. Investasi yang dilakukan sangat mungkin akan berpengaruh terhadap customer-contact, baik operasi di front-office maupun di back-office. 32
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Investasi Teknologi Produksi
Automatic Identification Systems (AIS)
Machine technology
Meningkatkan akuisisi data
Automatic identification systems (AIS)
Mengurangi kesalahan entri data
Process control Vision system
Meningkatkan kecepatan
Robot
Meningkatkan lingkup otomatisasi proses
Automated storage and retrieval systems (ASRS) Automated guided vehicles (AGV)
Contoh : Bar codes dan RFID
Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) 33
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Process Control
Vision Systems
Meningkatkan stabilitas proses Meningkatkan ketepatan proses
Bantuan khusus untuk inspeksi
Akurat
Informasi tentang
Tidak membosankan
evaluasi proses dapat diketahui secara real-time Data tersedia dalam beragam bentuk
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Biaya sedang Baik digunakan untuk individual yang
mengerjakan tugas-tugas yang sama
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Robots
Automated Storage and Retrieval Systems (ASRS)
Mengerjakan tugas-tugas yang monoton
Alat otomatis untuk menempatkan dan
Mengerjakan tugas yang memerlukan
Mengurangi kesalahan tenaga kerja
mengambil komponen dan produk
atau yang berbahaya
kekuatan dan daya tahan
Secara khusus digunakan untuk keperluan
di bidang persediaan dan area uji di perusahaan manufaktur.
Hasil yang diperoleh umumnya konsisten
dan akurat
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Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV)
Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS)
Adalah kereta elektronik yang
Peralatan dengan kendali komputer untuk
menangani material dan workstation
operasionalnya dipandu dan dikendalikan secara otomatis Digunakan untuk memindahkan barang dan/atau orang
Meningkatkan fleksibilitas dan mengurangi
waste
Secara ekonomis dapat memproduksi barang
dalam jumlah sedikit namun kualitas bagus
Meningkatkan utilisasi
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Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
Investasi Teknologi di Bidang Jasa
Merupakan pengembangan dari FMS
Service Industry
Support lini belakang: Engineering dan kendali
persediaan
Support lini depan: Warehousing dan shipping Dapat juga menyertakan modul keuangan dan
layanan pelanggan
Mengurangi perbedaan antara produksi low-
volume/high-variety, dan high-volume/lowvariety
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Financial Services
Debit cards, electronic funds transfer, ATMs, Internet stock trading
Education
Electronic bulletin boards, on-line journals, WebCT and Blackboard
Utilities and government
Automated one-man garbage trucks, optical mail and bomb scanners, flood warning systems
Restaurants and foods
Wireless orders from waiters to kitchen, robot butchering, transponders on cars that track sales at drive-throughs
Communications Electronic publishing, interactive TV 42
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Example
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Strategi untuk Berubah Service Industry
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Hotels
Electronic check-in/check-out, electronic key/lock system
Wholesale/retail trade
ATM-like kiosks, point-of-sale (POS) terminals, e-commerce, electronic communication between store and supplier, bar coded data
Transportation
Automatic toll booths, satellite-directed navigation systems
Health care
Online patient-monitoring, online medical information systems, robotic surgery
Airlines
Ticketless travel, scheduling, Internet purchases
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Reengineering proses adalah pemikaran ulang yang
Example
fundamental dan desain ulang yang radikal mengenai sebuah proses untuk meningkatkan kinerja. Reengineering bukan pekerjaan yang sederhana dan mudah. Orang-orang yang setiap hari berkecimpung dengan proses merupakan sumber ide terbaik untuk menemukan cara bagaimana meningkatkan proses. Peningkatan proses merupakan studi yang sitematis mengenai aktivitas dan aliran proses untuk menemukan cara bagaimana meningkatkannya. 44
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Reengineering Proses ELEMEN KUNCI REENGINEERING
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Element
Description
Critical processes
Pendalaman pada proses bisnis inti aktivitas peningkatan proses normal dapat dilanjutkan dengan proses-proses lainnya
Strong leadership
Kepemimpinan yang kuat dari eksekutif senior untuk mengatasi perlawanan
Cross-functional teams
Tim beranggotakan masing-masing area fungsional ditugaskan untuk menyelesaikan proyek
Information technology
Penggunaan teknologi informasi
Clean-slate philosophy
Mulai dengan cara yang diinginkan pelanggan dengan melibatkan pelanggan internal dan eksternal
Process analysis
Harus mengerti proses saat ini melalui organisasi
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Analisis Proses
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Pendekatan Sistematis
Analisis Proses Sebuah perusahaan tidak akan bisa mencapai
Tetapkan Lingkup 2
keunggulan bersaing dengan proses produksi/operasi yang tidak baik. Proses harus dianalisis untuk mengindentifikasi peluang peningkatan (improvement) proses. Analisis proses dapat dilakukan menggunakan tool dan teknik tertentu. Contoh pendekatan sistematis analisis proses menggunakan 6 tahap sebagai berikut: 47
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Identifikasi Peluang 1
Dokumentasikan Proses 3
Terapkan Perubahan 6
Evaluasi Kinerja 4 Desain Ulang Proses 5
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FINANCE PRODUCTION
Payment
No
Production Control and Manufacturing
Order entered
Inventory adjusted
Production scheduled
No
Invoice prepared
`
Order shipped
Order picked
Order
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Order stopped
Items manufactured
Packages assembled and inventoried
Payment received Invoice sent
Flowchart of the Order-Filling Process Showing Handoffs Between Departments
“Target” Time-Function Map Receive product
Wait
Plant A
Yes
Customer
Order product
Sales
Process order
Production control
Receive product
Wait
Print Plant
Warehouse
Wait
Wait
Print
Extrude
Wait Warehouse
Wait
Extrude
Plant B
Transport Move
Transport
Move
Move 1 day
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Product packages
Production control
Credit check OK?
Notice of shipment
Sales
Process order
New Yes customer?
Order received
Order cancellation
Customer
Order product
Payment sent
Order cancelled
Assembly and Shipping
“Baseline” Time-Function Map
Product and invoice received
Two scheduling errors per quarter
Credit and invoicing
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Order completed and submitted
100% of credit checked within 24 hours
Order
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Order generated Order
diopersikan dan mengetahui seberapa baik proses tersebut dijlankan Untuk membantu mengidentifikasi gap kinerja proses 5 jenis teknik untuk dokumentasi dan analisis proses: 1) Flow Chart - gambaran besar tentang proses 2) Time-Function Mapping – aliran proses dan time-frame 3) Value-Stream Mapping – aliran, waktu, dan nilai tambah proses 4) Process Charts – gambaran detil aktivitas kunci 5) Service Blueprinting ‒ fokus pada interaksi pelanggan/penyedia
CUSTOMER
Untuk membantu mengetahui bagaimana sebuah proses
SALES
Flowchart
Dokumentasi Proses
1 day
4 days
1 day 10 days 52 days
1 day
0 day
2 days
1 day
1 day
1 day
6 days
1 day 52
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Value-Stream Mapping
Process Chart Cara terorganisir untuk mendokumentasikan seluruh
aktivitas yang dikerjakan oleh orang atau grup Aktivitas umumnya dikelompokkan ke dalam 5 kategori: Operation: Transportation: Inspection: Delay: Storage:
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Step No.
Time (min)
1
0.50
2
10.00
3
0.75
4
0.75
6
1.00
7
1.00
5.00
10
2.00
11
3.00 2.00
13
3.00
14
2.00
15
1.00
16
X X X
40.0
X X
40.0
X X
60.0
X X
2.00
18
4.00 1.00
X
200.0 X
X
200.0
X X X
60.0 X
4.00
17
19
15.0
4.00
9
12
Distance (ft)
3.00
5
8
55
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X
180.0 X 20.0
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X
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Step No.
Step Description
Time (min)
Enter emergency room, approach patient window
1
0.50
Sit down and fill out patient history
2
10.00
Nurse escorts patient to ER triage room
3
0.75
Nurse inspects injury
4
3.00
Return to waiting room
5
0.75
Wait for available bed
6
1.00
Go to ER bed
7
1.00
Wait for doctor
8
4.00
Doctor inspects injury and questions patient
9
5.00
Nurse takes patient to radiology
10
2.00
Technician x-rays patient
11
3.00
Return to bed in ER
12
Wait for doctor to return
13
3.00
Doctor provides diagnosis and advice
14
2.00
Return to emergency entrance area
15
1.00
Check out
16
Walk to pharmacy
17
2.00
Pick up prescription
18
4.00
Leave the building
19
1.00
Process Chart for Emergency Room Admission
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2.00
Distance (ft)
XX
15.0
Sit down and fill out patient history
XX 40.0
XX
40.0
XX
Nurse escorts patient to ER triage room Nurse inspects injury
XX
Return to waiting room XX XX
Nurse takes patient to radiology
XX
Technician x-rays patient
XX
Return to bed in ER
XX
200.0
XX XX XX
180.0
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Walk to pharmacy Pick up prescription
XX 20.0
Return to emergency entrance area Check out
XX
4.00
Wait for doctor to return Doctor provides diagnosis and advice
XX 60.0
Wait for doctor Doctor inspects injury and questions patient
XX 200.0
Wait for available bed Go to ER bed
XX
60.0
Step Description Enter emergency room, approach patient window
XX
Leave the building
Process Chart for Emergency Room Admission
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Step No.
0.50
2
10.00
3
0.75
4
3.00
5
0.75
6
1.00
7
1.00
8
4.00
9
5.00
10
2.00
11
3.00
12
2.00
13
3.00
14
2.00
15
1.00
16
4.00
17
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Time (min)
1
2.00
18
4.00
19
1.00
Distance (ft)
XX
15.0
Nurse escorts patient to ER triage room
XX XX XX
40.0
Activity Operation XX
60.0
XX
200.0
XX
Transport X
X Inspect XX XX
Delay Store
XX
200.0
XX XX XX
20.0
Distance (ft)
yaitu dengan hasil kali dari: 1) Waktu (dalam jam) untuk setiap proses yang dilakukan 2) Biaya variabel per jam 3) Banyaknya proses yang dikerjakan dalam setahun
Return to waiting room
5 23.00 9 11.00 815 Go to ER bed Wait for doctor 2 8.00 Doctor inspects injury and questions patient Nurse takes patient 3 to radiology 8.00 Technician x-rays patient ― ― Return to bed in ER Wait for available bed
Wait for doctor to return
Return to emergency entrance area
Annual labor cost
Walk to pharmacy
=
Time to perform the process in hours
Variable costs per hour
Number of times process performed each year
Pick up prescription
XX
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Time (min)
Check out
XX 180.0
Number
Nurse inspects of injury Steps
Doctor provides diagnosis and advice
XX 60.0
Biaya tahunan untuk seluruh proses dapat disestimasi,
Sit down and fill out patient history Summary
XX 40.0
Process Chart
Step Description Enter emergency room, approach patient window
XX
Leave the building
Process Chart for Emergency Room Admission
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Process Chart
Service Blueprint
Jika waktu rata-rata untuk melayani seorang pelanggan
Fokus pada interaksi pelanggan dan penyedia jasa
(provider)
adalah 4 jam Biaya variabel per jam layanan adalah $25 Terdapat 40 orang pelanggan yang dilayani dalam setahun Total biaya proses layanan adalah
Menggunakan 3 tingkat interaksi sesuai dengan
permasalahan manajemennya.
4 jam/plgn $25/jam 40 plgn/th = $4,000
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Service Process Matrix Personal Greeting
Perform Service
Customer arrives for service
Customer departs
F Determine specifics
Warm greeting and obtain service request
No Standard request
Level #2
Degree of Customization High Low Mass Service Professional Service
Friendly Close
Direct customer to waiting room
F Level #3
Can service be done and does customer approve?
F
F
Yes
Yes
Notify customer and recommend an alternative provider
Private banking
Customer pays bill
Commercial banking
High
F
Degree of Labor
Level #1
Service Diagnosis
F No Notify customer the car is ready
Perform required work
Boutiques
Service Factory Limited-service stockbroker Warehouse and catalog stores
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F
Law clinics Service Specialized hospitals
Fast-food restaurants
Fine-dining restaurants
Shop
Hospitals
Airlines
Prepare invoice
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Generalpurpose law firms
Retailing
Low
F
Full-service stockbroker
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