FOREWORD. competition nowadays. When world becomes borderless in space and time

FOREWORD The entrepreneurship spirit plays a significant role in the global competition nowadays. When world becomes borderless in space and time because of the information and communication technology (ICT), everything changes and moves so fast. These changes should be faced by all business entities with their proper strategic management so they will survive and win the competition. Discussing about strategic management, it is a must that we involve all aspects of the business entity. A dynamic adjustment is necessary considering the tough competition should be faced. It is a competition that demands an involvement of all resources in global scale (megacompetition), requires a control of information technology thatis inevitable and gives special attention to business aspects. The effectiveness of a company is an important part in facing the competition challenges. That effectiveness is influenced by various factors of resources such as capital, machines, materials, methods, and human. Among them, human resourves is the main one because it drives all resources factors. Thus, the situation changes that have happened directly or indirectly require the companies in various scales to pay more attention to and prepare their human resources. Regarding with this, entrepreneurship becomes an important part of the driving wheel of the business.

Creativity, innovation, quick and appropriate

decision making, and responsibility in risk management are the prime characteristics of entrepreneurship spirit, particularly in a role of someone as a leader in various businesses In response to the recent situation and condition in global business and the role of the entrepreneurship spirit, a book has come out with the title

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“Enterpreneurship in Global Competition”. This book offers many creative thoughts on entrepreneurship spirit related with business aspects. With their strong analysis of the writers involved, the book can be a scientific or practical reference in strategic management. Associating various ideas into a red line and pursing them into a point where the entrepreneurship spirit becomes the essence of all discourses, we may pack them and make it as an umbrella of some aspects of business that can be grouped into four concentrations of ideas as follow: -

International Business in Global Competition Era

-

Management of Human Resources through Alternative Education & Entrepreneurial Spirit

-

Aspects of Marketing Management

-

The Role of Communication & Media in Winning Competition

The above groupings are served systematically with the hope that they can give comprehensive

description

about

various

business

aspects

that

need

entrepreneurship spirit to win the competition. Upon the publishing of the book, an appreciation is kindly granted to all writers coming from various fields and universities or colleges who have shared their ideas and knowledge. An appreciation is also given to Dr. Nia Sarinastiti, Meilina Sintawati MM, dan Felix Lengkong Ph.D who have spent time to edit the papers to be easier to understand and enjoyable to read. In spite of that, special thanks are delivered firstly to Dr. Ati Cahayani for her hard work as a ‘traffic’ in charge person who has been responsive in accomplishing the book; next to Drs. Dominikus Dolet Unaradjan, M.A., as Dean of Faculty of Business 2


Administration and Communication, Atma Jaya University, who has given an opportunity and support for the realization of the book’s publishing; and last to the Atma Jaya Centre of Publishing for their cooperation in publishing and distributing the book to come widely to the readers. As an effort to take part in giving contribution of knowledge and insights to the society, there is still, certainly, a space where correctives are needed for an improvement. Therefore, any criticism and suggestions from all readers are welcomed to make other similar publishing that will better in the future.

Jakarta, November 2011 Dorien Kartikawangi, Dr.

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CONTENTS PART ONE: International Business in Global Competition Era 1 Alamanda Dini Institut Manajemen Marketing Strategy of Low-End Markets to Turipanam Telkom Compete with Large Retailers “A study of the Balubur Shopping Center Vendor’s attempts to overcome the impending threat of Globalism” 2

Edy Wahyudi

Universitas Jember (AIABI)

Inter-firm Linkage and Transfer Innovation Model On SME’s with High Competitive Advantage (Empirical Study On Tulungagung’s Small Businesses)

3

Somchanok Passakonjaras, Ph.D.

Chulalongkorn University

Managing through Recession and PostRecession: A Case Study of Gem and Jewelry Exporters from Thailand

4

Linda dan Yeterina

UKSW

Myths and Realities of WomenEntrepreneurs Access to Bank Loans

PART TWO: Management of Human Resources through Alternative Education & Entrepreneurial Spirit 1 Aristo Surya FIABIKOM Analysis of Entrepreneurial Intentionality of Students in Faculty of Business Administration and Communication Sciences, Atma Jaya Catholic University 2

Ati Cahayani, Pradewi, Kurnianing

FIABIKOM

Analysis of Leadership Characteristic of Women Entrepreneurs

3

Pradewi Iedarwati, Ati Cahayani, Kurnianing Sutarjo

FIABIKOM

The Characteristics of Women’s Powerfulness in Entrepreneurship Dimension

Business Administration Study Institut Manajemen Telkom

A Literature Study From Developing and Developed Countries: How SMEs Gain Business Competitive Advantages to Grow Business Through Entrepreneurial Orientation (EO)

Ni Ketut Ayu Ambarini, SE, MHRM Achmad Hidayat Sutawidjaya, Tuti Widiastuti, dan Suharyanti Fandy Tjiptono dan Yohanes Siyamta

Universitas Mahendradatta

Faktor-faktor yang Mempengaruhi Motivasi Kerja Perempuan Pengusaha

Univ. Bakrie (Dept. Of Communication Science)

Antecedents and Consequences of Entrepreneurial Leadership In a Service Industry Setting

UAJ Jogjakarta

Cultural Entrepreneurship: An Accidental Entrepreneur Experience

4

5

6

7

4


8

Maya Malinda dan M. Jimmy Hasugian

Universitas Maranatha

Entrepreneurship Class: Between Theory and Reality

9

Budi Santoso

UGM

Examination of Self-Efficacy and Supervisor Supports to Transfer Intention with Motivation to Learn as an Intervening Variable

10

Sri Sedianingsih

Universitas Terbuka

Analyzing Distance Learning Methods as a Public Service Sector in Terms of Shaping And Changing Education Society's Perception

11

Nila Krisnawati Hidayat

Hotel Tourism Management, Swiss German University

Analysis of The Adoption of ASEAN MRA on Tourism Professional at Jakarta Five Star Hotel towards The Human Resources Global Competitiveness

12

Efendi

Marketing Skills in the Era of Web 2.0

13

Widjaja Hartono

FE UNIKA Atma Jaya Univ. Ciputra

14

Riant Nugroho

Universitas Pertahanan

Membangun Indonesia

15

Ruth Alas

Estonian Business School

Human Resource Management, Change Management and Leadership in Estonian Organizations

PART TREE: Aspects of Marketing Management 1 Alamanda Dini Institut Manajemen Turipanam Telkom

Role of Higher Education and Policy Makers in Promoting Entrepreneurship in Indonesia Entrepreneurship

Untuk

Media Strategy for SIM Card Advertisement Product Category

2

V. Rachmadi P. dan Indira Sari Astuti

FIABIKOM

PENGARUH KONTEKS ORGANISASIONAL, PROSES INTERNAL DAN KELUARAN DALAM TIM LINTAS FUNGSI TERHADAP MUTU PELAYANAN TERPADU

3

Bambang Sukma Wijaya

Universitas Bakrie (Communication Science)

BRANDERPRENEURSHIP: BRAND DEVELOPMENT-BASED ENTREPRENEURSHIP

4

Tuti W.

Universitas Bakrie (Dept. Of Communication Science)

Application Of Cause-Related Marketing (CRM) Communication In Creating Brand Loyalty

5

Sambudi Hamali dan Ida Nurnida Relawan

Institut Manajemen Telkom

PENGARUH KEPUASAN PELANGGAN DAN BRAND IMAGE TERHADAP LOYALITAS PELANGGAN PADA TOPAS GALERIA HOTEL BANDUNG

5


6

Avianto

Ogilvy

Personal Branding in Entrepreneurship

7

Erna dan Meilani

YAI (Faculty of Communication Science)

Strategi Publisitas Melalui Media Online pada Institusi Jasa Pendidikan (Studi pada Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia (LPT YAI), Jakarta)

8

Albert & Hersinta

STIKOM The London School of Public Relations Jakarta

SHOPPING THROUGH SOCIAL MEDIA: A STUDY ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN FACEBOOK’S ONLINE SHOP PAGE

9

Arif Sugiono

Business Administration Departement, Lampung University

Memahami Perilaku Pemilih di Indonesia ( Sebuah Kajian dari Perspektif Political Marketing)

10

Helpris Estaswara

Fakultas Ilmu Komunikasi Universitas Pancasila

Brand Management Mapping: An Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC) Perspective

PART FOUR: The Role of Communication & Media in Winning Competition 1 Suharyanti Universitas Bakrie Value Creation Through Relationship in (Dept. of Entrepreneurial Marketing – A Public Communication Relations Perspective Science) 2

Fiona dan Sherly

LSPR (ASPIKOM)

Pembentukan Cyber Culture Melalui Interaksi Simbolik dalam Forum Komunitas Online

3

Rahab

Management Department, Faculty of Economics, Jenderal Soedirman University

The Role of Social Identity and Altruism on Acceptance and Actual Use of Social Network Services

4

Ruth Alas, Peeter Lorents, Ülle Übius, and Erika Matsak

Estonian Business School and Talinn University

Corporate Social Responsibility: European and Asian Countries Comparison

5

Dessy Kania

Universitas Bakrie (Dept. Of Communication Science)

Peranan New Media Dalam Memfasilitasi Kewirausahaan pada Sektor Pariwisata – Studi Kasus: Mempromosikan Pulau Komodo di Nusa Tenggara Timur

6


PART ONE International Business in Global Competition Era

7


Marketing Strategy of Low-End Markets to Compete with Large Retailers “A study of the Balubur Shopping Center Vendor’s attempts to overcome the impending threat of Globalism” Alamanda, Dini Turipanam Institut Manajemen TELKOM

One case in which a large local market has to compete with some large retailers would be in the case of the Balubur Shopping Center near the Kebon Bibit area. These local market vendors had to compete with nearby large megastores such as the Carrefour in Paris Van Java Mall or the Hypermart store in Bandung Indah Plaza, both not more than five kilometers away from the markets. These large retailers such as Carrefour and Hypermart are cutting down prices to the lowest possible price by selling at a large amount of volume. In an attempt to protect these small markets the local government decided to localize and cluster the markets into a single large building, which is the Balubur Shopping Center. How the process of localization would affect the market’s ability to compete with large megastores would be a topic of discussion as many of the large stores made it difficult for these markets to compete in terms of price. Using qualitative approach and marketing mix this research is to evaluate what kind of marketing strategies the vendors of Balubur would use to compete with the large megastores such as Carrefour and Hypermart. Keywords: marketing strategy, Balubur shopping center, qualitative approach I.

Introduction With the ever-rapid development the city of Bandung is experiencing, many businesses are beginning to flourish and expand in both size and quantity. From these many growing industries lies the retail market business, vendors who resell products which are simply their inventory and not the products they actually made themselves. In the past this industry has been managed by local shops and vendors who provide goods to markets which are geographically nearest to them. These small vendors often rely on market cooperation to survive and thrive, helping each other by forming an inner-market symbiosis. However the modern government policies and bureaucracy has made it difficult for local vendors to thrive as many of it enforce strict quality control as well as costing fines, taxes, and


administrative costs which most market vendors could not afford. Unlike the local vendors, however, large brand supermarkets which are rapidly expanding to the Bandung market are capable of procuring such investments. Likewise, an explosion of large brand supermarkets is beginning to consume the Bandung market and cripple the local vendors. Nowadays we see more brands such as Carrefour, Hypermart, Giant, and even Superindo rather than areas of local market vendors within the Bandung marketplace. In the case of advancing large retail supermarkets in Bandung, a lot of small local markets are beginning to lose sales and eventually go out of business. These large retailers such as Carrefour and Hypermart are attracting mass market, procuring large volumes of customers from various locations in Bandung. The wide selection of goods and services these supermarkets provide satisfy the customer’s wish of a one-stop shop. On the other hand local vendors commonly specialize in a specified line of product and do not sell more than what they could procure. This case of homogeneity becomes a downfall point in the local vendor’s attempt to attract the market. One case in which local market has to compete with these large retailers would be in the case of the Balubur Market near the Kebon Bibit area. This local market has existed for quite a long time, yet several infrastructural plans have tossed the marketplace around. During the early years of 2005 the market was evicted and moved to the Gelap Nyawang area because the Kebon Bibit area was being transformed to become a path for the Pasopati Flyover. Only then in 2010 the market was moved back to the Kebon Bibit area into a single large building complex called the Pusat Dagang Balubur. Now these local market vendors had to compete with nearby large megastores such as the Carrefour in Paris Van Java 2


Mall or the Hypermart store in Bandung Indah Plaza, both not more than five kilometers away from the markets. With the five years lost in their interaction to their old markets, these are now hard times for Balubur vendors. The government attempts to localize a traditional local market into a single modern building, equipped with many modern facilities such as escalators and air conditioning. One question remains: how will the localized Balubur Market compete with large supermarkets?

Analyzing this question as well as the localization factor of Balubur, our team has decided to analyze the problem through several points of view. The point of view we would be using is the Marketing Mix as it is the most plausible method of knowing how a business attempts to compete in the market. Marketing strategies are created through using the 4Ps of Marketing Mix to enable a business to create a stance or image to the marketplace, be it through Product, Price, Place, or even Promotions (not necessarily in that order). We will then analyze how Balubur vendors use these mixes to compete against large supermarkets such as Carrefour, Hypermart, and many more.

II.

Literature Study 2.1. Balubur Profile There are two famous traditional markets near ITB and familiar with the life of college student which are Simpang Dago Market and Balubur Market. Both of these markets are known really well for college student as they are located near college student dormitory. Near Balubur Market there are college dormitory such

3


as which located at Jl. Kebon Bibit, Jl. Kebon Kembang, Jl. Plesiran, Jl. Taman Hewan, Jl. Tamansari Bawah, and others. Balubur Market is located exactly in the front of rectorate building of ITB at Jl. Tamansari. Balubur Market actually at that time (since 2003-2010) was small and dirty but it is considered very important to college student. During ITB reregistration, this market would be crowded as college students bought map, stationary, and use photocopy service. In this market there are many cheap food stalls. During night, college student would wander around this market looking for cadger selling different kind of food. The reason that Pasar Balubur was located at Jl. Gelapnyawang because government would built the Pasopati flyover. When Pasopati flyover was build and across this market, thus make Balubur Market dismantled. Merchants then being temporary located in the land of PDAM at Jl. Gelap Nyawang (Near Jl. Ganesha). This temporary location was very vile, small, and not as many people as before shopped. In 2003 there is temporary relocation of Pasar Balubur, which actually being at Jl. Gelap Nyawang for 7 year, Balubur Market at that time had 238 commercial space and 178 active merchants and 5 inactive merchants (Dinas Pasar Kota Bandung, 2003). The problem actually is not because sudden appearance of market at a community but garbage which produced by Balubur Market. Balubur Market–such as other markets- have plenty of garbage every day and the garbage is thrown away behind stall at west Gelap Nyawang. Unlike garbage from Simpang Dago Market which had taken every day, garbage in Balubur market left for days until car trash arrived. This actually make consumer afraid to have meal

4


at in west Gelap Nyawang because strong garbage smell, in addition the garbage is organic garbage from few days. After Pasopati flyover was finishes being build, therefore in the old ground of previous Balubur Market there is a build of new market in the shape of mall or plaza. The name is no longer Balubur Market but is changed into Balubur Shopping Centre. In new Balubur Market building, there are three 3 floors and one basement. Senior merchants who sold products such as vegetables, spice, chicken, meat, and others would be located at basement. Their fate would be similar with merchants at Mall Cicadas which located at basement. In past, Cicadas traditional market is crowded with people, but nowadays after it was changed into mall, merchants in basement feel the number of their consumers are decreasing. 2.2 Marketing Mix and Competition Marketing mix is a definition of the four elements which most marketers use to define and produce their product and/or service. There are four primary elements; Product, Price Place, and Promotion. These four elements are commonly used in various mixtures to enhance a product’s image to the market as well as produce a strong brand image in the public (Kotler and Amstrong, 2004). Riley (2006) implied that microeconomics theory distinguished between perfect competition and imperfect competition, concluding that no system of resource allocation is more efficient than perfect competition. Competition, according to the theory, causes commercial firms to develop new products, services and technologies, which would give consumers greater selection and better products. Pfeffer and Sutton (1999) inferred competition does not necessarily have to be between companies. The degree of competition in any company is largely a matter 5


of choice. Companies vary dramatically in how much they use competition to organize what people do. A manager who copies from a competitor is perceived as being engaged in competitive benchmarking. A manager copying someone outside the firm does not have to worry about the consequences of demonstrating that another person is superior because the two are not in direct competition inside the firm. In contrast, borrowing from someone inside signals to everyone inside the company that there is someone else who is better, at least on some dimensions. Copying others inside the firm is perceived to have negative career consequences. There is little internal learning because competition for status and management attention interferes with the transfer of better ways of doing things. According to an article from MediaData.co.id, alongside with this growth, retail business is showing significant growth in Indonesia, signing from the increasing rate of turnover per year. Most of these retailers are mainly foreign hypermarkets such as Carrefour, which manages to dominate Jakarta and other big cities, with outlet ownership until the end of 2008 by 70 units. Hero supermarket has shown signs to position itself as hypermarket after reading the trends. However, this rapid growth attracts pros and cons from many points of view. Traditional markets are gaining their shares of troubles as customers begun to shift their interest. This not only because the advancement of technology, but also cheap price in nine basic goods, which the retail business sells.

III.

Methodology This research takes up on qualitative research to measure how traditional market competes with super- and hyper-mart. Although there were researches, which regarded on the impact of hyper- and/or super-markets on low-end business, a 6


good number of researches specified in Bandung area were never done; hence, the low supporting grounded theories. IV.

Results And Discussion This research used coding method to analyze the data, as shown below:

Figure 1 Coding Process

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The super-category of this research is the Balubur Business Strategy, as what we’re generally trying to identify is how the market compete against supermarkets alike. Below it, two categories expands: the 5Ps, best known as marketing theory, and other factors which affects the area. Defining the key information inside the 5Ps group, the business in Balubur could be seen from five different aspects: promotion, product, place, price, and people. Types of promotion are categorized as two different groups: direct and indirect. Types of product sold in the market are categorized into two groups as well: primary and secondary needs. As the place never really changed in past years, the subcategories if grouped based on timeline structure: place before, trans-, and after relocation of Balubur Shopping Center. The price categories are divided into two groups: overpriced and underpriced. These categories refer to the price of products in Balubur Shopping Center compared to super- and hypermarkets alike. The category ‘people’ refers to how the business manages its human resource. The figure below is a conceptual model which summarizes the whole findings:

Figure 2 Conceptual Model

The Marketing Strategy of Balubur Shopping Center has depends on two major factors. Marketing Mix refers to the marketing method which the Balubur Shopping Center applies to market its goods. Other factors refer to outer, 8


unrelated factors to the 5Ps of Marketing Mix and played significant roles, if any, to build efficient business. These factors composed of three categories: market, technologies, competition. Market refers to the dynamics of the people who usually shop at Balubur Shopping Center. This aspect focuses on how old are they and what kind of jobs are they taking--to see the details about who are the customers of this market. Technology refers to how the owner uses traditional means/tools to run business, be it in traditional means or modern ones. Competition refers to how the business faces and competes with other same-line business. The 5P Factors refer to how the business in Balubur Shopping Center approaches the market, redefined from Neil H. Borden 4P model (with added factor of people in the mix). These factors, alongside with competitive factors, determines the competition between Balubur Shopping Center and hypermarkets (and supermarkets alike) in the area. These factors eventually build up a marketing strategy to deliver products to the customers. From the interview, it’s subtly explained that the Balubur Shopping Center is slowly losing its competitive drives, decreasing marketing efficiency.

V.

Conclusion, Suggestions and Further Research 5.1 Conclusion Our research goal was to verify whether or not clustering traditional markets in large commercial buildings such as the Balubur Shopping Center would increase the competitive ability of traditional markets against large retailers such as Carrefour and Hypermart (through the assistance of the 5P of Marketing Mix). So far our qualitative research has not managed to gather sufficient data to verify this 9


research impact in a more detailed and precise report. However with the data we have already acquired, we have managed to conclude several accounts: •

The Balubur Shopping Center is losing customers as most of its market moved residential location (surrounding citizens)

•

Balubur Shopping Center is using the Pricing method of the Marketing Mix as its primary value to attract customers

•

Balubur vendors have inside cooperation and competition and usually depend on loyal customers instead of attracted customers

5.2 Further Research The interviewees in this research are selected at random, but proved to be the key character of this research. Further interviews suggest that the interviewees were members of Balubur Market, prior and after its relocation. As such, personal recollections and opinions about the current place may not really deviate much from one another. Also to receive comprehensive information, quantitative approach is recommended to be applied.

References Kotler, P and G. Armstrong. (2004). Dasar-dasar Pemasaran Jilid 2 (Eds Bahasa Indonesia from Principles of Marketing 7th). Jakarta: PT. Prehalindo Media Data Riset. (2009). Competition Map of Modern Retail Business in Indonesia. http://mediadata.co.id. Accessed 1 October 2011. Pfeffer, Jeffrey and Sutton, Robert I. (1999). The Knowing-Doing Gap: How Smart Companies Turn Knowledge into Action, Harvard Business School Press, Cambridge. Riley, Geoff. (2006). Perfect Competition. http://tutor2u.net. Accessed 1 October 2011.

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INTERFIRM LINKAGE AND TRANSFER INNOVATION MODEL ON SME’S WITH HIGH COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE (EMPIRICAL STUDY ON TULUNGAGUNG’S SMALL BUSINESS)1 Edy Wahyudi2 Abstract Tulungagung is one of the region in East Java which served as the backbone of East Java Small Medium Entreprises (SME’s) Economic development. This Notion tends to drives Tulungagung SME’s embraces innovation as a way to coping with the giant industry player. This paper will mainly disscuses the emergence of interfirm linkage among the Tulungagung SME’s, as well as the giant industry player. The findings has suggets interfirm linkage and networking are some of the important factors that positevely contribute to the process of inovation transfer between SME’s, this process can be initiate by the local government or universities. The enacment of inovation center are important steps that courages the link and match of applied technology as well as the medium that meets the industry giants and SME’s actors. The interfirm linkage between the SME’s in Tulungagung means to gain few positive effect such as minimizing the cost of transportation and transaction, saving a production cost by a join purchase of a material, increasing flexibility on market respon, and creating a competitive environment betweeen SME’s Keyword: Interfirm Linkage, Inovation Transfer, Competitive Strategy Permasalahan dan Tantangan Klasik Usaha Kecil Base Line Economic Survey (BLES) yang dilakukan Bank Indonesia (2007) secara umum menemukan bahwa permasalahan Usaha Kecil Menengah (UKM) adalah 1) Masih terbatasnya koordinasi antar instansi pemerintah yang terkait dengan pengembangan dan pemberdayaan UMKM 2) Keakuratan data UKM tangguh dan mandiri masih rendah, 3) Belum optimalnya pemanfaatan teknologi tepat guna, 4) Belum adanya pembatasan masuknya produk impor, khususnya dari Cina, 5) Belum adanya rencana induk (master plan) penataan dan pembinaan industri kecil/kerajinan rakyat/PKL yang bersifat utuh dan terpadu, 6) Belum akuratnya base data indutri kecil/kerajinan rakyat/PKL (terutama non formal), 7) Kepercayaan lembaga keuangan (besar) masih rendah. Peningkatan daya saing usaha kecil sering menemui kendala karena skala ekonomi dan sumberdaya mereka yang kecil dibandingkan dengan perusahaan besar. Kompensasi dari

1

Presentation Paper in the first International conference on business administration and communication, November 23 and 24, 2011 on atmajaya university 2 Lecturer in business administration, FISIP Universitas Jember

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kelemahan tersebut, usaha kecil mampu menerapkan fleksibilitas karena organisasi internal mereka yang sederhana, yang memungkinkan mereka merespon dan beradaptasi dengan perubahan (Sanchez and Marin, 2005). Situasi baru seperti ini membutuhkan proses efisiensi manajemen yang memungkinkan usaha kecil dapat mampu memaksimalkan aspek strategis yang berdampak pada peningkatan kinerja. Pendekatan ini menggunakan literatur resource based teory (Prahald and Hamel, 1990) yang menekankan pada aspek sumberdaya internal yang menjadi faktor determinan dalam daya saing bisnis. Ada beberapa hal penting dalam pendekatan resource based teory yang dapat meningkatkan daya saing usaha kecil. Grant (1991) menyebutkan bahwa peningkatan daya saing ditinjau dari aspek perubahan struktur organisasi. Sementara Bacon et al. (1996) lebih menekankan pada aspek manajemen sumberdaya manusia. Penelitian yang dilakukan Hitt et al. (2001) menemukan bahwa inovasi dan sumberdaya teknologi menjadi faktor penentu dalam meningkatkan daya saing bisnis. Sinergi antara teknologi dan inovasi akan mampu menghasilkan produk berkualitas yang berorientasi pasar dan dapat menekan harga (low cost). Desain organisasi pada usaha kecil yang fleksibel memungkinkan usaha kecil beradaptasi terhadap perubahan orientasi pasar (Feigenbaum and Karnani, 1991). Apabila diperbandingkan dengan usaha besar, usaha kecil mampu mengimplementasikan secara baik manajemen praktis seperti fleksibilitas promosi, contohnya mendapatkan subkontrak kerja, menggunakan tenaga kerja paruh waktu, dan pembuatan regulasi pekerja sesuai dengan kemampuan usaha kecil tersebut (Ruigrok et al., 1999) Hal lain yang dapat meningkatkan daya saing bisnis adalah manajemen sumberdaya manusia. Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ada pengaruh yang kuat antara manajemen sumberdaya manusia dengan peningkatan kinerja organisasi (Huselid et al., 1997). Studi yang dilakukan Camison (1997) menunjukkan bahwa usaha kecil akan dapat meningkatkan daya 12


saing bisnis mereka dengan memaksimalkan kemampuan dan memanajemen sumberdaya manusia mereka sehingga mampu berinovasi terhadap kebutuhan pasar.

Desain Metodologis Riset Salah satu daerah yang dijadikan BLES Bank Indonesia adalah Tulungagung. Tulungagung merupakan salah satu daerah yang menjadi kekuatan pengembangan ekonomi Jawa Timur. Saat ini di Tulungagung ada 31.628 UMKM yang tersebar di 19 kecamatan, di 271 desa/kelurahan yang terdiri dari beragam UMKM meliputi Handicraft, batik, marmer, logam pandai besi, kulit, dan makanan ringan. Permasalahan yang muncul adalah bagaimana mentransfer inovasi secara berkelanjutan dan berdaya guna kepada usaha kecil karena seringkali mereka dihadapkan pada permasalahan biaya, antipati, pasrah, dan cepat berpuas diri yang berimbas pada terpuruknya usaha mereka. Transfer inovasi pada usaha kecil sering menemui beberapa kendala diantaranya 1) pelaku usaha kecil hanya memiliki kapabilitas inovasi yang rendah, baik dalam inovasi produk maupun proses, 2) tingginya biaya - membuat risiko tinggi – yang berhubungan dengan aktivitas inovasi, 3) Rasa takut – atau malah antipati – yang berimbas enggan untuk melakukan inovasi, 4) rendahnya informasi yang didapat dari pelaku usaha tentang manfaat inovasi bagi kelangsungan usaha mereka (Caputo et al., 2002). Penelitian ini penting untuk dilakukan karena usaha kecil membutuhkan desain metodologis yang tepat untuk mentransfer inovasi agar secara kontinyu mereka dapat meningkatkan usaha kecilnya. Model interfirm Linkage antar usaha kecil ataupun dengan perusahaan besar menjadi solusi alternatif untuk memperkuat market position sekaligus innovation transfer sehingga usaha kecil mampu berdaya saing tinggi. Kemampuan usaha kecil juga diharapkan mampu bersaing dengan produk impor sehingga usaha kecil di Tulungagung

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mampu menerapkan harga rendah, mampu melakukan inovasi dan diferensiasi produk yang berorientasi pasar. Riset

dilakukan

dengan

pendekatan

kualitatif

sehingga

diharapkan

mampu

mendeskripsikan secara lebih indepht kendala usaha kecil melakukan inovasi, menemukan model transfer inovasi yang tepat, dan model interfirm linkage antar usaha kecil maupun partnership dengan perusahaan besar.

Kapabilitas Inovasi Usaha Kecil Tulungagung Berdasarkan hasil penelitian, permasalahan internal yang dihadapi dalam pengembangan UMKM di Tulungagung adalah : 1) Sumber Daya Manusia (SDM); pelaku usaha bertahan dengan kondisi apa adanya, tidak mau bersinggungan dengan birokrasi (enggan memformalkan usaha mereka, enggan mengurus NPWP karena tidak ingin terkenan pajak), membuat pelaku usaha lebih lambat dalam mengembangkan akses pasar, terutama pasar ekspor, 2) Modal; UMKM yang tidak mampu berinovasi dan melakukan kerjasama seringkali mengeluhkan tentang keterbatasan modal, 3) Manajemen tata kelola yang tradisional, nyaris tidak mengenal teknologi modern dalam berproduksi, sehingga beberapa UMKM di Tulungagung yang mampu mengakuisisi teknologi mampu meningkatkan daya saingnya. Beberapa UMKM yang tidak mampu mengakuisisi teknologi bekerja dengan durasi kerja lebih lama, produktivitasnya rendah, dan harga yang tidak kompetitif, 4) Pemasaran; rendahnya akses pasar, lemahnya sistem informasi pemasaran membuat UMKM kesulitan dalam mengembangkan pemasaran produknya. Seringkali pelaku usaha mengetahui bahwa produknya di butuhkan di daerah tertentu, namun mereka kesulitan untuk masuk ke daerah tersebut karena sudah ada produk pesaing, 5) Bahan Baku; kesulitan atau hambatannya adalah bagaimana mendapatkan bahan baku yang murah/terjangkau dari sisi harga. Karena seringkali bahan baku produksi harus didatangkan dari luar Tulungagung, sehingga berat di ongkos produksi. Hal itu terjadi pada UMKM marmer/onyx, 14


meskipun Campur Darat/Besole terkenal dengan marmer dan onyx, namun sebagian besar batu onyx masih didatangkan dari Bawean. Juga kulit untuk sabuk, dompet dan tas, masih mengambil dari surabaya. Industri logam, sebagian masih bergantung kepada limbah industri logam dari surabaya. 6) Sistem Informasi Manajemen (SIM); pelaku usaha merasa belum perlu menggunakan sistem informasi yang rapi atau modern berbasis teknologi, alasan mereka adalah mereka harus mengalokasikan teknologi dengan biaya mahal, padahal mereka saat ini sudah dapat berproduksi dengan alat yang ada. Riset yang dilakukan Blumentritt and Dannis (2006) juga menemukan bahwa permasalahan usaha kecil dalam berinovasi dipengaruhi oleh faktor lingkungan internal dan eksternal usaha kecil, yaitu 1) keterbatasan ide-ide inovasi, 2) hambatan manajemen, 3) budaya organisasi, 4) keterbatasan modal, 5) keterbatasan sumberdaya manusia, 6) lingkungan persaingan dan 7) keterbatasan teknologi. Berdasarkan hasil riset, permasalahan eksternal dalam pengembangan UMKM di Tulungagung adalah: 1) Pesaing; banyak sektor unggulan UMKM di Tulungagung di jumpai juga di daerah lain. Misalnya batu onyx yang juga ada di Bawean. Juga untuk produk makanan, misal jajanan memiliki kemiripan dengan daerah lain seperti Madiun, Trenggalek, Blitar dan Ponorogo.2) ACFTA: Sebelum ada kebijakan tersebut, UMKM lokal sudah merasa tersaingi, sekarang dengan kebijakan tersebut produk China akan semakin mendominasi karena lebih murah. Beberapa sektor UMKM yang tersaingi secara langsung adalah industri konveksi, batik, dan logam. Meskipun dari sisi kualitas produk lokal masih mampu bersaing, bahkan lebih unggul. Namun kenyataannya, pembeli tidak begitu paham terhadap kualitas, tetapi lebih kepada harga yang murah. Struktur perusahaan yang formal dalam usaha kecil menjadi dasar penguatan akses pasar yang lebih luas, karena dengan formalisasi struktur organisasi usaha kecil, mereka berkesempatan mengikuti program pelatihan dan pameran dari berbagai dinas yang ada di pemerintahan daerah. Camison (1997) dalam penelitiannya mengatakan bahwa struktur 15


organisasi yang tepat akan dapat membentuk tim kerja yang dapat mengeksploitasi inovasi, pengembangan produk, desain, engineering, produksi dan pemasaran. Penguatan akses tersebut juga dapat diperoleh dari buyer domestic maupun asing yang ingin “aman” dalam proses transaksi mereka, sehingga biasanya mereka hanya akan bermitra dengan perusahaan yang legal dalam ijin usaha dan memiliki basis organisasi yang kuat. Hasil temuan ini mendukung hasil riset yang dilakukan peneliti sebelumnya, dimana usaha kecil diharapkan memformalkan usaha mereka jika menginginkan akses pasar yang lebih kuat (Wahyudi dan Julianto, 2009). Kepemilikan dan kapabilitas sumberdaya internal tersebut meliputi aspek teknologi yang digunakan perusahaan. Hitt et al. (2004) menunjukkan bahwa derajat inovasi perusahaan diukur dari tingkat penggunaan teknologi baru, prinsip peningkatan penggunaan teknologi, dukungan terhadap aktivitas perusahaan. Inovasi perusahaan juga harus didukung dengan infrastruktur intangible inovasi (kompetensi, model bisnis, dan knowledge management) dalam mendukung proses inovasi (Dobni, 2006). Blumentritt and Dannis (2006) menjelaskan bahwa inovasi dan kemampuan perusahaan akan sangat ditentukan dari perilaku inovasi dan kemampuan perusahaan menghilangkan hambatan inovasi. Hivner et al. (2003) dalam penelitiannya menemukan pentingnya strategi fasilitasi, akselerasi dan keberlanjutan inovasi pada organisasi bisnis. Goyal and Pitt (2007) menegaskan bahwa dalam membentuk budaya inovasi membutuhkan dukungan pemimpin yang mampu memfasilitasi dan membuat inovasi menjadi perilaku positif karyawan.

Interfirm Linkage sebagai Penguatan Akses Pasar Keunggulan bersaing organisasi yang lain adalah kemampuan organisasi dalam melakukan kerjasama. Sedikit sekali perusahaan yang mampu memaksimalkan potensi sumberdaya yang dimiliki untuk melakukan kerjasama, termasuk didalamnya adalah usaha kecil (Hoffman and Schlosser, 2001). Kemampuan melakukan kerjasama terbukti dapat 16


meningkatkan daya saing usaha kecil, karena mereka mampu mengakses sumberdaya dalam jumlah besar tanpa harus melakukan merger. Usaha kecil hanya perlu menjaga fleksibilitas mereka, yang memungkinkan mereka beradaptasi terhadap perubahan lingkungan (Glaiser and Buckley, 1996). Perusahaan dengan basis pengetahuan tidak lagi menggunakan organisasi hierarkis yang lamban, tetapi mengutamakan bentuk organisasi jaringan (Setyawan, 2002). Interfirm Linkage merupakan hubungan antara UMKM atau antara UMKM dengan Perusahaan Besar. Melalui kerja sama ini UMKM diharapkan dapat mengatasi kendala sehubungan dengan skala mereka yang kecil (size related constraint). Inter firm linkage merupakan bentuk kerjasama strategis yang memungkinkan partisipasi UMKM dalam pertukaran sumberdaya dalam kerangka mutual benefit, mengurangi beban persaingan dan mengelola lingkungan secara kolektif. (Astley dalam Mirza, 2002). Interfirm linkage dapat dilakukan antar usaha kecil untuk memperkuat posisi tawar dalam mengakses pasar. Pola interfirm linkage antar usaha kecil mendatangkan beberapa keuntungan, diantaranya : a) meminimalisasi biaya trasportasi dan transaksi dengan memperpendek jarak secara fisik, b) menghemat biaya produksi dengan pembelian bersama, c) meningkatkan fleksibilitas terhadap fluktuasi pasar, d) inovasi atau perbaikan produk atau prosesing melalui pembentukan suatu competitive milieu (lingkungan kompetitif) dan pertukaran informasi. Interfirm linkage sangat potensial dilakukan untuk penguatan akses pasar. Upaya kerjasama antar usaha kecil harus dilandasi semangat membangun kekuatan dan kebersamaan sehingga dalam implementasinya tidak mudah dikacaukan dengan kehadiran pedagang besar yang menjanjikan kemudahan dan harga yang tinggi. Harus disadari bahwa kerjasama ini dilandasi tidak hanya kepentingan jangka pendek, namun secara jangka panjang akan dapat meningkatkan bargaining position terhadap perusahaan besar yang potensial menjadi mitra.

17


Keberadaan sentra usaha kecil dimaknai sebagai trigger (pemicu) terjadi iklim kompetitif yang diharapkan melahirkan inovasi-inovasi baru (Julianto dan Wahyudi, 2010). Berdasarkan hasil riset, sentra industri pendukung yang ada di Tulungagung mampu menjadi pemicu, diantaranya adalah usaha kecil marmer, keberadaan industri pendukung mulai dari tumbuhnya sentra industri kecil marmer di daerah Besole dan sekitarnya, baik dalam skala mikro, kecil maupun menengah mampu melahirkan iklim kompetitif sekaligus partnership yang baik. Melahirkan iklim kompetitif karena ada persaingan harga, kualitas dan akses pasar yang memungkinkan mereka untuk menerapkan strategi keunggulan bersaing. Akan tetapi, iklim persaingan tersebut dapat berubah menjadi partnership yang saling mendukung, karena berbagai order tidak dapat dikerjakan sekaligus oleh satu perusahaan. Keberadaan usaha kecil yang tersebar di berbagai lokasi membuat upaya partnership dirasa sebagai solusi untuk mengalihkan persaingan menjadi kemitraan yang strategis. UMKM yang memiliki teknologi tinggi dalam proses produksi akan lebih mampu melakukan efisiensi dan lebih siap menghadapi persaingan. Penggunaan teknologi juga memungkinkan Usaha kecil melakukan inovasi berkelanjutan (Mohannak, 2007). Jaringan kerjasama yang dilakukan mampu mereduksi ketidakpastian melalui akses informasi, sharing, pemilihan prioritas, dan dapat menyusun agenda kerjasama jangka panjang yang dapat meningkatkan kapabilitas usaha kecil. Jaringan kerjasama juga memungkinkan mereka menciptakan peluang dalam pasar global, menyerap teknologi baru, mengembangkan proyek bersama, dan berbagi sumberdaya manusia dan material agar lebih efisien (Saarenketo et al., 2004). Kendala Interfirm linkage sebagai pengungkit daya saing disebabkan tidak ada kesamaan orientasi antar pelaku usaha, sehingga mereka gagal membangun komitmen, kepercayaan antara sesama pelaku usaha. Imbas terparah adalah kebangkrutan karena mereka tidak mampu bersaing dengan daerah lain yang mampu menjalin interfirm linkage. Riset membuktikan, bahwa sentra 18


usaha kecil kulit di kecamatan Pakel bangkrut karena mahalnya bahan baku, keterbatasan sumberdana dan lemahnya akses pasar, sehingga mereka enggan melakukan inovasi-inovasi. Interfirm linkage mampu meningkatkan daya saing dan penguatan akses pasar usaha konveksi di Tulungagung. Pelaku usaha tidak mampu menampung besarnya order sendirian. Mereka membentuk kemitraan dengan usaha kecil lain agar order dapat dikerjakan di rumah. Pelaku usaha memberikan modal berupa mesin jahit, obras dan juga bahan baku setiap pagi untuk di kerjakan di rumah mereka. Model kemitraan ini sebagai alternatif keterbatasan perusahaan dalam menyediakan tempat produksi. Hal ini didukung pendapat Mohannak (2007) dimana dalam jaringan kerjasama, informasi dapat disalurkan lebih horizontal dan lebih resiprokal sehingga dengan kapabilitas organsasi yang dimilikinya, usaha kecil lebih mampu berinovasi dan meningkatkan daya saingnya.

Tahapan Transfer Inovasi Beberapa hal yang perlu diperhatikan dalam proses transfer inovasi adalah meningkatkan proses kreativitas. Berdasar hasil penelitian, usaha kecil di Tulungagung sangat mengandalkan kreativitas, baik dengan orisinalitas tinggi, maupun tingkat imitasi yang tinggi. Tahapan transfer inovasi lebih merupakan siklus transfer inovasi dengan pendekatan internal resources. Gambar 1. Model siklus transfer inovasi dalam pendekatan internal resources

Imajinasi

Intuitif

Transfer Inovasi

Inovatif

Inspiratif

Proses Imajinatif dimaknai bahwa pelaku usaha harus memiliki mimpi, merancang mimpi agar berhasil, membayangkan sesuatu yang belum ada, dan mewujudkan supaya ada. Dalam 19


perkembangan proses imajinatif ini, nampak bagaimana pengajin marmer di tuntut berimajinatif dalam menghasilkan produk. Segumpal batu harus dijadikan apa, menjadi keahlian yang tidak ternilai bagi perusahaan. Tidak semua batu dapat dibentuk sesuai pesanan, harus dilihat kontur batu, dan kecenderungan batu tersebut dapat dibentuk menjadi apa. Peran imajinatif dari pengrajin sangat menentukan dalam menghasilkan produk, termasuk kualitas produk itu sendiri. Proses imajinatif ini juga nampak dari usaha konveksi. Proses menghasilkan ide dapat dilakukan dengan melihat lingkungan sekitar, peristiwa alam, ataupun secara serius melihat trend motif konveksi yang ada. Intuitif dimaknai bahwa dalam proses kreatif, sangat mengandalkan rasa, fell, peka terhadap lingkungan dan tidak selalu berdasarkan data. Riset membuktikan pelaku usaha kerajinan logam di desa Kaliwungu, kecamatan Ngunut, Kabupaten Tulungagung memiliki aspek intuitif yang kuat dalam menangkap peluang pasar. Penggunaan bahan baku berupa logam limbah, penentuan desain dan harga produk, dan melatih karyawan untuk dapat mengerjakan desain, semua dikerjakan dengan mengandalkan intuitif pelaku usaha. Hal tersebut dilakukan agar dapat menekan harga jual produk itu sendiri. Proses imitasi tingkat tinggi dan pengalaman yang memadai, sehingga intuisi tersebut sangat minim terhadap kesalahan dan kerugian. Inspiratif dimaknai sebagai proses kreatif yang dapat dijadikan contoh/panutan, dengan memberikan keterbukaan ide, membagi visi (share vision) dengan karyawan. Peran pelaku usaha sekaligus pemimpin perusahaan sangat penting dalam berbagi pentingnya inovasi . Inovatif dapat dimulai dengan menemukan hal hal baru (invention), proses menemukan hal baru tersebut tentunya tidak selalu orisinal, namun dapat melalui proses imitasi. Imitasi menjadi proses kreatifitas. Hasil riset membuktikan bahwa usaha kecil di Tulungagung dapat eksis karena dominasi proses inovasi. Perusahaan batik di Tulungagung dapat berkembang karena desain yang mengikuti trendsetter yaitu Solo, Yogjakarta, dan Pekalongan. Baru dalam perkembangannya pelaku usaha batik mengembangkan desain sendiri, dengan perspektif batik 20


modern dan mengembangkan jaringan pemasaran untuk tetap eksis. Demikian juga untuk pelaku usaha marmer, riset membuktikan bahwa perusahaan marmer dalam melayani pasar ekspor, didasari atas permintaan pelanggan dengan menunjukkan contoh desain yang ada. Ketika mendapat pesanan westafel dan bathup untuk pasar eropa, maka pelaku usaha di tuntut untuk dapat membuat desain sesuai pesanan. Orisinalitas muncul dalam proses perkembangannya, disebabkan pelaku usaha sudah mulai berimajinasi, menggunakan intuisinya dengan mengembangkan model-model baru. Pada usaha marmer, proses pembuatan patung berbagai bentuk mengandalkan sisi orisinalitas desain. Pelaku usaha marmer sadar bahwa orisinalitas desain dalam proses pembuatan patung memiliki harga jual tinggi.

Elemen Pendukung Transfer Inovasi Berdasar hasil riset, transfer inovasi dapat dilakukan dengan mempertimbangkan berbagai macam faktor, dengan beberapa elemen pendukung transfer inovasi. Diantaranya adalah : 1. Laboratorium riset. Laboratorium riset yang fokus terhadap pengembangan usaha kecil meliputi pengembangan teknologi, manajerial administrasi UMKM dan riset tentang pemberdayaan potensi UMKM. Keterkaitan antara laboratorium dengan UMKM membutuhkan beberapa dukungan, antara lain : 1) pemerintah daerah, 2) pekerja penyuluh yang menjadi prototype inovasi, 3) academic institution/university 2. Kapabilitas manajerial. Tidak hanya inovasi teknik yang mendapat perhatian dalam metode transfer inovasi, seperti namun juga mempertimbangkan kapabilitas manajerial. Beberapa hal terkait kemampuan manajerial/internal antara lain : 1) pengetahuan/ transfer inovasi, seperti dokumentasi, paten produk, pertukaran informasi, dan lembaga riset untuk kestabilan kerjasama, 2) adanya transfer tenaga ahli dari lembaga riset kepada UMKM untuk transfer pengetahuan dan analisis kebutuhan riil pelaku usaha. 3) 21


keberlanjutan pendidikan dan menyeleksi kebutuhan pelatihan yang dibutuhkan, 4) kerjasama sinergi antara lembaga riset eksternal dengan divisi R&D internal perusahaan , 5) memperhatikan aspek legal dalam proses bisnis, fiskal/pajak, dan 6) pengelolaan keuangan dan pemasaran. 3. Innovation center (pusat inovasi). Lembaga yang berfungsi sebagai pusat inovasi sangat penting untuk ada. Hal ini berkonsekuensi pada dibutuhkannya penyelenggara inovasi yang dapat di pelopori oleh swasta, universitas dilingkungan sekitar ataupun oleh pemerintah melalui SKPD yang ada. Swasta dapat

berperan dalam proses

penyelenggaraan inovasi dimana secara langsung akan berdampak pada kepentingan produk atau layanan yang dihasilkannya. Peran universitas dilingkungan/daerah tersebut dapat diposisikan sebagai mitra dalam hal riset dan pengabdian, sehingga dapat fokus menciptakan pusat inovasi. Peran pemerintah dapat dilakukan secara lebih konkrit dengan dukungan perencanaan dan dana akan dapat sekaligus menggandeng pihak swasta, universitas dan pemerintah sendiri sehingga pembagian peran tersebut dirasa sebagai simbiosis mutualisme dan sesuai kompetensi dan wewenang yang dimiliki. 4. Dinamisasi penyelenggara inovasi. Ketika penyelenggara inovasi terbentuk, maka dinamisasi implementatif dibutuhkan, antara lain dengan melakukan: a) pilot project transfer inovasi. Hal ini dibutuhkan untuk menentukan inovasi apa yang sebenarnya dibutuhkan usaha kecil dan memberikan aspek kepercayaan dari pelaku usaha bahwa inovasi yang dilakukan akan berdampak terhadap kinerja usaha kecil mereka. Hal ini secara motivasional akan mempengaruhi keinginan pelaku usaha untuk melakukan inovasi karena dari pilot project dapat diketahui bahwa inovasi yang dilakukan menguntungkan.

22


Gambar 2. Key Success factor sustainability innovation transfer

Laboratorium riset

Kapabilitas manajerial

Innovation sustainability Innovation center

Dinamisasi Penyelenggara Inovasi

Simpulan Berdasarkan hasil riset, dapat disimpulkan bahwa interfirm linkage yang dilakukan antar usaha kecil dapat meningkatkan kapabilitas produksi, mereduksi biaya produksi, meningkatkan fleksibilitas dan penguatan akses pasar. Iklim persaingan berubah menjadi partnership yang saling mendukung. Interfirm linkage juga semakin menguatkan akses pasar, sehingga mampu mengalihkan persaingan menjadi kemitraan yang strategis. Proses imajinatif, intutitif, inspiratif dan inovatif menjadi alur transfer inovasi dimana hal tersebut diawali dengan imitasi, mengembangkan desain sendiri, dan mampu menciptakan inovasi dengan orisinalitas tinggi. Keberadaan laboratorium riset, kapabilitas manajerial, innovation center dan dinamisasi penyelenggara inovasi menjadi kunci transfer inovasi yang berkelanjutan

Daftar Pustaka Bacon, N.P., Ackers, J. Storey and D. Coates. 1996. Its Small World: Managing Human Resource Management. Vol 7, pp. 82-100 Bank Indonesia. 2007. Base Line Survey Komoditi Produk Jenis Unggulan. www.bi.go.id 23


Camison, C. 1997. Competitiveness SMEs in Spain: Strategy and Competencies Distictive. Strategic Management Journal. Vol 4, pp. 78-88 Caputo, A.C., Cucchiella, F., Fratocchi, L., Pelagagge, P.M., and Scacchia, F. 2002. Methodological framework for innovation transfer to SMEs. Industrial Management and Data Systems. Vol 102/5. pp. 271-283 Dobni, C.B. 2006. The Innovation Blueprint. Business Horizons, Vol. 49, pp. 329 - 339 Feigenbaum, A. and A. Karnani. 1991. Output Flexibility. A Competitive Advantage for Small Firms. Strategic Management Journal. Vol 12, pp. 101-114 Glaiser, K.W and P.J. Buckley. 1996. Strategic Motives for International Alliances Formation. Journal of Management Studies. Vol. 33, pp. 301-332 Goyal, S. and Pitt, M. 2007. Determining the role of innovation management in facilities management. Facilities. Vol 25, No. 1/2, pp. 48-60 Grant, R.M. 1991. Contemporary Strategy Analysis of Intangible Resource. Strategic Management Journal. Vol. 14. pp. 607-618 Hitt, M.A., Ireland. R.D. and Hoskisson, R.E. 2001. Strategic Management: Competitiveness and Globalization 4th Edition; Concepts. Thompson Learning, United States of America Hivner, W. Hopkins, S.A., Hopkins, W.E. 2003. Fasilitating, Accelerating, and sustaining the innovation diffusion process: an epidemic modelling approach. European Journal of innovation management. Vol. 6 No. 2. pp. 80 - 89 Hoffman, W.H. and R. Schloser. 2001. Success Factors of Strategic Aliences in SMEs, An Empirical Study. Long Range Planning. Vol. 34, pp. 357-381 Huselid, M.A. 1995. The Impact of Human Resource Management Practices on Turnover, Productivity, and Corporate Financial Performance. Academy of Management Journal. Vol. 38, pp635-672 Julianto, D.E dan Wahyudi, E. 2010. Model Transfer Inovasi dan Peningkatan Daya Saing Usaha Kecil Menengah (UKM) di Tulungagung. Stranas, dp2m, dikti Mirza, Teuku. 2002. Inter Firm Linkage dan Pemberdayaan UKM. Jakarta, Usahawan No. 01 TH XXXI. Mohannak, K. 2007. Innovation networks and capability building in the Australian hightechnology SMEs. European Journal of Innovation Management. Vol. 10 No. 2. pp. 236-251 Prahald, C.K and Hamel, G. 1990. The Core Competence of the corporation. Harvard Business Review. Vol. 63. No. 3, pp. 79-91 Ruigrok, W.A. Pettigrew, S. Peck and R. Whittington. 1999. Corporate Restructuring and New Forms Europe. Management International Review. Vol. 39, pp. 41-46 Saarenketo, S., Kuivalainen, O., Kylaheiko, K. and Puumalainen, K. 2004. Dynamic knowledgerelated learning processes in internationalizing high-technology SMEs. International Journal of Production Economics. Vol. 89, pp. 363-78 Sanchez, A.M. and Marin, G.S. 2005. Strategic Orientation, Management Characteristics and Performance: A study of Spanish SMEs. Journal of Small Business Management. Vol. 43. No. 43, pp. 287-308 Setyawan, A.A. 2002. Pengembangan Knowledge Management di dalam Organisasi Bisnis. Jakarta, Usahawan, No.05, TH XXXI Wahyudi, E and Julianto, D, E. 2009. Model Interfirm Linkage dan Pemberdayaan UKM Nelayan Pasuruan Berbasis Potensi Lokal. Hibah Bersaing, dp2m, dikti

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Managing through Recession and Post-Recession: A Case Study of Gem and Jewelry Exporters from Thailand

Somchanok Passakonjaras, Ph.D. Associate Professor of International Business Faculty of Commerce and Accountancy, Chulalongkorn University Phyathai Road, Patumwan Bangkok 10330, THAILAND

Abstract Many businesses have been suffering from the global economic slowdown which started in the U.S. since 2008. Although the effect is not only limited in the U.S., the U.S. economy seems to have the highest downturn impact. Since the U.S. is one of the biggest consumer markets, the economic slowdown results in many ripple effects throughout the world. One of the most highly effected parties is the exporting business to the U.S. Thailand has highly relied on the U.S. market. The difficult time in the U.S. thus causes a big problem for Thai exporters who are not well planned for the recession. The main purpose of this paper is to illustrate the preparation for businesses in managing through business cycles. The gem and jewelry (G&J) sector in Thailand is used as an exemplar in the study as it is one of the main Thai exporting sectors to the U.S. The paper starts with understanding business cycles, planning for dealing with an economic downturn, predicting changes in both customer and consumer (end user) behavior, and ends with managing through business cycles and the discussion of future study.

Understanding Business Cycles Any manager needs to know about fluctuations in his/her business (Conerly, 2007). Each industry has different business cycles. For example, consumer services are the most stable part of the economy while consumer spending on durable goods or discretionary items and housing construction are highly cyclical and volatile sector. The following questions need to be addressed (Conerly, 2007): 

When are downturns and upturns coming?



When the economy accelerates, how steep will be the increase? And how long will the boom last? 25




When the economy slows down, how deep will be the decline? And how long will the downturn remain?

The above questions are not certainly easy to answer. And even a manager can find the perfect answers for that, it’s not guaranteed that the sales will be in line with the economy. The economy is an external or uncontrollable factor. Sales are dependent on the economy and the quality of a company’s products, services, marketing, and strategic actions. However, it is important to understand business cycles in the sector involved. In this paper, the business cycle of G&J sector in the U.S. is used as an example. It is found that G&J sales in the U.S. have highly correlated with GDP. While GDP increases, G&J sales also increase instantly. On the other hand, when GDP decreases, G&J sales also decline sharply. Figure 1 illustrates GDP and G&J sales in the U.S. during 2005-2015. Interestingly, Jewelry Industry Research Institute (JIRI) in 2010 found that G&J sales/demand is not directly related with any single factor that affects an increase or decrease of GDP. When plotting G&J sales with any factor such as unemployment rate, personal savings, consumer confidence level, or changes in stock market index, there is no direct relationship found. The easiest way to understand the business cycle of G&J sales in the U.S. is by using forecast GDP data.

26


() 20,000 18,000 16,000 14,000 12,000 10,000

90 85 17,490.34 18,249.5680 16,048.20 75 16,761.26 1 4,7 99 .5 6 1 4,44 1.43 13,398.9314,077.65 15,397.16 70.5 71.9 72.6 70 65 67.7 14,256.28 12,638.38 6 5.1 60 62.3 56.2 59.6 61.6 60.0 59.0 55 50 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 G&JSales

GDP

Figure 1: GDP and G&J Sales in the U.S. Market (2005-2015) Note: 2010-2015 are estimates.

Planning for Dealing with an Economic Downturn

Once understanding business cycles, a manager needs to plan for a downturn

(Conerly, 2007). The first step is to build flexibility in the business. The second step is to develop a contingency plan, which is often called as ‘worst case scenario’ in financial projection.

In this section, only the first step is mentioned. The second step, contingency

plan development, is discussed in later section on managing through business cycles. For Thai G&J exporters to the U.S., there are possible alternatives of building flexibility as follows:

Building Flexibility in the Business

27




Material sourcing Due to the price volatility of gold, silver, and gemstones, it results in a

more difficult time for G&J exporters. An exporter may enter forward/future contract or option for buying gold and silver to hedge the risk. 

Labor An exporter may reduce the labor burden by using a part-time contract

for the new hires. 

Relationship marketing with suppliers and customers Conerly (2007) suggested having good relationships with both

suppliers and customers during the good times with an eye to survival purpose in the bad times. More focus should be given to good customers whom are defined by profitability not by volume.



Capital spending Capital spending is a big area that should be developed with a

flexibility manner. If an expansion is planned for an economic boom, they should also keep an eye on recession. A project may be built in stages, while the next stage is optional, rather than building all at once.



Financial flexibility Companies should also evaluate the sources of funding whether they

will have adequate funds during recession (Conerly, 2007).

Predicting Changes in Customer/Consumer Behavior

28


Recession affects businesses in distinctly different ways (Kay, 2010). Kay (2010) illustrated that while local jewelry stores may be negatively affected, pawn shops, second hand stores and shoe/clothes repair shops may actually enjoy the economic downturn. Kotler and Caslione (2009a, 2009b) summarized three possible consumer behaviors during recession as follows (p. 188): 

A move toward lower-priced products and brands



A reduction or postponement of discretionary purchases (such as automobiles, furniture items, major appliances, and expensive vacations)



A cutback in driving and a tendency to shop from places nearer to home or office

Thus, it is inarguable that G&J products will be one of the most negatively affected items during recession. Although G&J products are mainly for medium- to high- income people, these people are also affected by the recession. They feel poorer as their return on investments (e.g., stock market, property) is lower than during normal period. In this G&J exporting from Thailand case, Thai exporters do not deal directly with end users or so-called consumers. They normally sell through importers, wholesalers, distributors, or agents. These intermediaries are direct customers of Thai G&J manufacturers. However, it is important to understand behavioral changes of both customers and consumers.

Customer Behavior

29


From a field survey/observation/interview in the U.S. in June 2009, it was found that G&J importers/wholesalers/distributors/agents in the U.S. ordered fewer items from their suppliers. They also asked for credit term extension.

Consumer Behavior From a field work in the U.S in June 2009, it can be summed up that there are lots of changes in consumer behavior of Americans in G&J products. Some of these changes are not completely based on recession but are also due to demographic change. Demographic change and 4Ps of changing G&J consumer behavior are as follows: Demographic Change 

Increased population U.S. Census Bureau estimated that the number of population will

increase from 310.23 million in 2010 to 325.54 million in 2015. And good news is that the number of target group (26-35 years old) who has high purchasing power will increase for 3 million within 5 years.



Increased household income Despite recession, the household income is predicted to increase

along with an increase in GDP. Average household income in 2010 is approximately US$ 119,261 and it’s expected to increase with an average growth of more than 3% in the next five years.



Growing wedding market Wedding market is expected to increase to 2.6-2.7 million couples

in 2016. The value of wedding market is large with 72 US$ billion in 30


year 2007 (The Knot Inc., 2007). The market covers not only engagement and wedding rings but also other jewelry items for the brides and parents/friends of both brides and grooms.



Decreased divorce rate With an expected decrease in divorce rate in the U.S., it is good for

G&J businesses as people will have more pocket money left to spend for luxurious products.



Increased working women The ratio of working women to the total number of women in the

U.S. has increased rapidly from 45% in 1970s to 60%. This female self-purchaser group is a big driving force for the optimistic G&J sales in the U.S. despite the recession.

4Ps 

Product From the field study, it’s found that American people are still fond

of diamond. Nothing can replace diamond especially in the wedding. Precious gemstones, such as ruby, sapphire, and emerald, are getting less popular since they are not less expensive than diamond. However, semi-precious stones, e.g., tourmaline, aquamarine, are getting more popular as they are much cheaper than diamond. Gold jewelry market is also on the rise as the wedding market is getting bigger. In addition, more people are buying gold for saving 31


and speculation purposes. Silver jewelry is also an alternative that people are looking for during recession. Silver jewelry manufacturers in the U.S. have responded to the market by offering a large collection of silver jewelry with diamonds which change the mindset of people that silver has to go with only cheap gemstones.



Price According to IDEX Online Research (2010), average ticket sales in

2009 decreased around 10%. Jewelry items with price higher than $15,000 decreased from 12.4% of total G&J sales in year 2008 to 9.1% in year 2009. Those with price range of $10,000-$15,000 were stable while those of $5,000-$10,000 decreased. Interestingly, jewelry items with price lower than $5,000 were on the rise especially those less than $2,000.



Place Specialty jewelers are much less popular distribution channels than

40 years ago. TV is also on the down trend as young generation who are the new major G&J consumers in the U.S. watch TV less than their parents. Catalogue selling is less popular as well due to the high printing costs. On the contrary, value-priced retailers and online sales are getting more popular.



Promotion

32


Young people who are a major target market of G&J in the U.S. are watching less TV than their parents. TVs are thus becoming less popular promotion channel. Internet has become one of the most effective promotion channels.

Managing through Business Cycles Many scholars and practitioners argued that companies should increase their marketing budgets during a recession because they can increase brand awareness while competitors are using wait and see approach (Aaker, 2009; Hudak, 2009; Kotler & Caslione, 2009a, 2009b). This recommended strategy is quite an ideal. It is rather difficult for small- and medium- sized enterprises (SMEs) which have limited financial resources to pursue. Hudak (2009) suggested some tips for SMEs to remain visible during a recession with low-cost methods. Hudak’s (2009) probable tips for SMEs are (p. 5): 

Getting the most from existing customers The rationale behind this tip is that gaining a new customer would cost twice as retaining the existing ones. A company should utilize the existing customer base which is the most valuable asset. It is recommended to communicate with customers more frequently, offering them special deals, and establishing ongoing relationships.



Creating an economical option A company should provide product/service offers that match the economic climate. This is to show customers that they are well taken care of and well responded even during the bad time. 33




Networking While maximizing the advantages from existing customers, a company should not forget to network with potential customers. These prospects may turn to be customers when an economy is on the upside.

This section discusses how to manage through business cycles in two stages, i.e., managing through recession, and managing through post-recession.

Managing through Recession Conerly (2007) classified the contingency plan in managing through recession in three steps according to the degree of severity of an impact of a recession on each company. And once a company survives, it can take advantage of the recession. 1. Easy steps When the monitoring system signals a slowdown in sales, a company should start fine tuning its contingency plans. A company may limit new hires to key positions, reduce or eliminate capital spending plans, monitor inventories more closely, and set up credit lines if possible. 2. Moderate steps Actually, the moderate steps are similar to the easy ones. They are just taken further from the easy steps. That is, managers should review a company’s employment, capital spending, and financing. They should also keep lenders fully apprised of financial conditions. 3. Survival steps If the impact of recession is very severe, a company must take the survival steps. Those steps described previously in fact have to be taken very seriously 34


now. A company may consider bringing in a turn-around specialist or a consultant to fix the problem. In addition, a company may consider selling the business if it’s worth the value more than continuing the operation, with possible bankruptcy.

Taking advantage of recession steps Once a company survives from the recession, it should plan ahead to take advantage of recession. Conerly (2007) suggested that a recession provides a lot of opportunities for companies that are optimistic in looking forward. Smart companies perceive not only threats but also opportunities in a recession (Williamson & Zeng, 2009). The goal of these companies is to grow so they will emerge more strongly out of the downturn. A study shows that 9% of companies come out of a recession stronger than ever (Gulati, Nohria, & Wohlgezogen, 2010). Conerly (2007) also warned of avoiding price wars as they are normally adopted in recessions. In G&J sector, firms can take advantage of recession as follows:

Spending more on Marketing Research Kotler and Caslione (2009a, 2009b) argued that businesses should not stop spending on marketing research. In fact, they should spend more because buying behavior changes a lot during recession. Since most Thai G&J manufacturers are SMEs, they probably won’t have enough financial resources for running marketing research by themselves. In practice, they can collaborate with their association in sharing the marketing research expenses.

Expanding to other Markets 35


Market diversification is a strategy that a company should pursue to take advantage of recession. While competitors are struggling with recession, it is wise to think out of the box. Expanding to other markets strategy seems to be an easy one but it is often overlooked especially during tough times. Emerging markets such as China, India, and Indonesia are worth it for Thai G&J exporters to explore. They shouldn’t rely on only the U.S. market.

Managing through Post-Recession Piercy, Cravens, and Lane (2010) argued that new opportunities in a couple with risks and challenges coming from economic recovery will demand new strategies. Kotler and Caslione (2009a) had argued that during turbulence, a firm needs to change its business model at least every 5 years. Otherwise, it cannot survive. What Thai G&J manufacturers can do are: Get more finances to increase credit lines Through post-recession period, firms will definitely need more finances to increase their credit lines. If flexibility is well planned in the former stage, they can get more finances easily. Manage customers Relationship marketing is a must strategy to keep customers loyal. Firms may classify their customers based on the profitability of each customer. More focus shall then be given to those contributing high profitability. Prepare for the next downturn As the global economy is currently turbulent, Thai G&J exporters should be well prepared for the next downturn.

36


Discussion The paper discusses the strategy for G&J businesses in the U.S. market. It can be argued that the results cannot be generalized. Shama (1993) found that the meaning of a recession to marketing managers depends highly on company size and economic sector. Therefore, future research should expand to other sectors and conclusion has to made with care depending on the size of the firm.

References Aaker, D. (2009). Aggressive recession marketing: When does it make sense? Marketing News, 08.30.09: 11. Conerly, W. B. (2007). Businomics. Platinum Press: Avon, MA, U.S. Gulati, R., Nohria, N., & Wohlgezogen, F. (2010). Roaring out of recession. Harvard Business Review, March 2010: 63-69. Hudak, T. J. (2009). Surviving an economic downturn. Business & Economic Review, April-June: 3-5. International Diamond Exchange (IDEX) Online Research. (2010). http://www.idexonline.com Jewellery Industry Research Institute (JIRI). (2010). http://www.kennethgassman.com/ Kay, M. J. (2010). Marketing during a recession: Social effects and marketing opportunities. Proceeding of Northeast Business & Economics Association: 587-589. Kotler, P., & Caslione, J. A. (2009a). Chaotics: The Business of Managing and Marketing in the Age of Turbulence. AMACOM: U.S. Kotler, P., & Caslione, J. A. (2009b). How marketers can respond to recession and turbulence. Journal of Customer Behavior, 8 (2): 187-191. Piercy, N. F., Cravens, D. W., & Lane, N. (2010). Marketing out of the recession: Recovery is coming, but things will never be the same again. The Marketing Review, 10 (1): 3-23. Shama, A. (1993). Marketing strategies during recession: A comparison of small and large firms. Journal of Small Business Management, 31 (3): 62-72. The Knot Inc. (2007). http://www.theknotinc.com. Williamson, P. J., & Zeng, M. (2009). Value-for-money strategies for recessionary times. Harvard Business Review, March 2009: 66-74.

37


Myths and Realities: Women – Entrepreneur to Bank Loan Access Linda Ariany Mahastanti Yeterina Widi Nugrahanti Economic Faculty Satya Wacana Christian University

ABSTRACT : Women-owned business are often thought to face difficulties in applying for and securing bank loans. They face any systematic non-economic discrimination in applying for credit. We tes question related to the success of women owned business in accessing commercial bank financing. Are women-owned business less likely to bank loan access than business owned by men?.Using Harvard framework to explores bias gender in applying bank loan at SMEs in Salatiga.. In this research indicated that there is no bias gender in bank loan access for women own business. Keywords: Women entrepreneur, bank loan access, SMEs, Harvard framework INTRODUCTION Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) proved able to contribute 66% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2009, outside petroleum and gas. SME Business Sector are mostly dominated by women. Business activities carried on by this women turned out to represent 60% of the total micro-entrepreneurs and provide a major contribution to Indonesian economic growth. (www.depkop.go.id). The phenomenon of women–entrepreneur also occurs in Salatiga. Based on data from CEMSED (2011), SMEs in Salatiga that owned by women usually dominated in convection and food sectors. The proportion of SMEs owned by women is 45% of the total listed SMEs. Their business growth is smaller than the male entrepreneurs. These data indicate that women faced more difficultness to run their businesses than men. There is a pervasisve belief that women own of small firm face disproportionality gretaher difficulty obtaining bank credit than do men. Mahastanti and Nugrahanti (2008) stated that the main obstacle of a women's entrepreneurs in developing their business is access to capital. Research result conducted by the Program For Eastern Indonesia SME assistence (2008) who done their research in the banking states that the bank does not consider women as the main target of their products, although the level of credit worthiness of women are not much different from the male borrowers, even in some 38


cases women actually have a better credit worthiness. The bank also tend to view women's business plan is more critically than men because it is considered a greater risk Some statements that support the existence of gender bias in access to bank loan come from Colemen (2000) states that women entrepreneurs will discrimination in doing credit to the banks. This discrimination can be seen in the requirement form from the bank, such as collateral, interest that is still quite high, a letter of consent from the husband. Several other studies also support the bias gender in bank loan access phenomenon . It is happened because women entrepreneurs have a lower level education and experience than men. Women have no relation with bank, started their business in retail business, their business growth is lower than men. Bank have perception that women have higher risk than men because these characteristics (Carsky and Colemen 1996: Haines et al 1999: Colemen, 2000; Rob and Wolken 2002) Conversely, there are significant empirical findings that do not support the gender bias in access bank loan. Muravyev, Talavera and Schafer (2009) stated that currently there is no more gender bias in bank loan access specially in developed countries. This happens because the competition between bank is more tight. The bank no longer see gender as a reason for determining the credit decision, but rather on the ability of the business capabilities. This statement is also supported by Belluci, Borisov.Zazzaro (2010). The result from previous research can be changed, because in Indonesia have a new rules about credit for SMEs this name is Kredit Usaha Rakyat (KUR). Some banks such as Mendiri, BRI, BNI has a special division for the development of SMEs. Also in a recent years Women entrepreneurs in Indonesia have many opportunities to develop themselves as: seminars on women entrepreneurs, business association, women's empowerment program. It is able to provide greater insight to them. Therefore, this study will review whether there is still a gender bias in bank loan access or not, because women in Indonesia currently has a better chance in developing their business. With the analytical Havard Framework in measuring gender . This framework can measure gender in four perspective : participation, access, and control. 39


LITERATURE REVIEW Gender Theory Gender is defined by FAO as ‘the relations between men and women, both perceptual and material. Gender is not determined biologically, as a result of sexual characteristics of either women or men, but is constructed socially. It is a central organizing principle of societies, and often governs the processes of production and reproduction, consumption and distribution’ (FAO, 1997). Despite this definition, gender is often misunderstood as being the promotion of women only. However, as we see from the FAO definition, gender issues focus on women and on the relationship between men and women, their roles, access to and control over resources, division of labour, interests and needs. Gender relations affect household security, family well-being, planning, production and many other aspects of life (Bravo-Baumann, 2000). According to the theory of nurture, the differences women and men are essentially constructed by social and culture so it produce different tasks. These differences cause women are always become a second class in the community, family, society, nation,(Sulistyo,2007).Gender is the difference in the role, functions and responsibilities between men and women who are socially constructed . Gender roles according to Myers (1996) is a set of behaviors expected behavior (norms) for men and wome

Credit Access credit Access is ability to get credit from the bank in a certain amount, period of time and certain interest rates. (www.encyclopedia.com).

Gender Bias to Bank Loan Acess The process of banking credit is viewed by nine items questions such as: the decision to credit, look for credit information to the bank, come to the bank, met with the marketing, fill out a credit application, the approval of bank credit. Based on this stage it will be seen a differences in participation, access, control benefit among women and men. 40


Women's are more careful in running their business so their participation for credit will be lower than men. Robb and Wolken (2002) argues that women entrepreneurs typically have a smaller scale compared with men and their assets and sales were also lower. Therefore when applying for a loan to banks will have difficulty. Besides this women entrepreneurs often make business in service and retail industries ,while male entrepreneurs are not. There for the bank is often assumed that retail industries are less convincing if credit is given. The main source of funding that can be used by women entrepreneurs mostly from savings and family loans (Colemen, 2000). Meanwhile, to meet with the bank marketing men usually have more access and control than women. This occurs because males have a better networking as compared to women. With this relationship men " is making more participation and control in the process of negotiating with the banks marketing. Brau (2002) suggests that the relationships with lenders affect the least number of credit and term loan Haines et al (1999) stated that women entrepreneurs usually not given credit by the bank because it was considered more risky. women entrepreneurs are considered higher risk due to age level business is shorter on average than male entrepreneurs, so that experience in menaging the business is also much less. This statement is also supported by Colemen (2000) which states that women entrepreneurs will have discrimination in doing credit to the banks. This discrimination can be seen form the rejected women entrepreneur application to get credit or if credit acceptable the amount of funds approved relatively fewer in number than men. The results of this study was also supported by Treichel and Scott (2006) states that the amount of credit the bank declined more for women entrepreneurs than male entrepreneurs than that amount of credit approved for women entrepreneurs are also less than the male. Based on this statement the hypothesis is proposed H2 : women entrepreneur have lower participation, access, and control than men to bank loan access

Research Framework Participation Bank Loan Process Men and Women Entreprenur

Access 41

Control


METHODOLOGY Purpose of Study This research includes the study of descriptive and explanative research because the research is trying to explore more information that can describe the existence of gender bias in the process of bank loan. The research was conducted in Salatiga, Central Java with a population of small and medium entrepreneurs.

Sample The data consists of primary and secondary data. Primary data obtained through direct observation in the field with guidance on using research instruments questionnaire, while the secondary data obtained from various reports and relevant publications from the study.. Data were collected with cross-sectional technique. Data collected at the same time but different place. In addition, also compare with depth interviews with some of key person. Samples to be used as the unit of analysis will be taken by using purposive sampling techniques. The sample in this study is SMEs registered in the database CEMSED Salatiga. Technique Analysis This study uses a survey method with questionnaire instrument for sevenstages in credits process, which used empirical indicators adapted to Harvard Framework. The gender analysis framework Harvard is more concerned with making gender division of labor, role in decision-making, the level of control, are seen in relation to access to bank loan (Lasssa, 2006). The steps used in the Harvard method is as follows: 1. Who, when, where, and how much the allocation of time is required? This is known as the "Activity Profile". Activity profile in this study can be seen from the activities undertaken in menaging its business 2. Who has access and control (such as policy-making) over certain resources? This is often known as "Profile Access and Control" Who has access and control to capital, money, etc.?. Access and control profile is more focused on access to bank loan. 42


The Harvard Analytical Framework offers one of the first efforts to disaggregate data by gender and capture differences in men’s and women’s positions and roles. Data is collected on the activities that men and women engage in at the individual and household level, according to their “reproductive” or “productive” nature. These activities are then assessed in terms of access and control over resources to better understand how household (or community) distribution will influence program outcome Each item in question Harvard method (participation, access, control and benefits) using a score of 1 to 3 (1 = Women lower than men, 2 = women equal to men, 3 = women higher than men). For the H1 to H3 used Anova to analysis the differences between participation, access, control.

RESEARCH FINDINGS This study used a sample of 66 SMEs located in Salatiga with various types of business sector. Picture 4.1 Sexual Characteristics

Source: Primary data 2011

Based on this picture the respondents in this study are mostly women .It can be described that recently women entrepreneur is growth more rapidly. In Salatiga there are many women own business in small medium scale near our campus. Usually they are started their business in feminist industry like salon, boutique, restaurant and have cooperation with their friends. Recently in Javanese culture, women not become a second class in their family. They want to make own money to fulfill their daily need not just to depend with their husband. 43


Picture 4.2 Type of business

Source: Primary data 2011

While most respondents have feminine business like open food stalls, fruit shops, fashion, salon. While that is in the masculine line of business (shop and service computers, garages, shops and service HP, fodder) is still less. This happens because most of the respondents in this study were women, so they prefer to try business in feminine characteristics such as cooking, body treatment, and fashion design.

The next table will show other characteristics such as age of business, sales omzet and education level of respondents Table 4.1 Age of bussiness and Sales Revenue Avarage Sales revenue

Average Age of Business

Women

Rp1,672,619.05 Women

Men

Rp1,777,463.77 Men

10.83 9.36

Source: Primary data 2011 From the table4.1 can be seen that sales revenue between women and men entrepreneur are not different. It is mean that businesses run by women was not less competitive with a business carried on men. As for the age of the business it is interesting that women age business is older than men. I suggest it happened because my respondent in this study for women entrepreneurs have long business over 20 years.

44


Tabel 4.2 Level Education LEVEL EDUCATION Women Elementary school

Men Elementary 8 school

2

Junior School

11 Junior School

2

High School

10 High School

15

Diploma

4 Diploma

7

Bachelor degree

1 Bachelor degree

3

No school

3 No school

0

Source: Primary data 2011 Women-entrepreneurs in small and medium enterprise have a lower level education than men. In our data women entreprenur mostly graduated from elementary and junior school. It is different than men who have higher level education in high school and diploma. In javanese culture, they have perseption that women is not necessary to have higher level education because when they were married women become passive just in home take care their family.

Discussion This table shows the Harvard framework analysis to see whether there is gender bias in bank loan access.

Table 4.7 Participation: credit process 45


(I)

(J)

Mean Difference

Std.

KATAGORI

KATAGORI

(I-J)

Error

Sig.

Lower

Equal

-7.11

2.67

0.04*

Higher

-16.33

2.67

0.00*

Lower

7.11

2.67

0.04*

Higher

-9.22

2.67

0.01*

Lower

16.33

2.67

0.00*

Equal

9.22

2.67

0.01*

Equal

Higher

Source: Primary data 2011, level sign 5% Based on table 4.7 can be seen that the credit participation who responded with high scores is significant different with respondents who answered with a score lower or equal. Other results showed that respondents who score equal significantly higher with low scores. Process of banking credit by women entrepreneurs have a minimal participation equal or higher compared with men. Women have high participation in the search for information about the bank credit , met with the bank marketing, fulfill their credit applications, company bank employee to survey their business location, and credit approval. High participation is possible because banks have special program for SMEs like KUR and now bank become closer to the SME as some of Corporate Social Responsibility program, like bank have subsidiary office in traditional market to help SMEs not just to fulfill their capital but also help SMEs to make good production and marketing with mentoring program. It is make women entrepreneurs more easily to get credit information from the bank. Another possibility reason is women entrepreneur have several community groups such as "KOMPAK" . With this group they can sharing information and knowledge to make their business more growth up. They usually have monthly meeting in this group who always have mentoring from CEMSED ( Centre Study In SMEs who owned by Economic Faculty Satya Wacana). Picture 4.3 Monthly Meeting “Kompak”

46


With this Group, they can build social capital. Social capital is necessary for women entrepreneur who have lower level education and experience because they can sharing information about how to make good marketing, production, and another information like how to joint exhibition to market their product in this group. Another thing that will be important from this group is they can help each other when some of their participant have problems to run their business. Table 4.8 Access: Credit process Mean Difference Std.

(I)

(J)

KATAGORI

KATAGORI

(I-J)

Error

Sig.

Lower

Equal

-6.67

2.84

0.07

Higher

-19.56

2.84

0.00*

Lower

6.67

2.84

0.07

Higher

-12.89

2.84

0.00*

Lower

19.56

2.84

0.00*

Equal

12.89

2.84

0.00*

Equal

Higher

Source: Primary data 2011, level sign 5% In terms of access, the high score also significantly different compared with a low score and equal. This suggests to searching credit loan from bank is not to hard to be done for women entrepreneur. Bank Policy that has begun to want to be closer to SMEs with provide a soft loan for SMEs , it make women entrepreneurs no longer have problems in finding information to get credit in the bank. information to Access bank credit also can be easily obtained by women entrepreneurs through the community that they follow. The benefits of this community is very big for them, because every meeting there are several parties who are willing to provide counseling 47


companion including about bank credit. Community group become social capital for women entrepreneurs in business development (Gatewood et al, 2009) Several studies have shown that the access to bank credit there is no gender bias among women and maen entrepreneur (Belluci, Borisov.Zazzaro: 2010). While Muravyev, Talavera, Schafer (2009) states that women entrepreneurs in developing countries do not faced gender bias in access to bank credit because bank competitions is high. There for it make easier entrepreneurs both men and women in bank loan access. Bank will be approve their loan based on the capability from the borrower not just from the gender.

Table 4.9 Control : Credit Process Mean Difference Std. (I-J)

Error

Sig.

(I)

(J)

KATAGORI

KATAGORI

Lower

Equal

-12.67

4.17

0.02*

Higher

-6.56

4.17

0.28

Lower

12.67

4.17

0.02*

Higher

6.11

4.17

0.03*

Lower

6.56

4.17

0.28

Higher

-6.11

4.17

0.03*

Equal

tinggi

Source: Primary data 2011, level sign 5% In contrast to the aspect of participation and access, control aspects has result show that equal score significantly different with low and high score. This shows that when women entrepreneurs want to make decisions related to the loan, they will be always ask for consideration of their husbands. Credit decisions are taken is a joint decision between husband and wife. This is also supported by the procedures of the bank that requires agreement letter from the husband when women entrepreneurs do credit.

Table 4.10 Bank Loan between Woman and Men 48


Table 4.10 show that women entrepreneur usually have lower proposal and approval in amount of credit than men. This occur not because Bank done some bias gender when appraisal their proposal. Characteristic women that always have more risk averse in make decision, it make their loan will be more smaller than men

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The conclusion of this study is gender bias does not occur in bank loan access. This happened because of a business group that they follow can increase knowledge and insight of women entrepreneurs. With this group make the banks do not reluctant to give loans to women entrepreneurs. Another reason is bank more aggressive to disburse loans for SMEs. It make the process of bank credit is now much easier. Another conclusion can be drawn from this study is the presence of some of the community formed by the entrepreneurs of SMEs, making easy access to information. In addition there are companion agencies make this groups more enhancing their capability to help women entrepreneur run their business. Based on results can be seen that some of the myths that exist about women entrepreneurs is not be exist again like women have gender bias to bank loan access. When women have lower amount loan it happened because they have risk averse preference. For the future research are expected to see gender bias not only in terms of credit demand, but also the supply side of credit (bank credit application selection)

REFERENCES

49


Belluci, A., BorisovA.,& Zazzaro.,A.(2010). Does gender Metter in Bank Firm Relationship? Evidence from Small Business Lending. Journal of Banking & Finance 34, 2968 - 2984 Brau, J. C (2002). Do Bank price owner menager agency cost? An examination of small business borrowing, Journal of Small Business Menagement, 140, pp 273286. Bravo-Baumann, H. (2000.). Capitalization of experiences on the contribution of livestock projects to gender issues. Working Document. Bern, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation. Carter, Sara. Eleanor S. 2007. Gender, Entrepreneurship, and Bank Lending : The Criteria and Processes Use by Bank Loan Officer in Assesing Application. Entereprneurship Theory and Practices. Chaganti, R., DeCarolis, D. and Deeds, D. (1995) Predictors of capital structure in small ventured, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 20, pp 7-18 Colemen, S. (2000) Acess to capital and term of credit: a comparison of men and women-owned small business, journal of Small Business Menagement, 38, pp37-52. Colemen, S. and Carsky, M. (1996) Understanding the market of women owned small business, Journal of Retail Banking Services, 18, pp 47-49. Chen, Vanek , Henzt. (2006). Informality Gender Poverty. Economic and Political Weekly May 27 hal 2131-2139. Emory, C. William and Donald R.Cooper.(1991), “Business Research Methods”.Fourth Edition. Richard D. Irwin, Inc. Gatewood EJ, Brush, Carter M, Greene, (2009) “ Diana: a Symbol of Women Entrepreneurs Hunt for Knowledge, Money, and reward of Entrepreneur, Journal Small Bus Econ 32 : 129-144. Haines, G. H. Jr, Orser,b. J. and Riding a. L (1999) Myth and realities : an empirical study of bank and the gender of small business clients, Canadian Journal of Administrative Science , 16, pp 291-307. Kuehl, Charles dan Peggy Lambing, (1999), “Entrepreneurship”, PrenticeHall. Lassa Jonathan, (2006). Kerangka Analisis Perencanaan Gender . Myers; (1996); Social Psychology; The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Mahastanti. L dan Nugrahanti, Yeterina (2008). Peranan Women Co-Entrepreneur dalam pengambangan bisnis (studi kasus pengusaha kerupuk daerah Tuntang Kabupaten Semarang). Jurnal Siasat Bisnis Vol 14 :1-100. Muravyev,A.,Talavera,O.,&Schafer.,D.(2009). Entrepreneur Gender and Financial Constraints: Evidence from International Data. Journal of Comparative Economic, 37, 270-286. Program For Eastern Indonesia SME Assisten, (2008) Akses ke pendanaan bagi perempuan pengusaha di Indonesia. Ringkasan Eksekutif. Robb, A. and Wolken, J. (2002) Firm Owner, and financing characteristic: differencies between female and male small business, working paper. Sahnan, 2009, Wanita Pebisnis Jadi Barometer Kesetaraan Gender, www.depkop.go.id (diunduh pada 1 Maret 2010) Sulistyo, 2007. Konsep dan Teori Gender. Pusat Pelatihan Gender dan Peningkatan Kulaitas Perempuan Badan Koordinasi Keluarga Berencana Nasional

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PART TWO: Management of Human Resources through Alternative Education & Entrepreneurial Spirit

51


Analysis of Entrepreneurial Intentionality of Students in Faculty of Business Administration and Communication Sciences, Atma Jaya Catholic University Aristo Surya and Ati Cahayani Faculty of Business Administration and Communication Sciences Atma Jaya Catholic University

Abstract: Entrepreneurship has becoming an important thing recently. Most people already notices that entrepreneurship is one of the effective ways to diminish unemployment. University, as the place to produce skilled labors, also realizes that entrepreneurship is one of the best ways to create successful graduation. That consideration makes most of university has entrepreneurship classes. But, not all university that has entrepreneurship classes does know the factors that encourage their student to take entrepreneurship classes. These entrepreneurial intentionality factors will drive their willingness to study more specific on entrepreneurship and encourage them to become young entrepreneur. This study aimed to determine what factors that encourage student to take entrepreneurship class at FIABIKOM UAJ.

A. Preface Imbalance of college/university graduates and job opportunities has resulted large number of unemployment graduates. The data of Central Statistic Agency (BPS) in 2009 on Open Unemployment has shown that approximately 12 percent of the open

un-employments

are

college/university

graduates

(Diploma/College/University). Looking at this fact, entrepreneurship school seem to have to change its graduates’ mind set from looking for a job (being an employee) to finding and running their own business (being entrepreneur). Being challenged by that condition, colleges and universities now are actively placing entrepreneurship curriculum in their program to offer career alternative for the graduates to be entrepreneurs. This entrepreneurship curriculum makes an effort 52


to change students’ mind set from looking for a job to creating a job and lead them to have independent attitude and mentality and the foremost is to find and take the business opportunities. On another side, in the point of view of students, the mind set, attitude and mentality changing is not enough to encourage them to be young entrepreneurs. There are some distracting factors for them to start to become entrepreneurs. These factors are known as barriers to start up. Previous study from Aristo (2007) that was conducted to the students of Business Administration Science University of Atma Jaya (FIA-UAJ)3 has revealed that among those barriers are lack of business ideas, talent or inherent spirit of entrepreneurship from the family, fear of failure, and capital matter (Aristo 2007). Based on the researcher’s observation, as an entrepreneurship tutor in FIABIKOM-UAJ, it is found that only some of FIABIKOM-UAJ students who take entrepreneurship program are willing to jump into entrepreneurial business. The reasons of just following friend’s decision, final-paper problem avoidance, lecturer preference, and some other reasons inevitably become the driven factors of the students to take entrepreneurship major. The researcher sees that only students, who from the beginning have strong motivation, will be ready to be young entrepreneurs soon after they graduate. The motivation is their willingness and desire to run entrepreneurial business. The intention to be an entrepreneurial person comes from individual’s interest or desire to be an entrepreneur. This is what is called entrepreneurial intentionality (Bird 1989).

3

It has been changed into Faculty of Business Administration and Communication Science Catholic University Atma Jaya (FIABIKOM-UAJ)

53


Related to the background above, the researcher, in this study, is trying to find out: “How far entrepreneurial intentionality is able to create students’ interest toward entrepreneurship or lead the students or graduates to be entrepreneurs.

B. Conceptualization The definition of entrepreneurship, according to Robert D. Hisrich (2005), is “the process of creating something new and assuming the risks and the rewards”. Meanwhile, Robert D. Hisrich (2005) has given the definition of entrepreneur as “a kind of behavior that includes initiative, resources organizing, and acceptance of risks”. According to Kristanto (2009), the essential points of entrepreneurship are: knowledge, art, behavior, traits, characteristics, and nature of someone who is able to actualize his/her innovative ideas into reality creatively. Generally, it can be said that entrepreneurship is a dynamic process in doing planned economic activities and efforts for the prosperity. The definition of entrepreneurship can help us figure out what has been going inappropriately in our entrepreneurship education so that the colleges/universities aren’t able to bring out young entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship is defined by Stevenson and Jarillo (1990) as: “a process by which individuals – either on their own or inside organizations – pursue opportunities without regard to resources they currently control”. To set in the values of entrepreneurship to the students, there are some ways can be done4: 

Curriculum improvement

4

It is as stated in the Material Paper of Entrepreneurship Research and Development, The Central Bureau of Curriculum Research and Development, The Ministry of National Education 3-4 June 2010, where the researcher is one of the paper formulating team members.

54


Curriculum improvement is carried out to set in the spirit of entrepreneurship to the

students by adding in entrepreneurial characteristics to the existed

curriculum materials and the course plan. 

College/Universitiy’s Role Enhancement in Preparing ”The Entrepreneurs”. Colleges/universities are demanded to be active in developing or forging entrepreneurial mentality to the students to form them as dynamic and creative individuals who have a desire to develop and reach achievement.



Improvement in Organizing Teaching - Learning Process What is meant by Improvement in Organizing Teaching - Learning Process in this point is the creating of teaching – learning process that gives more opportunities for the students to learn actively from their daily life in the society. Theoretical teaching – learning process should be equipped with the process and field experience of doing business. The example of it is that the students are trained to produce or market a product or service in the campus.

Refering to the above description, college/university doesn’t need to consider heavily on the teaching – learning process that is applied in the curriculum or teaching – learning method therefore the students can run into the process of getting meaningful experience with the hope that the process they have gone through will continue when they do business. There are many reasons presented by the entrepreneurs when they are starting up their business. The following are some of them, according to Meggison and Byrd (2000). 1. Meeting Personal Objectives. The factors among others are: 

Being independent 55




Earning more income



Supporting the family’s life



Finding new products

2. Achieving Business Objectives. Some factors are as follow: 

Providing people’s need for products or services



Having profit



Having a concern on social life of either community or environment



Experiencing growth

In the theoretical term, entrepreneurial interest is called as entrepreneurial intentionality (Bird 1989) that is defined as “a conscious state of mind that directs attention (and therefore experience and action) toward a specific objective (goal) or pathway to achieve it (means)”. The concept of entrepreneurial intentionality can be considered more comprehensive than entrepreneurial propensity. Based on entrepreneurial intentionality, the real entrepreneurship has to be started from an intention of oneself and not only from a propensity. Further, Bird (1989) has stated that “individuals with the intention to start a business not only have a propensity to start, but in addition, adopt a rational behavior to reach their goal”. It is clear that the individuals who have entrepreneurial interest will be able to survive and succeed compared to those who only have propensity or other tendencies. Various former studies on entrepreneurial intentionality have tried to explain the entrepreneurial interests from several points of view. One of the earliest is The Shapero’s Entrepreneurial Event model (SEE) (Shapero 1982) presenting three entrepreneurial intentionality factors that are: perception of the desirability, 56


propensity to act and perception of feasibility. Another famous entrepreneurial intentionality model is based on planned behavior by Ajzen (Ajzen 1991) that states three entrepreneurial intentionality factors as of subject’s attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, and subject’s perception of behavioral control. This research goes deeper into entrepreneurial intentionality that is based on the model developed by Bird (1988) with dengan entrepreneurial intentionality variables explained by five factors as in the study of Volery et.al (1997): 1. Invest, that is a motivation to start a business such as: need of job, desire of having unlimited or extra earnings (other source of earnings out of monthly salary), as well as a freedom of being appraised (having income) in accordance with hard work and personal performance, or other kinds of motivation. 2. Creativity, that is a willingness to do something different, such as: developing talent, making dream come true, creating something new and having challenging or interesting job or others. 3. Autonomy, that is a desire to be free, independent and not be bound, like: being a boss for him/herself, having flexibility in doing work in terms of place of work, working hours, and others. 4. Status, that is related with the situation or external responses toward the entrepreneur individual, such as: having a desire to continue family’s business, upgrading status or prestigious image and having a pride as entrepreneur, and others. 5. Market Opportunity, that is dealt with economic condition in the country that still is developing and creating business opportunities.

57


C. The Methodology of Research Respondents in this research are the students who have taken the course offered in the entrepreneurship major in each even semester in the year 2010/2011 and the graduates of FIA UAJ, and the total number of them is 120 people. Among 120 respondents, 12 informants were taken to be the participants of FGD (Focus Group Discussion). Those are the students who have choosen entrepreneurship major and the graduates who took entrepreneurship major and run their own business after finishing the school. Collected data are primer data. In this study, the primer data gained are quantitative. The data were collected by distributing questionnaires to the respondents with the criteria mentioned above. In order to enrich the existing quantitative data, the researcher also collected qualitative data. Qualitative data collection was conducted through FGD. In the guideline of FGD implementation, the interviewer delivered questions asking respondent’s opinions about entrepreneurial intentionality. Sampling technique used is non probability sampling, particularly accidental sampling and purposive sampling, either for quantitative or qualitative data. This sampling technique is chosen by the researcher because the researcher considers that this technique matches the target that is those respondents who can give information needed by the researcher. Quantitative data analysis technique used is: 1. Average statistical scale

58


Average statistical scale method is gained from the total of respondents’ response frequency multiplied by the scale then divided by the total of respondents.  Xi Yi OMS =  Notes: OMS = average score of variables tested Xi

= scale score

Yi

= respondents’ response frequency

n

= the number of respondents

2. Scale Range In order to get the position of respondents’ response results from the questionnaires, a scale range is used as described in the following formula:

RS =

(m - 1)

Notes: RS

=

Scale Range

m

=

The number of response alternatives of each item

Scale Range in this research is: RS = (5 - 1)

= 0.8 59


5 The interpretation of OMS value is as follow: If OMS 4.21 – 5.00  Strongly agree If OMS 3.41 – 4.20  Agree If OMS 2.61 – 3.40  Moderately agree If OMS 1.81 – 2.60  Less agree If OMS 1.00 – 1.80

 Disagree

Further, the researcher applied technique of qualitative data analysis by using content analysis.

D. The Analysis of Research Data on Entrepreneurial Intentionality factors a. “Invest” factor. Referring to the scale range, the OMS score of ”invest” factor in entrepreneurial intentionality is 3,95. The most prominent factor of ”invest” variable is that entrepreneur never retires and can do any works he likes to do. Furthemore, the respondents also mention that they want to be entrepreneurs not because they are forced or doen’t have any choices because of having no office job. This findings affirm strongly the factor ”invest” as a driven factor or motivation that emerges early to be in entrepreneurship and it is not because of external forces, conditions or any influences. b. “Creativity” factor.

60


Referring to the scale range, the OMS score of ”creativity” factor in entrepreneurial intentionality is 4,28. All questions/sub-variables that are tested have similar OMS scores. This shows more clearly that the respondents have similar point of view that is entrepreneurship is interesting, challenging, and allows them to develop their potentials or talents maximally. This findings are interesting because they negates the assumptions that someone jumps into entrepreneurship more because of trapped or under pressure condition. The respondents who are highly educated and equipped with entrepreneurship course have changed their point of view or mind set about entrepreneurship itself. In spite of that, there is a small number of FGD participants who think that either employees or entrepreneurs need creativity although in different portion. c. “Autonomy” factor. Pointing to the scale range, the OMS score of ”autonomy” factor in the entrepreneurial intentionality is 3,97. There are two interesting variables in which the respondents seem not too see the factor of disliking of inferior and doing other’s command as a driven factor toward entrepreneurial intentionality. With their high education background, they really understand that recent working world gives more opportunities for them to be free and put themselves away from superior’s directives. Therefore, ”autonomy” factor is understood as not the main driven factor of intentionality, and moreover they also tend to say that there is a factor of ”bond” or ”lack of freedom too. d. “Status” factor Pointing to the scale range, the OMS score of ”status” factor in entrepreneurial intentionality is 3,76. The appealing finding about this factor 61


is that the respondents have a pride or feel as real entrepreneurs because they can get there independently and not just simply continuing family’s business. The respondents also state that, in spite of the pride, the influence from the family plays role, too.

It also can be seen from the research that the

respondents tend to prepare their generations to be entrepreneurs of their own not of family’s business inheritance. e. “Market Opportunity” factor Referring to the scale range, the OMS score of ”market opportunity” factor in entrepreneurial intentionality is 3,76. The interesting point in this factor is that the respondents don’t count the big capital or money as their stimulus to be entrepreneurs. They do it more because they realize that they have come to the entrepreneurial era and have business ideas to make into reality. Another enticing finding at this point is that all FGD participants don’t feel the benefits of government programs of entrepreneurship. They would say that that the programs might be good but still and all not on the target. Looking at the OMS scores of those five entrepreneurial intentionality factors above, it can be noticed that according to the respondents, ”creativity” variable has the highest meanwhile ”market opportunity” variable has the lowest. We can assume that the respondents are attracted or interested to be entrepreneurs because they see it as something attractive, challenging, and potential for them to develop themselves matched with their skill and competence. Moreover, it is interestingly found that they have a belief that the opportunities will always come, nevertheless, they are challenged to create opportunities for themselves and other people.

E. Summary 62


The entrepreneurship education in colleges/universities should put their emphasis in changing the mind set or paradigm that sees entrepreneurship as the last or forced choice or other reasons but because it is a professional alternative that is interesting and challenging and allows someone to develop him/herself in maximum without dependency to other party. Nevertheless, it also should be considered to provide real and factual insights of globalization for the students outside the class so they will be aware of millions of business opportunities in this country as well as other countries.5

DAFTAR PUSTAKA Ajzen, I. (1991), The Theory of Planned Behavior, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Process, 50:179-211. Aristo Surya (2007), Persepsi Mahasiswa Fakultas Ilmu Administrasi Unika Atma Jaya Jakarta Terhadap Kurikulum Kewirausahaan Dalam Mempersiapkan Sarjana Lulusannya Untuk Menjadi Young Entrepreneur Serta Mengatasi Hambatan-Hambatan Dalam Memulai Usaha, penelitian belum dipublikasikan, Fakultas Ilmu Administrasi Unika Atma Jaya Jakarta. Aristo Surya dan Ati Cahayani (2011), Faktor-faktor yang Mendorong Timbulnya Minat Berwirausaha Mahasiswa FIA UAJ dan Bagaimana Tingkat Kepuasan Mereka Terhadap Proses Mengajar serta Materi Kuliah Peminatan Kewirausahaan, penelitian belum dipublikasikan, FIABIKOM, Unika Atma Jaya Jakarta. Bird, B.J (1988), Implementing Entrepreneurial Ideas: The Case For Intention, Academy of Management Review, 13 (3), 442-453. Bird, B.J (1989), Entrepreneurial Behavior, Glenview IL, Scott, Foresman and Company. Boyd, N.G. and Vozikis, G.S (1994), The Influence of Self-Efficacy on the Development of Entrpreneurial Intentions and Actions, Entrepreneurship Theory & Practice. 18(4). 62-77. Davidson, P. (1996), Determinants of Entrepreneurial Intentions, Jonkoping International Business School (JIBS) Sweden. Endang Mulyani et.al (2010), Bahan Pelatihan Pengembangan Pendidikan Kewirausahaan, Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pusat Kurikulum Kementrian Pendidikan Nasional.

5

Tampaknya pola pendidikan di Indonesia masih sangat kurang akan insight “melihat dunia”. Di era globalisasi saat ini, sudah waktunya pola pendidikan kita di Indonesia mendorong para siswa/mahasiswa untuk memiliki insight globalisasi pula. Sangat perlu untuk mengenal budaya, tradisi berbagai negara di dunia, karakter serta gaya hidupnya serta bergaul dengan berbagai suku bangsa. Semuanya ini akan menciptakan pribadi manusia yang mandiri, “gaul” (bukannya manusia yang “kuper”) dan bisa mengeksplorasi berbagai peluang bisnis yang ada baik di negaranya maupun di negara-negara lain di dunia. (Rhenald Kasali, Jawa Pos 8 Agustus 2011. Artikel lengkap dapat disimak di lampiran)

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Freddy Rangkuti (2002), Measuring Customer Satisfaction, PT.Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta. Gibb, A., Ritchie J. (1985), Understanding the Process of Starting Small Businesses, European Small Business Journal, 1. Henderson, R., Robertson M. (1999), Who Wants to be an Entrepreneur? Young Attitudes to Entrepreneurship as a Career, Education and Training, Vol.41, No.5. Heru Kristanto (2009), Kewirausahaan (Entrepreneurship) Pendekatan Manajemen dan Praktik, Graha Ilmu Yogyakarta. Hisrich, R. D., Peters, M. P., & Sheperd, D.A. (2005), Entrepreneurship, 6th ed.. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Lane, D. (2002), Working Paper on the Hopes and Aspirations of Young Achievers on the Young Enterprise Programme, Bristol Business School. Megginson, William L., Byrd, Mary Jane and Megginson, Leon C. (2000), Small Business Management, 3rd edition, Mc. Graw Hill, USA. Olorunniwo, Festus dan Maxwell K. Hsu; (2006), “A typology analysis of service quality, customer satisfaction and behavioral intentions in mass services”, Emerald, Vol. 16 No. 2, 2006, pp. 106-123 SBS, (2002), Small Firms: Big Business!, SBS. Scott, M.G., Twomey D.F. (2001), The Long Term Supply of Entrepreneurs: Student’s Career Aspirations in Relation to Entrepreneurship, Journal of Small Business Management. Shapero, A., and L. Sokol (1982), The Social Dimensions of Entrepreneurship, Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurship, C.A.Kent, D.L.Sexton and K.H.Vesper. Englewood Cliffs, N.J, Prentice Hall. Shurry, J., Lomax S., and Vyakarnam S. (2001), Household Survey of Entrepreneurship IFF Research Ltd, Surveys In Social Research, 4th ed. UCL Press and Allen & Unwin. Stevenson, H and Jarillo, J.C. (1990), A Paradigm of Entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurial Management, Strategic Management Journal, Vol.11 p.17-27. Turnbull, A., Williams S. Paddison, Fahad G. (2001), Entrepreneurship Education; Does it work?, University of Aberdeen, Bank of Scotland. Volery, Thierry., Noelle Does., Tim Mazzarol. (1997), Triggers and Barriers Affecting Entrepreneurial Intentionality: The Case of Western Australia Nascent Entrepreneurs, Curtin Business School. Wang, C.K., Wong P.K., and Lu Q. (2001), Entrepreneurial Intentions and Tertiary Education.

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Analysis of Leadership Characteristics of Woman Entrepreneurs Dr. Ati Cahayani Dra. Pradewi Iedarwati, Msi, dan Kurnianing Isololipu, S.Sos., M.Com Abstract Even though women emancipation has been acknowledged since the era of RA Kartini, but women’s position in the business-sphere still is still underestimated. It is because of the stigma that business is a masculine thing that is fitter for men. In fact, according to IWAPI, there are about 18.000 business women who become the members of this association of which 85 % members deal in small and micro businesses, 13% run medium business and 2% control big business. Moreover, about 30% private business in the world is run by women. This proves that women have entrepreneurship. For those women leading the businesses, they have to play role as leaders. And, they also have responsibilities to the development of business and the achievement of business goals. Seeing this important position of woman entrepreneurs who also act as leaders in the business, the study about leadership characteristics of woman entrepreneurs is conducted. The result shows that leadership characteristics adhere in woman entrepreneurs A. Introduction Being an entrepreneur is not as easy as it looks, because there are a number of obstructing factors, which are, knowledge and appropriate skills of entrepreneurship. For woman entrepreneurs, there are more obstacles. It's not easy for a woman who wants to be an entrepreneur because they should double her energy. In everyday life, there are so many structures and system barriers that must be faced by women. In the social structure or order, the women have been marginalized so that it can be said that women’s access is nearly closed in various fields. We can see that only few women sit at the top management level in the companies. In the meantime, an existing patriarchy system also discriminates against women so that women's access in many areas is increasingly difficult. Although the system and structure are not friendly to women, but those do not dampen the desire of women to be entrepreneurs. A study conducted in five major cities (West Sumatra, West Java, East Java, West Kalimantan and South Sulawesi)

65


shows that the developments of micro, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) have been achieved by women entrepreneurs with business volume from 2.6 billion until 35 billion per year (Anonymous, 2006). Furthermore, the data reveals that the number of women in the business reach 50.1 percent (National Portal of the Republic of Indonesia, 2009). It shows that women have an important role in the business world. The Women Empowerment Ministry has noted that of 46 million SMEs, about 60% of them are managed by women (Femina, 2010). Although it seems woman entrepreneurs are more engaged in small and medium businesses, but it still provide a meaningful contribution in both domestic and national scale. Normally, woman has little role as decision maker. In general, the most likely decision and often done by women is related to household spendings because more than 80% percent of women hold the family’s money (Fazriyati and Dini, 2011). But, as entrepreneurs, women have a big role in decision making. Decision making is precisely a part of the activities to be conducted by woman entrepreneurs. Sustainable and successful entrepreneurial activity cannot be separated from the power-owning character of the women. When women become leaders, they normally demonstrate their ability as leaders with strong characters.

B. Entrepreneurship and Characteristics of Entrepreneurship The term of entrepreneurship has lately more and more often been discussed, because entrepreneurship is considered as one of the most effective ways to reduce unemployment. The definition of entrepreneurship according to Robert D. Hisrich (2010: 6) is “process of creating something new with value by devoting the necessary time and effort; assuming the accompanying financial, psychic, and social risks and uncertainties; and receiving the resulting rewards of monetary and personal

66


satisfaction.” From that definition, it can be seen clearly that entrepreneurship is a process, not a result. Entrepreneurship also inquires time and effort from the entrepreneur. Meanwhile, the definition of entrepreneur according to Robert D. Hisrich (2010) is: “an individual who takes initiatives to bundle resources in innovative ways and is willing to bear the risk and/or uncertainty to act.” So, entrepreneur is a person who has initiative to pool the resources innovatively and is willing to take a risk and bear uncertainty. The definitions of these entrepreneurs actually include three-dimensional characters of entrepreneurship according to Wickham. Wickham (2004: h. 7) explains that an entrepreneur can be considered as a manager who does an activity (within the context of specific tasks and the way he/she performs the task), an agent of economic change (in the context of the influence he/she has in the economic system and the changes brought about by him/her) and an individual (in the context of psychological condition, his/her personality and personal characteristics). Characteristics of an entrepreneur are a bit more detailed described by John Kao. Kao, as quoted by Kuratko and Hodgetts (2007: p. 118) explains that there are 11 characteristics of entrepreneurs, those are total commitment, determination and perseverance; drive to achieve and grow; opportunity and goal orientation; taking initiative and personal responsibility; persistent problem solving; realism and a sense of humor; seeking and using feedback; internal locus of control; calculated risk taking and risk seeking; low need for status and power; integrity and reliability. Further, Hornaday (1982, as quoted by Kuratko dan Hodgetts, 2007: p. 119) describes in details 42 characteristics that often arise in an entrepreneur, those are confidence; energy and diligence; creativity; courage; egotism; and aggressiveness.

67


The results of research that has been done by Pradewi, Kurnianing, and Cahayani of woman entrepreneurs who are the members of koperasi in Bojonegoro East Java, in 2010, obtained data that the respondents have a 3-dimensional female entrepreneurship based on Wickham approach that also includes the 42 entrepreneurial characteristics of Hornaday. From the results of this study, there are 10 characters which are possessed by woman entrepreneurs in Bojonegoro, i.e. confidence (3.72), honesty and integrity (3.39), positive response to challenges (3.38), maturity and balance (3.35), optimism (3.31), orientation to clear goals (3.31), responsibility (3.27), resourcefulness (3.26), time efficiency (3.26), perseverance and determination (3.22). More data can be seen in Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3 below.

Table 1 Personality Characteristics Based on Mean No Personality Characteristic 1 Confidence 2 Perseverance and determination 3 Ability to influence others 4 Ability to get along with others 5 Intelligence 6 Independence 7 Responsibility 8 Accuracy, thoroughness 9 Sense of power 10 Pleasant personality 11 Egotism 12 Courage 13 Sensitive to others 14 Honesty, integrity 15 Maturity, balance Mean of Personality Characteristics

68


Mean 3,72 3,22 2,57 2,81 3,15 3,20 3,27 3,19 3,07 2,99 3,05 3,18 3,04 3,39 3,35 3,15

Table 2 Managerial Characteristics Based on Mean No Managerial Characteristics 1 Orientation to clear goals 2 Resourcefulness 3 Ability to take calculated risk 4 Optimism 5 Need to achieve 6 Versatility 7 Flexibility 8 Energy, diligence 9 Time competence, efficiency 10 Ability to make decision quickly 11 Cooperative 12 Profit orientation 13 Commitment 14 Ability to trust workers Mean of Managerial Characteristics

Table 3 Agent of Change Characteristics Based on Mean No Agent of Change Characteristics 1 Dynamism 2 Creativity 3 Initiative 4 Positive response to challenges 5 Responsiveness to suggestion and criticism 6 Foresight 7 Ability to learn from mistake 8 Imagination 9 Perceptiveness 10 Toleration for ambiguity 11 Aggressiveness 12 Capacity for enjoyment 13 Efficacy Mean of Agent of Change Characteristics

Mean 3.31 3.26 3.01 3.31 3.14 2.94 2.99 3.19 3.26 3.01 3.09 3.03 3.04 2.93 3.11

Mean 3.02 3.13 2.81 3.38 3.17 3.05 3.04 3.15 2.93 2.93 3.15 2.96 3.07 3.06

C. Leadership A good leader should have leadership spirit. Northouse says, “Leadership is a process whereby an individu influences a group of individu to achieve a common goal” (2004: 69


3). Northouse opinion is in harmony with the opinion from Robbins. Robbins stating, “Leadership is the process of influencing a group toward the achieving of goals” (Stephen P. Robbins et al., 2006: 568). Northouse and Robbins assume leadership as a process of influence to achieve a goal. From the definition, it can be concluded that there are a number of components of leadership, which are the process, the attempt to influence others, the achievement of objectives. An attempt to influence can not run properly if the leader does not understand the characters of subordinates and the situation at hand, so it can be concluded, there are three main variables in the theory of leadership, namely the characteristics of a leader, follower characteristics, and situations. Yukl states, there are some characteristics of leaders, namely traits (motives, personality, values), confidence and optimism, skills and expertise, behavior, integrity and ethics, influence tactics, attributions about followers (Yukl, 2006: 14). Meanwhile, Dubrin et al. said, there are some leadership characteristics, as shown in the table below: Table 4 Leadership Characteristics Innovative Dependability Urgency Integrity orientation/honest Need for achievement Conformity Sound relationships/good interpersonal skills Agreeableness Adaptability Persistence High energy levels Verbal facility Relevant knowledge Self-confidence Credibility-through achievement or status Self acceptance 70


Self control Source: Dubrin et al., Leadership, 2003.

Comparison of the characteristics of entrepreneurship and leadership characteristics generates the following data:

Table 5 Leadership Characteristics and Entrepreneurship Characteristics Leader

Entrepreneurship

Innovative Dependability Urgency Integrity orientation/honest Need for achievement Conformity Sound relationships/good interpersonal skills Agreeableness Adaptability Persistence

High energy levels Verbal facility Relevant knowledge Self-confidence Credibility-through achievement or status Self acceptance Self control

Creativity Responsibility Aggressiveness Honesty, integrity Need to achieve Ability to get along with others; cooperative; pleasant personality Sensitive to others Dynamism; flexibilities Perseverance and determination; sense of power; commitment; efficacy

Intelligence; Versatility Confidence

Ability to learn from mistake Maturity, balance

From Table 5 above, it can be seen that most of the characteristics of a leader is owned by a woman entrepreneur. Thus, it can be said that the characteristics of leadership is also in the entrepreneurial characteristics.

D. Resume 71


It is almost impossible if an entrepreneur does not have the characteristics of leadership because entrepreneurship must also have the ability to lead in all aspects of its business. Although an entrepreneur does not have employees or subordinates who are led, but at least, an entrepreneur is required to be able to lead him/herself in managing the business. The ability to lead is more necessary when an entrepreneur has to lead a number of employees, so she can more concentrate on business development and strategic matters, rather than on operational matters. For woman entrepreneurs, characteristics of leadership also are absolutely essential for the business development and success.

References: Anonymous (2006). “Studi Peran Serta Wanita dalam Pengembangan Usaha Kecil, Menengah dan Koperasi”, Jurnal Pengkajian Koperasi dan UKM, no. 1, year.1. Department of Koperasi (2009). Statistik Koperasi Tahun 2008 (http://www.depkop.go.id/statistik-koperasi/cat_view/35-statistik/36-statistikkoperasi/196-statistik-koperasi-tahun-2008/198-doc.html). Retrieved at September 9, 2009. Dubrin, Andrew J et al. (2003). Leadership, 2nd Asia-Pacific Edition. Queensland: John Wiley and Sons Australia. Fazriyati, W. and Dini (2011). “Celah Bisnis dari Kekhawatiran Perempuan” (http://female.kompas.com/read/2011/03/30/12511555/Celah.Bisnis.dari.Kekh awatiran.Perempuan). Retrieved at October 3, 2011. Femina (2010). “Perempuan Sukses Berbisnis karena Pakai Hati.” (http://www.langitperempuan.com/2010/07). Retrieved at August 3, 2011. Hisrich, R. D., Peters, M. P., & Sheperd, D.A. (2010). Entrepreneurship, 8th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Iedarwati, Pradewi, Ati Cahayani, dan Kurnianing Isololipu (2010). “Jiwa Kewirausahaan Di Kalangan Wirausaha Perempuan Anggota Koperasi di Kabupaten Bojonegoro, Jawa Timur”, Hasil Penelitian. Kuratko, D.F. & Hodgetts R.M. (2007). Entrepreneurship: Theory, Process, Practice, Seventh Edition, Ohio: Thomson. Northouse, Peter G (2004). Leadership: Theory and Practice. California: Sage Publication. Robbins, Stephen P., et al (2006). Management. 4th ed., New South Wales: Pearson Education Australia. Simon, Herbert A (1997). Administrative Behavior. 4th ed., New York: The Free Press Siringi, E.M. (2011). “Women's small and medium enterprises for poverty alleviation in Sub-Saharan Africa”. Management Research

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Review, 34(2), 186-206. Diunduh August 7, 2011, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 2238861151). Undang-udang Republik Indonesia No. 25 tahun 1992 tentang Perkoperasian. (http://www.deptan.go.id/bdd/admin/uu/UU-25-92.pdf). Diunduh August 3, 2011. Wickham, P. A. (2004). Strategic Entrepreneurship, Third Edition, Essex: Prentice Hall. Yukl, Gary (2006). Leadership in Organization, 6th Edition, New Jersey: Pearson International Edition.

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The Characteristics of Women’s Powerfulness in Entrepreneurship Dimension By Pradewi Iedarwati, Ati Cahayani, Kurnianing Isololipu

Abstract It is an inevitable situation that half of Indonesia’s population experiencing marginalization because they are women. Indonesia’s GEM rank at about 96 out of 109 was an expression of marginalization of Indonesian women. However, marginalization did not discourage of women out of the powerlessness situation that has plunged them into poverty. Women’s participation in the activity of female entrepreneurship is a breakthrough effort to escape from powerlessness and poverty. Women’s Ministry records of 46 millions micro, small and medium enterprises (SMEs). Approximately, 60% of managers are women. Infact, percentage of women in doing business is higher then men. It is about 50.1 percent versus 49.9 percent. The active role of women in entrepreneurship becomes the starting point for improving their productive role in the public sphere. The dimensions of entrepreneurship which include personality traits, managerial traits and agent of change traits reflect the character of women’s empowerment. Women Entrepreneurship Study explained that the scope of the attitude of confidence, honest and wise, responsive to the challenges as well as having clear goals and optimistic become the dominant characteristic of women entrepreneurship.

I. Introduction

The women existence in the economic life is, indeed, perceptible in Indonesia. Nevertheless, the importance of women role and their potential in the process of economic development aren’t truly realized. In spite of that, a lot of women have brought up the solutions to the family’s economic problem. Since the era of Kartini up to today, a creative economic phenomenon has been carried out by women so they are able to show their existence in their business or entrepreneurship. Besides, when Indonesia’s economic was in the crisis and a

74


large number of labors were cut off, the women took over the economic sectors by running in the informal sectors. It seems that women take glance more to informal sectors because of their comfortability and quick gain. Since five years ago, informal sectors that have been the most attractive for women are the hospitality and trade sectors. This fact is supported by the number of women labors’ participation that is 52 percent in the developed countries, although it’s still under men’s that reach 84 percent, according to Gender World Bank consultant, Yulia Immajati (Maftuhah, 2011). In the event of Women and the Economy Summit (WES) in the APEC framework in San Francisco, USA, on 16 September 2011, Marty Natalegawa, The Minister of Foreign Affairs of The Republic of Indonesia, as one of the major speakers, delivered Indonesia’s viewpoint in High Level Policy Dialogue at the WES Plenary closing – San Francisco Declaration: “Inclusion of Women as an Economic Growth Strategy”. This series of events yielded San Francisco Declaration that covers four points of cooperation plan to improve the women’s role in economy; they are: a) the increasing of the access to capital b) access to market c) capacity and skills d) leadership. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Republic of Indonesia representing the government stated that the increasing of public’s awareness on the importance of women’s role in economic matters, particularly in overcoming global crisis which has been occurring until now and creating international society’s restlessness, needs to be executed. To make the improvement of women’s role into reality, it’s a must that there’s a leadership and cooperation as well as collaboration among all parties. Further, Marty Natalegawa said, “It’s proven that women give their contribution in the process of recent global economy recovery.” In Indonesia, women’s role in the economy is

75


sufficiently big. They involve themselves in 39 percent of overall micro and small businesses and 18 percent of the middle and large businesses. The number of middle businesses (UKM) carried out by women has increased in the last decade. In Indonesia, the women’s role in arousing economy especially in small and middle business sectors can’t be denied. Indonesia plays its active part in the women and economy discussion in the APEC framework (The Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ website, 2011). The Ministry of Women Empowerment has recorded that 60 percent of the 46 million of micro, small and middle businesses (UMKM) are managed by women (The Ministry of Women and Children Empowerment, 2009). Furthermore, the percentage of woman entrepreneurs reaches 50.1 percent compared to men that is 49.9 percent(The National Portal of The Republic of Indonesia, 2009). The active role of women as economy actors put themselves in the position that has the equal opportunity and space to act in the public where dominantly occupied by men. Behind the women’s eagerness and capability as well as public’s role involvement in the entrepreneurship, there can be seen the characters of women empowerment as women’s powerfulness (keberdayaan). II. Women Power Developing is a process and an effort of change to reach the man’s more prosperous life without looking at genders. Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) becomes the direction of women’s life quality improvement. Millenium Declaration that was signed by 188 country members of The United Nations is a commitment of leaders in the world to actualize eight goals of Millenium Development that involve a) fight against poverty and hunger education to all

b) realize basic

c) encourage gender equality and women empowerment 76


d)

reduce children mortality

e) reduce death number because of maternal

combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other contagious diseases environment and

f)

g) conserve the

h) promote global partnership for development. Indonesia is

one of the countries that will sign MGDs in 2015. The quality of women’s life that is not quite satisfying is a result of the development approach which ignores gender equality and impartiality as women’s empowerment variable. This starts from the women discrimination that leads the women to not have access, opportunity, and control on development as well as not feel the benefits of the development which are fair and equal as what men get (Haryanto, 2011). Based on the population cencus, the number of Indonesian women came to 118,048,783 in 2010 or similar to 49 percent of the total population which was approximately 238 million. This large number of women population in Indonesia isn’t in line with its quality. Facts often find out that women are behind in the process of development because the awareness of the importance of women’s quality improvement as human resources is still low. Gender Empowerment Index (GEM) becomes a marginal sign of women. Indonesia’s GEM is in the position of 96 among 109 countries (UNDP’s website, 2010) so that it makes Indonesia have to work hard to improve its women’s quality which is now still in the poor condition of poverty and hunger, low education, high rate of maternal death and vulnerability from contagious diseases. The increasing women’s capacity has a large coverance including education, health, economy, politic, law, religion and culture. The improvement of women’s capacity is an effort to empower women so they get the same opportunity of having the development benefits in various sectors. Women’s powerfulness (keberdayaan) and equal position is one of the indicators of wealth improvement

77


of a country. Ana Revenga, Co-Director of The World Development from World Bank gave her statement on gender equality that economic development policy has to encourange gender equality. She said, “There should be a good economic development policy that leads women to the access of labors, market, and entrepreneurship.” This can yield better economic growth by giving support and creating the economic opportunity for the women especially in industrial and informal sectors as well as in entrepreneurial business. In the meantime, Andrew Manson, The Coordinator of Gender Regional World Bank for East and Pacific Asia exposed the problems faced by Pacific Asia countries in developing economic opportunities for women; they are access to land, capital-credit (loan), education, domestic and economic interest conflicts as well as social-cultural norms that put women in a discriminative position. Therefore, it is essential to eliminate those problems and lead women to the productive economic sectors (JIBI, 2011). The micro, small, and middle businesses (UMKM) that are mostly managed by women can significantly

help Indonesia to be resistant to global crisis’

impacts. Indonesia has 51.21 million of UMKMs, which 60 million of them are managed by women. Women have contributed themselves to 55.6 percent of Gross Domestic Product, according to Jonhar Johar, The Asisstant of The Third Division of Women and Children Empowerment, The Ministry of Women and Children Empowerment. Further, Jonhar said that micro business was able to provide job opportunity for 91.8 million people. This number equals to 93.33 percent of the total women labors in Indonesia (Suprapto dan Suryani, 2011). Central Statistic Bureau (BPS) recorded that the number of women as smallmiddle business actors have shown a significant increase from 40.79 percent in

78


2000 to 60-80 percent of overall 46-49 million of small-middle business (UKM) actors in 2008. Bambang Ismawan (2003, as quoted in the Ministry of Women and Children Empowerment, 2009) said that the development intervention has been given by women through their meaningful role that gives multiple effects to the solutions of family’s problems such as family nutrition, health, and children education. Women are considered as a proactive group that has predominance in managing the economy of the households and utilizing economic opportunities optimally in dealing with economic crisis’ impacts by creating employment and providing products and services in reasonable price to overcome poverty. Meutia Hatta (2008, as quoted in the Ministry of Women and Children Empowerment’s website, 2009) explained that women are a proactive and realible group in managing economy and potential to be disciplined and trackable in their ability to repay loans that nearly have reached 100 percent. Women will not be a burden or object but a potential and productive asset in the development if they have powerfulness (keberdayaan).

III. Entrepreneurship Dimensions The subject of Entrepreneurship has become a wide discussion lately but it is rarely admitted that most of the micro, small and middle entrepreneurs (60 percent) are women. Women entrepreneurs in Indonesia, who run in the small business, reach 85 percent, middle 13 percent and two percent in large business (Women in Business, 2011). It is no more the time to do nothing with the big potential that it will result loss when that potential and opportunity are not utilized. Women have to be able and willing to motivate themselves and show their existence. Therefore, they deserve to get special attention because of their

79


involvement in entrepreneurial activities to meet the goals of improving family’s prosperity. So many previous studies have been conducted to see the entrepreneurial business and its aspects. Wickham (2004, p. 7) explained that an entrepreneur can be considered as a manager handling an activity (in the context of certain task and how to accomplish it), an agent of economic change (in the context of their influence to the economic system and the impacts resulted by them), and an individual (in the context of their psychological condition, personality, and personal characteristics).

In conclusion, those three roles mentioned previously

are carried out by an entrepreneur in accordance with its function. John Kao (Kuratko and Hodgetts, 2007, p. 118) mentioned about 11 characteristics of entrepreneurship which are total commitment, determination and perseverance; drive to achieve and grow; opportunity dan goal orientation; taking initiative and personal responsibility; persistent problem solving; realism and a sense of humor; seeking and using feedback; internal locus of control; calculated risk taking and risk seeking; low need for status and power; integrity and reliability. Stevenson and Gumpert (1985, as quoted in Kuratko dan Hodgetts, 2007, p. 118) stated imagination, flexibility dan willingness to accept risk as the characteristics of them who have entrepreneurship spirit in the organization. Further, Hornaday (1982, as quoted in Kuratko dan Hodgetts, 2007, p. 119) explained in details about 42 characteristics of an entrepreneur such as confidence; energy and diligence; creativity; courage; egotism and aggresiveness. With those many characteristics of entrepreneurship spirit, it can be said that everybody can be an entrepreneur. What makes it different between the successful and the unsuccessful one is how he/she process the imagination and creative

80


thinking with the ability of working systematically and logically (Kuratko dan Hodgetts, 2007, p. 143). The research done by Pradewi, Kurnianing dan Cahayani to three women entrepreneurs of cooperatives in Bojonegoro – East Java revealed the 3 dimensions of woman entrepreneurship based on Wickham’s approach (2004, p.7) that involve personality, managerial, and being change agent.

Those three

dimensions cover 42 characteristics of entrepreneurship (Kuratko dan Hodgetts, 2007, p. 119). That research also found 10 predominant characters based on their average scores gotten by the women entrepreneurs who were examined; those characters are self-confident (3.72), honest and moral (3.39), responsive (3.38), wise (3.35), confident in achieving success (3.31), purposeful (3.31), responsible (3.27), competent in managing time (3,26), competent in managing the business (3.26), and tough (3.22). Those 10 characters of women entrepreneurs are grouped into three dimensions of entrepreneurship as it can be seen in the following table: The Dimensions of Woman Entrepreneurship

No

1

Personality

Confidence

Managerial

Change agent

Have confidence to Be responsive to challenge succeed

2

Honesty and Morality

Have clear objectives

3

Responsibility

Have ability to run the business

81


4

Persistence

Be able to manage the time

5

Wisdom

Based on the points of view of Zimmerer, and Scarborough, 1998; Kuratko&Hoodgets,

2007

(Anonymous,

2011),

the

following

analysis

of

entrepreneurship dimensions explains the power and powerfulness of the women as entrepreneurs: a. Personality Dimension Women entrepreneurs have confidence of self-ability to succeed. They are able to control themselves based on ethics and honesty and to be responsible personally for the results of their efforts. An ability to maintain the successful business for a long period shows women’s toughness. Women entrepreneurs have an ability to accept the environment diversity that affects their business’s success and certainly needs wisdom to run the business. In accordance with Meutia Hatta’s point of view saying that nearly100 percent of women entrepreneurs are able to repay the loan assistance. b. Managerial Dimension Women entrepreneurs have a competence of running business with clear objectives by working hard, spending time and money even experiencing failure but they are still optimistic to maintain the business and get the success at the end despite a long process. In line with what has been said by Bambang Ismawan that women is a proactive group that has predominance in taking care of household’s economy and utilizing economic opportunity optimally to deal with the impacts of economic crisis

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by creating employment and producing products and services in reasonable price to overcome poverty. c. Dimension of being change agent Women entrepreneurs have flexibility to accept changes and responsiveness to face environment change influencing on their businesses. The success of maintaining business can’t be separated from the ability of adjusting oneself and business to be safety valve in the critical condition and situation. Women entrepreneurs have their part in encouraging women’s role to be change agents because it becomes a considerable economic activity in creating employment moreover contribute 55.6 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Micro, small and middle businesses (UMKM) which most of them are managed by women can significantly help Indonesia to be resistant to the impacts of global crisis. Indonesia has 51.21 million of micro, small and middle businesses and 60 percent of them are managed by women, as Jonhar Johar stated. The analysis of research’s results about the Entrepreneurship Spirit of the Women have yielded conceptual abstract that women’s powerfulness is adhered to women entrepreneurship dimensions.

IV. Conclusion The involvement and contribution of the women in economic activities as business actors are not deniable. The tendency of the increasing women number as economic actors in various sectors has shown their ability to break through the belief that the public’s space dominantly belongs to men. Moreover, the inadequate presence of the country doesn’t stop the women to find way-outs.

The problems of system,

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structure, and culture do not weaken their spirit of entrepreneurship to overcome their life problems to survive. Although the economic system is not friendly to the women’s entrepreneurial business, they still have their confidence to set a strategy to deal with the rigidity of the system. Even they keep being existent in the business while the structure obviously set them aside.

The stiffness of culture that women

often face never stop their steps to withstand, work, and act.

Women’s

entrepreneurial activities shows their power and powerfulness giving big contribution to the family’s wealth improvement that encourage the achiement of MGDs (eliminating poverty and hunger as well as encouraging gender equality). Therein, a way for women to break through the system, structure and culture that marginize and tire them exists . DAFTAR PUSTAKA Anonimus, 2011, ‘Karakteristik Kewirausahaan’ http://indofolder.info/karaktersitik-kewirausahaan.html. Diunduh tanggal 13 Juni 2011 Haryanto, R., 2011, ‘Pemberdayaan perempuan untuk perkembangan ekonomi’. http://www.wrp-diet.com/pemberdayaan-perempuan-untuk-perkembanganekonomi/ Diunduh tanggal 23 September 2011 Iedarwati, Pradewi, Ati Cahayani, dan Kurnianing Isololipu, 2010, “Jiwa Kewirausahaan Di Kalangan Wirausaha Perempuan Anggota Koperasi di Kabupaten Bojonegoro, Jawa Timur”, Hasil Penelitian. JIBI, 2011, ‘Bank Dunia: Kesetaraan gender akan dorong pertumbuhan ekonomi Indonesia’, 20 September 2011. http://bisnis-jabar.com/index.php/2011/09/bank-dunia-kesetaraan-genderakan-dorong-pertumbuhan-ekonomi-indonesia/. Diunduh tanggal 23 September 2011 Kementrian Luar Negeri, 2011, ‘RI dorong peran perempuan dalam perekonomian untuk atasi krisis global’, 17 September 2011. http://www.kemlu.go.id/Pages/News.aspx?IDP=5149&l=id.Diunduh tanggal 23 September 2011 Kementrian PP dan PA, 2009, ‘Membangun semangat kewirausahaan berbasis kesetaraan gender strategi dalam menanggulangi kemiskinan’, 14 Desember 2009. http://www.menegpp.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id =212:membangun-semangat-kewirausahaan-berbasis-kesataraan-genderstrategi-dalam-menanggulangi-kemiskinan&catid=36:pressrelease&Itemid=87. Diunduh tanggal 9 juni 2011

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Kuratko, D.F. & Hodgetts R.M, 2007, Entrepreneurship: Theory, Process, Practice, Seventh Edition, Ohio: Thomson. Maftuhah, G. N., 2011, ‘World Bank: Perempuan RI berjaya di bisnis informal’, 20 September 2011 http://economy.okezone.com/read/2011/09/20/320/504710/world-bankperempuan-ri-berjaya-di-bisnis-informal. Diunduh 23 September 2011 Perempuan Berbisnis, 2011, ’Motivasi bisnis bagi perempuan’, 22 Maret 2011. http://perempuanberbisnis.com/motivasi-bisnis-bagi-perempuan.html. Diunduh tanggal 9 juni 2011 Portal Nasional Republik Indonesia, 2009, Perempuan Pebisnis Jadi Barometer Kesetaraan Gender. http://www.indonesia.go.id/id/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id =9688&Itemid=708. Diunduh 8 September 2009 Statistics of the Human Development Report, 2010. http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistic Diunduh 28 Juli 2010. Suprapto, H., & Suryani, R.K., 2011, ‘Perempuan sumbang 55,6 % PDB’, 22 Juni 2011. http://bisnis.vivanews.com/news/read/228433-perempuan-sumbang-55-6-pdb. Diunduh 22 Juni 2011 Wickham, P. A., 2004, Strategic Entrepreneurship, Third Edition, Essex: Prentice Hall.

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A LITERATURE STUDY FROM DEVELOPING AND DEVELOPED COUNTRIES: HOW SMEs GAIN BUSINESS COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGES TO GROW BUSINESS THROUGH ENTREPRENEURIAL ORIENTATION (EO) Sutarjo, Ir., MM., MBA. Business Administration Study, Institut Manajemen Telkom, email: [email protected] ABSTRACT This paper to discuss the result on research papers conducted in USA, Europe, Africa and Asia based on literature study; which is expected to be useful for insight for SMEs development in Indonesia since entrepreneurial activity is important to overcome unemployment. Entrepreneurial orientation (EO) reflected in organizational processes, behavior and decision-making style such as innovativeness, pro-activeness, risk-taking, autonomy, and competitive aggressiveness. They suggested that EO effects directly, indirectly, independently and jointly on SME’s business performance. Firms with EO continuously scan their operating environment to define new business and opportunities. Innovative and proactive traits help SMEs survival during turbulent times. EO dimensions are important to enhance capabilities to build network, to pursue growth strategy and to improve marketing performance. Considerable scope for future research and important implication for government, universities, and development agencies is to focus on assistances in the development of organizational capabilities to increase EO which will be effective in enhancing SMEs’ competitive advantages to grow business. Keywords: Entrepreneurial orientation, SME, competitive advantages, innovativeness, pro-activeness, risk-taking, autonomy, and competitive aggressiveness Introduction Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) play an important role in economic development and income growth, and account for more than 99.8% of the total number of enterprises in Indo-nesia. Some SMEs in Indonesia have the potential to contribute to international trade (Kusuma-wardhani et al, 2009). SMEs employ 96.2 percent of the total workforce (Tambunan, 2011), significantly promotes new jobs, new business, and contributes heavily in reducing poverty, which reflect how Indonesia really depends on SME growth and SME will become a key factor to develop Indonesian economy (Pribadi and Kanai, 2011).


Increasing business competition, in particular against large and modern competitors, put SMEs in a vulnerable position (Indarti and Langenberg, 2004), hence it is important to learn how entrepreneurial orientation (EO) help the SMEs increase their competitive advantages and grow their business.

EO represents developing cumulative body of knowledge, and

refers to the strategy making processes that provide organizations with a basis for entrepreneurial decisions and actions (Rauch et al, 2009). Literature Review Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) are different from large firms by uncer-tainty, innovation and evolution while they are operating business in more uncertain exter-nal environment than large firms. SME need more resources to compete in the business envi-ronment so they need help and support to compete and survive in their business (Thri-kawala, 2011). SMEs’ competitiveness in Indonesia scored below 4 from scale of 1-10 which is lower compared to those in Philippines, China, Malaysia and Thailand, while innovation is difficult for entrepreneurs as they face more constraints in accessing the resources to implement new processes and techniques (Tambunan, 2011). Some of the weaknesses of SMEs in Indonesia is weak in entrepreneurial spirit, low commitment of leadership to implement market orientation in the organization and lack of training (Suliyanto, 2011). Entrepreneur Orientation (EO) "Entrepreneurial" is often associated with venturesome or creative in acquiring the resources to build and grow the business (Birley in Teoh and Chong, 2007). Given the importance of entrepreneurship for the firm’s performance, entrepreneurial orientation (EO) could be an important measure of the way a firm is organized (Matanda, 2008). EO is a construct that addresses the mindset of firms engaged in the pursuit of venture creation; it 87


refers to the processes, practices, and decision-making activities, such as firm’s strategic decision-making styles and business practices (Naldi et al, 2007). EO may be intensely related to performance when it com-bines with the appropriate strategy and proper environment conditions (Tonesakulrungruang, 2009). There are five dimensions of EO: autonomy, innovativeness, risk taking, proactiveness, and competitive aggressiveness which have been useful for characterizing and distinguishing key entrepreneurial processes (Lumpkin and Dess, 1996). Autonomy is the independent action undertaken by entrepreneurial leaders or teams to bring new venture (Matanda, 2008) in bringing idea or vision and carrying it through to completion; or the ability to be self-directed in the pursuit of opportunities (Lumpkin and Dess, 1996). Entrepreneurs who have the autonomy make strong and decisive decisions and guide the direction of the business (Coulthard, 2006). Innovativeness reflects a firm's tendency in engaging new ideas, novelty, experimentation, and creative processes that may result in new products, services, or technological processes (Lumpkin and Dess, 1996), it can be accessed through the indicator of involvement in R&D, the extent of innovation and qualifications of the workforce (Quince & Whittaker, 2003). Risk-taking dimension measure the degree to which managers are willing to make large and risky resource commitments (Coulthard, 2006). Entrepreneurs are individuals who bear risks and risk-taking, it is decisive for both entrepreneurs and firms to evaluate factors of risk compared to the resources and then carefully strategizing in order to minimize the risk uncertainty (Osman et al, 2011). Proactiveness defined as acting in anticipation of future problems, needs, or changes, and crucial to an EO because it suggests a forward-looking perspective that is accompanied by innovative or new-venturing activity (Lumpkin and Dess, 1996); by shaping the environment; introducing new products and brands ahead of competition; eliminating declining stages of 88


product life cycle; participating in emerging markets; and by anticipating and pursuing new opportunities (Coulthard, 2006). Competitive aggressiveness is the intensity of a firm’s effort to outperform rivals and is characterized by a strong offensive posture or aggressive response to the actions of competitors (Lumpkin and Dess, 1996), which is accomplished by setting ambitious market share goals and taking bold steps to achieve them, such as cutting prices or profitability (Coulthard, 2006). EO and Performance Increasing the EO of the firm is related positively with financial performance (Lumpkin and Dess, 1996). EO is strongly associated with a motivation to engage in entrepreneurial activities and contributes to the firm’s performance, which is defined as a compound measure incorporating dimensions of growth as well as financial performance; it is regarded as a key ingredient for a firm’s success. A firm’s EO is the company's top management’s propensity to take calculated risks, to be innovative, and to demonstrate proactiveness. In short, EO is an entrepreneurial process comprising of the methods, practices, and decision-making styles managers use to act entrepreneurially (Thai, 2010). EO enhances performance through focusing attention on the utilization of these resources to discover and exploit opportunities (Wiklund and Sherpherd 2003) and developing new products and services as changes in the environment provide opportunities for the enterprises such as technological, social or market (Fang et al, 2009). Methodology This study is based on the literature review. The research studies that have been conducted in the developed and developing countries are taken into consideration and discussed in this study. It is on purpose to include both developed and developing countries 89


and different kinds of industries in which SMEs operate to understand the insight on how EO help SMEs gain competitive advantages to grow the business. According Frank et al (2010) to understand impacts of EO to business performance, it is a need to consider the background in which the relevant firms are embedded; relative impacts on business performance vary over the different stages of the industry’s life cycle and relation between EO and performance varies substantially according to national culture. Results Country

#

Research By

USA

Patel and D’Souza (2009)

Netherlands

Kraus et al (2010)

Sweden

Respondents 270

SMEs’ Field Activities

Result of the Study

SMEs in export activities

Risk taking & innovative reduce impediment and support export performance

164

Operate in the manufacturing industry, average age of the firm is 43 years.

Proactive firm behavior positively contributes to SME performance during the economic crisis; innovative SMEs perform better in turbulent environments.

Wiklund and Shepherd (2005)

465

Firms from knowledge-intensive manufacturing, labor-intensive manufacturing, professional services, and retail

Austria

Frank et al (2010).

85

SME’s(incl. micro-businesses). Components; distribution and control apparatus; motors, generators, and transformers; and communication technology. Age more than 10 years, 40% more than 40 years.

EO (i.e., proactiveness, innovativeness, and risk-taking) positively influences small business performance. Using financial capital and environment as moderators, EO accentuates small business performance positively and strongly. Environmental dynamism and firm age: newer firms consider their environment to be more dynamic than do older firms. There is a relatively high and significant correlation between business performance, as a dependent variable, and access to financial capital. There is consistently significant influence of firm age and access to financial capital.

Canada

St-Jean et al (2010)

717

Taiwan

Chen et al (2007)

104

Forestry contractor: logging, transportation, forest road construction, age 18 years Start-ups venture in Taiwan

Turkey

Gürbüz and Aykol (2009)

221

Small manufacturing firms in Istanbul.

Zimbabwe & South Africa

Krauss et al (2005)

248

Firms in scrap, metal merchants, garages, furniture mfg, grocery, tailors, soap mfg and up-market businesses in urban office buildings. Firm’s age is >1 year

Kenya

(Matanda, 2008)

384

Pakistan

Osman et al (2011)

303

Small-scale earthenware manufacturers 182 manufacturing, 65 services and 56 retail/trade firms

Sri Lanka

Eriksson and

73

Their core business is within

EO firm seek simultaneous growth in farm industry, then diversify to back up and sustain in farm industry Autonomy, proactivity, innovative support new venture growth shows significant relationship between social capital and entrepreneurial performance for new ventures. There are strong interactions between social interaction and autonomy Proactive combined with organic structure support sales growth, instead of risk taking they adopt calculated risk. EO affects firm growth. EO achieves better results when it is supported by the appropriate management activities. EO and its components are valuable predictors for business’ success. Risk taking & innovative support growth, however mostly lack of proactiveness and risktaking. Most important EO components for performance are the owners’ achievement orientation and personal initiative. There is a positive and statistically significant relationship between EO and new market entry. Innovativeness & proactiveness significantly and positively related to all three dimensions of MO, that is, customer orientation, competitor orientation and interfunctional coordination. Risk-taking is positively associated to all three dimensions of MO (marketing orientation). EO and resources are correlated to some extent,

90


Thunberg (2006)

software development and services. Most of the firms, due to the nature of the industry, also export products and services internationally.

China

Fang et al (2009)

199

Manufacturing sector (57%), wholesale, retail, construction, education, chemicals, telecommunications, finance, insurance, established in 3 years.

Thailand

Ussahawanitchakit (2007)

140

Textile businesses in Thailand

Malaysia

Awang et al (2007)

615

Agro based: fishing, agriculture service, livestock

Malaysia

Zainol and Ayadurai (2011)

162

78% services, 6% Information & Communication Technology (ICT), 5.6% were manufacturing, 4.9% primary agriculture, 4.3% manufacturing related services and 0.6% agro-based. Most firms operated between 1 to 3 years (98%bumiputera /Malaysia indigenous).

Indonesia

Anggraeni (2009)

24(small study)

SMEs in creative industry in East Java, owners are Petra University’s alumni.

Indonesia

Suliyanto (2011)

200

Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) running food and beverage sector in the residency Banyumas areas.

especially the technical resources together with that one concerned with labor flexibility. Technical knowledge creates correlation between EO and knowledge based resources (managerial experience, marketing and customer knowledge with technical and product development skills) important in explaining growth. EO has correlation to sales growth. Proactiveness and autonomy shows significant and strong relation to the sales levels. The right combination of knowledge based resources is important in creating competitive advantage. For new ventures, the difficulty of acquiring resources has not prevented their entrepreneurial activities. On the contrary, new ventures, which find it more difficult to acquire resources, have stronger EO. At the same time, formal organization could promote proactiveness in the competition. All innovativeness, capacity to innovate, and willingness to change have a significant positive effect on Thai textile businesses' export performance. Gain understanding how textile businesses in Thailand utilize their innovation capability to improve business operations, gain competitive advantage, and achieve high global competitiveness. EO dimension-effectiveness SMAE. EO dimensions among SMAEs entrepreneurs showed strong relationship to knowledge base elements of human capital development and knowledge and network variables (consist of strategic alliance and social’s networking capabilities). EO has a direct relationship with the firm’s performance. Bumiputera or indigenous Malay entrepreneurship differs slightly from the conventional Western concepts of entrepreneurship, the differences contributed by the background of the Malays as a communitarian society of Muslims. Malays are still divided along class lines and status conscious, the study reveals that developing an entrepreneurship culture in a historically agrarian society, is challenging as well as time requiring and relentless efforts. SMEs in the creative industry with formal venture having higher EO compared to sole proprietorship, SMEs with higher degree of EO have higher sales turnover. EO has a positive effect on customer orientation and competitor orientation, marketing reward system has a positive effect on customer orientation and competitor orientation, customer orientation has positive affect marketing performance.

Discussion Developed countries USA, Netherlands, Sweden, Austria and Canada are developed countries or advanced economies, while Taiwan is Newly Industrialized Asian Economies which categorized as developed country (IMF, 2011). Studies in the developed countries provide learning that there are various dimensions of EO which influence SMEs competitive advantages depending on the industry/sector, age 91


of the firm and the environment dynamic. For example in the USA, proactivity and risktaking play a role in enhancing export performance of SMEs and proactive in nature are better at reducing export impediments. This study provides insight how policy maker and the agency will help SME’s in Indonesia to improve the performance in export market by fostering proactiveness. Proactiveness is significantly and positively correlated with business performance which is based on the study in Netherlands, interaction of innovativeness with turbulence such as 2009 economic crisis in Europe are having significant positive relation to business performance. In Sweden, EO (i.e., proactiveness, innovativeness, and risk taking) positively influences SMEs’ business performance; using financial capital and environment as moderators, EO accentuate SMEs’ business performance positively and strongly. In Austria using environmental dynamism and firm age, newer firms consider their environment to be more dynamic than do older firms. There is significant correlation between business performance and access to financial capital; and significant influence of firm age and access to financial capital. In Canada EO firm seek simultaneous growth in farm industry, then diversify to back up and sustain in farm industry. Study in Canada is important learning for development of SME’s in Indonesia in rural area, because most of them still depend on agro-based activities. St-Jean et al (2010) found that agro-based SMEs will strive to sustain business then diversify, however the diversification is held more to back up the revenue of their agricultural based industry. In Indonesia, we may adopt by considering the high fluctuation on the agriculture commodity price; agro-based SMEs running their business on rubber, onion, potato need to adopt diversification approach to back up their business revenue and sustainable during bad season or low price. In Taiwan, there are significant relationships between social capital and entrepreneurial performance for new ventures; there are strong interactions between social 92


interaction and autonomy. There are strong interactions between relationship quality and marketing capability. It implies if the management of new ventures ignores relationship quality among suppliers or buyers, it tends to damage new venture’s marketing ability. As the new ventures’ relationship quality and external network become more favorable, the profit rises.

Autonomy, innovation, and proactivity positively influence new ventures’

growth and profit. Study in Taiwan provide insight that SME’s in Indonesia to improve performance should develop social capital or intensive and positive interaction with suppliers, agencies, financial institution and most importantly with the market or customers. Developing Countries These following countries: Turkey, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Kenya, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, China, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia are categorized as Emerging and Developing Economies (IMF, 2011). Small business success largely depends on inventing and executing competitive strategies in response to the challenging business environment. Investment in employing an EO and MO (marketing orientation) strategy will assist SMEs in gaining success not only in short-term but over the longer period of time as well (Osman et al, 2011). In Turkey, proactiveness, organic structure and reward philosophy revealed significant and positive results on SMEs. For Turkish small firms calculating risk is more important than taking risk. To strive for sales growth, SMEs to be recommended to be proactive and take calculated risks; to promote entrepreneurial culture and organic structure (Gürbüz and Aykol, 2009). Study in Zimbabwe and the South Africa found the most important EO components for performance are the owners’ achievement orientation and personal initiative. Zimbabwe and South Africa are highly collective societies, autonomy orientation and competitive 93


aggressiveness could be generally lower and restricted in variance. Assertiveness is also low in both countries and could affect learning orientation, competitive aggressiveness, and innovative orientation (Krauss et al, 2005). This situation is familiar with SME’s in Indonesia which are growing in collective societies especially in rural areas, low of innovation and assertiveness; hence the development to increase innovation and to be assertive to market is necessary. Furthermore,

the

strong

relationship between performance with the EO

components which are achievement orientation and personal initiative open up a new perspective in the training for micro and small business owners; psychological training methods enhance individual achievement orientation as well as personal initiative. In Kenya earthenware maker rely on the local market, they have constraints to earnings because the customers are poor and generally buy limited range of products. Insight to SMEs in Indonesia which most of them rely to local market, this means that entry into new markets can be described as an aspect of entrepreneurial outcomes. Entry into new markets offers expanded opportunities for disposing off surplus products. It is also an important way that entrepreneurs can use to gain access to critical resources since it encourages the adoption of technology and best business practices which underlie the improved performance. It also found that younger earthenware manufacturers are more likely to access new markets, which shows that younger people are predisposed towards accessing new markets; because younger people are not conservative and have energy and impetus to venture into new markets. For the development of SMEs in Indonesia, there are critical success factors to entry new markets: business expertise, innovativeness, networks, marketing and understanding of customers, flexibility, creativity, good reputation, advertisements and trade fairs. Risk-taking, innovation, autonomy have significant relation with the new market entry. Matanda (2008) suggested that attending trainings is positively 94


and statistically related with the accessing of new markets. Training improves the attitude, skills and knowledge of the entrepreneurs which makes them more likely to identify and exploit new market outlets, training also enhances the ability to identify market opportunities and broadens one’s network density. There is significant role of women who owne small and medium sized businesses in conservative and transitional economies in employment creation, international trade and domestic wealth. In Pakistan, proactiveness significantly and positively related to all three dimensions of MO (marketing orientation), meaning that they are driven to identify potential opportunities ahead of competitors and creating products and services based on the customers needs (Osman et al, 2011). However in other study, the degree of EO of most SME owners’ are low caused by economic, social and political instability in Pakistan, which pose a negative impact on existing and potential entrepreneurs (Ullah et al, 2011). Mirroring to those situations in term of economic and social situations, there is a need of entrepreneurship education to individual; team work, networking and proper social support system are also necessarily required; further development of entrepreneurial talent and opportunities for an entrepreneurial class in Indonesia to emerge should be explored. In Sri Lanka knowledge based resources (managerial experience, marketing and customer knowledge together with technical and product development skills) are found to be important in explaining growth. The right combination of knowledge based resources is important in creating competitive advantage. Technical and product development skill, adaptive flexibility and creativity in terms of new product and service ideas have significant importance in explaining the EO of firms. Developing key technologies and driving change in that direction may not be recommended, aims is focused on finding niche markets and technologies in which products and services can be created with the knowledge unique to Sri 95


Lanka. It is recommended to adapt new technologies fast, and take on the improvement and innovations instead of revolutionary development. The more the environment is hostile and dynamic, the more will firms act entrepreneurially. The more ‘technocrats’ the industry has, the more entrepreneurship is present strengthen the link between environment and entrepreneurial activity further. Small firms obtain higher financial performance in a hostile environment if holding an entrepreneurial strategic posture (Eriksson and Thunberg, 2006). In China, there is significant relationship between acquisition of resources, formal organization and EO of new ventures from those of established firms. For new ventures, the difficulty of acquiring resources has not prevented their entrepreneurial activities. New ventures, which find it more difficult to acquire resources, have stronger EO (Fang et al, 2009). Fang et al suggests that new ventures need to balance between formal organization and organizational flexibility in a highly uncertain environment. The study gave insight that SME’s in Indonesia should not focus on the lack of resources issues; SMEs in China have shown their strong competitive advantages due to entrepreneurial activities driven by difficulty in acquiring resources which did not prevent their entrepreneurial activities. In Thailand, SMEs in textile business survive during the Asian economic crises because their strategic reactive behavior. EO positively links to firm growth, because the EO constructs nature to facilitate innovation and competitiveness, and in result improves performance in the context of SMEs (Ussahawanitchakit, 2007). Study of SMAEs (Small and Medium Agro-Based Enterprises) in Malaysia found that risk-taking and competitiveness are significantly related to SMAEs effectiveness. To be successful, the firms should exercise autonomy and proactiveness. For social network, risk taking, innovativeness and proactiveness orientations are the main determinants. EO dimensions are critical to boost human capital development and knowledge endowment 96


among SMAEs entrepreneurs in Malaysia while social network and EO are directly related to firms’ effectiveness (Awang et al, 2007). Another study by Zainol and Ayadurai (2011) suggest there is significance relationship between personality traits and competitive advantage in Malaysian SMEs. There is no significant relationship between age, sex, race, religion and respondents’ state of origin to EO; but the difference of residential areas has a positive correlation with EO. The study provides the empirical test in understanding indigenous entrepreneurship in Malaysia. The Malay's attitude towards money is still underdeveloped, instead of investing, they use it for consumption, pleasure and “adat” (“kenduri”). Traditionally, the Malays were peasant farmers and considered land as the most sought property. Misconceptions about this principle of destiny have led some Malays to lack initiatives; they hindered by misconceptions (faith, money) and lack of financial management knowledge. “Dependency” mentality that inhibits initiatives has been cultured in community that receives government assistance; while a community who does not receive assistance, are more likely to act cohesively and proactively, and more successful in the entrepreneurial venture. Privileges do not contribute much in enhancing entrepreneurship culture and business competitiveness in Malaysia (Zainol and Ayadurai, 2011). Small study by Anggraeni (2009) in Indonesia found that SMEs in the creative industry with formal venture have higher EO compared to sole proprietorship, SMEs with higher degree of EO have higher sales turnover, indicating that by formalize the venture, the owner is ready to run the business and pay full attention to the business activities, while sole proprietorship owner still considers that the business activities are side job which the attention to grow the business is not fully in place. Other study on SMEs in Indonesia engages on food and beverages by Suliyanto (2011). EO has positive influence on customer 97


orientation and competitor orientation, market-based reward system affects positively to customer orientation and competitor orientation and customer orientation gives correlation positively to marketing performance. However, similar to the result of the study in Zimbabwe and South Africa (Krauss et al, 2005), SMEs in Indonesia lack of proactiveness and risktaking, hence it is recommended to formulate managerial strategy to improve performance by increasing the degree of taking business risks, being more proactive in developing business, increasing awareness of the importance of innovation and autonomy in running its operations. There may be a question of whether the findings are specific to each country or more universal as questioned by Frank et al (2010), which is based on their replication study, they argued that inconsistencies in findings concerning the relation between EO and performance may be due to incomplete consideration of the influence of configurations of EO, internal resources, and the external environment. However, by learning those findings, the policy makers and agency may adopt different approaches to build competitive advantage using EO dimension depending on the stage of firm establishment, form of the venture either formal or sole proprietorship, the sector of the industry such as agriculture, manufacturing, services or export based.

Conclusion Empirical studies presents valuable information in the preparation of entrepreneurship development programs by borrowing the term from Ullah et al (2011), “Entrepreneurs are not born, they are made; psychological characteristics can be learnt or changed.” Results of those studies imply that EO does not constitute a “secret weapon” under all environmental 98


conditions and developments in a firm, however EO might preferably be pursued in rapidly changing environments that offer new opportunities. Most important EO components for performance are the owners’ achievement orientation and personal initiative, meaning that successful SMEs are generally associated with owner’s EO. Vocational training may be adopted by Indonesian’s policy makers and the development bodies to develop EO among SMEs’ owners or managers. It is common phenomenon in Indonesia that SMEs which are operated for agriculture products spend their fortunes mostly for consumption purposes and other unproductive or celebration activities during good season or good price; then sell their belongings during bad season or low price of commodities. By combining research’s result from Canada and Malaysia, policy maker can create an understanding on EO concepts and emphasis on the necessity of business diversification to back up the agro-based industry during bad season or low price. Implications for researchers, government, universities & development bodies Comparative international studies are necessary to improve our ability to assess whether country-specific research findings can be generalized. Referring to the study on the software developers in Sri Lanka, the right combination of knowledge based on resources is important in creating competitive advantage; future research and important implication for government, universities, and development agencies and that EO should be holistically embedded into SMEs, they should also proactively facilitate resource combination that is capable of producing synergy with a clear entrepreneurial mind-set operating in an entrepreneurial culture to foster entrepreneurial leadership among SMEs in Indonesia. Such an innovative entrepreneur must have the capacity to analyze the variables like skills, motives, attributes, competence, socio-political, technological and economic influences in the 99


internal and external environments to discover the distinctive offer in the market, distinctive competence and unique capability that can generate the desired competitive advantage. To reduce personal barriers, the government needs to focus more on the readiness and motivation aspects of building entrepreneurs by offering selective specialized training programs. Policy makers interested in enhancing the entry of small businesses into new markets are advised to focus on the measures that can improve the EO of SMEs’ owners by providing an enabling environment, entrepreneurial conception and non-financial promotional policies to accompany a credit policy or other financial infrastructure supports.

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Faktor-faktor yang Mempengaruhi Motivasi Kerja Perempuan Pengusaha Oleh. Ni Ketut Ayu Ambarini, SE, MHRM Paper ini akan dipresentasikan pada; The First ICBC: International Conference of Business and Administration 23rd-24th November 2011, Jakarta

Abstrak Biro Pusat Statistik Bali pada tahun 2010 menunjukkan bahwa populasi wanita berusia 15 tahun atau lebih yang melakukan bisnis sendiri atau menjadi pengusaha adalah sejumlah 190.167.000 perempuan Bali, dari total 387.377.000 orang-orang yang melakukan pekerjaan itu. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa hampir 50% dari total masyarakat Bali yang melakukan aktivitas kewirausahaan adalah perempuan. Fakta ini cukup menarik karena Bali sebagai salah satu daerah di Indonesia dikenal karena budaya yang didominasi oleh laki-laki, dan seringkali dianggap menempatkan perempuan sebagai warga kelas dua di wilayah ini. Namun fakta ini menunjukkan bahwa perempuan Bali mampu bersaing dengan laki-laki Bali untuk menjadi pengusaha. Tulisan ini akan melihat lebih dalam dan menemukan motivasi yang melatarbelakangi mengapa perempuan Bali memilih untuk menjadi pengusaha atau menjalankan usahanya sendiri. Variabel independen dalam penelitian ini akan dibagi menjadi motivasi ekonomi (untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidup yang lebih baik, menjadi lebih mandiri dalam hal keuangan, dan mendapatkan penghasilan yang lebih besar), motivasi bekerja (sulit untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan, frustasi bekerja dengan orang lain, adanya hambatan untuk berkarir dalam dunia kerja), motivasi keluarga (keseimbangan waktu antara bekerja dan kehidupan pribadi, fleksibilitas waktu untuk keluarga, permintaan suami, bisnis keluarga turun temurun), motivasi sosial (adanya pengakuan dari masyarakat, terlibat di dalam kegiatan adat dan budaya, dipandang sebagai kelas menengah atas). Penelitian ini akan fokus untuk mengeksplorasi lebih dalam motivasi mengapa banyak wanita memilih Bali untuk menjadi pengusaha. Dengan menjaga keberadaan perempuan Bali dalam dunia kewirausahaan akan menunjukkan adanya kesetaraan dan juga memberikan gairah baru bagi perekonomian Bali dan Indonesia.

Latar belakang Pada saat ini khususnya di Indonesia memang perkembangan perempuan untuk terlibat di segala bidang pembangunan mulai menggeliat dan menunjukan eksistensinya. Perkembangan perempuan Indonesia untuk menjadi manusia Indonesia yang berprestasi dengan mempertimbangkan kesetaraan gender semakin menunjukan arah. Tujuan


pemberdayaan perempuan adalah untuk tercapainya kesetaraan gender dan adanya sikap keadilan serta kesempatan yang rata untuk perempuan berkembang di dalam berbagai jenis kegiatan.Namun, potensi-potensi yang dimiliki perempuan bangsa ini seringkali terabaikan karena faktor budaya dan struktur yang terbentuk di masyarakat. Ditengah peran-peran tradisional yang

dijalankan perempuan, justru muncul

kekuatan-kekuatan yang membawa banyak perubahan-perubahan paradigma terhadap asumsi umum terkait sosok seorang perempuan sebagai sosok nomor dua dibawah laki-laki. Salah satu peran dan kegiatan yang mengalami kemajuan cukup pesat adalah munculnya sosok perempuan pengusaha dalam berbagai sektor kegiatan ekonomi bangsa ini. Industri kerajinan rumah tangga, usaha kecil menengah, makanan daerah, perdagangan umum, industri jasa dan banyak lagi sektor bisnis lainnya yang mulai dirambah oleh kaum perempuan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan ekonomi rumah tangga dan meningkatkan kualitas hidup diri dan keluarganya. Sebuah studi menunjukan bahwa 18-30% pengusaha di wilayah Asia termasuk di dalamnya Indonesia, Malaysia, Philipina, Singapore dan Thailand adalah perempuan (Licuanan, 1992)6.

Penelitian lainnya di tahun 2004, yang dilakukan oleh Global

Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM)7 juga menunjukan bahwa 1/3 orang-orang yang terlibat di dalam kegiatan wirausaha (entrepreneurial activities) adalah perempuan. Perkembangan perempuan yang memilih menjadi pengusaha di Indonesia cukup menarik, dan mengalami pertumbuhan yang signifikan. Dari data yang dirilis Kompas.com (2011)8, menunjukan bahwa BNI (Bank Negara Indonesia) menemukan sebuah fenomena menarik yang terjadi di Indonesia dalam empat (4) tahun terakhir, yaitu terjadinya lonjakan pengusaha perempuan di Indonesia lebih dari 40 persen. Menurut catatan BNI pada bulan

6

Licuanan , V,.S 1992,’ Women Entrepreneurs in Southeast Asia’, Asian Institute of Management and Canadian International Development Agency. 7 Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2004, Women and Entrepreneur Centre for Women’s Leadership, Banson College, MA, USA. 8 Fazriyati, W 2011,Pebisnis Perempuan Jarang Terkena Kredit Macet, http://female.kompas.com/read/2011/03/24/12031459/Pebisnis.Perempuan.Jarang.Terkena.Kredit.Macet. dilihat pada tanggal 30 Oktober 2011.

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Maret 2011 terdapat sekitar 58.000 usaha kecil, dan 25 persennya (12.000) di jalankan oleh perempuan. Walaupun perempuan cenderung mengambil tempat untuk menjalankan sektor usaha kecil, namun banyak penelitian yang menunjukan perempuan lebih waspada dan berhati-hati dalam menjalankan bisnisnya. Pada tahun 2002, ADB (Asian Development Bank)9 dalam penelitiannya terhadap usaha kecil dan menengah menunjukan bahwa pertumbuhan usaha yang dikelola oleh perempuan cenderung lebih maju dari usaha yang dikelola laki-laki. Hamilton (2002)10 juga menemukan bahwa bisnis yang dikelola perempuan cenderung lebih kecil daripada bisnis yang dikelola laki-laki, namun bukan berarti dikelola dengan manajemen yang tidak serius. Menariknya perempuan pengusaha biasanya mempunyai karakter yang lebih termotivasi oleh tujuan-tujuan yang kurang ekonomis, oleh sebab itu mereka cenderung tidak terlalu agresif untuk membuat pertumbuhan usahanya menjadi besar (Chaganti, 1986)11. Banyak perempuan yang memilih menjalankan usahanya karena bisa dilakukan bersama-sama dengan mengurus keluarganya sehingga ada keseimbangan waktu untuk keluarga dan bekerja di perusahaannya serta tetap mampu menunjukan aktualisasi dirinya. Jika dilihat secara keseluruhan dengan menggunakan perbandingan keseluruhan penduduk Indonesia, jumlah pengusaha perempuan di Indonesia ini masih berada di kisaran 0,1 persen dari total penduduk Indonesia (Kompas.com, 2011)12. Namun, hal itulah juga yang mendorong Ikatan Wanita Pengusaha Indonesia (IWAPI) berupaya memotivasi khususnya kaum perempuan untuk menjadi pengusaha. Pada tahun 2012 IWAPI menargetkan pengusaha

9

Asian Development Bank 2002, SME Development Bank’s Technical Assistance Survey, Report 10 Hamilton, L. C, 2002. ‘Female Entrepreneurs: Overcoming Problems and Reacting to Challenges’. Proceedings of the 47 the International Council for Small Business World Conference. 11 Chaganti, R., (1986). Management in women-owned enterprises. Journal of Small Business Management, vol. 24, no.4, pp.18-29 12 Candra, A 2011, Jumlah Wanita Pengusaha Masih Minim, http://bisniskeuangan.kompas.com/read/2011/01/29/21141062/Jumlah.Wanita.Pengusaha.Masih.Minim dilihat pada tanggal 29 Oktober 2011.

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perempuan Indonesia bisa mencapai 2% dari keseluruhan penduduk Indonesia13. Kenaikan jumlah pengusaha perempuan ini dianggap bisa berkontribusi di dalam pembangunan ekonomi bangsa. Mentri Perdagangan Mari Eka Pangestu menyatakan keyakinannya pada besarnya kekuatan ekonomi yang dimiliki wanita khususnya di Asia Pasifik, oleh karenanya menghilangkan

hambatan

bagi wanita

untuk

berpartisipasi

dalam

pembangunan-

pembangunan ekonomi merupakan isu yang strategis, misalnya saja dengan membuka akses modal dan asset terhadap wanita, melibatkan dalam penyusunan kebijakan, mengembangkan kapasitas dan membuat regulasi bisnis yang tidak menyulitkan wanita untuk terlibat (Maftuhah, 2011)14. Salah satu contoh kontribusi perempuan dalam perekonomian terjadi di Canada menunjukan bahwa keberadaan perempuan sebagai pengusaha mampu menyumbang $18 milyar terhadap perekonomian Canada di tahun 2003 (Canada, 2003)15.

Tantangan Perempuan Pengusaha Bali Hal yang menarik dari perkembangan perempuan pengusaha di Indonesia ini juga terjadi di beberapa wilayah di Indonesia. Salah satu yang menarik terkait perkembangan pengusaha perempuan ini juga terjadi di Bali. Biro Pusat Statistik Bali pada tahun 201016 menunjukkan bahwa populasi wanita berusia 15 tahun atau lebih yang melakukan bisnis sendiri atau menjadi pengusaha adalah sejumlah 190.167.000 perempuan Bali, dari total 387.377.000 orang-orang yang melakukan pekerjaan wirausaha di Bali. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa hampir 50% dari total masyarakat Bali yang melakukan aktivitas kewirausahaan tersebut adalah

perempuan.

13

2011, IWAPI Dorong Jumlah Pengusaha Wanita jadi 2 %, http://bataviase.co.id/node/717005 dilihat pada tanggal 29 Oktober 2011. Maftuhah 2011, Perempuan perlu dilibatkan dalam pembangunan ekonomi Asia Pacifik, www.economy.okezone.com, vdilihat pada tanggal 20 Oktober 2011 15 Canada, 2003, Prime Minister’s Task Force on Women Entrepreneurs , Ottawa: Canada, http://www.liberal .parl.gc.ca/entrepreneur /documents/031029_final_report_en.pdf/ dilihat pada tanggal 3 Oktober 2011. 16 Badan Pusat Statistik Propinsi Bali 2010, Penduduk 15 Tahun ke Atas yang Bekerja Menurut Status dalam Pekerjaan Utamanya Tahun 2009 14

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Walaupun dari data yang muncul tersebut tidak mengkategorikan identitas perempuan Bali dengan details, namun asumsi yang muncul terhadap perempuan Bali di dalam data ini adalah perempuan Bali yang berasal asli dari Bali, dan memiliki latar belakang adat istiadat tradisi Bali. Fakta ini cukup menarik karena Bali sebagai salah satu daerah di Indonesia dikenal karena budaya yang didominasi oleh laki-laki, dan seringkali dianggap menempatkan perempuan sebagai warga kelas dua di wilayah ini. Ideologi gender yang berkembang di masyarakat telah menentukan bahwa rumah tangga atau ranah domestik adalah dunianya perempuan sementara ranah publik merupakan dunianya laki-laki. Keadaan ini semakin tidak menguntungkan dengan adanya budaya patriarkhi yang cenderung menjadi salah satu faktor penyebab terjadinya perlakuan yang kurang menguntungkan bagi kaum perempuan. Khususnya di Bali dalam hal ini ketimpangan gender pada beberapa bidang pembangunan masih relatif menonjol, seperti di bidang pendidikan, ketenagakerjaan, dan di bidang politik. Di bidang pendidikan saja contohnya, kesenjangan gender terutama terlihat pada jenjang pendidikan SMU ke atas. Pada tahun 2009 jumlah penduduk perempuan yang tamat SMU hanya 128.872.000 penduduk, sementara jumlah penduduk laki-laki yang tamat SMU hampir dua kalinya yaitu sebesar 263.350.000. (Bali dalam angka,2010)17. Contoh lain terjadi di bidang politik, belum banyaknya perempuan Bali yang terlibat dalam politik adalah karena banyak perempuan Bali tersandung dengan beberapa kendala yang dilihat dari perspektif adat dan budaya, salah satunya adalah dari segi hukum adat, perempuan Bali masih terikat dengan upacara keagamaan yang berkesinambungan dan banyak awig awig di Bali yang hanya berbicara tentang laki-laki, contoh yang paling sederhana adalah perempuan Bali

17

Bali Dalam Angka, 2010, Penduduk 15 tahun Menurut Pendidikan Tertinggi yang Ditamatkan Tahun 2009

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tidak pernah diikutsertakan di dalam rapat-rapat di banjar (Bali Post, 2008)18.

Banyak

perempuan Bali yang berpikir bahwa tradisi adalah sebuah dilemma untuk mengembangkan dirinya, selain itu dalam prakteknya banyak keputusan-keputusan penting yang menyangkut kehidupan desa mengesampingkan peran perempuan Bali. Di dalam adat dan tradisi Bali, dianut sistem garis keturunan ayah atau dikenal dengan sistem patrialisme. Sehingga posisi laki-laki lebih strategis sebagai penerus keluarga, dan juga dalam pengambilan keputusan rumah tangga. Perempuan Bali memiliki multi fungsi dalam kehidupannya, baik fungsinya sebagai sosok perempuan di dalam rumah tangga, maupun fungsinya di dalam adat masyarakat Bali. Oleh karena itu, sosok perempuan sebagai pengusaha di Bali akan mengalami tantangan yang

berat. Tantangan ini muncul karena perempuan tersebut tetap harus menjalankan

usahanya seperti laki-laki, khususnya bagi perempuan pengusaha yang sudah memiliki anak, ia juga harus mengurus dan memastikan anak-anaknya dalam keadaan baik dan bahkan tidak jarang pula mereka melakukan usahanya dengan membawa serta anaknya di dalam kegiatannya. Posisi perempuan sebagai pengurus rumah tangga dan memastikan semua kebutuhan rumah tangga sudah terpenuhi juga menjadi tantangan. Bahkan, tidak jarang perempuan Bali yang hidup secara komunal bersama keluarga besar “pihak lelaki” ini harus mengurus keluarga besar pihak lelaki tersebut. Di Bali, perempuan juga mempunyai peran cukup signifikan dalam tugasnya “menyama braya” di banjar dan lingkungan sosial adatnya. Perempuan yang terdaftar aktif di banjar

harus meluangkan waktunya untuk “mengayah atau meluangkan waktunya

mempersiapkan sebuah upacara adat atau keagamaan” di waktu-waktu tertentu, misalnya

18

Bali Post 2008 Terbentur banyak kendala - Perempuan Bali ke Kancah Politik, http://www.balipost.co.id/balipostcetak/2008/2/27/b27.htm dilihat pada tanggal 2 Oktober 2011.

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untuk upacara “odalan” keagamaan di Pura, upacara keagamaan lainnya, upacara pernikahan, kematian tetangga, keluarga dekat dan banyak upacara-upacara adat lainnya lagi. Fakta dimana banyak perempuan Bali terjun menjadi pengusaha bisa menunjukkan bahwa perempuan Bali mampu bersaing dengan laki-laki Bali untuk menjadi seorang pengusaha. Meningkatnya jumlah perempuan yang berkiprah di dunia publik tidak terlepas dari adanya berbagai faktor pendorong baik yang datang dari dalam diri perempuan itu sendiri atau faktor internal, maupun

yang datang dari luar

atau faktor ekternal

(Arjani,2000)19. Faktor internal yang mendorong perempuan untuk berperan di ranah publik antara lain adalah adanya keinginan dari perempuan untuk bisa membagi waktunya untuk keluarga dan kegiatan adat masyarakat Bali, menjadi

mandiri secara ekonomis, dan

memenuhi kebutuhan hidup utamanya kebutuhan ekonomi. Soesilawati (2000)20 menyatakan bahwa faktor internal seorang perempuan yang memiliki usaha akan menjadi pendorong dan juga penentu kinerja usaha dagang mereka. Diungkapkan juga bahwa faktor internal yang utama adalah motivasi kerja. Sedangkan faktor ekternal antara lain karena adanya terbuka, kemajuan teknologi terutama yang berkaitan dengan

kesempatan yang semakin kebutuhan wanita dalam

menjalankan peran reproduktifnya seperti kulkas, microwave, mesin cuci, dan lain- lain serta adanya program keluarga berencana (KB). Sehingga Hal ini dapat

mendukung

perempuan untuk memanfaatkan waktu secara lebih efisien dalam melaksanakan kegiatan reproduktif terutama pekerjaan rumah tangganya. Dengan beragam tantangan yang ada di depan mata, sangat menarik untuk dilihat lebih jauh apa motivasi yang melatarbelakangi pengusaha perempuan Bali ini terjun menjadi

19

Arjani 2000, Potensi dan Hambatan Sosial Budaya Perempuan Bali dalam era Transformasi, http://ejournal.unud.ac.id/abstrak/potensi%20dan%20hambatan%20sosial%20budaya%20perempuan%20bali%20dalam%20era%20transfor mas1.pdf dilihat pada tanggal 5 Oktober 2011. 20 Soesilawati 2000, Upaya Pengembangan Motivasi Kerja pada Wanita Pedagang Kecil, elib.pdii.lipi.go.id/katalog/index.php/.../5751.pdf dilihat pada tanggal 1 Oktober 2011.

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pengusaha. Motivasi kerja seorang pengusaha merupakan faktor yang cukup penting yang harus dimiliki oleh seorang pengusaha karena sebuah usaha tidak akan berjalan dan mendapatkan sukses tanpa sebuah motivasi (Robertson, Collins, Medeira and Slater, 2003)21.

Fokus Penelitian dan Data Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor yang memotivasi perempuan Bali untuk bekerja sebagai pengusaha. Dengan mempertimbangkan ketersediaan data penelitian dan waktu penelitian, maka penelitian ini hanya akan dibatasi pada faktor-faktor yang memotivasi perempuan pengusaha di Bali untuk melakukan usahanya. Untuk membuat penelitian ini lebih fokus, maka penelitian ini juga hanya mengambil sampel penelitian dari pengusaha perempuan Bali yang berada di wilayah Bali dan memiliki latar belakang adat istiadat Bali. Beberapa penelitian terkait motivasi kerja telah dilakukan sebelumnya, namun penelitian terkait motivasi kerja seorang yang berlatar belakang profesi sebagai pengusaha masih cukup jarang ditemukan. Pada umumnya penelitian terkait motivasi adalah dihubungkan dengan motivasi seorang pekerja sebuah organisasi atau karyawan. Beberapa penelitian terdahulu yang berhasil ditemukan terkait motivasi pengusaha antara lain adalah dilakukan oleh Kavitha Raman, Anantharaman, R.N, Faculty of Business and Law, Multimedia University dan Sharmila Jayasingam, Faculty of Business and Accountancy, University of Malaya pada tahun 200822, hasil temuan penelitian ini adalah perempuan yang mempunyai latar belakang pendidikan yang bagus lebih cenderung memilih menjadi pengusaha karena mereka ingin menjadi lebih mandiri. Menariknya 88,4 persen pengusaha

21

Robertson , M, Collins, Medeira, N & Slatter, J 2003, ‘Barriers to Start Up and Their Effect on Aspirant Entrepreneurs’, Education and Training,vol. 45, no.6, pp. 308-316. 22 Raman, K, Anantharaman, R,N, Jayasingam, S 2008, ‘Motivational Factors Affecting Entrepreneurial Decision: A Comparison between Malaysia Women Entrepreneurs and Women Non-Entrepreneurs’, Communication of IBIMA, vol.2, pp. 85-89.

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perempuan tersebut mempunyai pengalaman bekerja sebelumnya, keinginan untuk menjadi pengusaha adalah karena didorong karena adanya ketidakpuasan saat bekerja dan akhirnya timbul keinginan untuk berusaha sendiri. Sehingga disimpulkan motivasi bekerja adalah yang utama yang mendorong pengusaha perempuan Malaysia ini melakukan kegiatan wirausaha.. Penelitian tersebut dianalisa menggunakan analisa statistika faktor. Penelitian terdahulu lainnya yang berhasil ditemukan adalah berjudul Exploring motivation and success among Canadian women entrepreneurs, yang dilakukan oleh Karen D. Hughes, University of Alberta pada tahun 200023, dari hasil penelitian ini ditemukan perempuan pengusaha Canada lebih banyak dimotivasi oleh faktor klasik antara lain merasa tertantang, ingin menjadi lebih mandiri dan juga ingin mendapat kebebasan keuangan dalam arti lebih baik dalam hal keuangan. Penelitian ini didapatkan dari penyebaran survey nasional Canada yang berjudul “The Survey of Self Employment” yang diolah dengan teknik statistika SPSS. Dari beberapa teori motivasi dan penelitian terdahulu yang dikemukakan diatas, maka peneliti mencoba merangkum sebuah kerangka penelitian konseptual dengan menghimpun beberapa variabel yang akan dipergunakan di dalam penelitian ini yaitu: a. Motivasi ekonomi; motivasi untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidup yang lebih baik, menjadi lebih mandiri dalam hal keuangan, dan mendapatkan penghasilan yang lebih baik b. Motivasikarena pekerjaan lainnya; motivasi ini muncul karena sulit untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan, frustasi bekerja dengan orang lain, adanya hambatan untuk berkarir dalam dunia kerja

23

Hughes, K,D 2000, ‘Exploring Motivation and Success Among Canadian Women Entrepreneurs’, University of Alberta

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c. Motivasi keluarga; motivasi ini muncul karena membutuhkan keseimbangan waktu lain antara bekerja dan kehidupan pribadi, permintaan suami, bisnis keluarga turun temurun. d. Motivasi sosial; motivasi ini muncul karena membutuhkan adanya pengakuan dari masyarakat, ingin terlibat di dalam kegiatan sosial adat dan budaya masyarakat dam keinginan dipandang sebagai warga menengah keatas. Kerangka pemikiran tersebut kemudian dihubungkan dengan motivasi kerja yang melatarbelakangi pengusaha perempuan dalam melakukan usahanya. Kerangka pemikiran tersebut bisa dilihat pada Kerangka Pemikiran Konseptual Penelitian 1.

Motivasi Ekonomi

2.

Motivasi Pekerjaan Lain

3.

Motivasi Keluarga

Motivasi Kerja Perempuan Pengusaha asal Bali

Sumber: olahan data penelitian, 2011

Jenis penelitian ini adalah deskriptif kuantitatif. Nazir (2005)24 menyatakan bahwa penelitian deskriptif adalah metode dalam meneliti status kelompok manusia, suatu pemikiran, ataupun suatu peristiwa di masa sekarang yang bertujuan untuk membuat deskripsi, gambaran, atau lukisan secara sistematis, faktual dan akurat mengenai fakta-fakta, sifat-sifat serta hubungan antar fenomena yang diselidiki. Sedangkan Arikunto (2006)25 menyatakan bahwa penelitian kuantitatif memiliki kejelasan unsur yang dirinci sejak awal, langkah penelitian yang sistematis menggunakan sampel hasil penelitiannya, memiliki hipotesis, memiliki desain yang jelas dan langkah-langkah penelitian dan hasil yang diharapkan, dan juga memerlukan pengumpulan data serta analisa data yang dilakukan

24 25

Nazir, M 2005, Metode Penelitian, Penerbit Ghalia, Jakarta Arikunto, Suharsimi 2006, Prosedur Penelitian:Suatu Pendekatan Praktek, Edisi Revise, Penerbit PT. Rineka Cipta, Jakarta

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setelah data terkumpul. Penelitian ini bersifat deskriptif eksplanatori. Sugiono (2004)26 mengatakan bahwa penelitian eksplanatori merupakan penelitian yang bermaksud menjelaskan kedudukan variabel-variabel yang diteliti serta hubungan antara satu variabel dengan yang lain.

Karakteristik Responden Rata-rata responden berada di antara rentang umur 23 tahun sampai dengan 60 tahun. Data tersebut menunjukan bahwa responden yang terlibat dalam penelitian ini merupakan responden yang matang dan dewasa dari segi umur, dan diharapkan kemampuan mereka dalam menjawab pertanyaan di kuesioner dapat dipertanggungjawabkan.

Hal ini sesuai

dengan hasil penelitian pada tahun 2008 yang menunjukan bahwa pengusaha perempuan adalah perempuan yang matang dari segi usia yaitu berumur 20 tahun keatas (Raman, Anantharaman, Jayasingam, 2008)27. Responden yang terlibat di dalam penelitian ini tersebar di lebih dari 30 jenis usaha, dan karakteristik terbanyak adalah responden yang memiliki jenis usaha restaurant yaitu sebanyak 11,3 % dari total responden. Dari data juga menunjukan bahwa pengusaha yang terlibat dalam penelitian ini merupakan pengusaha sektor usaha kecil. Perusahaan yang memiliki jumlah karyawan di bawah 50 orang di golongkan di dalam industri atau usaha kecil. Jumlah karyawan yang dimiliki perempuan pengusaha tersebut paling banyak adalah 40 orang. Menurut Stanley dan Morse28 di dalam Rosid (2010) dinyatakan bahwa industri kecil memiliki jumlah karyawan 10-49 orang. Berdasarkan tingkat pendidikan terakhir pengusaha tersebut menunjukan 92,5 % responden merupakan lulusan universitas (diploma

26

Sugiyono 2004, Metode Penelitian Bisnis, Penerbit Alfabeta, Bandung Raman, Anantharaman, Jayasingam 2008, ‘Motivational factors Affecting Entrepreneurial Decision: A Comparison between Malaysia Women Entrepreneurs and Women Non Entrepreneurs’, Communications of the IBIMA, vol. 2. Pp. 85 – 89. 28 Rosid, A (2010), Modul Manajemen UKM, http//pksm.mercubuana.ac.id/.../31013-1-96027733787... dilihat pada tanggal 2 November 2011. 27

113


ataupun sarjana strata 1 dan strata 2). Hal ini menunjukan pengusaha yang berlatar pendidikan lulusan universitas lebih dominan terlibat di dalam penelitian ini, tentunya ini berpengaruh pada kemampuan intelektual para pengusaha tersebut untuk menjawab pertanyaan yang diberikan peneliti. Hal ini juga menunjukan bahwa pengusaha pada umumnya memiliki pendidikan yang cukup tinggi untuk mendukung kemampuannya dalam berusaha. Pendidikan yang cukup tinggi identik dengan proses pembelajaran yang cukup tinggi juga, dan hal ini dapat diasumsikan bahwa bahwa orang yang memiliki pendidikan yang cukup tinggi juga mempunyai orientasi belajar yang baik. Seperti yang diungkapkan oleh Andri Wongso (2011)29 yang menyatakan bahwa orang yang hidupnya berorientasi belajar memiliki peluang untuk menjadi pengusaha yang sukses. Hal senada juga diungkapkan oleh Welsch dan White (1982)30 yang menemukan bahwa perempuan pengusaha cenderung lebih berpendidikan dibanding yang bukan pengusaha. Dari status pernikahannya ditemukan, bahwa 77 orang responden atau sebanyak 96,3 % responden telah

menikah, 2 orang

responden atau sebanyak 2,5 % responden belum menikah, dan 1 orang responden atau sebanyak 1,3% responden bercerai. Data ini menunjukan bahwa status pernikahan tidak menghalangi perempuan sebagai responden penelitian ini untuk beraktivitas sebagai pengusaha.

Motivasi Ekonomi 71,25% pengusaha perempuan tersebut terdorong menjadi pengusaha karena ingin memenuhi kebutuhan hidup yang lebih baik, setelah itu disusul dengan indikator ke dua yang menunjukan bahwa 70% pengusaha tersebut ingin menjadi lebih mandiri dalam hal

29 30

Wongso, A 2011, Ternyata Pengusaha Sukses Punya Faktor X, www.andriwongso.com, dilihat pada tanggal 5 November 2011. Welsch, J,A & White, J,F 1982, The entrepreneurs’s Master Planning Guide, Prentice Hall, Eaglewood Cliffs, New York.

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keuangan. Dapat disimpulkan bahwa 70% responden meyakini bahwa mereka terdorong menjadi pengusaha adalah karena didorong oleh motivasi ekonomi, dimana lebih dari 50% responden menyatakan sangat setuju bahwa motivasi ekonomi ini mempengaruhi motivasi kerja mereka menjadi seorang pengusaha. Motivasi Pekerjaan Lain Dari olahan data indikator-indikator yang menunjukan motivasi akibat pekerjaan lainnya menunjukan bahwa sebagian besar responden memilih menjadi pengusaha bukan karena terdorong oleh pekerjaaan lainnya. Hampir 100% responden menyatakan bahwa mereka menjadi pengusaha bukan karena kesulitan mendapatkan pekerjaan lainnya, tetapi menariknya 93,75% responden juga memilih menjadi pengusaha karena mereka menyadari hambatan di dalam mengembangan karir mereka sebagai seorang Ibu, sehingga mereka memilih menjadi pengusaha. 72,5 % responden mengungkapkan mereka memilih menjadi pengusaha karena merasa frustasi bekerja dengan orang lain. Hal ini menunjukan bahwa pengusaha ini tidak kesulitan mendapatkan pekerjaan lainnya, hanya mereka terbentur dalam pengembangan diri mereka dan frustasi jika bekerja dengan orang lain. Hasil olahan data SPSS dari keseluruhan indikator ini menunjukan bahwa 80% responden secara jelas memastikan bahwa motivasi mereka menjadi pengusaha bukan karena dimotivasi pekerjaan lainnya.

Motivasi Keluarga Dari olahan data indikator motivasi keluarga diatas yang menarik adalah 100% pengusaha perempuan tersebut menyatakan bahwa mereka memilih menjadi pengusaha karena mereka membutuhkan keseimbangan waktu untuk bekerja dan kehidupan pribadinya dalam hal ini untuk keluarganya. Namun 61,25% responden menyatakan bahwa mereka

115


menjadi pengusaha bukan karena permintaan suami, dan juga bukan karena bisnis turun temurun (60%).

Motivasi Sosial Hasil analisa indikator motivasi sosial menunjukan bahwa 100% perempuan pengusaha tersebut termotivasi karena membutuhkan ruang dan waktu untuk terlibat dalam kegiatan sosial adat dan budaya masyarakat Bali. Namun hampir 100% juga mengatakan bahwa mereka menjadi pengusaha bukan karena ingin di pandang sebagai masyarakat golongan menengah keatas Dari hasil olahan keseluruhan menggunakan SPPSS ternyata mengindikasikan bahwa motivasi sosial ini juga menjadi pendorong yang cukup memotivasi perempuan Bali menjadi pengusaha (91,3%).

Motivasi Kerja Pengusaha Hasil olahan terhadap setiap indikator dan keseluruhan indikator seara umum terkait motivasi kerja perempuan pengusaha ini sangat menarik karena peneliti mendapatkan 100% pilihan responden terhadap tiga (3) buah indikator yang ditanyakan. Keseluruhan pengusaha memang mempunyai motivasi kerja sebagai pengusaha karena mereka menyenangi pekerjaan, selalu berpikir kreatif dan mempunyai inisiatif dalam pengembangan usahanya, mereka juga loyal dan mempunyai komitmen terhadap pekerjaannya dan selalu berupaya meningkatkan mutu hasil pekerjaaannya.

Hasil Penelitian Peneliti di dalam membahas faktor-faktor motivasi yang mempengaruhi motivasi kerja pengusaha perempuan di Bali menggunakan empat model motivasi yang berpengaruh terhadap motivasi kerja pengusaha perempuan tersebut. Namun dikarenakan semua faktor di 116


variabel independen menunjukan nilai positif, maka uji hipotesis tidak bisa dilakukan. Sehingga peneliti hanya berkonsentrasi melakukan olahan data setiap faktor motivasi menggunakan analisa statistik SPSS dan perhitungan persentase dari setiap indikator motivasi. Jika dilihat perbandingan dari jawaban setuju dan sangat setuju dari setiap jenis motivasi, maka bisa dilihat pada diagram dibawah ini: Figur 4.16 Diagram Faktor MotivasiPengusaha Perempuan Bali

Sumber: Hasil olahan data primer, 2011

Dari diagram tersebut diatas menunjukan motivasi sosial menduduki peringkat pertama yang memotivasi perempuan pengusaha di Bali, dan selanjutnya adalah motivasi ekonomi, lalu diikuti dengan motivasi keluarga dan motivasi berusaha karena pekerjaan lain.

Kesimpulan dan Saran Berdasarkan hasil penelitian dan pembahasan yang telah diuraikan sebelumnya, maka dapat ditarik kesimpulan sebagai berikut: -

Dari hasil pembahasan dapat dilihat motivasi utama adalah karena dorongan motivasi sosial, dan kemudian diikuti dengan motivasi ekonomi sehingga pengusaha

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perempuan di Bali melakukan usahanya. Kedua motivasi tersebut dapat digolongkan sebagai faktor internal yang muncul dari dalam diri pengusaha tersebut. -

Motivasi kerja pengusaha perempuan menunjukan nilai yang sangat positif, hal ini mengidentifikasikan bahwa mereka benar-benar termotivasi dan menyenangi pekerjaan sebagai pengusaha. Pilihan menjadi pengusaha adalah pilihan yang datang dari diri mereka langsung dan tidak dipengaruhi paksaan pihak luar. Hal ini merupakan modal utama bagi pengusaha tersebut mengembangkan usahanya.

-

Karakteristik pengusaha perempuan Bali ini adalah mereka lebih terlibat di dalam jenis usaha kecil, berpendidikan, berkeluarga dan matang dari segi usia.

-

Tidak dapat ditarik hubungan antara empat buah faktor motivasi yang diujikan terhadap motivasi kerja pengusaha perempuan, hal ini di karenakan hasil kuesioner dari data variabel independen (motivasi kerja pengusaha perempuan) menunjukan nilai positif (sangat setuju sekali) untuk keseluruhan indikator, sehingga tidak ada pembanding jika dilakukan uji hipotesis.

Berdasarkan kesimpulan di atas, disarankan: -

Menambah sampel penelitian sehingga tingkat akurasi hasil penelitian semakin tinggi dan mampu mewakili populasi, dan dengan perhitungan sampel yang baru nantinya dilakukan uji hipotesis ulang terhadap penelitian ini sehingga bisa ditarik hubungannya antara variabel dependent dan variabel independent dalam penelitian ini.

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Daftar Referensi Arikunto, Suharsimi 2006, Prosedur Penelitian:Suatu Pendekatan Praktek, Edisi Revise, Penerbit PT. Rineka Cipta, Jakarta. Arjani 2000, Potensi dan Hambatan Sosial Budaya Perempuan Bali dalam era Transformasi, http://ejournal.unud.ac.id/abstrak/potensi%20dan%20hambatan%20sosial%20budaya %20perempuan%20bali%20dalam%20era%20transformas1.pdf dilihat pada tanggal 5 Oktober 2011. Asian Development Bank 2002, SME Development Bank’s Technical Assistance Survey, Report. Arsendatama, A 2008, Tiga Langkah Menuju Bisnis yang Sukses, http://www.pengembangandiri.com/articles/21/1/Memulai-Bisnis-MengungkapRahasia-Sukses/Page1.html dilihat pada tanggal 2 Oktober 2011. Badan Pusat Statistik Propinsi Bali 2010, Penduduk 15 Tahun ke Atas yang Bekerja Menurut Status dalam Pekerjaan Utamanya Tahun 2009 Bali Dalam Angka, 2010, Penduduk 15 tahun Menurut Pendidikan Tertinggi yang Ditamatkan Tahun 2009. Bali Post 2008 Terbentur banyak kendala - Perempuan Bali ke Kancah Politik, http://www.balipost.co.id/balipostcetak/2008/2/27/b27.htm dilihat pada tanggal 2 Oktober 2011. Canada, 2003, Prime Minister’s Task Force on Women Entrepreneurs , Ottawa: Canada, http://www.liberal .parl.gc.ca/entrepreneur /documents/031029_final_report_en.pdf/ dilihat pada tanggal 3 Oktober 2011. Candra, A 2011, Jumlah Wanita Pengusaha Masih Minim, http://bisniskeuangan.kompas.com/read/2011/01/29/21141062/Jumlah.Wanita.Pengus aha.Masih.Minim dilihat pada tanggal 29 Oktober 2011. Fazriyati, W 2011,Pebisnis Perempuan Jarang Terkena Kredit Macet, http://female.kompas.com/read/2011/03/24/12031459/Pebisnis.Perempuan.Jarang.Ter kena.Kredit.Macet. dilihat pada tanggal 30 Oktober 2011. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2004, Women and Entrepreneur Centre for Women’s Leadership, Banson College, MA, USA. Hamilton, L. C, 2002. ‘Female Entrepreneurs: Overcoming Problems and Reacting to Challenges’. Proceedings of the 47 the International Council for Small Business World Conference. Hughes, K,D 2000, ‘Exploring Motivation and Success Among Canadian Women Entrepreneurs’, University of Alberta. Licuanan , V,.S 1992,’ Women Entrepreneurs in Southeast Asia’, Asian Institute of Management and Canadian International Development Agency. Maftuhah 2011, Perempuan perlu dilibatkan dalam pembangunan ekonomi Asia Pacifik, www.economy.okezone.com, dilihat pada tanggal 20 Oktober 2011. Mathis, Robert L dan John H. Jackson 2006, Human Resource Management, Penerbit Salemba Empat, Jakarta. Mangkunegara, A, Anwar Prabu 2001, Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia Perusahaan, Penerbit PT. Remaja Rosdakarya, Bandung. Mustafa, H 2000, Teknik Sampling, http// home.unpar.ac.id/~hasan/SAMPLING.doc , dilihat pada tanggal 30 Agustus 2011. Nazir, M 2005, Metode Penelitian, Penerbit Ghalia, Jakarta. Notoatmodjo, S, Prof.DR 2009, Pengembangan Sumber Daya Manusia, Penerbit Rineka Cipta, Jakarta. 119


Raman, K, Anantharaman, R,N, Jayasingam, S 2008, ‘Motivational Factors Affecting Entrepreneurial Decision: A Comparison between Malaysia Women Entrepreneurs and Women Non-Entrepreneurs’, Communication of IBIMA, vol.2, pp. 85-89. Robertson, M, Collins, Medeira, N & Slatter, J 2003, ‘Barriers to Start Up and Their Effect on Aspirant Entrepreneurs’, Education and Training,vol. 45, no.6, pp. 308-316. Rosid, A (2010), Modul Manajemen UKM, http//pksm.mercubuana.ac.id/.../31013-196027733787... dilihat pada tanggal 2 November 2011. Soesilawati 2000, Upaya Pengembangan Motivasi Kerja pada Wanita Pedagang Kecil, elib.pdii.lipi.go.id/katalog/index.php/.../5751.pdfdilihat pada tanggal 1 Oktober 2011. Sayuti 2006, Motivasi dan Faktor-Faktor yang Mempengaruhi, Penerbit Ghalia Indonesia, Jakarta. Samsudin, S, Drs, M.M,M.Pd 2006, Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia, Penerbit Pustaka Setia, Bandung. Sugiyono 2004, Metode Penelitian Bisnis, Penerbit Alfabeta, Bandung. Wongso, A 2011, Ternyata Pengusaha Sukses Punya Faktor X, www.andriwongso.com, dilihat pada tanggal 5 November 2011. Welsch, J,A & White, J,F 1982, The entrepreneurs’s Master Planning Guide, Prentice Hall, Eaglewood Cliffs, New York. ---------------------------------2010, Membangun Jiwa Seorang Pengusaha Sukses, http://peluangbisnissampingan.com/ dilihat pada tanggal 2 Oktober 2011. ----------------------------------2011, IWAPI Dorong Jumlah Pengusaha Wanita jadi 2 %, http://bataviase.co.id/node/717005 dilihat pada tanggal 29 Oktober 2011.

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APPROACH OF ANTECEDENT AND CONSEQUENCES OF ENTREPRENEURIAL LEADERSHIP IN A SERVICE INDUSTRY SETTING (Case Some Phone Provider in Indonesia) by Achmad Hidayat Sutawidjaya Tuti Widiastuti Suharyanti Faculty Economic and Social Science, University of Bakrie,Jakarta ABSTRACT Entrepreneurship generally refers to the process by which new opportunities are discovered and implemented.

The background of this study was the situations service industry in Indonesia, while heavily emphasized within service industry organizations (Some Phone Provider), little is understood regarding the role of entrepreneurial leadership in the development, growth, and sustainability of those service industry. The fundamental logic of entrepreneurship is less apparent in this context given the social mission and multiple stakeholders involved. Building on findings regarding entrepreneurial orientation (EO) within service industry organizations, a model of antecedents, correlates, and outcomes of entrepreneurship in service industry developed and tested. Emphasis is placed on the relationship between entrepreneurial orientation(EO) and the market orientation (MO) of the service industry. The findings demonstrate that entrepreneurship has a legitimate role in service industry, and the work climate can be designed to affect levels of entrepreneurship. Further, entrepreneurial orientation (EO) is associated with aspects of market orientation with financial performance implications are drawn for theory and practice. Keywords: Entrepreneurial leadership, financial performance, market orientation (MO), entrepreneurial orientation (EO).

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Introduction The cellular industry is currently experiencing significant upheavals as the result of mergers and acquisitions among its largest carriers (Carleen Maitlandand Andrea Hoplight Tapia).Competition on cellular industry is happening anywhere in the world, since too many operators, Indonesia also faces this situation like price combat, subscribers chum, capacity issues, etc. As you might know, today there are more than 10 wireless operators in our country. According to third quarter two thousand nine data from annual report of respective operators today’s subscriber number is about 180 million users out of two hundred and forty million population or about seventy five percent. Actually the market almost saturated especially from voice services in urban sub urban areas. Sooperators are looking for revenue from other service that is data services. The largest number of users as a whole user in Indonesia is Telkomsel, then the second Indosat and the third XL Axiata.Telkomsel’s market share is over 43% of total subscribers or around 80 million users. For CDMA systems, TelkomFlexi is the biggest of market share with 15 mill subs or around 9%, followed by Bakrie Telecom with 9 million subs or about 6%. The two last operators are not as full mobility but the limited mobility operators.In Indonesia we have two kinds of technology that used in mobile operators those are CDMA and GSM. It the first time CDMA technologybased network was used as limited mobility license operator, but as government released regulation no.1/2010, the license is canceled and it is automatically changing become cellular license. Many industry analysts say that those operators will predictably merge for consolidation In dynamic and resource demanding globalized market environments, offering successful innovative products is a key ingredient for business success. The logic supporting this notion is that new products, services, or technologies especially those that are radically innovative, provide international new ventures with the opportunity to generate early market 122


share, enhance cash flows, boost external visibility and legitimacy, and increase the likelihood of survival (Zahra 2005; Schoonhoven et al. 1999; Tellis et al. 2009; Tellis et al. 2009; Henard and Szymanski 2001). Researchers believe that innovative products that offer relative advantage over competitive offerings and that significantly reduce consumers’ perceived risks are often associated with healthy financial performance (Henard and Szymanski 2001). However, the literature has very little to offer by way of theoretical and empirical evidence that verifies the complexity of the product innovation success – performance. The majority of the existing literature on product innovation success has been designed to suit business organizations that are far well established (Oviatt and McDougall 1994). Here we define research problems, they are: (1).Is there relationship between entrepreneurial orientation towards entrepreneurial leadership? (2).Is there relationship between market orientation toward entrepreneurial leadership? (3).Is there relationship between market orientation towards entrepreneurial orientation? (4).Is there relationship between entrepreneurial leadership towards financial performance?.

Theoretical Framework and Hypothesis Development The concept of entrepreneurial leadership involves fusing the concepts of "entrepreneurship" (Schumpeter, 1934), "entrepreneurial orientation" (Miller, 1983; Covin&Slevin, 1988), and "entrepreneurial management" (Stevenson, 1985) with leadership (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004). It emphasizes taking a strategic approach to entrepreneurship, so that (he entrepreneurial initiatives can support development of enhanced capabilities for continuously creating and appropriating value in the firm (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004). Thus, entrepreneurship can form a basis for competitive advantage and technological growth in all types of firms that are oriented towards leadership and excellence 123


in the new global economy (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004). Entrepreneurial leadership is defined as leadership that creates visionary scenarios that are used to assemble and mobilize a 'supporting cast' of participants who become committed by the vision to the discovery and exploitation of strategic value creation (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004). This definition emphasizes the challenge of mobilizing the resources and gaining the commitment required for value creation that the entrepreneurial leader faces, which involves creating a vision and a cast of supporters capable of enacting that vision (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004). The two challenges of forging a vision and building a cast of competent and committed supporters are interdependent since the former is useless without the latter (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004). Thus, entrepreneurial leaders envision and enact a proactive transformation of the firm's transaction set (Venkataraman& Van de Ven, 1998). Entrepreneurial leadership has much in common with transformational leadership in that the leader evokes super-ordinate performance by appeals to the higher needs of followers (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004). However, the entrepreneurial leader's ability to evoke such performance is founded in the context of the firm's need to adapt to emerging environmental contingencies (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004). Thus, the basic challenge is to create a willingness in followers to abandon current conventional but career-secure activities for creative, entrepreneurial action (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004).Entrepreneurial leadership can also be thought of as leading, through direct involvement, a process that creates value for organizational stakeholders by bringing together a unique innovation and package of resources to respond to a recognized opportunity (Darling, Keeffe, & Ross, 2007). In fulfilling this process, entrepreneurs function within a paradigm of three dimensions: innovativeness, risk-taking and proactiveness (Morris, Schindehutte&Laforge, 2004). Innovativeness focuses on the search for creative and meaningful solutions to individual and operational problems and needs (Darling, Keeffe, & Ross, 2007). Risk-taking involves the 124


willingness to commit resources to opportunities that have a reasonable possibility of failure (Darling, Keeffe, & Ross, 2007). Proactiveness is concerned with implementation, and helping to make events happen through appropriate means, which typically include the efforts of others (Darling, Keeffe, & Ross, 2007). The practice of successful entrepreneurial leadership is thereby fulfilled within an array of exciting activities and new creative developments that are full of innovations and evolving concepts, constantly changing, and in many cases eluding classification (Darling, Keeffe, & Ross, 2007). Entrepreneurial leadership is all about breaking new ground, going beyond the known, and helping to create the future (Darling, Keeffe, & Ross, 2007). What makes a truly successful entrepreneurial leader is not narrowly focused on only intelligence, education, lifestyle or background (Darling, Keeffe, & Ross, 2007). A principal factor that seems to determine success is the entrepreneur's ability to deal with opportunities through the dynamics of organizational setting, thereby enabling and motivating the people concerned to be actively and enthusiastically involved and successful (Darling, Keeffe, & Ross, 2007). The basic challenge of entrepreneurial leaders (McGrath and MacMillan, 2000) is to envision future possibilities and enable the organization to transform its current transaction set (Venkataraman& Van de Ven, 1998). Moreover, such adaptation must be accomplished without overstraining the unit's resource endowments (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004). In addition, this must often be done in the face of conservative and risk-averse attitudes stemming from followers' lack of confidence in the gains from innovation in uncertain environments (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004).Grant (2000) defined proactive behavior as taking initiative in improving current circumstances or creating new ones; it involves challenging the status quo rather than passively adapting to present conditions. Employees can engage in proactive activities as part of their inrole behavior in which they fulfill basic job requirements (Grant, 2000). For example, sales agents might proactively seek feedback 125


on their techniques for closing a sale with an ultimate goal of improving job performance. Extra-role behaviors can also be proactive, such as efforts to redefine one's role in the organization. For example, employees might engage in career management activities by identifying and acting on opportunities to change the scope of their jobs or move to more desirable divisions of the business (Grant, 2000). Grant (1995) demonstrated that proactive personality accounted for incremental variance in the job performance of real estate agents after controlling for both extraversion and conscientiousness. Proactive personality seems more specifically tailored to predicting motivation in learning contexts than the more general Big Five factors and facets (Major, Turner, & Fletcher, 2006). Entrepreneurial orientation (EO) has become an important and extensively researched topic in the literature. Empirical results suggest that EO may influence firm performance. However, it is important to determine whether the EO-performance relationship is sustainable since EO can be a resource-consuming strategic orientation. This research examines the sustainability of the EO performance relationship; i.e., whether EO affects performance during an extended period of time or is a "quick fix" where performance is only temporarily affected. Entrepreneurship is presently a very popular term and there is a tendency to regard entrepreneurship as something inherently good, something firms should always pursue. This may bias us to favor anecdotal evidence in favor of, rather than against, a positive relationship

between entrepreneurial activities and firm performance. Dess, Lumpkin, and

Covin (1997) observe a strong normative bias toward the inherent value of entrepreneurship and suggest that the popular press encourages the belief that entrepreneurship is good. As a result, managers may experience considerable pressures to behave more entrepreneurially in order to improve or maintain the performance of their firms.

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Market orientation is a business philosophy, which connects all the functional areas of theorganization to environment in which operates and ensures long-term profitability. Market orientation was defined in many ways, thus: (1).We use market orientation for emphasize the implementation of marketing concept within the Organization, (Kholi and Jaworski, 1990). (2).Market orientation is a business philosophy which finally ensures superior value creation for the customer” (Narver and Slater,1990). (3).We can say that a firm is market orientated when firm’s culture is governed by values, which systematic ensure superior value creation for customer. Practically, this mean gathering the information about customers and competitors and using this information for building superior value for the customers” (S.Slater, 1994). (4).Market orientation is a source of building competitive advantage. If in the past it was considered that competitive advantage is the result of a higher power on the market, economy of scale or the diversity of products range, today it is considered that building and delivering superior value is the key of obtaining competitive advantage. Slater, through his researches, demonstrated that firms which have market orientate culture better manage to build and deliver superior value to the customers. (5).The newest approach of the concept refers to the market orientation from value chain point (Baker, 1999, Grunert, 2002, Simpson, 2001). Market orientation degree of one member from the chain could affect market orientation degree of the others members of the chain. The competitiveness of the entire chain in serving the customers depends on implication of all chain’s members in gathering the information about consumers needs and uses this information for building superior value. Kouzes and Drucker principles/strategies relate to entrepreneurial leadership. Entrepreneurial leadership is a complex style of leading. Individuals who practice this style are generally; driven, risk taker, aggressive and can recognize when change will give the advantage. Peter Drucker (1985) discusses several strategies of entrepreneurs, but “Fustest 127


With the Mostest” is one that looks to the future. Entrepreneurs are looking to the future of creating a new marketor industry with their innovation. James Kouzes (2008) highlights his five practices of exemplary leadership. The transactional leadership style developed by Bass is based on the hypothesis that followers are motivated through a system of rewards and punishment. The transactional leader's view of the leader / follower relationship is one of this for that.

If the follower does something good, then they will be rewarded.

If the

follower does something wrong, then they will be punished. Transformational Leadership starts with the development of a vision, a view of the future that will excite and convert potential followers. This vision may be developed by the leader, by the senior team or may emerge from a broad series of discussions. The important factor is the leader buys into it, hook, line and sinker. Working for a Transformational Leader can be a wonderful and uplifting.

Hypothesis Development Based on the previous discussion, the proposed hypotheses can be summarized in the following hypotheses, they are: H1:

Entrepreneurial orientation has a positive impact towards entrepreneurial leadership

H2:

Market orientation has a positive impact toward entrepreneurial leadership

H3:

Market orientation has a positive impact towards entrepreneurial orientation

H4:

Entrepreneurial leadership has a positive impact towards financial performance

Research Methodology 128


Questionnaire items were developed based on those used previous study (Babin et al., 1994; Batra and Athola, 1990; Donovan and Rossiter, 1982; Park, 2004) and the data were collected over a two months period from a convenience sample of 120 manager of some companies phone provider in Jakarta. The questionnaire consisted of entrepreneurial orientation and market orientation (Babin et al., 1994; Batra and Athola, 1990; Babin and Attaway, 2000). Entrepreneurial leadership dan financial performance (Bigne et al., 2004; Donovan and Rossister, 1982), Multi-item scales were used to measure the study constructs, respondents were asked to rate 16 items using a seven point Likerts type scale (1=extremely disagree; 7=extremely agree). A structural analysis was conducted using the maximum likelihood estimation method. Overall, the fit indices indicated an adequate model fit (X² = 210.85, df = 118, p<0.001; EO= 0.068; MO= 0.93, EL= 0.99; FP= 0.98). Relationship between entrepreneurial orientation and entrepreneurial leadership was also significant (Coefficient = 0.89; t = 6.31, p<0.01), supporting H1. This finding that indicates that entrepreneurial orientation has a significant

impact

towards entrepreneurial leadership.Relationship between market

orientation and entrepreneurial leadership was also significant (Coefficient = 0.78; t = 5.41, p<0.01), supporting H2. This finding that indicates that market orientation has a significant impact towards entrepreneurial leadership. Relationship between market orientation and entrepreneurial orientation was also significant (Coefficient = 0.55; t = 6.67, p<0.01), supporting H3. This finding that indicates that market orientation has a significant impact towards entrepreneurial orientation. Relationship between entrepreneurial leadership and financial performance was also significant (Cooficient = 0.83; t = 6.31, p<0.01), supporting H4. This finding that indicates that entrepreneurial leadership has a significant impact towards financial performance.

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Discussion and Conclusion Research Implication The

purpose

of

this

study

was

to

examine

the

relationship

among

entrepreneurialorientation and market orientation towards financial performance mediating by entrepreneurial leadership. In sum, SEM analysis revealed that the proposes model could well predict financial performance (R² = 0.79) of some companies provider in Jakarta. The study results provide both theoretical and practically benefit. First, theoretically, this study demonstrates the usefulness of entrepreneurial orientation and market orientation towards financial performance mediating by entrepreneur leadership. Second, The ability for practitioners to identify individuals that will successfully lead innovation in the workplace is very beneficial for organizations. As previously stated individuals with a prototypical proactive personality identify opportunities and act on them, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs (Grant, 2000, p. 439) and this has tremendous implications because these individuals may be more successful in becoming leaders in the workplace because of their desire to take action and to create a positive change in their work environment. Practitioners may want to identify employees that identify with an organization because they may be more likely to remain with the organization and to expend effort on behalf of the organization (Dutton, Dukerich, &Harquail, 1994); this has implications because employees who strongly identify with an organization may strive to create value for the firm. It may also be beneficial to identify those proactive individuals who are politically skilled because of their ability to read others and suitably adjust their behavior in accordance with the situation to achieve favorable outcomes such as creating a vision and a cast of supporters capable of enacting that vision (Gupta, McMillan &Surie, 2004).Third, the fundamental logic of entrepreneurship is less apparent in this context given the social mission and multiple stakeholders involved. Building on findings regarding entrepreneurial 130


orientation (EO) within for-profit organizations, a model of antecedents, correlates, and outcomes of entrepreneurship in profits is developed and tested. Emphasis is placed on the relationship between EO and the market orientation (MO) of the profit. The findings demonstrate that entrepreneurship has a legitimate role in profits, and the work climate can be designed to affect levels of entrepreneurship. Further, EO is associated with aspects of market orientation.

Conclusion Dispositional characteristics have not been emphasized in previous studies, which have tended to rely more heavily on situational variables (Naquin & Holton, 2002). The goal of this study is to show the importance in the context of entrepreneurial orientation, market orientation towards financial performance mediated by entrepreneurship leadership. Individual differences such as personality may be useful in predicting entrepreneurial leadership and it has several implications for practice. Leadership research indicates that the trait approach facilitates the selection of leaders. Viewed from a selection perspective, organizations can determine the desired employee profile to meet their needs (Naquin & Holton, 2002).

The concept of entrepreneurial leadership has become increasingly important because organizations must be more entrepreneurial to enhance their performance, their capacity for adaptation and long-term survival (Gupta et al., 2004). Proactive individuals may be more successful in entrepreneurial leadership and may contribute more to the organization. Proactive personality, which is the tendency to show initiative and take action in one's environment in order to effect meaningful change, may be more specifically tailored to predicting entrepreneurial leadership in firms than the more general Big Five factors and 131


facets. The proactive personality construct fits well conceptually with the current emphasis on entrepreneurial leadership and has been linked empirically to a number of career outcomes (Seibert et al., 1999).

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CULTURAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP: An Accidental Entrepreneur Experience Fandy Tjiptono Universitas Atma Jaya Yogyakarta Yohanes Siyamta Universitas Atma Jaya Yogyakarta

Abstract Why and how an individual becomes an entrepreneur has attracted many attentions among business academics and practitioners. Most researches tend to focus on intentional entrepreneurs who have entrepreneurial background, managerial skills, and/or abilities to develop a sound business plan. However, it is just a part of the whole picture of entrepreneurship world. Many people never expect to be self-employed or considered themselves as entrepreneurs. They are called ‘accidental entrepreneurs’ because they become entrepreneurs “by chance or reluctant choice”. Interestingly, this phenomenon seems to be under researched. The current research presents a case study of a Javanese artist who started as a columnist and contributor of Javanese literature sections in several local media in Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta and eventually has emerged as an accidental entrepreneur. When he was trying to publish his collection of articles in a form of a book, he faced negative responses from all publishers he approached. Being frustrated by the rejections, he decided to self-finance the publication of his book and later he even started his own publishing company. When he experienced how difficult it was (and still is) to sell a Javanese literature book, he came out with several ideas to create marketing sensations, such as ‘Maca Buku Kanggo Munyuk’ (“reading a book for monkeys”) at Gembira Loka zoo. Several key insights from this case study in relation to cultural entrepreneurship were drawn at the end of this paper. Keywords: accidental entrepreneur, cultural entrepreneurship, Javanese literature. 1.

Introduction Entrepreneurship as a field of study, research, and business practice has attracted

many attentions for the last two decades (Shane & Venkataraman, 2000). It can be seen in the mounting papers, lectures, speeches, news, and seminars on why and how an individual becomes an entrepreneur. In line with these, several Indonesian universities focus on entrepreneurship as their “unique selling propositions”. Such decisions are actuated by establishing entrepreneurship research centers, offering entrepreneurship subjects at most 135


faculties, proposing business plans as an alternative thesis, creating an entrepreneurial community service program (KKN Tematik Kewirausahaan) and so forth. Nevertheless, most entrepreneurship researches tend to emphasize on intentional entrepreneurs who have entrepreneurial background, managerial skills and/or abilities to develop a sound business plan. It is a ‘necessary but not sufficient’ condition to fully understand the entrepreneurship world. Many people never expect to be self-employed or consider themselves as entrepreneurs. They are called ‘accidental entrepreneurs’ because they become entrepreneurs “by chance or reluctant choice” (Urquhart-Brown, 2008, p. 1). This under-researched context is the main focus of the present study. The paper proceeds as follows. First, a brief literature review is provided. Second, the research methodology is explicated. Third, research findings and discussion are presented. Finally, insights and conclusions are drawn.

2.

A Brief Literature Review

2.1

Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurs Although entrepreneurship research has developed for many decades, there is still no

universally-accepted definition of entrepreneurship (Gartner, 1989; Hisrich, Peters & Shepherd, 2008; Kobia & Sikalieh, 2010; Venkataraman, 1997). Historically the word ‘entrepreneur’ is adopted from a French word, which literally mean “between-taker” or “gobetween” (Hisrich, Peters & Shepherd, 2008). Kobia & Sikalieh (2010) classify the entrepreneurship conceptualization into three approaches: trait, behavioral and opportunity identification. The traits approach has concentrated on the personality traits of the entrepreneur, such as the need for achievement, locus of control and risk-taking propensity. The main focus is understanding who is an entrepreneur (Gartner, 1989). 136


The behavioral approach has focused on what the entrepreneur does, especially in creating a new organization (Carland, Boulton & Carland, 1984; Gartner, 1985). Meanwhile, the opportunity identification approach tries to understand how to discover, create, and exploit opportunities which bring into existence ‘future’ goods and services (Shane & Venkataraman, 2000; Venkataraman, 1997). The development of the three approaches indicates that entrepreneurship is a dynamic multi-disciplinary concept.

2.2

The Domain of Entrepreneurship The domain of entrepreneurship could be defined in five dimensions called 5As:

Actors, Aspiration, Activities, Arena, and Achievement (Tjiptono, 2008). The first dimension, actor (actresses), focuses on the ‘who’ aspect of entrepreneurship, including traits, physical characteristics, skills, talents, competences, and biological atau genetic factors. The second dimension, aspiration/ambition, concentrates on the ‘why’ aspect of entrepreneurship, such as the need for achievement, entrepreneurial orientation, and other specific reasons for being an entrepreneur. The third dimension, activities (action), highlights the ‘how’ aspect or the process of entrepreneurship, i.e. from identifying to exploiting opportunities. This dimension tries to reveal four main issues (Tjiptono, 2008). First, how can an opportunity be identified: intentionally (planned); structured and/or systematic; or accidentally? Second, what factors lead an individual who already identified an opportunity to exploit it immediately; to ignore it; or to postpone its exploitation? Third, what factors and situations influence an individual to be an entrepreneur, non-entrepreneur, ex-entrepreneur, and reborn entrepreneur. Fourth, how can an entrepreneur overcome liability of newness, liability of smallness, and liability of foreignness when she/he enters the market for the first time? Are the key success factors generic or idiosyncratic? 137


The fourth dimension, arena, is about the competitive landscape of entrepreneurship. It includes (1) geographical scope (local/domestic, regional, national, and global); (2) business scale scope (micro, small, medium, and large); (3) online versus offline businesses; (4) knowledge-based, skill-based, capital-based, and ‘muscle-based’ businesses; and (5) product types (goods, services, ideas, places, organizations, and people). The fifth dimension, achievement, refers to the measures and measurement of entrepreneurship successes or failures. The criteria used are both economic (such as profitability, market share, growth, business size, and efficiency) and non-economic (such as long-term survival, family pride, and so forth).

2.3

Cultural Entrepreneurship There are many definitions of cultural entrepreneurs. Isar & Anheier (2010, quoted in

http://culturalentrepreneur.org, accessed on 21 October 2011), for instance, see cultural entrepreneurs as “cultural change agents and resourceful visionaries who organize cultural, financial, social and human capital, to generate revenue from a cultural activity.” Ploeg (1999, cited in Klamer, 2006) argues that cultural entrepreneur is a person who integrates two aspects: (1) knowledge of and sensitivity towards the arts and creative processes; and (2) knowledge and comprehension of the potential public and marketing techniques. A simpler definition is provided by Ong (2006, quoted in www.mediaenterprise.co.uk, accessed on 21 October 2011) who defines cultural entrepreneurs as “those who selectively deploy business management in combination with cultural forms in an individualistic, instrumental manner”.

2.4

Accidental Entrepreneur Literature on accidental entrepreneur is relatively scarce (Aldrich & Kenworthy,

1999; Urquhart-Brown, 2008). However, an accidental entrepreneur can be defined as a 138


person who never expected to be self-employed or thought of herself or himself as an entrepreneur (Urquhart-Brown, 2008). An accidental entrepreneur is not a born or natural entrepreneur who has entrepreneurial or managerial backgrounds. She or he becomes an entrepreneur “by chance or reluctant choice”.

3.

Research Methodology The present study focuses on the experiences of Mr. Yohanes Siyamta, a Javanese

artist who started as a columnist and contributor of Javanese literature sections in several local media in Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta and eventually has emerged as an accidental entrepreneur. His experiences are unique as he clearly shows that the process of being an entrepreneur does not always follow the common intentional approach (“by design”). Instead, the process can be accidental (“by chance or even reluctant choice”). Following the traditions of case study approach (Yin, 1989), the present study used multiple data sources, including interviews with Mr. Yohanes Siyamta and archival data (i.e. videos and newspaper clippings). The interviews were conducted several times to confirm the the data collected. The videos and clippings are about Mr. Siyamta’s sensational marketing activities, i.e. reading his Javanese literature book in front of several animal cages as well as reading it while walking from Tugu to Alun-Alun Utara. According to Yin (1989, p. 23), “a case study is an empirical enquiry that: investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context especially when the boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not clearly evident and in which multiple sources of evidence are used”. The strength of such approach is that it can provide an understanding of the general from the specific case (Easton, 2010).

4.

Research Findings and Discussion 139


4.1.

Javanese Language in the Globalization Era Paul Lewis, the editor of Ethnologue: Languages of the World, reported that Javanese

language was the 12th most widely spoken language in the world, with about 85 million speakers or 1.2% of world population (cited in Safra & Aguilar-Cauz, 2010). The top five were Mandarin (845 million speakers), Spanish (329 million speakers), English (328 million speakers), Arabic (221 million speakers), and Hindi (182 million speakers). However, the high number of speakers does not positively correlate with the market potential for Javanese literature books, even in the Java island. Franz Magnis Suseno, a well-known Javanese philosophy and culture expert, stated that Javanese cultural values have weakened due to modernization effects (Harian Jogja, 31 January 2011). He argued that one of the indicators is the infrequent Javanese language usage in daily life, especially among young people. In practice, it is not easy to maintain local languages in the midst of globalization trend. For instance, as a compulsory local content subject in Central Java and Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta (DIY), Javanese language has been less popular than Bahasa Indonesia, English, and even Mandarin. Ironically, many Javanese descent students struggle to pass this subject.

4.2.

Profiles of Mr. Siyamta Mr. Yohanes Siyamta (46 years old) is a graduate of Local Language and Education

Program at IKIP Karangmalang (now Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta). In addition to his position as the owner of Nalawening publisher, currently Mr. Siyamta works as a librarian candidate at Universitas Atma Jaya Yogyakarta. In his spare time, he usually becomes an MC (in Javanese), plays ketoprak, teaches Javanese language, and many other Javanese-related activities. 140


4.3.

Preserving Javanese Culture For many years Mr. Siyamta has actively published geguritan (poetry), short stories,

tembang (songs), and other Javanese literature works in several local media in DIY. As a young Javanese, he was eager to participate in the preservation and development of Javanese literature. Because his publications had been numerous, he planned to document them in a form of a book. Then he tried to approach publishers to explore the possibility of publishing his works. However, as one may predict, he could not get an approval from any single publisher. All publishers he contacted refused to publish his book. The reason was the same: economically not feasible. All of them have learned their lesson. They were not interested in printing and distributing Javanese literature books. In a book discussion event in early 2008 at FISIP UAJY, Mr. Siyamta read one of his poetry entitled “Layang Kanggo Udin”. After finishing reading, he met one of the publishers who attended the event. He asked him, “What do you think about my poetry?” “Very good”, answered the publisher. “Can a compilation of my works be published?” asked Mr. Siyamta. The answer was “No”. When he asked why, the publisher told him that it was because the poetry was in Javanese. The market was not potential and the publisher had a bad experience in marketing such book.

4.4.

Becoming an Accidental Entrepreneur Despite being disappointed with the refusals, Mr. Siyamta did not give up. He learned

that Suparta Brata, a Javanese literature writer from East Java, had the courage to use his own money to finance the publication of his books and won the “Rancage”, a literature prize, several times. 141


Inspired by the Brata story, Mr. Siyamta decided to self-finance the publication of his first book. The title of the book is Donganing Maling (The Prayer of a Thief) and it contains geguritan, tembang, short stories, and many other Javanese literatures (see Figure 1). Some of them had been published in Djoko Lodang and Praba, two Javanese language publications. The book title is taken from the poetry about the prayer of a thief who wishes to be able to send his kids to school by stealing from corrupt police and government officers. Mr. Siyamta asked Penerbit Piss to design the cover, set the layout, arrange for ISBN, and print the book. Published in June 2008, the marketing of Donganing Maling was handled by CV Diandra Primamitra Media. Figure 1. The First Book: “Donganing Maling”

The second book, Lodheh Kahanan, focuses on social critiques, such as the unfinished drafts of Undang-Undang Keistimewaan DIY (RUUK DIY) and the initial misidentification of the death of Noordin M. Top (one of the most wanted terrorists) (see Figure 2). The book title has a special meaning. Lodheh is a name of a meal (i.e. vegetable dish cooked with coconut milk), while kahanan means conditions or situations. Therefore, lodheh kahanan refers to a mixture of commentaries on many situations, such as social, culture, economy, politics, and so forth. The book is written in many Javanese styles, from ngoko, krama, krama madya, to krama inggil. 142


For his second book, Mr. Siyamta initially tried to submit his manuscript to another publisher. The hardcopy and softcopy of the manuscripts were received and then reviewed by the publisher. After a month from the submission, he contacted the publisher and asked for the publication prospect of his manuscript. The answer was something that he was very familiar with: “Not promising and we are not ready to market Javanese language books”. Figure 2. The Second Book: “Lodheh Kahanan”

Mr. Siyamta withdrew his manuscript and once again planned to self-finance the second book. He contacted CV Diandra Primamitra Media to help lay-outing, arranging for ISBN, printing, and marketing the book. However, this time CV Diandra Primamitra Media informed him that everyone can publish his/her own books independently. Based on this information, Mr. Siyamta eventually decided to establish his own publishing company, Nalawening (it means “pure heart”). He has become an accidental entrepreneur. He did it without any entrepreneurial or managerial backgrounds. Nalawening locates at Sidomulyo TR IV/345 Yogyakarta 55243.

4.5.

Marketing Sensations

143


Establishing a publishing company is one thing, selling the Javanese literature books it produces is another thing. It is like a ‘double trouble’ situation. However, Mr. Siyamta has chosen unusual promotional strategies to help marketing his books. When he launched his first book, he followed conventional promotional strategies. He held a book launching event on a campus. The responses, however, were not as expected. He then came up with a ‘crazy’ idea. On 9 November 2008 he held an event called “Maca Buku Kanggo Munyuk” (reading a book for monkeys). For about two hours, he and a 10 years old boy read by turns his book, Donganing Maling, in front of several animal cages, such as orang utans, chimpanzees, and elephants, at Kebun Raya dan Kebun Binatang (KRKB) Gembira Loka (see Figure 3). The event was covered by several media, including Kedaulatan Rakyat Minggu (Mekar Sari), Kompas (national and regional), Harian Jogja, Radar Jogja, Djaka Lodang, Praba, Jogja TV, and TA TV. Figure 3. Reading a Book at Gembira Loka Zoo

Sumber: www.krjogja.com

When reporters asked him, “Why did you read your book in front of the monkeys?” He replied with a big smile, “Who knows that after I read the book in front of the monkey cage, many people will be interested in listening to me. If a monkey can listen, why can’t people?” Dressed-up in a full Javanese style, Mr. Siyamta succeeded in attracting the attentions of Gembira Loka visitors. He admitted that his actions had a positive impact on the sales of his book. As a result, the publication costs were covered by the sales.

144


With a help from one of his friends, his book has been available in the National Library of Australia, KITLV Netherland, and Republic of Suriname. Besides, Mr. Siyamta was invited by the Provincial Government of DIY to read a poetry from his book at Kepatihan in front of Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono X and guests during the Christmas celebration of DIY Province on 7 January 2009. The second book, Lodheh Kahanan, was also launched in an unconventional fashion (see Figure 4). Mr. Siyamta and his friend Bambang Nursinggih read the book while they walked from Tugu to Alun-alun Utara on Saturday morning, 12 December 2009. Wearing Javanese outfits, they sold the books (Rp 20,000 per book) during the event. They stopped at several places, such as Kedaulatan Rakyat, Stasiun Tugu, Hotel Garuda, DPRD, Malioboro Mall, Kepatihan, Beringharjo, Gedung Agung, Alun-Alun Utara, and Pagelaran Kraton. Mr. Siyamta claimed that his mission is encouraging the usage of Javanese language among people in DIY. He does not want Javanese to lose their own language. He invited everyone: “Ayo bebarengan kita kabeh, para pandhemen sastra Jawa tansah mbudidaya mekarake lan ngudi lestarine budaya Jawa”.

Figure 4. Reading a Book from Tugu to Alun-Alun Yogyakarta

145 Sumber: www.krjogja.com


5.

Concluding Remarks The

Yohanes

Siyamta

case

provides

several

important

insights.

First,

entrepreneurship is a multiplication of opportunity identification and opportunity exploitation. An excellent idea without execution is simply nothing. It takes courage, persistence, dedication, creativity, and speed in exploiting a business opportunity. Interestingly, sometimes economic pressures, constant rejections and other external factors might trigger someone to be creative. However, “no pain, no gain”. Second, cultural entrepreneurship needs both commitment and competence. Passion for Javanese culture and idealistic mission could provide an opportunity for Javanese cultural entrepreneurship. A creative promotional strategy to create marketing sensations might be helpful in serving a niche market like Javanese literature books. Third, sometimes a business opportunity comes to us. It all depends on us to exploit or ignore it. Therefore, not all entrepreneurs are intentional. Some (if not many) entrepreneurs are accidental. Fourth, the case study presented in this paper might be summarized as in Figure 5. It provides a framework to understand how the accidental entrepreneur emerged. Figure 5. The emergence of an accidental entrepreneur ACTOR

ACTION

Background

Arena

 A columnist, writer & officer  40+ years old  S1 degree in Javanese language  A Javanese Motivation

 Publishing industry Process

ACHIEVEMENT  Sales (break-even point plus some profits)  Media coverage  International network

 Being rejected by publishers  Self-financing the first book, but collaborating 146 with a publisher and a distributor for the design,  Preserving the Javanese print, and distribution. language  Refused by another  Documenting all his publisher. previous works  Self-financing the (http://www.novapdf.com) second Create PDFAssets files without this message by purchasing novaPDF printer

References Aldrich, H.E. and A.L. Kenworthy (1999), “The accidental entrepreneur: Campbellian antinomies and organizational foundings” in Baum, J.A.C. and B. McKelvey (eds.), Variations in Organization Science: In Honor of Donald T. Campbell. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., pp. 19-34. Ardichvilli, A., et al. (2003), “A theory of entrepreneurial opportunity identification and development”, Journal of Business Venturing, Vol. 18, pp. 105-124. Bygrave, W. and A. Zacharakis (2008), Entrepreneurship. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Carland, J.H., F. Boulton and J. Carland (1984), “Differentiating entrepreneurs from small business owners: A conceptualization”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 9 (2), pp. 354-359. Covin, J. and D. Slevin (1989), “Strategic management of small firms in hostile and benign environments”, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 10, pp. 75–87. Easton, G. (2010), “One case study is enough”, Lancaster University Management School, working paper. Gartner, W.B. (1985), “Framework for describing the phenomenon of new venture creation,” Academy of Management Review, Vol. 10, pp. 696-706. Gartner, W.B. (1989), “’Who is an entrepreneur?’ is the wrong question,” Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, Summer, pp. 47-68. Hisrich, R.D., M.P. Peters and D.A. Shepherd (2008), Entrepreneurship, 7th ed. New York: McGraw Hill. Klamer, A. (2006), “Cultural entrepreneurship”, www.klamer.nl., accessed on 21 October 2011. Kobia, M. and D. Sikalieh (2010), “Towards a search for the meaning of entrepreneurship,” Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 34 (2), pp. 110-127. Safra, J.E. and J. Aguilar-Cauz (eds.) (2010), Time Almanac 2011. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. Shane, S. and S. Venkataraman (2000), “The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 25, pp. 217-226. Tjiptono, F. (2008), “Lima dimensi kunci kewirausahaan”, Business News, No. 7697 (6 Agustus), Ruang Strategi Usaha, pp. 1-2. Urquhart-Brown, S. (2008), The Accidental Entrepreneur: 50 Things I Wish Someone Had Told Me about Starting a Business. New York: AMACOM. Venkataraman, S. (1997), “The distinctive domain of entrepreneurship research,” Advances in Entrepreneurship, Firm Emergence and Growth, Vol. 3, pp. 119-138. Yin, R.K. (1989), Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Newbury Park: Sage. “Budaya Jawa merosot”, Harian Jogja, 31 January 2011. 147


“Cultural entrepreneur: A new definition”, http://culturalentrepreneur.org, accessed on 21 October 2011. “Dibaca dari Tugu hingga Kraton”, Radar Jogja, 13 December 2009. “Hewan saja mendengarkan, masak manusia tidak…”, Radar Jogja, 10 November 2008. “Mengajak binatang menikmati karya sastra”, Kompas (Yogyakarta), 10 November 2008. “Pelestarian sastra berbahasa Jawa”, Kompas, 14 December 2009. “Prihatin mekaring sastra Jawa, maca geguritan kanggo munyuk”, Kedaulatan Rakyat, 16 November 2008. “Pustaka: Belajarlah dari setiap peristiwa”, Bernas Jogja, 12 December 2009. “Rogoh uang pribadi, terbitkan buku bahasa Jawa”, Suara Merdeka, 3 March 2010. “Sastra Jawa masih butuh sensasi”, Minggu Pagi, Week I April 2009. “Sastra Jawa tidak butuh sensasi”, Minggu Pagi, Week IV March 2009. “What is a cultural entrepreneur anyway?”, http://www.mediaenterprise.co.uk, accessed on 21 October 2011.

148


Entrepreneurship Class: between theory and reality Maya Malinda and M. Jimmy Hasugian Maranatha Christian University Bandung, Indonesia ABSTRACT Most of the syllabus taught during the Entrepreneurship class in the Economics Faculty at Maranatha Christian University only covers theories of entrepreneurship. In this research paper, we experiment using experiential learning strategies during the course and examined whether the strategy can help students to effectively relate theory to reality. One and a half years after the end of the class, we used a questionnaire to get feedback from 21 students who participated in this exercise. According to statistical analysis, we found that all the respondents agreed that the strategy helped them relate the theory of entrepreneurship to reallife practices. KEYWORDS Entrepreneurship, learning process, experiential learning, business plan introduction The Entrepreneurship class conducted at the Economics Faculty generally uses lecturing methods in teaching. The teachers tend to be a prime resource in the student’s learning process, which results in minimal student participation in class. This condition has given rise to students having difficulties relating the theories they learn to reality. In our research, we assume that the experiential learning strategy will help students gain more knowledge and insight into entrepreneurship. According to Kolb (1984), learning is “a process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience” (p. 41). One of the propositions in Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) is that “learning is a holistic process of adaptation to the world. It is not just the result of cognition but involves the integrated functioning of the total person – thinking, feeling, perceiving and behaving” (Kolb, 2005, p.5).

Learning activities We experimented with experiential learning strategies during one such class. We divided students into groups comprising 5 to 6 members. We gave each group an assignment comprising 3 steps as shown: 149


1.

2.

3.

Students were expected to make a simple business plan where: 

It should be about a products-based sale.



It can be run using no more than IDR 500,000 as start-up capital.



No reselling of business plans was allowed.

Students had to execute the plan based on the following requirements: 

Students were expected to sell the products themselves.



The products cannot be sold to classmates or family members.



No ‘force-feed’ strategy was allowed.

Students had to present a summary report of their project where: 

They had to submit a printed report describing their activities, feelings and reflections during the process.



Each group was to present their report to the class.

Evaluations of the students’ learning outcomes were taken from the following: 

20% of the mid-term marks, which comprised 75% of their involvement in class activities and 25% of the mid-term test.



30% of the final-term marks, which comprised 75% of their involvement in class activities and 24% of the final-term test.



50% from the 3-step assignment mentioned earlier.

For the project, each student was graded based on his or her: 

Involvement in conceptualising the business plan and product.



Participation in selling the product to the market they proposed.



Involvement in preparing and presenting the final report, as well as his or her ability to answer or handle questions from the class. 150


Methodology Based on the activities described, we were interested in addressing these questions: 1.

Did the students’ knowledge about entrepreneurship increase?

2.

Did the learning process meet students’ expectations?

3.

Are they able to design a simple business plan after this project?

4.

Are they able to relate theory and practice in entrepreneurship after this project?

5.

Are they inspired by this experience to be entrepreneurs?

One and a half years after the project was completed, we gave students a questionnaire to get their feedback about the learning process. 21 students who participated in the activity were asked to fill the questionnaire. The questionnaire comprised ten Likert-scaled questions and two open-ended questions.

Hypotheses By using the statistical approach, we proposed the following hypotheses: Null hypothesis The learning process does not help students relate theory and practice in entrepreneurship. Alternative hypothesis The learning process helps students relate theory and practice in entrepreneurship.

Results The result of the one-sample T-test is shown in Table 1. According to Table 1, all the significant values are less than 0.05. Based on the table, which has a degree of freedom (df) of 20 and confidence level of 95 %, we obtained a t-value of 2.086. Since all the t-values in Table 1 are greater than the t-table value, the null hypothesis was rejected. Table 1 One-Sample Test

Test Value = 3.45 151


t

q1 q2 q3 q4 q5 q6 q7 q8 q9 q10

df

Mean Sig. (2-tailed) Difference

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower

Upper

7.817

20

.000

1.026

.75

1.30

4.700

20

.000

.788

.44

1.14

4.934

20

.000

.931

.54

1.32

2.186

20

.041

.407

.02

.80

3.888

20

.001

.740

.34

1.14

5.950

20

.000

.836

.54

1.13

4.062

20

.001

.788

.38

1.19

5.539

20

.000

.693

.43

.95

4.934

20

.000

.931

.54

1.32

7.504

20

.000

.979

.71

1.25

Based on the results, we can conclude that the learning process significantly helped students to relate theory and practice in entrepreneurship. Here included some comments from students about what they have learned during the activities: 

“By using small amount of money [given,] I can make an innovative business [plan] and [break even] easily.”



“[I found it] creative to start a business.”



“I [learned] how to set a target market [to] meet the purchase intentions of consumers.”



“I experienced how to sell directly. We [got to] know each other in our group and [are] still friends until now.” 152




“I learned how to make ‘sop buah’ (a fruit drink), how to sell it directly and how to manage funds.”



“I got many business ideas and [learned] how to make a business plan.”



“In these activities, I learned how to run a business and plan strategies to deal with market and competitors.”



“I learn step by step how to start a new business.”

conclusion The results infer that students in the Entrepreneurship class could relate the theory or concept of entrepreneurship to real-life practices, which would inspire them to be entrepreneurs.

references Kolb, D.A., 1984. Experiential Learning: Experience as The Source of Learning and Development, Prentice-Hall, Kolb, A.Y.; Kolb, D.A. 2005. Learning styles and learning Spaces: Enhancing experiential learning in higher education.

153


EXAMINATION OF SELF-EFFICACY AND SUPERVISOR SUPPORTS TO TRANSFER INTENTION WITH MOTIVATION TO LEARN AS AN INTERVENING VARIABLE31 Budi Santoso Faculty of Economics and Business, Gadjah Mada University

Abstract This study examines that motivation to learn as an intervening variable may determine whether self-efficacy and supervisor support affect positively to transfer intention. This study adopts the works of the planned behavior theory. Individuals have an intention to perform organizational tasks if they can do them well and obtain supports from the influential persons. Data collected from a training program of a national bank (n= 113) demonstrates a correlation between self-efficacy, supervisor support, motivation to learn, and transfer training by hierarchical regression. The results are in the line with the theory of planned behavior and the motivation to learn which contributes partially as an intervening variable for the model. In addition, the results also show agreement with the previous studies that underline the importance of individual and organizational factors to increase the effectiveness of the trainings. In particular, employee’s creativity can be encouraged from development of selfefficacy and supports from management or supervisor by building positive expectation and providing feedback to create better performance. Key words: self-efficacy, supervisor support, motivation to learn, the intention of training transfer, and theory of planned behavior

Introduction Training is one of strategic instruments for the organizations to improve or enrich the knowledge and working skills, increase performance and productivity, or prepare employees to meet the qualifications in the new place of work and career development program. Because of the recognition of strategic role of training for organizations, the effectiveness of training program becomes critical thing that need to be paid attention by the management by ensuring the employees readiness to attend the training program, providing organizational

31

Penelitian ini dibantu oleh Akhmad Fandy Muhammad sebagai pengumpul data di lapangan (SENDIK BRI Yogyakarta) dan Lizamul Widad sebagai pengolah data. Saya mengucap terima kasih atas kesediaan mereka membantu penelitian ini.

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support, and designing the relevant program suited with employees’ and organization’s needs. The Model of Effective Training Evaluation that is widely accepted fulfills four principles which are reaction, learning, behavior, and training’s (Kirkpatrik di Al-Eisa et al, 2009). Generally, this model stresses on the behavior change after attending the training by transferring the training to the tasks implementation for the sake of employees and organization (Yimnill dan McLean, 2001). This model also emphasizes on the measurable results to find out the effectiveness of the training. However, some critical arguments have come out for the model especially on the emphasis of training success as transfer of training. Holton (1996) mentioned that if the training effectiveness only focuses on transfer of training without paying attention to the process that results qualified transfer of training, the company has ignored organizational and individual or employees condition that can affect the success of qualified transfer of training. To respond Holton’s point of view, this research argues that the indication of transfer of training intention should be able to be detected by the management so that the management can predict the more potential possibility to achieve training effectiveness. The interesting issue on the transfer of training is to find out how and why the intention to transfer of training can occur. Conditional requirements need to be elaborated to know that employees intend to transfer the training for their own interest as well as organization’s. Some studies have given some propositions on organizational condition. Swartz (2002) confirmed that goal orientation and initiation are the predictors of the continuity of training transfer. Further, goal orientation is determined by goal intention and the implementation of that intention (Machin and Fogarty, 2004). This goal intention will appear when the favorable condition or situation is available for the individual (a desired end state) 155


and the actions leading to goal achievement (goals-directed actions). The intention to achieve something wanted through transfer of training is considerably influenced by the individual’s belief to transfer of training. The individual’s belief to transfer of training sources from the high level of individual’s self-efficacy in the context to the training carried out and the organizational activities supporting the transfer of training (transfer enhancing activities). In line with experts’ arguments on the source of training effectiveness (Machin and Fogarty, 2003; Foxon 1996), this research is sure that the transfer intention is a crucial thing to predict how far the training is successful for the organization and employees. Some empirical studies have revealed the predictors of the increasing of training transfer intention by focusing on individual and organizational factor. In this case, individual and organizational factors involve

self-efficacy (Machin and Fogarty, 2004; Schwoerer et al.,

2005), positive job attitudes (Tannenbaum et.al., 1991), organizational climate and design (Tracey et.al., 2007). Specifically, organizational climate directs more to create the condition of supervisor support to employees in the process of transfer of training. This research adopts the framework of theory of planned behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991) to predict the level of the intention of transfer of training (Al-Eisia et Al, 2009). TPB gives strong and tested basic of the process of the emerging of behavioral intention based on the individual factor and organizational environment. Briefly, the behavioral intention is affected by the perception on that behavior in the context of the ability of making action and the benefits of that behavior for oneself in the organization (the effect on the easiness and the simplicity of performance improvement). In specific, Al-Eisia et. Al. (2009) put self-efficacy factor as individual factor and supervisor support as organizational factor that become the predictors of the intention of transfer of training. In TPB framework, this research includes motivation element as an intermediary predictor or intervening variable to reach a certain 156


intention of transfer of training. Including motivation element as intervening variable also responds the necessity of motivation’s role validation to transfer as a preliminary prediction of the emerging of training transfer intention (Mathieu and Martineau, 1997). This research, in addition, examines the role of self-efficacy and supervisor support in influencing intention to transfer of training through motivation to learn as intervening variable. In particular, empirical research can give significant contribution to the study of training effectiveness because this research focus on individual factor and organizational environment

rather than training design aspect and instructor’s role to create a successful

training through intention to transfer of training factor than behavior change after training. This research is also trying to examine the validity of the importance of training process as a training effectiveness predictor rather than (1967). This empirical research has a unique characteristic because it takes Indonesian cultural context in which collectiveness and power range aspects are dominant (Hosftede, 1997). The implication with dominant individual dimension and low power range is that the intention to transfer of training is very affected by individual factor (intrinsic motivation), while Indonesian culture in general in Hofstede’s perspective tends to combine individual support and organizational support. The out-comings of the research can validate the power of individual and organizational factors in the context of different culture to achieve the training (research) effectiveness. The Antecedent of the Intention to Transfer of Training According to the planned theory approach, intention is a representation of individual cognitive aspect in forms of a willingness to act a certain behavior and becomes an actual behavior mediation or one that will be implemented (Ajzen, 1991). Foxon Model (1993) explains five steps of transfer process in sequence, starting from the first to the last as intention to transfer, initiation, partial transfer, conscious maintenance, and unconscious 157


maintenance. In this model from Foxon, it is evident that intention to transfer is the beginning of the process of training transfer. The low level of intention can result low initiation of training transfer (a behavior of actual transfer of training). Foxon Model gives more focus on the process rather than see the product of training as a proof of training transfer existence. The transfer intention is different from the motivation to transfer. Transfer intention is more related with the tendency of training participants to initiate the transfer rather than their motivation to apply the knowledge or skills that have been obtained in the training. Motivation to transfer refers to a willingness to transfer, while intention to transfer refers to a commitment to transfer. Both of them strongly correlate and can influence one to another. Self-efficacy Bandura (1986, p.391) defines self-efficacy as “people’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances.” That definition explains about the individual’s belief in his/her ability to carry out a certain task successfully based on the desired performance. In the perspective of training, self-efficacy is an individual’s belief in his/her ability to do a successful training (Guthrie and Schwoerer, 1994). That understanding can underline the role of self-efficacy as a beginning condition or pre-requisite needed by the individuals for them to participate in a training and learn new competence and skills. The level of self-efficacy will later motivate them to learn and develop their skills and knowledge during the training and finally will create a willingness to transfer the training into his/her work. In other words, high selfconfidence on the ability to learn tends to show high self-confidence on the ability to apply the skills and knowledge obtained from the training into work after the training process is accomplished. This is also affirmed by some empirical researches as Wilson et.al (2007) dan

158


Al-Eisa et.al (2009) that reveal positive impacts of self-efficacy to the intention of training transfer. H1: Self-efficacy correlates positively to the intention to transfer of training. Supervisor Supports Supervisor supports refer to how far the supervisor encourage the participants in the training and knowledge acquisition and give a recognition to the employees involved in the activities mentioned (Tracey dan Tews, 2005). Supervisor supports also include certain behavior that can optimalize the application of new knowledge and skills gained from the training into employees’ work (Nijman et. Al, 2004). Supervisor support is also an effort to increase the employees’ or training participants’ awareness to transfer the training. In this case, supervisor support plays its role as a subjective norm that influences the employees to initiate or improve their willingness to transfer the training. H2: Supervisor support has a positive correlation to the intention to transfer of training. Motivation to Learn Motivation to learn is a specific willingness of a training participant to learn about the content of the training and get the whole experience from that training program (Noe dan Schmitt, 1986; Carlson et al., 2000). This empirical study shows that motivation to learn affects the willingness of the participants to play their parts in the training program (Noe dan Wilk, 1993), be ready to do more efforts to learn and find the benefits of the training (Chuang et.al, 2005), and to transfer the knowledge and skills into their work (Cheng dan Ho, 1998, 2001). Foxon (1993) states that motivation to learn has an effect to the learning itself and the intention to transfer. The participants of the training with high motivation will make great efforts to obtain new knowledge and skills in the training program. Later, that condition will 159


encourage the improvement of the intension to training transfer by enriching the participants’ knowledge and skills in the training program. H3: Motivation to learn correlates in s positive way to the intention to transfer of training. Further, the level of motivation to learn is considerably affected by self-efficacy and supervisor support (Chiaburu dan Marinova, 2005; Chiaburu et.al, 2005; Factaeu et.al, 1995). The training participants have high motivation to learn because they fell sure about their ability to follow the training program successfully (the effect of self-efficacy). The level of self-efficacy encourages high self-confidence to involve fully in the training program to gain optimal benefits from the training. The most recent research of Al-Eisa et.al. (2009) affirms that the role of self-efficacy gives positive influence to the improvement of motivation to learn. H4: Self-efficacy correlates positively to motivation to learn. Besides self-efficacy, supervisor support also affects positively to motivation to learn. Supervisor supports includes giving feedback to the performance during the training, positive expectation and support for the participants to implement the training essence into their work (Ismail, et.al, 2010). Such supervisor attention influences effectively to the willingness to participate completely in the training program so the acquisition of new skills and knowledge through the training program can be obtained. H5: Supervisor support gives positive correlation to motivation to learn. The explanation above doesn’t directly affirm the role of motivation to learn as intervening variables of self-efficacy and supervisor support to affect positively the intention to transfer of training. The intention to transfer of training is improved because the participants of the training feel that they get meaningful experience during the training program through the 160


acquisition of new skills and knowledge that will be useful for their work. To obtain optimal result in the training can be realized because of high motivation to learn in the training. The motivation to learn is improved because of high self-efficacy that participants are sure to be able to play parts in the training and acquire skills and knowledge optimally. Besides by high self-efficacy, motivation to learn is also increased because of the supervisor attention and supports by giving positive feedback and expectation to the training participants. This will lift up the motivation to learn of the training participants. H6: Motivation to learn correlates the effect of self-efficacy to the intention to transfer of training. H7: Motivation to learn intervenes the effect of supervisor support to the intention to transfer of training. The Methodology of Research Research Context: This research was conducted at (SENTRA) BRI Yogyakarta by taking BRI temporary (outsourcing) employees as the respondents of the research. BRI Yogyakarta has a policy of having 80 percent outsourcing employees. This research ran in JanuaryAugust 2011. The Testing of Model’s Variables: The instrument of this research is a set of questionnaires consisting of 19 items of closed-questions about self-efficacy, supervisor support, and intention to transfer of training variables.

All the question items are valued in Likert’s five

scales that start from 1 = strongly agree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly disagree. Self-efficacy is defined as the training participants’ valuation on their ability to follow the training successfully. There are six items of self-efficacy element developed Guthrie and Schwoerer (1994), such as “I believe that I will be able to do this training.” 161


Supervisor support refers to support perceived by the training participants from their supervisor to directly involve themselves in the training, innovation, and the application of the new skills and knowledge in the work place. The supervisor supports consist of six items developed Tracey and Tews (2005) such as “My supervisor gives his recognition and appreciation to those who apply the new skills and knowledge from the training in the work place.” Transfer Intention (NT) is explained as a willingness to apply the knowledge and skills in the work place. Three statements suggested by Clemenz (2001) such as “I have an intention to use the knowledge and skills I get from the training program as I go back to my work later.’ Motivation to learn (MB) is defined as a willingness of an employee to participate him/herself in the training program and fully get the experience from the program. There are four items of question construct the motivation to learn variable that was developed by Yi and Davis (2003) such as “O am interested in learning the materials or the content of this training program.’ Data and Analysis Respondents Profile: Using random sampling in the outsourcing employees training program in BRI, the researcher found out that the total number of the respondents were 113 people with female employees (65%) dominate the sex category. In the category of age, the respondents are averagely in the young and productive ages (see table 1). The description of respondents in Table 1 shows that the group of young respondents is the one who has high spirit of being developed especially for their careers. The training can be a valuable opportunity for them to obtain knowledge and skills as much as they can to improve their performance. Table 1: Respondents Profile Profile Elements

Category

Number of

Percentage

162


Sex

person 40 73 59 54

Male Female 21-23 24-26

Age

35% 65% 52% 48%

Average Description and Correlations between Variables: Table 2 shows positive results that each variable has same average score and deviation standard that tend to have similar perception from “agree” to “strongly agree”. Respondents also tend to have high scores for self-efficacy, supervisor support, motivation to learn, and intention to transfer training. Ecah variable has significant correlation showing relatively similar correlation. Table 2: Descriptive Statistic Research Variable Intention to transfer of training (NTP) Learning motivation (MB) Self-Efficacy (ED) Supervisor suport(DS)

N

Average

113

4.732

Deviation Standard .393

113

4.507

.402

113

4.317

.408

113

4.379

.455

Correlation between variables NTP MB ED 1 0.572* 0.459*

1

DS 0.505*

0.539*

0.552*

1

0.568* 1

Validation dan Reliability: The testing instrument for statistic validity is Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), while reliability test uses Conbach’s Alpha 0.60 (Hair et al. 2006). The results of validity test reveals that KMO Sampling adequacy is 0,852 showing the sample taken are representative (cut off: 0,4). The items of question have significant loading factor and has more than 0.40 score. In the reliability test, the instrument indicates that the instrument used in the research is Cronbach’s Alpha and in each construct the score is (Cut Off: 60%).: intention of training: 0.77, Motivation to learn: 0.70; Self-efficacy: 0.82, and supervisor support : 0.86 163


Model Test by Hierarchy Regression: Table 5 shows an indication that all hypothesis proposed in this research are tested and accepted sifnificantly. With the significance all of paths, all hypothesis are supported. In particular, the role of motivation to learn evidently intervenes the correlation between self-efficacy and supervisor supports to the intention of training transfer. The score β = 0.459 in self-efficacy directly correlates to the intention of training transfer compared to when it is intervened by motivation to learn (β self-efficacy = 0.281). The similar results can be seen in score β of supervisor support = 0.505 which is directly related to the intention of training transfer compared to when it is intervened by motivation to learn with the score β 0.335. All causal relations between variables match with the proposed hypothesis and are tested significantly.

Table 5: Hierarchy of Regression Results Step A.Self Eficacy 1 2 3 4

Dependent

Independent

Beta (sig)

Intention Intention Motivation Intention

Efficacy Motivation Efficacy Efficacy Motivation

0,459** 0,499 ** 0,493 ** 0,281** 0,360**

0,210 0,249 0,243 0,308

0,098 **

B.Support

Intention Intention Motiv Intention

Support Motivation Support Support

0,505 ** 0,499 ** 0,527 ** 0,335 **

0,255 0,249 0,277 0,330

0,075 **

164


Motivation ** significant at the level of 1%

0,322 **

Data Results Summary: In general, all the results of Regression Hierarchy test are in line with the previous empirical studies. Motivation to learn becomes the main factor to create the improvement of training transfer intention. High or increasing motivation to learn is influenced by someone’s belief or self-confidence to be able to follow and participate the training. Motivation is also advanced if there is a positive support from the supervisor. Given a special condition, Indonesian cultural context that is different from those from developed countries where the model developed doesn’t give any different results and indeed strengthen the role of that model to predict the training effectiveness from the first step that is when there is a change of behavior after the training. Indirectly, the respondents profile who are in the category of young and productive ages (21-26 years old) affect the high score of all variables tested. Enthusiasm to develop becomes as an asset for them to motivate themselves, added by their high education, to improve their self-efficacy. On the other side, the dominant respondents who are women also influence the tendency of individuals in their work place to rely on subjective norms through supervisor supports to transfer the training into their work. Loyalty to the superior is indicated stronger in women to transfer the training than the men who tend to transfer the training because that training is important to improve their performance and their career progress. Although statistically, self-efficacy and supervisor support as well as are independently and individually give positive and significant influence to the intention of training transfer, the interaction of individual (in this case self-efficacy) and organizational factor

(supervisor support) are really needed, based on the concepts of interactionist

perspectives (Greenberg, 2011). Individual behavior is a function of individual and organizational factors interaction. The training for improving the employees’ creativity will 165


be effective in results if the self-efficacy development can be lifted up through the training of self-development and inputs from management. Generally, management requirements on the improvement of employees’ development can be done not only through the training but mainly through the self-confidence creation and supervisor’s inputs on all those aspects that need to be improved to escalate their creativity. References Ajzen, I. (1991). The Theory of Planned Behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179-211. Al-Eisa, A.S, Furrayan, MA dan Alhemoud, A.M (2009). An Emprical Examintaion of the Effect of Self-Efficay, Supervisor Support,d an Motivation Learn on Transfer Intention. Management Decision, 47(8), 1221-1224 Chiaburu, D.S dan Marinova, S.V (2005). What Predicts Skill Transfer? Exploratory Study of Goal Orientation, Training Self-Efficacy and Organizational Supports. International Journal of Training and Development, 9(2), 110-123. Facteau, J.D, Dobbins, G.H., Russel, J.E.A., Ladd, R.T., & Kudisch, J.D. (1995). The Influence of General Perceptions of the Training Environment on Pre-Training Motivation and Perceived Transfer of Training. Journal of Management, 21, 1-25 Foxon, M (1993). A Process Approach to the Transfer Training Australian. Journal of Educational Technology, 9(2), 130-143. Greenberg, J (2010). Behavior in Organizations. 10th edition, New Jersey: Pearson PrenticeHall. Guthrie, J.P. dan Schwoerer, C.E. (1994). Indivdiual and Contextual Influence on SelfAssessed Training Needs. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15, 405-422 Hair, W.C.Black, B., Anderson, and Tatham. (2006). Data Analysis Multivariate. 6th edition, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.l Ismail, A., Mohamed, H.A.B., & Sulaiman, A.Z. (2010). Supervisor’s Role as an Antencedent of Training Transfer and Motivation to Learn in Training Programs. ACTA Universitatis Danubius, 2, 18-37. Machin, M.A. & Fogarty, G.J (2004). Assessing the Antecedents of Transfer Intention in a Training Context. International Journal of Training and Development, 8(3), 222-235. Nijman, D.J.J.M., Nijhof, W.J, Wognum, A.A.M., &Veldkamp, B(2006). Exploring Differential Effects of Supervisor on Transfer of Training. Journal of European Industrial Training, 30, 529-549. Tracey, J.B., and Tews, M.J. (2005). Construct Validity of a General Training Climate Scale. Organizational Research Model, 8(4), 353-374

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Analyzing of distance learning methods as a public service sector in terms of shaping and changing education society's perception

Sri Sediyaningsih

Abstract Distance learning system in Indonesia are realized by the government in 1984, known as PTJJ, with the main aim to give opportunities to all high school graduates or the equivalent can obtain higher education, without thinking about time and place. PTJJ is relatively new learning method when compared with face-to-face learning systems in general that already exists in Indonesia. Through this system, which does not require the room to learn, making the cost of education less than other colleges which uses face to face methods , especially with private college. But it turns out that this cheap cost of education, perceived by education for the economically incapable or lower class. The interaction is not face to face is interpreted to have a much lower quality than a face to face. Paradigm of PTJJ must change and this can only be done through the communication approach. Through this paper, we discuss how to shape and change people's perception of distance education using the approach from the side of management customer relationship management (CRM) and public affairs communication through interpersonal communication, mass communication theory and social media.

Key words: CRM, inclusion, affection and control, social media theory

INTRODUCTION Competition to find customers not just occurs in the business area alone, but the college now also experiencing the same thing. The number of existing universities faced with the emergence of new competitors led to increasingly diverse emerging. Open University (UT) as the only university with distance education methods in the country, really do not need to worry about the growth of new universities face to face in the vicinity that use different learning methods. But in fact, although the growth of the college has different characteristics, it indirectly provides an opportunity to decrease in student enrollment at UT. Service is the 167


main thing that must be considered in the management of an institution that sells intangible products in the form of services such as Open University. Therefore, this paper wants to give an overview on the implementation of the services in a framework of CRM through student services both in face to face and online to become an important activity in supporting the formation, shaping and maintenance of the college image. With in-depth analysis of the CRM implementation will be made CRM procedures in accordance with the characteristics of higher education, especially distance higher education. Open University as the only university in Indonesia which was formally implements remote method or Open Distance Learning (ODL). UT inaugurated in 1984 with the main goal to open the opportunity for the Indonesian people as possible to follow the higher education, without having constrained by time, age, residence and year of graduation. This is different to other universities where time, age, residence, year of graduation and the availability of places is a constraint. With different educational system than others, making UT as a university which is quite a dilemma in dealing with various questions about patterns of learning, in this dilemma is there are some people who think that the pattern of long distance is difficult to provide quality graduates, on one side of the UT is considered as a large university because it gives an opportunity for anyone who wants to continue their studies. Even the State agency has the right to provide an assessment to the universities Badan Akreditasi Nasional Perguruan Tinggi (BAN PT) have yet to find an appropriate indicator to include elements of assessment, because the majority of the accreditation team and the assessors come from universities face to face. This makes UT's position in society unfavorable because there is no reference or benchmark system of distance education in Indonesia. However, in the international arena, where almost all States have a long-distance college, UT get awards or recognition as a mega-university that has implemented the system with a good distance from the International Council of Distance Education (ICDE). The different assessment conditions are what makes the problems in the writing of this paper appeared. How should the strategy of communications made to enhance the image of a university that has a different method in the learning process, to the people who since long time ago has been introduced to the university community face to face. To address these problems, there are several theories that are used include CRM, Interpersonal Communications, and Quality Service and Customer Satisfaction. So the 168


discussion in this paper is directly based on those theories are applied in the process of CRM in Higher Distance Education Open University.

Customer Relationship Management (CRM) CRM is a strategy that integrates the key business functions and processes of internal and external networks to create and communicate corporate values to customers, based on customer data and information technology. CRM can be said to manage all aspects of the interaction process between companies and customers or prospective customers, including prospects, sales and service by attempting to repair the relationship between companies and customers from various points of view into one view of a product from the company. (Francis Buttle, 2009). He continued that the main characteristics of CRM is a strategy, key business strategies to help take the profitable customers, by creating and delivering more value owned by a product to the customer. Philip Kotler identifies three business orientation that is product oriented, production oriented and sales oriented. (Kotler, 2000). Operations to implement this, focus on operational processes ranging from sales, marketing and service, analysis, must be done to see how the development of a product and a strategy that should be done and collaboration, here defined as the optimum technology to minimize barriers to companies optimize the value -value of the company, partners and customers. The term CRM is actually referring to the concept of marketing, however, the concept of CRM cannot be seen from one perspective only, because the CRM is essentially contained three perspectives namely Information Technology, Customer Life Cycle and Business Strategy. Viewed from the perspective of technology, every company is always trying to achieve goals effectively and efficiently, therefore the development of technology is always underlies each policy. This is not just about software technology, but rather the three main elements consisting of customer touch points, applications and data stores. From the perspective of the customer life cycle is more seeing how the company relates to its customers who are more focused on the needs of customers or customer oriented. The third perspective is more a look at business strategy that includes customer acquisition, customer retention and customer extension in the context of marketing, shareholder value and innovation of information technology. At the core of CRM thinking about how to establish, develop and maintain good relations between companies and

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customers in the long term. So basically there are on how to build a meaningful relationship in the long run. ( http://www.marketing teacher.com) . The CRM can be seen depicted in the figure below:

Interpersonal communication mediated Interpersonal communication is a form of communication process that can be viewed from two perspectives, namely contextual consider how the person in the communication, how close they are, and how the feedback and the means or channels are used. Interpersonal communication is different from other forms of communication because the number of participants involved in it, and the physical proximity of its immediate feedback. While the second is the development, which saw the communication of how the relationship that occurs between two or more persons who interact with each other by looking at individual characteristics (Borchers,2011). Fundamentally interpersonal communication has several major functions of gaining information, the more priority to how we find out about other people so we are not wrong communicating, building a context of understanding, in this case every form of interaction is always based on the place or environment in which communication occurs. Some are called Content message or content of the message itself and Relationship message, which is message content associated with this form of interaction that occurs, Establishing identity, to 170


communicate we can position ourselves as to establish the identity of each one of us. And the last is the interpersonal needs are basic human needs which consist of inclusion, affection and control. (Brochers,2011) There are three theories that underlie how the formation of a relationship, namely Uncertainty Reduction theory, which describes a process of reduction of uncertainty about the other party. The higher the level of uncertainty, it can be said closer ties between the two sides.(Berger,1975) We have the Social Penetration theory, which emphasizes the depth dimension of the relationship. And Rules Theory, which describes one's relationship has always been based on a mutually acceptable rules.(DeVito,2004) This term appears because of the development of communication technology such as internet, email, chat and also Blackberry messenger (BBM). The tools used in activities such interactions indeed have two sides perspectives, one is a mass media is a tool used can also send information to everybody (mass), but on the other hand only use personally. Therefore the same as the term computer mediated communication or Computer Mediated Communication, known as CMC. While

terms

of

media or interpersonal communication Interpersonal Mediated Communication (MIC), has the same meaning but a very different form of interaction. This is one area of communication is very clear because of the influence of technologies that reflect how individuals use technology in every interaction.

Interaction through the media is already changing the

way we interact as also revealed by Bailenson, 2006 that the social transformation that has occurred can be seen from three dimensions namely, self-representation, sensory Abilities and situational context. Today everyone uses technology to interact with others, casual and informal than in face to face. Including the time when such as a special holiday greeting, Christmas or birthdays. Even now rarely spoken on the phone, we prefer communicate via SMS or BBM. The most widely used is the telephone cellular or known as mobile (hp), the email, sms and bbm replaces an opportunity to understand the other person is good or meaningful. One reason we use email, sms or bbm because it is quick and easy to interact and even do not want to give full attention in interacting. Some people think that technology can show our quality of life standards, such as what is revealed by Matsuba, 2006 that the people who are always in contact with the sophistication of the technology will improve the quality of life in 171


terms of internet usage, cell phones, video games, but will indirectly reduce the force communication between family members. (Matsuba, 2006; Kraut and colleagues, 1998 in Hoffman, 2009). Ericson says Most individuals need to interact with others in a variety of social and community based activities When individuals do not engage in social activities, they typically fail to achieve a sense of "wellness" and happiness in other aspects of their lives. (Erikson, 1968 dalam Hoffman, 2009). This suggests that the community still needed interacting fellow community members will create a state of happiness and fun, so everyone should be united in the existing social activities.

Quality Service and Customer Satisfaction (QSCS) Quality of service can be seen from what is disclosed Parasuraman, 1988 which consists of several dimensions, namely responsiveness, how will we provide service to customers and give according to what customers want, assurance, all employees have the ability to boost the confidence of what is presented or can be trusted, empathy, and want to pay attention and listen patiently to complaints or concerns of customers, tangibles representing all existing conditions and which can be observed from its personnel, completeness and condition of the room where the service provided and the main thing is reliability, that is what is given is accurate .

How to see the emotion in the customer satisfaction PTJJ system, the authors use a model study of Huseyin Gungor, 2007 as follows:

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From the picture above, try to see how the CRM application to the pattern at the Open University. Starting from Price in this case is the price offered for students who take classes at UT, relatively very cheap compared to other PT in person. The concept of price has also been influential in the selection of a product. Second is the concept of products, a product of teaching materials teaching materials both print and non print, the third is the quality of services provided, then the treatment and the last is the feeling for the firm. This is the basic concept referenced in seeing how CRM can be implemented in PTJJ. Under the process of changing the level of emotion and cognition conducted online customers via email or community UT Online on the website are available. Establishment of cognition is easier than the formation of his emotions. Cognition is supported by the existing products in the UT, while the emotions are influenced by the surrounding community where the student resides.

From the above concept, which most need attention is the sense of "brand" that exists. So far majority society have not known the UT’s learning system , in the minds of those who name 173


the school in the PT is coming to campus, attend lectures, and so on. Social Promotion UT’s research results showed nearly 60% of visitors knew UT from friends or family, they rarely know the UT from the mass media promotion. This suggests that the dissemination of information by word of mouth is very effective in promoting UT. Many people are not familiar with UT as a public university, they do not understand how studying at UT, even among graduates UT 2011 which stated that he felt college at UT, it still felt strange, because it has no campus, never active or attend college classes as a method to PT in general, and is often used to talk about them with the surrounding environment. On the other hand the concept of interpersonal communication people always need to feel accepted valued and controlled. In UT, CRM implementation is done through the UT student service center or Pelayanan Mahasiswa (PELMA), They should consider three factors above. Students or the community generally feel less a part of the UT, in the absence of the campus, as this is perceived by one of UT graduates. There are two factors in the customer satisfaction in terms of physical or rational values dimension in the form of cash and products as well as from the non-physical or emotional value dimension in the form of trust, relationship and convenience.(Robinette, 2001) . Which is difficult to achieve is the emotional side, for example, when we choose a university, which exist in our mind first is the "name" or brand of the university. Parents feel proud if their children received at prestigious state universities, there is a "trust" is so great in it. It is inevitable that in order to achieve a big name is also necessary struggle, but people forget that the big names must remain accompanied with a good product as well, or values that are rational. From a theoretical overview and discussion can take an assumption that in the implementation of CRM in the public higher education, especially higher education distance learning is a relatively new method, then what is done based on the concept of CRM is as follows: in terms of information technology, UT already use fully, the utilization of information technology to reach customers are spread throughout the country. Ironically conditions of each region are very different, so the use of technology can only be felt by those who are in areas of affordable or can access the internet. The products produced by the UT has not been fully able to give satisfaction to the customer, be it a real product in the form of printed materials or non-print, online tutorials and face to face as well as products that are not apparent in the form of service, is still required by the customer. 174


As illustrated by the number of students who are more than 500 thousand people, PELMA UT Center only has 7 staff that routinely provides services to customers, they were assisted by staff

located in 37 UPBJJ spread throughout Indonesia. Business strategy,

conducted UT still felt very lacking in maintaining relationships with customers, especially in terms of information services. Added by Peppers and Rogers (1996) in building better relationships with customers through the process of identity, of knowing exactly who our customers, differentiate, understanding the customer is not maximized, we can provide treatment in accordance with the character of the customer, Interact a good interaction with based on an understanding of the expectations of our customers and customize, meaning that the similarity between expectations and reality of the customer.

CONCLUSION CRM is essentially the process of developing relationships with customers in a long time, by maximizing the utilization of technology, by providing added value to customers and profits for the University. But in fact the implementation of CRM in Indonesia State Universities in general have not gone well, this is due to the high level of demand and willingness of the place of the existing state universities. On the other hand the large number of students at distance state universities (UT) made the implementation of CRM do not provide maximum results. This is due to a lack of understanding of CRM and CRM competence of staff in the field itself. CRM must be seen from the 3 strategies (technology, product and strategy), all three cannot stand alone but should complement each other. The main thing that it is currently facing UT today is an understanding of distance education system Indonesian society is still relatively low, so the "brand" UT is less known, even if aware, they do not understand what and how to study at UT. CRM in Indonesia especially in the higher education has not been implemented well, this is due to a lack of coordination that occurs internally of the PT itself. In principle the CRM activities are internal activities that generate customer satisfaction through its activities. CRM activities not fully get the attention of the government agencies in general. Forming people's perceptions of different learning systems is not easy, it takes the cooperation and coordination of various parties, particularly the directorate of higher education as a formal institution to support the existence of the open university which was formed with the primary mission of opportunity 175


for anyone to take higher education, or in accordance with the UT’s sound bite, making higher education open to all. Discussions about the existence of distance education is still rarely carried out by the government, whereas the existence of distance education itself is the government's efforts to provide an opportunity for anyone who wants to continue to higher education without the constraints of space and time. Distance education is not a competitor of face to face PT, but a partner in helping the mission of government in education.

REFERENCES: Bailenson,JN., Garland,P. Iyenger,S & Yee.N, 2006, Transformed Facial Similarity as a Political Cue: A Preliminary Investigation, Political psychology,27 Berger, Charles R, and Richard J. Calabrese, Some Exploration in Initial Interaction and Beyond,:Toward a Theory of Interpersonal Communication. Human Communication Research 1 (winter): 99-12, 1975 DeVito,A.Joseph, The Interpersonal Communication Book, Wesley Longman, 2004 Tim Borchers, diunduh 7 Februari 2011 Gungor,Huseyin, 2007, Emotional Satisfaction of Customer Contacts, Amsterdam University Press Oliver.M, Sandra, 2004, Handbook of Corporate Communication and Public Relations, Routledge, London Ormeno, Marcos, 2007, Managing Corporate Brand, A New Approach to Corporate Communication, Gabler Edition Wissenschaft Lerbinger,Otto, 2006, Corporate public affairs, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publisher, London Kotler,Philip, Nancy Lee, 2007, Marketing in the Public Sector, Whartoon School Publishing Francis Buttle, 2009, Customer Relationship Management, Elsevier Kotler P, 2000, Marketing Management The Millenium Edition, Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall International Parasuraman, A.,Zetihaml, V.A & Berry,L.L, 1988, SERVQUAL: a Multiple-Item Scale for Measuring Customer Perceptions of Service Quality. Journal of Retailing. Robinette, Brand and Lenz, 2001,Emotion Marketing:The Halmark way of winning customer for life,New York,McGraw Hill Hoffman, August John, Wallach,Julie,Sanchez.Eduardo,Afkhami,Hasti, 2009, Improving interpersonal Communication through community service, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4057. Peppers,D., and Rogers,M.(1996) the 1-to-1 future:building business relationships one customer a t a time, London

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ANALYSIS OF THE ADOPTION OF ASEAN MRA ON TOURISM PROFESSIONAL AT JAKARTA FIVE STAR HOTELTOWARDS THE HUMAN RESOURCES GLOBAL COMPETITIVENESS

Nila Krisnawati Hidayat

Faculty Business Administration and Humanity – Hotel Tourism Management, Swiss German University

Abstract

A key step towards achieving the successful of an ASEAN MRA in Tourism is the adoption of consistent competency standards as described in the ASEAN Common Competency Standards for Tourism Professionals (ACCSTTP) Framework, including in Indonesia. Utilizing methodology of focus group discussion, as well as secondary data, this paper aims to identify the steps taken in the implementation of MRA, benefits, obstacles faced by government and industries, and measure the level of perception of Jakarta 5 star hotel operators. It has been analyzed that there are obstacles faced such as the gaps in standards qualification for tourism in each hotel industries; and also limited role of National Tourism Body to socialize the adoption of ASEAN MRA for Tourism. The study uses deductive-evaluative approach, with combination of qualitative and quantitative method. The results confirm that the adoption of ACCSTP must be recognized as an essential step to facilitate wider use for employment of tourism and hospitality sector. It is also found that the MRA in Indonesia until today has derived a negative perception from 5 star hotel establishments in Jakarta.It is recommended to monitor the adoption progress of the competency standards regularly, the third-party certification’s involvement and adjust the goal accordingly. Key words: adoption, competency standard, tourism and hospitality, human resources


I. INTRODUCTION A. Background The increasing number of tourists to ASEAN as well derives a greater demand for tourism labor forces. In ASEAN, hotel industry as a part of tourism sector constitutes an important part of the total national employment percentage.

Figure 1 ASEAN Employment Percentages by Sector Source: ACIF 2010

ASEAN Tourism Agreement was signed by the leaders of ASEAN state members, at the 8th ASEAN summit which was held in November 2002. Upgrading tourism education curricula and skills were among the schemes of this agreement, involving the formulation of competency standards and certification procedures which are accepted mutually among the ASEAN member states, herein after referred to as a Mutual Recognition Agreement. Later in 2009, ASEAN Connectivity is formulated as a realization of ASEAN leaders' vision to build an integrated ASEAN Community by 2015. MRA then become among the key elements of the ASEAN Connectivity. The categories of ASEAN Connectivity coverage include physical connectivity, people-to-people connectivity, and the institutional connectivity (including

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MRA). This Mutual Recognition Agreement supports the process of trade liberalization in tourism sector by facilitating a flow of tourism professionals, establishing an integrated network of tourism and travel services as a means to narrow the development gap among ASEAN Member States as well as in fostering mutual understanding and regional stability. A key step towards achieving MRA will be the adoption of consistent competency standards in vocational education and training systems for the tourism sector across ASEAN as described in the ASEAN Common Competency Standards for Tourism Professionals (ACCSTP) Framework. Today, the adoption of MRA is on-going. Programs and activities are continuously conducted by Indonesian government to socialize and get both the employers and the workers engaged in tourism industry to be aware of the importance and benefits can be gained through the actualization of MRA. Ironically, Indonesia falls slow in the adoption process of MRA, when in fact Indonesia was one of the leading member states in the formulation of the curriculum adopted. This situation thereby generates an interest to bring up this issue for this thesis through a further study and analysis. B. Research Purpose There are four purposes of this thesis: 1. To measure the perception of Jakarta 5 star hotels towards MRA 2. To determine the steps taken by both government and hotel establishments in the adoption of MRA including its potential benefits 3. To identify the obstacles faced by both Indonesian government and hotel establishments within the adoption of MRA C. Research Problem Indonesia is expected to have fewer difficulties in terms of adoption of MRA since the curriculum was originally much adopted from Indonesia's SKKNI. Apart from the fact that it was established first in 2002, there is still a lack of knowledge and awareness of the people

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engaged in Indonesian tourism industry towards the ASEAN MRA, with very small portion of them understand the potential benefits it will lead to. D. Significance of Study The study is significant for three reasons: 1. To serve as a guideline to improve the labor force quality of Indonesian tourism sector, particularly in hotel field, in order to face the global competitiveness 2. To create greater awareness of the importance and benefits of MRA that can be gained by public sector, private sector, and individual tourism workforce. II. LITERATURE REVIEW A. Managing Human Resources in Service Industry Global economy is one in which goods, services, people, skills, and ideas move freely across geographic borders (Hitt et al., 2010). In the business world today, where industries are tremendously affected by the global economy, many start to see human resources as assets that need to be managed more conscientiously. In managing human resource, continuous change and improvements are essential as they are important to shortand long-term competitiveness and survival of a firm. Managing human resources for the 21st century involves: The people management activities, policies, and practices that firms can use to compete effectively and The many changing forces (e.g. Technology, business restructuring, and legal and social concerns) that organizations need to attend today in order to ensure they are positioned to compete effectively in the 21st century (Hitt et al., 2010). Human resources falls under the category of intangible resources, for it provide firms with knowledge, trust, managerial capabilities, and organizational routines (Hitt et al., 2010). In a service industry, where both tangible and intangible products are sold to consumer, the importance of workforce quality becomes even greater. Not only the taste and cleanliness of food sold that matters, but courteous, well-mannered and highly trained staff are often the

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factors which determines the satisfaction of guest in a Hotel. The service profit chain is displayed in Figure 2 illustrates how the employees of an organization are central to attracting and retaining customers and thereby ensuring organizational success. What can be seen from the service profit chain is that conditions within the internal working environment of employees affect their level of satisfaction, loyalty, productivity, and this impacts on the level and quality of services they provide to customers during service encounters, and therefore affect the level of customer satisfaction and loyalty. Customer loyalty through repeat business and referrals is an essential requirement for revenue growth and profitability of the organization (Amos et al., 2009).

Figure 2. Service Profit Chain Source: Heskett et al., Accessed May 25 2011

In the context of globalization, employment opportunities are wide open which stimulates the international mobility of workers. The quality of the labor forces and conditions of labor market in one country and another however will vary and thus affecting the mobility of the international labor market. Thus, aspects that are closely related to international labors are labor quality, labor quantity, labor mobility, and labor markets. The quality of labor immigrants, as were described by Foders (2006), is the education, ability, occupation, and language skills that are rewarded in the labor market. Both labor quality and 181


quantity are crucial in the international labor mobility. Employers in international business must be efficient, profitable, and competitive; because of this, the quality and quantity of the labor force become of great importance (Ball et al., 2006). Labor quality considerations lead to the importance of labor quantity. Labor quantity is the amount of available prospective employees that have the skills required to help meet the business’s needs (Ball et al.). Labor quantity differentials can determine wage scales, production counts, effect training cost, and management levels. Labor mobility is "the movement of people from country to country or area to area to get jobs" (Ball et al., 2006). Labor mobility can impact international businesses in both negatively and positively. Positively, skilled workers from other areas seeking jobs bring companies experience and education that is needed in many areas and departments. A negative impact of labor mobility among others is educated and skilled workers leaving to different areas or countries (Seazone, 2008). Labor markets, described by Ball et al. (2006) as the pool of available potential employees with the necessary skills within commuting distance of the employer. These labor markets should be evaluated by researching the work histories, culture, religion, language, and histories of strikes (Ball et al.). The labor market is a strong labor force for international business and these businesses should be well informed on how foreign country's labor markets work or how they are being developed (Seazone, 2008). B. Hospitality Industry Employment in Globalization Era Tourism has become a major export industry in many countries and become the world’s largest export industry, from the enormous cross-border flows of people and capital it generates. It is also one of the world¹s largest employers and arguably one of the largest traders of foreign currency. In essence, the hospitality industry plays an important part in bringing people physically together in the global community. Therefore Hospitality is often considered not only as an industry; but as well a concept, and a major force in the rapidly

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evolving global marketplace, the very core of the globalization of international business. Hospitality companies therefore need to consider the impact of the global context in which they operate and must be prepared to answer questions that arise from the changing environment. The globalization of business and lifestyles is characterized by communicating over vast distances in foreign languages, frequent travel to overseas countries, dealing in many currencies, and coping with a variety of political and social systems, regulatory environments, cultures and customs (Cline, Accessed May 13). Choi et al. (2000) added that the diversity in the hospitality industry includes both the types of job it offers and the nature of the individual it requires, with occupations ranging from the unskilled, i.e. bellboys and porters, to the highly skilled managers. Waiters and waitresses with professional foodservice skills, clerical and commercial staffs, cooking staffs require the semi-skilled laborers. Choi et al. (2000) further identified that hospitality industry is the world's largest employer of unskilled workers, which means that there are many positions in the hospitality industry available to guest workers. According to Waldinger and Lichter (2003), employers prefer to hire newly arrived immigrants because they are different from the local work force and have the right attitude toward low wage and difficult jobs which are common in the hospitality industry. These newcomers use conditions in their home country as a basis for evaluating bad jobs in the new country which makes these jobs acceptable while the local work force considers low wage and difficult jobs as unacceptable (Taylor and Finley, 2010). According to Choi et al. (2000), most people move for economic reasons in general; they move to take better-paying jobs or to search for jobs in new area (WTTC, 1995). Others move in seek of fulfilling personal interest. Regardless of the motives, migrants generally seek better lives. In hospitality industry, the factors that cause migration are generally categorized into “pull factors” and “push factors”. Push factor refers to a number of negative factors in the country of origin that cause people to move away (Erf and Heering, 1995). This would include poor

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wages, long or unsociable hours, highly individualized job functions, strong competition, sexual discrimination, awkward shifts, and lack of respect from the public. Whereas the pull factors refer to positive ones that attract migrant to receiving country, including flexible hours, opportunities for females and minorities, and opportunities to learn particular skills. C. Labor Competencies Competencies are the state or quality of being adequately or well qualified to perform a task. A person gains competency through education, training, experience, and natural abilities. While there are many definitions of competency, most of them have two common components: 

The competencies are observable or measurable skills, knowledge, and abilities.



The KSAs (knowledge, skills, attitude) must distinguish between superior and other performers. Competencies are behavioral and observable, since they are based on what a person

does. The result from competency of a person is effective or possibly outstanding job performance. Building a competency model require identifying a successful performance for a role or a job responsibility, and then defining the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that relate to that performance (Competencies and Performance, Accessed May 28, 2011). Knowledge is defined by Davenport and Prusak (1998) as, "a fluid mix of framed experience, contextual information, values and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information." The fluid mix of framed experience, contextual information, values and expert insight involve a number of things a person have within, such as experiences, beliefs, values, motivation, and information (Knowledge, Accessed May 18, 2011). Skill is defined as ability and capacity acquired through deliberate, systematic, and sustained effort to smoothly and adaptively carryout complex activities or job

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functions involving ideas (cognitive skills), things (technical skills), and/or people (interpersonal skills). (Business dictionary, Accessed May 18, 2011) According to Sims (2002), an attitude is a positive or negative feeling or a mental state of readiness, leaned and organized through experience that exerts specific influence on a person's response to people, objects, and situations.

Some attitudes are persistent and

enduring; yet, attitudes are subject to change. (Sims, 2002) Breckler (1984) identified that attitude has three separate but related parts: 

Cognitive. Perceptions and beliefs about the object of the attitude; the person's perception of the distinguishing features of the objects.



Affective. Evaluations and feelings about the object of the attitude; a person's feeling of like or dislike for the object.



Behavioral intentions. How the person wants to behave and what the person says about his behavior toward the object. It is not always the same as the behavior observed following the expression of the attitude.

Competency Standards An Industry competency standard is a determined specification of performance which sets out the skills, knowledge and attitudes required to operate effectively in employment. Competency Standards are made up of elements of competency, together with performance criteria, a range of variables and an evidence guide (ASEAN Common Core Standard Competency for Tourism Professionals). There are 3 types of standards in general: Industry Standards , Enterprise (Company) Standards and Cross- Industry Standards Dimensions of Competency There are 5 dimensions of a competency, namely: 

Task Skills: Ability to undertake the specific task/s required to complete a work activity to the required standard.

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

Task Management Skills: Ability to manage a number of different tasks to complete a whole work activity.



Contingency Management Skills Ability in responding to problems and irregularities when undertaking a work activity, such as breakdowns, changes in routine, unexpected or atypical results or outcomes, and difficult or dissatisfied clients.



Environment Skills: Ability to deal with the responsibilities and expectations of the work environment when undertaking a work activity, such as working with others, interacting with clients and suppliers, complying with standard operating procedures, and observing enterprise policy and procedures.



Transfer Skills: The capacity to transfer skills and knowledge to other contexts. (ASEAN Common Core Standard Competency for Tourism Professionals)

Figure.3 Dimensions of Competency Source: ASEAN Common Core Standard Competency for Tourism Profession

III. METHODOLOGY This study is descriptive and attempts to find out whether the adoption of MRA in Indonesia has so far been well executed accordingly to the pre-designed plan and target, by first analysing the perception of Jakarta 5 star hotel operators towards MRA and identifying the obstacles faced by within the adoption. It also aims to discover the benefits to the tourism stakeholders, as well as their contribution made to support the goal of MRA. The focus of this research will be 5 star hotel operators in Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia.

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The

respondents of this survey are employees of the Human Resources Department from 13 five star hotels located in Jakarta. The respondent groups consist of Human Resources Managers/Directors, Training Managers, Employee Relation Managers, Human Resources Coordinators, etc. This research took one to three respondents representing each hotel. The secondary data used in this thesis are collected from various sources, mainly to present numbers such as the number of actual and targeted certified workers from year to year. The respondents of the interview are the Human Resources Managers or representatives of Human Resources Department of certain 5 star hotels in Jakarta. And the participants for the Focus Group Discussion (FGD) are Board of Directors and/or Human Resource Manager of tourism business operators (hotel, travel agent) Lembaga Sertifikasi Profesi (LSP) and associations, Press, Tourism educational institutions, Tourism observers in society. The questions are valued using the nominal scale and ordinal scale (Likert) with five-level Likert item is 1 to 5, From Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree. T-test is used in order to verify the survey conducted from a sample group is able to represent the whole population. This thesis uses one sample test T-test for the mean with unknown sigma. The sampling technique is convenience sampling with the sample size is 50. IV RESULT & DISCUSSION A. Perception Level from Five Star Hotels towards Adoption of MRA It is very crucial to determine the level of Perception from Five Starts Hotel in Jakarta, therefore we could identify further the effort to solve the problem accurately. T Test Result

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Data Null Hypothesis m= Level of Significance Sample Size Sample Mean Sample Standard Deviation

3 0.05 1050 2.099047619 0.987866835

Intermediate Calculations Standard Error of the Mean 0.030486232 Degrees of Freedom 1049 t Test Statistic -29.55276235 Lower-Tail Test Lower Critical Value p -Value Reject the null hypothesis

-1.646307511 1.9319E-140

Confidence Interval Interval Lower Limit Interval Upper Limit

2.04 2.16

Table 4.3 T-Test and Confidence Level Result on the Perception of Jakarta 5 Star Hotels on MRA Source: PHStat2 H0:

The perception of Jakarta 5 star hotels on the implementation of MRA is positive

H1:

The perception of Jakarta 5 star hotels on the implementation of MRA is negative

Interpretation: The t value gained on Result on the perception of Jakarta 5 star hotels on the implementation of MRA is – 29.55 That means: - 29.55

-1.64 ► reject the H0.

Critical Value = - 1.64

Region of Rejection

0

Region of Non Rejection

t = -29.55

Figure 4.9 Statistic Area of Jakarta 5

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Source: PHStat2

It can be concluded from the result of questionnaires that Jakarta 5 star hotels have negative perception towards the implementation of MRA. Thus, the established H0 is rejected, and H1 is accepted

1

2

3

4

Perception of Jakarta 5 2.04

2.16

star hotels on MRA

Figure 4.10 Statistic Area Summary of Jakarta 5 Star Hotels on the Implementation of MRA Source: PHStat2

B. MRA Strategic Adoption in Indonesia Mutual Recognition Agreement (MRA) is an arrangement of efforts to mutually recognize the competency and qualifications of tourism professionals of ASEAN member countries. To facilitate mobility of tourism professionals is the main objective of the creation of this arrangement. Moreover, MRA aims to allow exchanging information about experiences in education and competency-based training for tourism professionals and

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provide an opportunity for cooperation and capacity building in all ASEAN member countries. The adoption of MRA in Indonesia involves two parties in general; public sector and private sector. Public sector refers to the government as well as relating entities that plan, control, and monitor the implementation of MRA, whereas the private sector consists of tourism businesses which act as the employers of the tourism workforces and tourism educational and training institutions whose role is to prepare the prospective tourism workers. There are some crucial efforts to adopt the MRA on Tourism Professional at Jakarta Five Stars Hotel, as followings: 1.

The socialization of UU No. 10 Tahun 2009 is a law on tourism issued by the Government of Republic Indonesia. It is emphasized in this law that tourism is an integral part of national development is

done in a systematic, well-planned, integrated, sustainable, and responsible way while providing protection to religions, cultures that live in the community, sustainability and quality of the environment, as well as national interests Further in this Chapter, Article 53 states that ; Employment in the tourism sector has the standards of competency, Competency standards referred in paragraph (1) is conducted through the competency certification, Competency certification is conducted by the Professional Certification Board that has been licensed in accordance with the provisions of legislation. The government has to increase their great effort persistently in terms of socializing to the public. 2

Familiarization of Mutual Recognition Agreement Familiarization to hotel establishments is done as the solution to create awareness and

understandings toward MRA, among others by sending written and verbal notification to the Human Resources Department of hotel establishments, and socialization through forums and associations such as Hotel Human Resources Managers Associations (HHRMA).

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3. Creating Awareness Internally including its Potential Benefits Considering that some of MRA objectives are to their advantage, many hotel establishments have started to introduce MRA to their employees. In order to create positive perceptions, hotel establishments give clear understanding about the desired goal and benefits of MRA to their employees. Furthermore, socialization on the government's law regarding competency certification has also been conducted, as the first step to encourage their employees to take the competency test, by as giving clear information relating to the content of the law and any penalties will be imposed to the violence of the law in the future. Some Potential benefits from the MRA adoptions are: Adequate Number of Qualified and Competent Workers, Freer Movement of Qualified Tourism Professionals, Motivation for Self-improvement of the Tourism Workers and Easier and More Effective Employee Screening and Recruiting C.

MRA Obstacles Analysis A number of obstacles occur in the implementation of MRA. However, these obstacles

are not necessarily considered as problems, instead, they become the challenges that can still be resolved. The Obstacles of MRA is as well categorized into two; general and specific obstacles such as ; Lack of Public Knowledge of MRA, Limited Assessor Resources, Poor Media Optimization, Financial Issues, Resistance from Hotel Owners

V. CONCLUSION The Adoption of Mutual Recognition Agreement is found to be potentially bringing several benefits to the Indonesian tourism industry. However, a number of obstacles have occurred in the road to implement MRA. The obstacles include lack of public knowledge of MRA, poor media optimization, limited resources, financial issues, and resistance from hotel managements. The adoption of MRA has created a negative perception from the 5 star hotels

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located in the capital city of Indonesia, Jakarta. The Mutual Recognition Agreement does not appear to be at their interest. At the earlier stage, it is an urgent to familiarize ACCSTP as an essential step to facilitate wider use for employment of tourism and hospitality sector. Therefore we could combine the both of the ACCSTP as industry standard and the enterprise standards to be made use in order to fulfill the obligation of being a part of one industry, but still can have their own standards to be exceptional compared to others. It is recommended to monitor the adoption progress of the competency standards regularly, the third-party certification’s involvement and adjust the goal accordingly. This way, the hotel establishments will still be able to experience the positive impacts of MRA, will not receive penalties from the government, as well as still can perform their enterprise standards to gain profit as desired.

ABBREVIATION ACCSTP

:

ASEAN Common Competency Standards for Tourism Professionals

ASEAN

:

the Association of South-east Asia Nations

ATSP

:

ASEAN Tourism Strategic Plan

BNSP

:

Badan Nasional Sertifikasi Profesi

FGD

:

Focus Group Discussion

HHRMA

:

Hotel Human Resources Manager Association

LEPPI

:

Lembaga Profesional Pariwisata Indonesia

LSP

:

Lembaga Sertifikasi Profesi

LSPP

:

Lembaga Sertifikasi Profesi Pariwisata

MRA

:

Mutual Recognition Agreement

NTO

:

National Tourism Organization

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NTPB

:

National Tourism Professional Board

SKKNI

:

Standar Kompetensi Kerja Negara Indonesia

SPSS

:

Statistical Package for the Social Science

TPCB

:

Tourism Professionals Certification Board

GLOSSARY Adoption

:

To take and follow (a course of action, technology, system) by choice or assent. To choose as standard or required in a course

Certificate

:

A document attesting to the truth of certain stated fact.

Certification

:

(1) The act of certifying or state of being certified. (2) Confirmation that some fact or statement is true through the use of documentary evidence. (3) A document attesting to the truth of certain stated facts. (4) Validating the authenticity of something or someone.

Competence

:

The state or quality of being adequately or well qualified; ability. Consist of specific range of skill, knowledge, or ability.

Competency Standard:

The quality of being adequately or well qualified physically and intellectually competence. Elements of competency, together with performance criteria, a range of variables and an evidence guide (ASEAN Common Core Standard Competency for Tourism Professionals).

Corporate Culture

:

A blend of the values, beliefs, taboos, symbols, rituals and myths all companies develop over time.

Curriculum

:

(1) All the courses of study offered by an educational institution. (2) A group of related courses, often in a special field of study.

Enterprise

:

A business organization.

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Globalization

:

Process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments of nations.

Human Resources

:

The persons employed in a business or organization;

field of

personnel recruitment and management. The workforce of an organization In-depth Interview

:

A qualitative market research interview with a single respondent. Such interviews vary greatly in content and interviewing approach as well as in dimensions such as length and location.

Likert Scale

:

A method of ascribing quantitative value to qualitative data, to make it amenable to statistical analysis. A numerical value is assigned to each potential choice and a mean figure for all the responses is computed at the end of the evaluation or survey.

Module

:

(1) A standard or unit of measurement. (2) A short course of study, especially of a vocational or technical subject, that together with other such completed courses can count towards a particular qualification.

Professionals

:

(1) of, relating to, suitable for, or engaged in as a profession. (2) Extremely competent in a job. (3) A person who belongs to or engages in one of the professions.

Qualitative Research :

Research that does not emphasize on the collection and Analysis of statistical data, and usually tends to obtain in-depths insight into a relatively small number of respondents or observations.

Quantitative Research :

Research that is mainly based on the collection and analysis of Statistical data, and hence tends to obtain a limited amount of

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information on large numbers of respondents or observations. These results are then extrapolated to the wider population of the subjects matter. Questionnaire

:

A set of questions on a form, submitted to a number of people in order to collect statistical information

Tourism and Hospitality :

The sum of the industrial and commercial activities that

produce goods or service wholly or mainly for tourist consumption.

REFERENCES Achterbergh, J., Vriens, D. (2002), “Managing viable knowledge”, Systems Research and Behavioral Science, Vol. 19 Issue 3 Amos, T. L., A. Ristow, L. Ristow, N. J. Pearse. (2009), Human Resources Management 3rd Edition. Juta and Company Ltd, Ball, D. A., McCulloch, W. H. Jr., Frantz, P. L., Geringer, J. M., & Minor, M. S. (2006), International business: The challenge of global competition (10thed.). New York: McGraw- Hill, Breckler, S.J. (1984), "Empirical validation of affect, behavior, and cognition as distinct components of attitude", Journal of Personality and Social P sychology, Vol. 47 pp.1191-205. Burns, A. C. and Bush, R. F. (2006) .Marketing Research. 5th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall United States of America Choi, J., Woods, R.H., Murrmann, S.K. (2000), "International labor markets and the migration of labor forces as an alternative solution for labor shortages in the hospitality industry", International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 12 No.1, pp.61-8 Crouch, S., M. Housden. (2003), Marketing Research For Managers. ButterworthHeinemann, Davidson, M.C.G. (2003), "Does organizational climate add to service quality in hotels?", International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 15 No.4/5, pp.206-15. Foders, F., & R. J. Langhammer (2006), Labor Mobility And The World Economy. Springer Hitt, M. A., R. D. Ireland, R. E. Hoskisson (2010), Strategic Management: Concepts & Cases: Competitiveness & Globalization. Cengage Learning Lashley, C. (2002), "Emotional harmony, dissonance and deviance at work", International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 14 No.5, pp.255-7. Mendenhall, W., R. J. Beaver, B. M. Beaver (2009), Introduction To Probability And Statistic. Cengage Learning, Sims, Ronald R. (2002), Managing Organizational Behavior. Greenwood Publishing Group, Stahl, C.W (1986), International Labor Migration: A Study of the ASEAN Countries, The Center for Migration Studies of New York, New York, NY., . Tepeci, M., Bartlett, A.L.B. (2002), "The hospitality industry culture profile: a measure of individual values, organizational culture, and person-organization fit as predictors of 195


job satisfaction and behavioral intentions", International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 21 No.2, pp.151-70. Taylor, M., Finley, D. (2010), “Acculturation, assimilation, and retention of international workers in resorts”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 12 No. 10 Varoglu, D., Eser, Z. (2006), "How service employees can be treated as internal customers in hospitality industry", The Business Review, Cambridge, Vol. 5 No.2, pp.30-5. Waldinger, R., Lichter, M. (2003), How the Other Half Works: Immigration and the Social Organization of Labor, University of California Press, Berkley, CA, . Zikmund, William G (2003), Business Research Method. 7th ed. Ohio: Thompson SouthWestern Other Sources _____, ASEAN Common Core Standard Competency for Tourism Professionals: An Awareness Program, www.uq.edu.au/cbamt/docs/training-resources/CBAMTCBT Awarness.ppt, Accessed May 27, 2011. _____, ASEAN Tourism Strategic Plan (ASTP) 2011-2015, www.aseansec.org/ documents/ATSP%202011-2015.pdf, Accessed June 2, 2011 Cline, R.S., “Hospitality Adjusts to Globalization.” Hotel-online, Available at: http://www.hotel-online.com/Trends/Andersen/global.html, Accessed May 13, 2011. _____, “Competencies and Performance”, Nwlink, Available at: http://www.nwlink.com/ ~donclark/performance/competencies.html, Accessed May 16, 2011. _____, “Defining Competency”, The State of Queensland (Department of Education and Training), 2009. Available at: www.vetpd.qld.gov.au, Accessed August 1, 2011 Erf, R. V. D. & L. Heering, ed. Causes of international migration: proceedings of a workshop, Luxembourg, 14-16 December 1994. DIANE Publishing, 1995 Heskett, J.L., Thomas O.J., Gary W.L., W.Earl S. Jr., Leonard A.S., “Putting the ServiceProfit Chain to Work”, http://hbr.org/2008/07/putting-the-service-profit-chain-towork/ar/1, Accessed May 25, 2011. _____,” Introduction to Evaluation”, Socialresearchmethods, Available at: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/intreval.htm, Accessed April 14, 2011 _____, “Knowledge”, Nwlink, Available at: http://nwlink.com/~donclark/ knowledge/ knowledge.html, Accessed May 16, 2011. _____, “Method and Research Design”, Available at: http://203.159.12.5:8082/AIT/education/ LanguageCenter/ait-writing-services/guidebook/method-and-research-design.html, Accessed April 17, 2011 Olsen, Michael D. Into The New Millenium. International Hotel Association, 1995 Seazone, “Understanding Labor Forces in International Market”, Associatedcontent, May 19 2008, Available at: http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/769601/understanding_basic_labor_forces_in .html?cat=3, Accessed May 13, 2011. _____, “Skills”, Businessdictionary, Available at: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/skill.html, Accessed May 16, 2011. (1995), Travel and Tourism, Progress and Priorities, World Travel and Tourism Council (WTCC). WTTC, IFTO, IH&RA, ICCL. Industry As A Partner For Sustainable Development: Tourism, UNEP, London, 2002

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Marketing Skills in the Era of Web 2.0 Efendi Economics Faculty, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia Abstract With the popularity of internet and social networking, consumer behavior has changed significantly. Nowadays, the consumers are able to search for a large amount of information and to share their consumption experience to a wider audience. In this condition, marketers need some new skills to be able to serve their customers satisfactorily. Abilities to provide up-to-date and clear information and to engage with the consumers are just two examples of the skills needed. Other skills needed would be further discussed. Keywords: web 2.0, social networking, purchase decision, to engage

1. Introduction

Internet penetration in Indonesia is growing rapidly. The percentage of internet users has doubled from 8% in 2005 to 17% in 2009. The growth is coming from the migration of users from other media, such as radio and newspaper. The people are moving their habit of listening to music from radio to music download from the internet. Newspaper readers are also migrating to online news which is more update than newspaper. As internet users, Indonesians are highly sociable. They use the internet more for social motives than for information search. In 2009, the highest traffic website in Indonesia was Facebook, which surpassed Google. Many Indonesians access social networking sites through their mobile phones. In the meantime, we have seen that Chinese mobile phones with social sites features are flooding Indonesian market. A big part of Indonesians’ first experience with internet is through social sites. Given the above mentioned condition, this current paper tries to find out how the consumer behavior has changed in web 2.0; how marketers can capitalize on the new behavior; and what are the new skills needed to thrive in the new landscape.

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2. What web 2.0 is Internet has become an important communication media aside of traditional media such as television and newspaper. For some companies, internet communication may serve as the complement to the traditional communications. For others, internet has become the major instrument to reach the market. The influence of internet has become more compelling with the rise of web 2.0. Web 2.0 is the development of web 1.0 technology. In web 1.0, the content of communication is only created by companies who want to sell their products to the consumers. Thus, the flow of information is only one-way, from the owner of the site to the viewers or consumers. On the other hand, web 2.0 facilitates two-way communication. In web 2.0, the viewers or consumers can also create their own information in the social media (web 2.0 is also termed as social media). There are several applications of web 2.0, which include participation, openness, conversation, community, and connectedness (Spanner Works, 2007). Examples of web 2.0 include social networking sites, blogs, wikis, hosted services, video sharing sites, etc. In this era, the companies no longer monopolize the communication to the mass consumers, but the individual consumers can now communicate freely to other consumers. The consumers are now allowed to speak up their opinion on company’s product and broadcast the information to wide viewers, such as in a social networking site, like Facebook. Constantinides and Fountain (2008) have categorized social media into 5 categories. First is blogs (online journals), which is the most known category of social media. Blog is usually combined with podcasts (digital audio or video sharing). Second is social networks, which are the applications for exchange of personal information and communication. Third is communities, which are the websites organizing and sharing particular content. Fourth is forum/ bulletin boards, which are the sites for exchanging ideas and information around

198


special topics. Fifth is content aggregators, which are the applications allowing users to customize websites they wish to access.

3. How web 2.0 has changed the consumer behavior Web 2.0 has changed the consumer behavior significantly. In this era of two way communication, each consumer can also influence the marketing information received by other consumers. Figure 1 describes that consumer’s decision making is influenced by controlled marketing stimuli (traditional marketing mix and web experience) and uncontrollable marketing factors (online uncontrollable marketing factors and consumer’s background and tendency (Constantinides and Fountain, 2008). Online uncontrollable marketing factors are the factors which differentiate traditional marketing and marketing in web 2.0. For example, consumer’s negative or positive opinion on blogs, social networks or forums can influence the decision made by a consumer, such as in buying a smart phone. In traditional marketing, the influence of peers is only found off-line, such as through face-toface interaction. Other part of the model, which is customer decision making, will be further discussed below.

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Figure 1. Factors influencing consumer decision making in the era of web 2.0 Source: Constantinides and Fountain (2008)

The decision making process is divided into 5 steps, which is depicted in Figure 2. The social media have also changed the way consumer behave in the decision making process. Firstly, the consumers may get some stimuli from the social media which trigger the recognition of certain need, such as for a table PC. Secondly, with the enhanced information capability, the consumers can now search for different purchase alternatives on their fingertips (Singh, 2002). Thirdly, the consumer relies more on the opinion of his or her peers and networks rather than on the experience of encounter with the supplier (Smith, Menon and Sivakumar, 2005). Fourth, the consumer can now more efficiently post their post purchase experience on the social media. Therefore, there are several consequences on the marketing landscape brought by web 2.0. The consumers are more empowered. On the other hand, some consumers are also becoming more depended on peer opinions and persuasion. Consumer empowerment can result in lack 200


of control and accountability. An unknowledgeable consumer may spread word of mouth communication which is degrading a company. Or, a competitor may launch a negative campaign against other company (Constantinides and Fountain, 2008). On the other hand, Gillin (2007) proposes that we should see the social media from the positive side, which is as the source of consumer creativity, influence, and empowerment. Further, the perception of value of consumers has also changed. Their sense of value is now depended more on the feeling of personal gratification (Constantinides and Fountain, 2008). 1. Need Recognition 2. Information Search 3. Evaluation of Alternatives 4. Purchase Decision 5. Post-purchase Behavior Figure 2. Decision making process Source: Kotler and Armstrong (1996)

4. How the marketers can capitalize on the new behavior and the new skills required The new marketing landscape has brought new challenges and opportunities for the marketers. Therefore, some new perspectives, approaches and skills are needed to thrive in the market:

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• Companies need to put more attention on their product quality. If a company is engaged with its customers on a social media and they fail to deliver good product quality, then the customers can badly punish the former. • Marketers need to learn how to advertise in the new environment effectively. They may advertise in social networking sites, blogs, forums, search engines, etc (Constantinides and Fountain, 2008). For instance, many companies are making account on Facebook and Twitter to communicate with their consumers. Web 2.0 has brought the opportunity to advertise and also to converse with the consumers with low cost, but high impact. The skill to update online information and to provide clear information is the basic skill needed. The marketers also need the skills to converse with its consumers. Public relation skill is a must. Another skill required is online marketing research. Some marketing research can be carried out on social media which can save some cost and effort compared to doing a formal and off-line marketing research. • Marketers need to listen to (Constantinides and Fountain, 2008) what the consumers are saying on the web and they also need to join the conversation (Jaffe, 2007). Marketers can use search engine and specialized parties to detect and collect online content. Marketers are now using paid virtual agents to listen to what consumers are saying in blogs, podcasts, forums, and online communities. Besides listening, they also do the PR activities for the company they represent. • Marketers can also use the social media to deliver one-to-one marketing to their consumers (Constantinides and Fountain, 2008). Marketers can use social media to encourage user-generated content and to generate community and social networking among consumers. By doing so, each consumer can have a personalized experience as he or she converse with the community. This is the tactics to use individual consumers to serve as marketer’s advocate.

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5. Conclusion Web 2.0 has brought the challenges and opportunities the business haven’t seen before. The essence of web 2.0 is the liberation and empowerment of consumers. Nowadays, they (especially young people) command (demand) an ability to speak up for them-selves and influence others in the same time. Wise marketers will see the new marketing landscape as an opportunity to interact with their consumers in a different and value-enhancing way. Therefore, developing some new perspectives and skills is a must.

References Constantinides, E. and Fountain, S.J. (2008). “Web 2.0: Conceptual foundations and marketing issues”, Journal of Direct, Data, and Digital Marketing Practice, Vol.9 No.3, pp. 231–244. Gillin , P . ( 2007 ). The New Infl uencers, A Marketer’s Guide to the New Social Media, Quill Driver Books, Word Dancer Press, Inc, CA, USA . Jaffe, J. (2007). Join the conversation : how to engage marketing - weary consumers with the power of community, dialogue, and partnership, John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA. Kotler, P. & Armstrong, G. (2010). Principles of Marketing, Pearson Education, New Jersey, USA Singh, M. (2002), “E-services and their role in B2C e-commerce”, Managing Service Quality, Vol. 12 No. 6, pp. 434-46. Smith, D., Menon, S. and Sivakumar, K. (2005), “Online peer and editorial recommendations, trust, and choice in virtual markets”, Journal of Interactive Marketing, Vol. 19 No. 3, pp. 15-37. SpannerWorks . ( 2007 ) ‘ What is social media ’ , www.spannerworks.com/ebooks .

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Role of higher education and policy maker in promoting entrepreneurship in Indonesia Widjaja Hartono Ciputra University, Surabaya Entrepreneurship is the spirit, attitude and behavior which lead to the search for creating and implementing a way of working, new technologies and products to improve efficiency in order to provide better service and / or earn a bigger profit. In the other words, entrepreneurship is also a knowledge of the values, spirit, attitude and actions which guided by the spirit of added value, which is reflected in thinking, behaving and acting that promotes innovation, creativity and independence attitude. This paper addresses the important role of higher educationsand policy makers in order to promote entrepreneurship in Indonesia. The increasing universities are producing massive graduates who create workforce and competitiveness in the labor market. Policy-makers and higher educations need to come together to raise standards, increase the volumes of participation and find appropriate local, regional and national solutions so that entrepreneurship can have a positive impact at the grass roots. Key words: Role of higher education, Role of policy maker, Entrepreneurship in Indonesia

Pendahuluan Sekolah, kuliah, melamar pekerjaan, adalah pola konvensional yangmenjadi kebiasaan bagi hampir setiap orang sebelum ia memasuki duniakerja. Di antara ratusan ribu atau bahkan jutaan pencari kerja tersebut,akhirnya yang lolos dan mendapatkan pekerjaan sesuai yang diharapkan,barangkali tidak lebih dari 20%.Kalau begitu sisanya yang 80% ke manamereka kemudian?Menganggur, menunggu panggilan dari lamaranberikutnya yang serba tidak jelas, kursus, sekolah lagi, kuliah lagi, ataubarangkali bagi yang frustrasi ada yang memilih bekerja pada pekerjaan yang tidak membutuhkan ketrampilan khusus atau pekerjaan kasual.Pilihan menjadi wirausaha, sesungguhnya merupakan salah satualternatif yang paling menjanjikan untuk kehidupan yang akan datang.Sayangnya pilihan menjadi wirausaha ini belum begitu banyak tumbuh dikalangan generasi muda kita.Untuk itu pelatihan kewirausahaan bagigenerasi muda harus terus menerus dilakukan oleh siapapun yang peduliterhadap kesejahteraan masyarakat untuk melahirkan sebanyakbanyaknya calon wirausaha baru. Disini

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peranan dunia pendidikan dan pemerintah sangat penting dalam menumbuhkembangkan entrepreneurship di Indonesia

Metodologi Penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskriptif analisis, dimana data diambil dari secondary resources yang dikumpulkan, diolah dan disimpulkan.

Hasil dan Pembahasan Definisi entrepreneurship Norman M. Scarborough (2010)mengemukakan definisi wirausaha sebagai berikut:“ Anentrepreneur is one who creates a new business in the faceof risk and uncertainty for the purpose of achieving profit and growth byidentifying opportunities and assembling the necessary resources tocapitalize on those opportunities”. Kewirausahaan adalah fungsi yang mencakup eksploitasi peluangpeluangyang muncul di pasar. Eksploitasi tersebut sebagian besar berhubungan denganpengarahan dan atau kombinasi input yang produktif. Seorang wirausahawan selaludiharuskan menghadapi resiko atau peluang yang muncul, serta sering dikaitkan dengantindakan yang kreatif dan innovatif.Wirausahawan adalah orang yang merubah nilaisumber daya, tenaga kerja, bahan dan faktor produksi lainnya menjadi lebih besardaripada sebelumnya dan juga orang yang melakukan perubahan, inovasi dan cara-carabaru.Selain itu, seorang wirausahawan menjalankan peranan manajerial dalamkegiatannya, tetapi manajemen rutin pada operasi yang sedang berjalan tidakdigolongkan sebagai kewirausahaan.Seorang individu mungkin menunjukkan fungsikewirausahaan ketika membentuk sebuah organisasi, tetapi selanjutnya menjalankanfungsi

manajerial

tanpa

menjalankan

fungsi

kewirausahaannya.Jadi

kewirausahaan bisabersifat sementara atau kondisional.Kesimpulan lain dari kewirausahaan

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adalah proses penciptaan sesuatu yangberbeda nilainya dengan menggunakan usaha dan waktu yang diperlukan, memikulresiko finansial, psikologi dan sosial yang menyertainya, serta menerima balas jasamoneter dan kepuasan pribadi.

Entrepreneurship di Indonesia Peranan Kementerian Pendidikan Nasional Program Pengembangan Budaya Kewirausahaan (Entrepreneurship) di PerguruanTinggi pada hakekatnya merupakan tindak lanjut dari programPenelitian dan program Pengabdian kepadaMasyarakat,yang selama ini telah dilaksanakan oleh berbagai perguruan tinggimelalui pendanaan dari Dikti. Tidak dapat dipungkiribahwa keberhasilan program penelitian dalam mewujudkanpenguasaan Ipteks yang dibuktikan dengan bertumbuh-kembangnyabeberapa konsep dan produk orisinal serta keberhasilan programpengabdian kepada masyarakat, yang dicirikan oleh antusiasmemasyarakat dalam menanggapi hasil karya penerapan Ipteks yangdibutuhkannya, memberikan inspirasi kuat diselenggarakannyaprogram Pengembangan Budaya Kewirausahaan di Perguruan Tinggi,yang telah berjalan sejak 1997.Budaya wirausaha yang tumbuh secara alami dalam suatukeluarga atau kelompok masyarakat Indonesia

merupakan

suatu

Indonesia.Dinamikaperekonomian

asset

yang

bangsa

sangat

yang

berharga

bertumpu

pada

bagi

bangsa

pertumbuhan

budayakewirausahaan tradisional ini, perlu dipadukan dengan penguasaanIpteks dalam suatu kegiatan pendidikan khususnya di perguruantinggi.Penumbuhkembangan budaya wirausaha dalam pendidikanperguruan tinggi menjanjikan harapan cerah bagi terciptanya sumberdaya manusia yang mandiri dalam berfikir dan bertindak, mampumenerapkan Ipteks yang dipahaminya untuk kesejahteraan diri danmasyarakatnya. Berdasarkan tujuan yang ingin dicapai, Program PengembanganBudaya Kewirausahaan di Perguruan Tinggi dirancang meliputi 5(lima) kegiatan saling terkait sebagai wahana

206


diwujudkannyawirausahawan lulusan perguruan tinggi, yaitu: Kuliah Kewirausahaan(KWU), Magang Kewirausahaan (MKU), Kuliah Kerja Usaha (KKU),Konsultasi Bisnis dan Penempatan Kerja (KBPK), dan InkubatorWirausaha Baru (INWUB).Bagi seorang mahasiswa pemula dalam wirausaha,keikutsertaan dalam KWU akan merupakan inisiasi penumbuhan danpemahaman jiwa kewirausahaan. Pada kegiatan MKU, mahasiswadapat mempelajari kewirausahaan secara nyata di mitraindustri/pengusaha, sedangkan kegiatan KKU dilaksanakan untukmendalami kewirausahaan sambil berperan serta membantu mitrausaha rumah tangga, baik dalam proses produksi maupun dalampemasaran dan penjualannya. Kegiatan Karya Alternatif Mahasiswa(KAM) yang dulu tercakup dalam Program Pengembangan BudayaKewirausahaan, mulai tahun 2002 dilaksanakan dalam lingkupProgram

Kreativitas

Mahasiswa

Kewirausahaan

(PKMK).Kegiatan

KBPK

dilaksanakan untukmembantu masyarakat pengusaha kecil dan menengah serta alumnidalam berwirausaha dan memperoleh akses pasar dan modal.Penempatan kerja memberikan peluang kepada alumni untuk memilih

industri atau perusahaan yang dapat dijadikan tempat

belajarberwirausaha sesuai dengan bidang keilmuannya, sebelum mengelolaindustri atau perusahaannya sendiri. Kegiatan INWUB merupakanajang terakhir pembentukan jiwa kewirausahaan mahasiswa danlulusan baru, sebelum terjun ke dalam dunia nyata berwirausahasebagai wirausahawan mandiri. Untuk membangun semangat kewirausahaandan memperbanyak wirausahawan, Pemerintah telah mengeluarkan Instruksi PresidenNomor 4 Tahun 1995 tentang Gerakan Nasional Memasyarakatkan dan MembudayakanKewirausahaan. Instruksi ini mengamanatkan kepada seluruh masyarakat dan bangsaIndonesia untuk mengembangkan program-program kewirausahaan.Selanjutnya, dalammendukung Pengembangan Ekonomi Kreatif (PEK) tahun 2010-2014,

yaknipengembangan

kegiatan

ekonomi

berdasarkan

pada

kreativitas,

keterampilan, dan bakatindividu untuk menciptakan daya kreasi dan daya cipta individu yang

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bernilai ekonomisdan berpengaruh pada kesejahteraan masyarakat Indonesia. Pemerintah menyadari betulbahwa dunia usaha merupakan tulang punggung perekonomian nasional, sehingga harusdiupayakan untuk ditingkatkan secara terus menerus. Melalui gerakan ini diharapkanbudaya kewirausahaan akan menjadi bagian dari etos kerja masyarakat dan bangsaIndonesia, sehingga dapat melahirkan wirausahawan-wirausahawan baru yang handal,tangguh, dan mandiri. Hal itu sangat penting mengingat bahwa sebenarnya aktivitaskewirausahaan tidak hanya berada dalam tataran micro-economy, melainkan masuk juga pada tataran macro-economy.Semua itu adalah dalam rangka pembangunan insan cerdas komprehensif dan seutuhnyasebagaimana yang ditegaskan dalam Rencana Strategis Kementerian Pendidikan Nasional2010-2014 bahwa yang dimaksud dengan insan Indonesia cerdas adalah insan yang cerdaskomprehensif, yaitu cerdas spiritual, cerdas emosional, cerdas sosial, cerdas intelektual,dan cerdas kinestetis.

Case Study: Universitas Ciputra Universitas Ciputra merupakan perguruan tinggi swasta yang memiliki visi untuk mencetak entrepreneur.Universitas yang memiliki moto “Creating World Class Entrepreneurs ini dari awal berdiri pada tahun 2006 sudah konsisten dengan pengajaran yang berbasis entrepreneurship. Dari wisudawan pada bulan September 2011 yang berjumlah 288 orang, telah tercipta 125 usaha baru yang menyerap dan mempekerjakan ratusan tenaga kerja. Visi universitas ini merupakan cikal bakal dari “mimpi” pendirinya yaitu Ir Ciputra yang ingin melahirkan 2% entrepreneur di Indonesia melalui pendidikan entrepreneurship, baik melalui sekolah-sekolah dan universitas yang dikelola Yayasan Pendidikan Ciputra maupun melalui pelatihan entrepreneurship yang dilakukan oleh Universitas Ciputra Entrepreneurship Center ( UCEC). Lembaga ini memberikan pelatihan ke sekolah dan universitas baik swasta

208


maupun negeri dan bahkan memberikan pelatihan entrepreneurship ke para tenaga kerja Indonesia (TKI) di luar negeri. Universitas Ciputra sendiri memiliki kurikulum yang disesuaikan dengan visi awal untuk mencetak entrepreneur dengan tidak meninggalkan standar akreditasi dari Kemendiknas dan DIKTI itu sendiri. Perbedaan itu salah satunya berada pada projek bisnis mahasiswa yang ada sejak mahasiswa berada di semester awal.Projek ini sendiri merupakan keharusan.Tujuan dari projek ini adalah untuk melatih mahasiswa sejak dini untuk mengenal dan belajar dunia usaha melalui praktik langsung. Dengan difasilitasi oleh para mentor baik dari dosen maupun para praktisi bisnis yang terlibat di dalamnya membuat para mahasiswa belajar langsung dari para pelaku bisnis dan mereka yang kompeten di bidangnya. Selain itu mahasiswa juga dibekali dengan pelatihan retail bisnis, benchmarking, entrepreneurial mindset building dan exim (export-import).Pembelajaran kompetensi ini dilakukan secara bertahap. Di dalam kampus sendiri juga ada lembaga yang bernama incubator bisnis yang memiliki peranan untuk membantu proyek makasiswa baik dari segi pelatihan sesuai bidang usaha mahasiswa, permodalan hingga pemasaran baik ke dalam maupun ke luar negeri.

Entrepreneurship dan Suku bangsa Tidak dapat dipungkiri bahwa golongan dan suku tertentu di Indonesia

ternyata telah

memiliki budaya dan tradisi berwirausaha atau entrepreneurship sejak dari awal, seperti Tionghoa, Padang dan Bugis. Sejak kedatangan nenek moyang mereka ke Indonesia pada abad ke 18, orang Tionghoa berdagang dan mencari penghidupan yang lebih baik. Mereka menghindari peperangan dan kelaparan yang melanda Tiongkok di masa Dinasti Ching untuk pergi ke Netherland East Indies(sebelum bernama Indonesia).Pada saat itu yang mereka tahu adalah untuk bertahan hidup ke tanah yang baru (Nanyang). Apalagi politik colonial Belanda pada waktu itu

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membedakan mereka dari bangsa asli dengan mengkategorikan mereka sebagai bangsa asing Asia Timur.

Mereka memiliki

“tugas dan tanggung jawab ” untuk membantu politik

perdagangan colonial Belanda. Sehingga tidak heran sampai masa kemerdekaan mayoritas orang Tionghwa menjadi pedagang yang tangguh baik di kota-kota kecil maupun kota-kota besar di tanah air.Ditambah lagi dengan politik Orde Baru yang mendiskotomikan mereka hanya boleh masuk jalur bisnis untuk mata pencahariannya. Orang Padang dan Bugis juga memiliki budaya berdagang sejak kecil. Mereka banyak merantau ke daerah lain untuk berdagang mulai restoran, kain/pakaian dan bahkan banyak dari mereka menjadi pengusaha nasional. Tidak sedikit lahir para pengusaha sukses dari kedua suku ini. Bahkan di Singapura ada daerah bernama Bugis Junction yang asal muasalnya merupakan tempat orang Bugis berkumpul dan berdagang sejak zaman negara pulau tersebut masih bergabung dalam konfederasi Malaya (sekarang Malaysia).

Pemerintah dan Gerakan Entrepreneurship Sejak Orde Baru, pemerintah

telah menyadari pentingnya entrepreneurship terhadap

pertumbuhan ekonomi dan kesejahteraan rakyat.Pada Nasional Summit tahun 2009, Presiden Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono mengatakan bahwa salah satu restrukturisasi di bidang pendidikan adalah perlunya mulai mengajarkan pendidikan entrepreneurship di Indonesia (Antara,2009). Hal ini dilakukan sebagai salah satu cara untuk mengurangi jumlah pengangguran dan pengentasan kemiskinan sebagai program pembangunan dalam kurun waktu lima tahun ke depan pada Kabinet Indonesia Bersatu.Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Tinggi (Dirjen Dikti) juga mendorong pembelajaran entrepreneurship di Indonesia, hal ini bisa dilihat dari acara Workshop Kewirausahaan Perguruan Tinggi yang merupakan program 100 hari Kementerian Pendidikan Nasional, DIKTI menyatakan bahwa pendidikan kewirausahaan di perguruan tinggi merupakan sesuatu yang tidak bisa ditawar lagi. Bahkan

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Menteri Pendidikan Nasional, Mohammad Nuh pada kesempatan yang sama juga mengatakan bahwa seharusnya dunia pendidikan memenuhi kebutuhan masyarakat melalui pendidikan entrepreneurship. Pendidikan tinggi dapat menjadi penyumbang terhadap meningkatnya jumlah wirausahawan yang pada saat ini masih sekitar 0,18% dari jumlah penduduk Indonesia. (Kompas 7 Nov 2009) Global Entrepreneurship Program Indonesia (GEPI) bertujuan untuk mengkatalisis strategi kewirausahaan di Indonesia dengan bekerja dalam kemitraan dengan program yang ada dan menghubungkan calon pengusaha Indonesia untuk perkembangan global dan prospek investasi.GEPI secara resmi dimulai pada Januari 2011 oleh sekelompok dari 13 pemimpin bisnis terkemuka di Indonesia yang salah satunya adalah Ir Ciputra yang dan sekarang mereka merupakan Dewan Pendiri. GEPI adalah organisasi payung yang bertujuan untuk bekerja dalam kemitraan dengan banyak organisasi dan perusahaan yang berfokus pada pengembangan kewirausahaan di Indonesia untuk melakukan beberapa hal termasuk: 1. Meningkatkan kesadaran kewirausahaan dan inovasi di Indonesia 2. Bekerja sama dan membentuk ekosistem yang tepat untuk pengusaha yang baru memulai bisnis 3. Bekerja sama dengan kelompok-kelompok kewirausahaan dan Pemerintah Indonesia untuk meningkatkan lingkungan yang kondusif bagi kewirausahaan 4. Bekerja sama untuk memastikan bahwa pengusaha yang muncul dapat memiliki akses ke keuangan dan angel-investor domestik dan internasional dan 5. Membantu untuk memfasilitasi bisnis pengusaha dan inovator ke level regional dan global

GEPI juga merupakan bagian dari inisiatif global yang lebih luas disebut Global Entrepreneurship Program (GEP), yang tumbuh dari inisiatif Presiden Barack Obama dan

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sekarang program inti di Departemen Luar Negeri Amerika Serikat yang dipimpinoleh Hillary Rodham Clinton, untuk mempromosikan kewirausahaan sebagai pilar utama pembangunan ekonomi antara negara-negara berkembang.

Kesimpulan Pengembangan entrepreneurship merupakan suatu program nasional yang tidak bisa dikerjakan sendiri-sendiri, tapi memerlukan usaha semua pihak dari dunia pendidikan hingga pemerintah selaku pengambil kebijakan.Sejak zaman Orde Baru, pemerintah menyadari program ini untuk kesinambungan pembangunan dan usaha berkelanjutan program kesejahteraan nasional.Pengembangan Pendidikan Kewirausahaan yang merupakan salah satu program KementerianPendidikan Nasional pada intinya adalah pengembangan metodologi pendidikanyang bertujuan untuk membangun manusia yang berjiwa kreatif, inovatif, sportif danwirausaha.

Program

metodologipembelajaran,

ini

ditindaklanjuti

pendidikan

karakter,

dengan pendidikan

upaya

mengintegrasikan

ekonomi

kreatif,

pendidikankewirausahaan ke dalam kurikulum sekolah dan perguruan tinggi.

Daftar Pustaka Antara Website (http://www.antaranews.com/berita/1256371571/national-summit-bahaspembangunan-indonesia-lima-tahun) Andria Harefa dan Eben Ezer Siadari (2010), The Ciputra Way, Elex Media Computindo, Jakarta Ciputra (2002), Ciputra Quantum Leap , Elex Media Computindo, Jakarta Collete, Henry&Hill, Frances (2002), Entrepreneurship Education and Training, Ashgate Publishing, London, UK GEPI Indonesia (www.gep-indonesia.org) Greene, Patricia & Rice, Mark(2007), Entrepreneurship Education, Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd, MA, USA Norman M. Scarborough (2010) Effective Small Business Management (10th Edition) , Prentice Hall: New York Prinsip-prinsip Pengembangan Pendidikan Kewirausahaan (2010), Kementerian Pendidikan Nasional (Diklat) Riant Nugroho (2002), Entrepreneurship Ciputra, Elex Media Computindo, Jakarta Kompas 7 Nov 2009, Entrepreneurship di Indonesia

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dan

MEMBANGUN ENTREPRENEURSHIP UNTUK INDONESIA Dr. Riant Nugroho Pengajar Universitas Pertahanan Indonesia Abstract It was in 1980s when 1% of economic growth created 400.000 of employments. Today, 1% of economic growth creates 120.000 employments only. Developing entrepreneurs is the most promising solution. The problems are not merely the “need to be revised” of assumptions that underlying economic and education policies, but the fundamental understanding of entrepreneruship. Entrepreneur as a concept is having five level of undestanding: activities, expertise, profession, orientation, and value. “The entrepreneurial mystique? It’s not magic, it’s not mysterious, and is has nothing to do with the genes. It’s a discipline. And, like any discipline, it can be learned.”(Peter Drucker) Setiap perguruan meluluskan

tahun tinggi 300.000

alumnus diploma dan sarjana. 2005/2006 mencatat

Tahun Depdiknas 323.902

diploma dan sarjana negeri dan swasta. Agustus 2006 pengangguran terdidik mencapai 673.628 orang (tumbuh 6,16% dari satu semester sebelumnya), dan pada februari 2007 jumlah ini naik menjadi 740.206 orang (naik 7,02% dalam satu semester)32. Mempergunakan taksiran pertumbuhan 10% pengangguran terdidik (dikoreksi 4,04% dari persentase 2007), maka pada tahun 2009 setidaknya terdapat 896.000 pengangguran terdidik! Pada tahun 2011, diperkirakan terdapat lebih dari 1 juta penganggur bergelar sarjana. Jumlah ini belum termasuk pengangguran berpendidikan sekolah dasar dan menengah (dan menengah atas).

32

Status pekerjaan lulusan PT berdasarkan Susenas Februari 2007 75,29% pekerja/karyawan/pegawai/buruh, 5,17% berusaha dibantu pekerja/karyawan/buruh tetap, 7,12% berusaha dibantu pekerja/karyawan/buruh tidak tetap, 6,17% bekerja sendiri atau tanpa pekerja/karyawan/buruh, dan 5,49% menjadi pekerja tanpa dibayar.

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Jika untuk menghasilkan 1 orang sarjana diperlukan investasi Rp 50 juta –dengan perhitungan sarjana sosial pada universitas kelas menengah ke bawah dan taksiran biaya minimal per keluarga-- maka setidaknya terdapat Rp 50.000.000.000.000 (lima puluh trilyun) dana yang ditanamkan masyarakat dan belum dipastikan kapan akan kembali. Pemerintah biasanya membuat perkiraan penyerapan tenaga kerja dengan asumsi pertumbuhan ekonomi. Hitungan sederhana adalah dari pertumbuhan ekonomi. Pemerintah sendiri (melalui Biro Pusat Statistik -- Deputi Bidang Neraca dan Analisis) mengemukakan bahwa seharusnya pertumbuhan ekonomi menyerap paling sedikit 400.000 orang tenaga kerja. Pada saat ini menyerap sekitar 120.000 orang saja. Pemerintah telah mempunyai data tentang tenaga kerja terdidik yang menganggur. Pemerintah juga mengetahui bahwa asumsi setiap 1% pertumbuhan tidak lagi menciptakan 400.000 tenaga kerja, tetapi hanya 120.000. Pemerintah juga mengetahui bahwa pertumbuhan ekonomi saat ini dan ke depan akan didorong oleh ekspansi sektor-sektor keuangan dan sektor-sektor yang padat modal-padat teknologi, sehingga tidak ada ruang gerak yang leluasa untuk mempergunakan asumsi pertumbuhan ekonomi dengan penyerapan tenaga kerja. Masalahnya,

Pemerintah

tidak

cukup inovatif untuk melihat di mana jalan keluarnya. Mari kita rinci permasalahannya kemudian mencari jalan keluarnya. Pada awal tahun 2008 ini saya berkesempatan untuk melakukan dialog panjang dengan Ir Ciputra dan saya menemukan ada yang benar dan sangat relevan dari pemikirannya. Ciputra mempunyai premis bahwa Indonesia tidak kunjung maju karena tidak cukup punya entrepreneur. Ia mempergunakan konsep dari David McClelland berpendapat bahwa suatu negara akan menjadi makmur apabila mempunyai entrepreneur sedikitnya

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sebanyak 2% dari jumlah penduduk. Singapura, menurut laporan Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) tahun 2005, memiliki jumlah entrepreneur sebanyak 7,2% dari total penduduk, padahal tahun 2001 hanya tercatat sebesar 2,1%. Jumlah ini dibandingkan dengan Amerika Serikat, lokomotif ekonomi selama satu abad terakhir ini, pada tahun 1983 dengan penduduk 280 juta sudah memiliki 6 juta entrepreneur, atau 2,14% dari seluruh penduduknya. Di Indonesia hari ini, menurut data statistik, hanya 400.000 orang yang tercatat menjadi pelaku usaha yang mandiri, atau sekitar 0,18% dari populasi (Moko Astamoen, Bisnis Indonesia, 4 April 2005). Bandingkan dengan jumlah pelaku usaha Indonesia yang berjumlah 45 juta, ternyata hanya 0,88% saja yang benar-benar entrepreneur dalam kategori kita. Indonesia memerlukan 12 kali entrepreneur lebih banyak dari yang ada hari ini. Masalahnya, mengapa kita tidak cukup punya entrepreneur. Ada tiga kemungkinan. Pertama, kita tidak punya cukup anak-anak bangsa yang berfikir merdeka sehingga berani menjadi entrepreneur. Belanda sangat efektif menjajah Indonesia. Pertama, ia menguasai bisnis dan perdangan. Ke dua, ia melarang pribumi masuk (apalagi mengusai) perdagangan, dan memberikan kepada etnis yang terhitung “marjinal”, yaitu kelompok Cina –karena mudah dikontrol, bahkan seringkali “diperas”. Ke tiga, saya mengutip pendapat Djokosantoso Moeljono, Belanda mendorong Kerajaan-Kerajaan di Jawa (terutama Jawa Tengah) untuk memberikan berbagai gelar kebangsawanan kepada lingkungan keraton dan orang-orang yang dinilai perlu diberi gelar. Bersamaan dengan itu, dikembangkan (dan akhirnya berkembang secara alami) pemahaman bahwa pribumi adalah bangsawan, dan bangsawan adalah tabu berdagang, mereka paling pantas menjadi ambtenaar alias pegawai negeri. Di Jawa bertahuntahun berkembang pemahaman bahwa berbinsis apalagi berdagang itu tabu, jahat, menipu, licik dan seterusnya. Pemahaman ini menjadi stereotip dari suku-suku bangsa di Indonesia yang ahli dalam bisnis dan dagang. Bahkan, di Jawa selama bertahun-tahun ada kepercayaan tahyul, bahwa mereka yang kaya pasti punya tuyul. Mereka tidak perduli dengan kerja keras.

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Dengan demikian, tidak berkembang pemikiran untuk menjadi pelaku bisnis, entrepreneur. Menurut Ciputra, mengapa ia, dan rata-rata anak-anak keluarga keturunan Cina menjadi pengusaha, minimal pedagang, karena sejak kecil tinggal di toko, bekerja membantu orang tua di toko, setiap hari bergaul dengan toko. Ia merasa “in” dengan kepengusahaan, kebisnisan, kedagangan. Anak-anak Jawa jarang ada dalam kondisi itu, kecuali yang berada di dalam naungan pemahaman Muhammadiyah yang sangat sukses mengembangkan bisnis pribumi. Ke dua, sejak Orde Lama, Orde Baru, dan kini, terjadi pengerucutan bisnis kepada mereka-mereka saja, dan tidak cukup membuka ruang bagi mereka-mereka yang lain. Bisnis selalu “kejam”. Seperti teori competitveness dari Michael Porter, mereka yang masuk dulu (berbisnis) berusaha agar new entrance tidak masuk, atau jika masuk segera mati atau kalau tidak mereka “makan” (akuisisi, baik dengan sukarela, ataupun paksarela). Sedikitnya ruang bagi the new entrepreneur ini membuat para pelaku usaha baru tidak muncul dalam jumlah dan kemampuan yang diperlukan. Di sisi lain, Pemerintah masih enggan membangun business incubator policy yang memberikan ruang bagi new entrances entrepreneur yang bukan dari keluarga penguasa besar untuk mengembangkan bisnis –lihat, Kadin pun lebih banyak mengurusi new entrances yang berasal dari keluarga-keluarga pebisnis besar. Juga perbankan. Ke tiga –dan ini yang relevan bagi kita di sini-- paradigma pemerintah adalah bahwa lembaga-lembaga pendidikan harus menghasilkan tenaga kerja, atau tenaga kerja siap pakai, atau yang link and match, yang tepatnya adalah konsep PENDIDIKAN YANG MENCETAK PARA PENCARI KERJA, bukan –seperti istilah Ciputra—PENCIPTA KERJA. Dengan fakta bahwa pertumbuhan 1% hanya menciptakan sekitar 120.000 lapangan kerja baru, konsep ini SUDAH KETINGGALAN JAMAN. Pendidikan hari ini harus berkonsep ganda: MENCIPTAKAN PELAKU KERJA DAN SEKALIGUS PENCIPTA KERJA.

216


Bagaimana? Pertama, saya mempergunakan pemikiran yang dikembangkan oleh Tanri Abeng dan tim kita sekitar tahun 1996, bahwa di setiap jenjang pendidikan, utamanya di Perguruan Tinggi, di setiap jurusan, diberikan matakuliah manajemen, karena manajemen membantu setiap siswa dan mahasiswa untuk tahu bagaimana memenejeni setiap fakta, setiap peluang, bahkan diri mereka sendiri agar menjadi insan yang efisien (menghargai setiap sumberdaya) dan efektif (menghargai keharusan untuk memberikan kontribusi). Ke dua, seperti gagasan Ciputra, memasukkan mata ajar kewirausahaan, barangkali satu jam dalam satu minggu, di setiap sekolah dasar dan menengah, dan di tingkat perguruan tinggi ada mata ajar entrepreneurship untuk setiap jurusan, tanpa kecuali, dan membangun pusat pendidikan kewirausahan setelah lulus bagi mereka yang ingin menjadi pelaku usaha, sekaligus membangun business incubator dalam bentuk kerjasama antara Perguruan Tinggi-PebisnisPemerintah. Ke tiga, Depdiknas, melalui institusi pendidikan non-formal atau luar sekolah, mengembangan program pendidikan entrepreneurship bekerjasama dengan Depnakertrans dan Deperind, memanfaatkan fasilitas BLK-BLK yang kini mulai terbengkalai. Pengajarnya jangan para dosen, tetapi para pelaku usaha yang mau mengkontribusikan sebagian waktunya untuk MERAH-PUTIH. Pengajar dosen, birokrat, dan sejenisnya, tidak memadai. Jika hendak mengajar kuda berlari, pakailah kuda. Tepatnya, kuda yang benar, yang bisa berpacu –bukan “kuda kepang”. Konsep pendidikan sebagai shorcut pembangunan wirausaha, dengan dasar pemikiran bahwa pendidikan dengan misi membangun pekerja menjadi tidak relevan untuk dunia kita hari ini. Kita memerlukan pendidikan yang membangun mereka yang siap tidak menjadi pekerja, tetapi menjadi pencipta kerja. Jadi, pendidikan yang membangun a quantum leap seperti yang digambarkan berikut ini.

217


Lembaga persekolahan

Pencari kerja

Pemberi kerja

Entrepreneur mandiri

Pemberi/ Pencipta kerja

Sistem pemagangan di Perusahaan

Ke dua, sekolah adalah lembaga pendidikan yang sangat dipercaya oleh masyarakat, sudah memiliki reputasi atau track record di tengah masyarakat sebagai “paspor” untuk masa depan yang lebih baik. Kalau ingin sukses, belajarlah setinggi mungkin atau carilah sekolah yang baik, adalah nasihat yang senantiasa kita dengar dan camkan. Ke dua, jaringan sudah ada si seluruh pelosok negeri. Ke tiga, melalui sekolah kita juga bisa menjangkau dan mempengaruhi keluarga-keluarga dari mana anak-anak didik berasal. Jadi, menjadikan sekolah sebagai lembaga mempersiapkan entrepreneur adalah tepat, karena sekolah menjadi lembaga yang diberikan kepercayaan penuh oleh keluarga sebagai lembaga untuk mentransformasikan anak-anak menjadi pribadi yang baru, yang lebih kuat, tangguh, dan tidak dimakan oleh zaman, yaitu pribadi entrepreneur. Itulah sebabnya, agenda yang disarankan bagi negara berkembang dan/atau miskin adalah memgembangkan pendidikan entrepreneur di pendidikan formalnya, sejak tingkat dini untuk menciptkana pencipta-pencipta kerja, sebagai mata pelajaran yang wajib. Pilihan ini disarankan karena kondisi negara berkembang berbeda dengan negara maju. Di negara maju, pendidikan entrepreneurship diberikan tidak sebagai suatu kewajiban karena dua hal. Pertama, jumlah entrepreneur sendiri sudah cukup banyak. Ke dua, sistem pengkaderan entrepreneur sudah berjalan. Alasan ke dua ini kita tekankan, karena memberikan kita justifikasi mengapa perlu membangun entrepreneurs di sekolah. Di negara218


negara maju, setiap siswa SMU atau setingkat, dan mahasiswa mempunyai kesempatan untuk magang di perusahaan-perusahaan. Sehingga, sejak awal mereka mengenal bisnis in practice. Sementara itu, sejumlah besar lulusan pendidikan di negara maju masuk ke perusahaan, dan setelah bekerja beberapa lama, mereka keluar dan mendirikan bisnis. Dengan demikian, mereka mendapatkan second-school untuk entrepreneurship. Siklus entrepreneurshipnya dapat digambarkan berikut ini.

Generasi muda

Lembaga Persekolahan

Karyawan Perusahaan



Bagaimana dengan negara berkembang. Kita mengambil contoh Indonesia, negara di mana kita berkarya. Pertama, jumlah entrepreneur memang jauh di bawah kebutuhan, sebagaimana kita kemukakan di depan. Ke dua, karena entrepreneur kurang, tidak cukup banyak perusahaan yang memberikan ruang magang bagi siswa dan mahasiswa. Ke tiga, karena tidak cukup banyak perusahaan, maka semakin sedikit orang yang diterima ke perusahaan-perusahaan, dan semakin sedikit lagi orang yang keluar dari perusahaanperusahaan tersebut untuk menjadi entrepreneur. Selain itu, mereka yang telah menjadi karyawan perusahaan, biasanya cepat masuk ke kawasan comfort zone, atau merasa puas diri dengan pendapatan yang diterima, dan kemudian tidak mau menjadi entrepreneur. Jadi, diperlukan shorcut dari lembaga persekolahan ke entrepreneur, karena lembaga pemagangan dan perusahaan tidak mencukupi untuk dijadikan sebagai second school untuk entrepreneur. Dengan demikian, shortcut tersebut digambarkan sebagai berikut.

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Generasi muda

Lembaga Persekolahan

Karyawan Perusahaan



Pertanyaannya adalah bagaimana membangun entrepreneurship di setiap sekolah? Pada saat ini di sejumlah guru telah dididik dan dilatih tentang kewirausahaan dengan harapan mereka dapat mengajarkan cara-cara menjadi pengusaha. Pada hemat saya cara ini baik, tetapi tidak efektif. Pertama, karena kewirausahaan yang pertama-tama bukanlah “pengetahuan” tentang pengusaha dan menjadi pengusaha; kewirausahaan bukanlah “cara” menjadi pengusaha atau mendirikan usaha. Kewirausahaan adalah nilai untuk menemukan sesuatu yang baru untuk kemudian diperkenalkan kepada masyarakat dan diterima sebagai sesuatu yang membaikkan masyarakat. Karena tentang nilai, maka sulit untuk diterima seorang guru “murni” yang menerima gaji bulanan, hidup dengan gaji tersebut, selain barangkali “nyambi” mengajar di tempat lain, memberikan “nilai” kewirausahaan. Guru tersebut tidak mampu mengerti nilai “desakan perubahan”, “kecemasan akan kegagalan”, “keyakinan untuk sukses meski jatuh bangun”. Diperlukan “transformator” yang mengerti tentang mengembangkan kewirausahaan. Jadi, disarankan agar setiap guru yang disiapkan mengajar kewirausahaan dikuatkan dengan bekal untuk menjadi “perubah”, termasuk kesiapan untuk idenya “ditantang” muridnya. Jadi, pelatihan pertama-tama bagi guru adalah pelatihan nilai untuk bersedia menerima perubahan. Selama guru-guru menjadi sosok yang ditakuti di kelas, karena jika ada 220


murid yang bertanya “aneh-aneh” akan “dihabisi”, maka kewirausahaan sebagai subyek ajar sulit menjadi kekayaan pelajar. Ke dua, pemahaman bahwa ada tiga jenis entrepreneur. Pertama, pedagang, yaitu mereka yang mengambil sebuah produk dari pembuat (produsen) dan kemudian menjual ke pengguna (konsumen). Pelaku ini mendapatkan keuntungan dari selisih harga jual dan beli, dikurangi biaya “transportasi”, atau Laba = Harga Jual – (Harga Beli + Ongkos Transportasi). Mereka adalah pedagang sayur di pasar tradisional, penjual voucher handphone, hingga makelar (atau calo) tiket. Tipe ini disebut sebagai “pre-entrepreneur”. Biasanya, kita membiarkan keberadaan mereka dalam definisi “entrepreneur”. Pada dasarnya, sebagian besar dari mereka adalah entrepreneur yang subsisten, atau “mati segan, hidup tak mau”. Atau, “hanya begitu-begitu saja”. Tipe ke dua adalah entrepreneur, yaitu ketika pelaku tersebut tidak sekedar mengambil barang kemudian menjual dalam bentuk yang sama, melainkan memberikan “nilai tambah” yang membuat harga jual meningkat beberapa kali lipat daripada harga asalnya. Pedagang bakso membeli daging, terigu, dan rempah, untuk kemudian diolah menjadi bakso, dan dijual sebagai bakso. Pengusaha warung tegal berbelanja di pasar dan mengolah menjadi makanan yang dijual dengan harga 2-3 lipat dari harga bahan bakunya. Pedagang membeli pakaian tanpa merek di pasar Tanah Abang, Jakarta, kemudian memberi merek internasional, kemudian mengekspornya ke luar negeri dengan harga jauh lebih tinggi. Bankir menerima simpanan dari nasabah kemudian diolah dan diberi merek produk perbankan, untuk kemudian dijual dengan harga yang jauh lebih tinggi lagi, dan memberikan keuntungan berlipat-lipat. Dan seterusnya, dan seterusnya. Biasanya, kita berhenti mendefinisikan “entrepreneur” pada titik ini saja. Padahal, ada entrepreneur jenis ke tiga, yaitu mereka yang menicptakan kemudian memasarkan, dan berhasil. Mereka adalah pelaku yang memulai dari sesuatu yang baru; mereka berinovasi untuk menemukan solusi baru bagi kehidupan bersama, dan mendapatkan keuntungan karena inovasinya diterima oleh

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masyarakat. Mereka seperti Bill Gates yang menemukan operating system paling diterima di dunia, yaitu Microsoft;

Steve Jobs yang menemuka Ipad, generasi paling kini dari

perkawinan antara komputer, telepon, buku, kamera, dan berbagai gadget lain dalam satu kemasan yang compact; hingga penemu google, facebook, twitter, bahkan juga JK Rowling yang “menciptakan” Harry Porter atau Andrea Hirata yang menciptakan “Laskar Pelangi”; mereka juga termasuk Ciputra yang “menciptakan” Ancol, Pondok Indah, hingga “Citraland”; mereka termasuk PK Ojong dan Jakob Oetama yang “menciptakan” harian Kompas. Mereka bukan lagi entrepreneur, tetapi the real entrepreneur.

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Pertanyaannya, bagaimana dengan orang-orang seperti “para makelar proyek pemerintah yang ‘menilep’ sebagian nilai proyek untuk kepentingan pribadi dan kemudian membuat bangunan-bangunan yang dibuat dengan proyek pemerintah cepat ambruk?” Mereka yang kemudian dinamakan sebagai “koruptor?” Dalam terminologi entrepreneurship, mereka adalah juga entrepreneur, karena dasarnya adalah mencari peluang, menemukan, dan mengeksploatasinya. Namun, ini adalah entrepreneur jahat, karena untuk menjadi entrepreneur, ada dua syarat yang perlu dilengkapi: 1. Integritas: pada awalnya ia melakukan untuk kebaikan diri sendiri tetapi untuk kebaikan masyarakat luas, atau kehidupan manusia. Air Asia dibentuk untuk mendapatkan kentungan yang besar, tetapi dasar dari bisnisnya adalah untuk memberikan pelayanan penerbangan bagi semua orang, khususnya yang sebelumnya dianggap “tidak mampu”. 2. Kehormatan: memastikan bahwa yang dilakukannya, meski pada awalnya membuatnya dicela, tetapi pada akhirnya membuat kehormatannya diterima oleh publik. Pada saat Ciputra memulai membangun Ancol, banyak fihak mencibir, karena “bagaimana mungkin tempat jin buang anak kok mau dijadikan tempat wisata?” Hari ini Ancol mempunyai pengunjung sekitar 12 juta per tahun, nomor tiga setelah Disneyland Amerika dan Disneyland Jepang.

Entpreneur jahat adalah kelompok yang akhirnyanya membuat makna entrepreneur menjadi cemar dan membuat para pelaku usaha mendapatkan stiga publik sebagai: penipu, penjahat, dan penjarah. Ke tiga, memahami bahwa makna entrepreneur tidak identik dengan pengusaha atau melakukan bisnis. Entrepreneur mempunyai lima jenjang pemahaman. Pemahaman paling dangkal dari entrepreneur adalah kegiatan; artinya seseorang atau beberapa orang melakukan

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kegiatan usaha ekonomi atau berbisnis. Mereka adalah yang kita definisikan di depan. Ada yang gagal kemudian mati, ada yang gagal tetapi bertahan, ada yang gagal tetapi terus berrjuang akhirnya selamat, yang berhasil, dan ada yang sangat berhasil. Sisi, yang lebih dalam adalah bahwa entrepreneur adalah ketrampilan yang ahli. William Soeryadjaya adalah pebisnis sejati, karena ahli dalam mengembangkan industri otomotif. Eka Tjipta Widjaya adalah pebisnis sejati, karena mereka ahli dalam mengembangkan industri kertas. Bakrie adalah pengusaha sejati, karena mereka ahli dalam industri perpipaan –pipa adalah core bisnis pertama yang terkuat dari Grup Bakrie. Sudwikatmono adalah pebisnis sejati karena mengembangkan industri film di Indonesia –film yang didukungnya antara lain Tjut Nyak Dien, Ibunda, Catatan Si Boy, dll —dan mengembangkan

sinepleks.

Jakob

Oetama

juga

pebisnis

sejati,

karena

berhasil

mengembangkan “supergrup” industri media. Yang lain-lain seperti Sudamex membangun industri kacang olahan. Alim Markus mengembangan industri alumunium. Demikian juga dengan Mochtar Riady, Soedono Salim, hingga Ciputra. Pemahaman ke tiga, yang lebih dalam lagi adalah bahwa entrepreneur adalah suatu profesi, yaitu mereka yang mampu membangun sebuah kegiatan sebagai suatu profesi. Mereka adalah Tanri Abeng, Robby Djohan, Cacuk Sudarijanto, Rini Suwandi, Agus Martowardojo, hingga Dahlan Iksan. Mereka adalah profesional pengelola usaha, dan bukan pemilik usaha. Jika kemudian mereka kemudian mempunyai usaha sendiri, itu adalah konskuensi logis dari perluasan kapasitas profesional yang telah dimilikinya. Ke empat, entrepreneurship adalah orientasi, atau paradigma, atau cara pandang. Mereka adalah orang-orang yang berorientasi kepada peluang, kesempatan, dan rekayasanya untuk kebaikan. Jika 100 tahun yang lalu –atau 1911-- inovasi lahir setiap bulan, maka hari ini inovasi lahir setiap detik, dengan inovasi terbesar adalah inovasi di bidang informasi, termasuk di dalamnya informatika, komputer, program atau software, dan perangkat keras;

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dan hiburan, termasuk di dalamnya musik, lagu, film, sinema, drama, fotografi, seni lukis, pahat, dan seterusnya. Perekonomian akan terus tumbuh dengan sehat jika banyak individuindividu dan kelompok-kelompok yang terus berorientasi kepada penciptaan sesuatu yang baru yang baik untuk masyarakat. Pada akhirnya, di inti pemahaman tentang entrepreneurship adalah nilai. Kewirausahaan adalah sebuah nilai, sebuah keyakinan yang dimiliki oleh individu dan kelompok, bahwa dengan melihat dunia sebagai sebuah kenyataan yang harus dikelola dan diberi nilai (value), bukan sebagai sesuatu yang sudah jadi, atau senantias dipertahankan, status quo, dan seterusnya. Bahwa kehidupan adalah sebuah nilai yang harus diperjuangkan; sebagai kebaikan yang harus ditingkatkan kualitasnya dari hari ke hari.

Barangkali

dengan

pemahaman

di

pemahamanatas,

maka

pengembangan kewirausahaan dan pendidikan

kewirausahaan

akan

menjadi lebih “kena”, dalam arti dapat diselenggarakan secara efisien dan memberikan kemanfaatan yang ekstra maksimal. Karena itulah yang kita perlukan hari ini. Bukan sekedar kebutuhan agar ekonomi kita tumbuh, atau agar pengangguran makin hapus, namun yang lebih penting lagi, membangun kewirausahaan merupakan upaya “tidak nampak” dari usaha “membangun pertahanan nasional”; pertahanan yang disebur Prof. Juwono Sudarsono pada saat menjabat sebagai Menhan sebagai “pertahanan nir-militer”.

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Human resource management, change management and leadership in Estonian organizations Ruth Alas, József Poór, Zsuzsa Karoliny Every organization has forces for change and forces for stability (Leana and Barry, 2000). In order to survive in changing environment organizations should change there practices. Human resource management is one part of management practices of organisations, responsible for training service providers (Little, Little 2009). The aim of this paper is to examine human resorces management (HRM) practices in Estonian organizations and to find connections between, implementation of organisational changes and leadership. The term human resource management (HRM) refers to design and applications of formal system in an organisation to ensure effective and efficient use of human talent for achieving goals of organisation (Mathis and Jackson 2002). Three board activities of HRM are to attract, develop and maintain an effective workforce (Daft 2006) or human capital. Organizational change has been seen as an individual-level phenomenon because it occurs only when the majority of individuals change their behavior or attitudes (Whelan-Berry et al., 2003). Dopson and Neumann (1998) have perceived change as a necessary evil for survival in the context of uncertainty. Survey results in 45 companies indicated that during crisis human resource planning was considered most critical among HR areas, being a little ahead of performance evaluation and the issue of compensation and benefits. The responding subsidiaries deemed training and development, and talent management just almost as critical. Recruitment and selection were one of the least critical areas despite the fact that many of them operate with quite high fluctuation rate. However, this opinion is hardly surprising, considering the high national unemployment rate during the crisis. From the list of HRM competency areas identified by Dave Ulrich et al. in 2009, the respondents considered the following three areas to be the most important: (1) change management (64%), teamwork (60%) and personal credibility (50%). The perceived criticality of quick decision making and knowledge sharing were followed, with respect to importance, by business knowledge. Results of current study indicated that HRM influence the success of the implementation of change and attitudes toward leadership.

Introduction Multiple-interacting changes in a global environment have led to a highly complex, confusing and unpredictable state. For survival in the context of uncertainty change as a necessary (Dopson & Neumann 1998). Organizational change has been seen as an individual-level phenomenon because it occurs only when the majority of individuals change their behavior or attitudes (Whelan-Berry et al. 2003). This has shifted the focus of the change process from product innovation and technological change, to people (Bergquist 1993). Therefore human 228


resource management and leadership have crucial role in during organisational changes. In this paper, authors analyse connections between change management, leadership and human resources management. The aim of this paper is to explore possibilities of using human resource management and in implementation of organizational changes. Paper starts with overview of change management, leadership and human resources management, followed by analysis of empirical study in Estonian organisations. Theoretical framework Change management Organisation is a complex system that produces outputs in the context of an environment, an available set of resources, and a history (Nadler & Tushman 1989). Most theorists divide organizational change into two types according to scope: change taking place within the given system, and change aiming to modify the system itself. Ackerman (1986) describes three types of organisational change: (1) developmental change, (2) transitional change, and (3) transformational change. Developmental change improves what already exists through the improvement of skills, methods, or conditions. Transitional change replaces current ways of doing things with something new over a controlled period of time. Transformational change means the emergence of a new state, unknown until it takes shape, out of the remains of the chaotic death of the old state. Burke and Litwin (1992) have developed a model for making a distinction between two types of deeper change. Transformational change occurs as a response to the external environment and directly affects the organisational mission and strategy, the leadership and the culture. Transitional change deals with psychological and organisational variables that predict and control the motivational and performance consequences of the work group climate (Burke & Litwin 1992).

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According to the positioning of change in relation to key external events, change can be divided into reactive changes and anticipatory changes (Nadler & Tushman 1989). Reactive change is the response to an external event or series of events. Anticipatory change is initiated in anticipation of events that may occur. To achieve a competitive advantage in the 21st century, organisations should move from having a reactive to a proactive attitude. Here leadership and human resources have crucial role. Human resources management The term human resource management (HRM) refers to design and applications of formal system in an organisation to ensure effective and efficient use of human talent for achieving goals of organisation (Mathis & Jackson 2002). The concept of (HRM) gained importance when it became clear, that strategic decisions are more and more related to human resource considerations (Daft 2006) and human resource management has impact on an organisation´s strategic capability (Fombrun et al. 1984; Wright et al. 1994). There are two human resources management conceptions: Michigan and Harvard model (Kaarelson 2010). The Michigan model (Fombrun et al. 1984) emphasizes that people are resource as any other resource in organizations and the utilization of this resource must be closely linked with the strategic objectives of the company. According to the Harvard model (Beer et al. 1985) developers, people are the most valuable, specific, and critical resource in an organization. Both models connect human resources with business strategy. Authors of this article define HRM as set of practices in organisation to ensure effective and efficient use of human capital for achieving goals of organisation. Three board activities of HRM are to attract, develop and maintain an effective workforce (Daft 2006) or human capital. During changes the main focus is on developing human capital, also the other HRM functions are involved, especially planning, selection, performance appraisal, salaries and termination.

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Thus, managing the human resource has become one of the critical success factors in most organisations. Both the existence of proper personnel and the ways how people are managed is the basis for achieving the competitive advantage. Leadership Leaders achieve results through the others’ work. Stogdill (1974) argues that “there are almost as many definitions of leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept”. Bales (1950) introduced the most common distinction of leadership styles: taskoriented style, defined as a concern with accomplishing assigned tasks by organizing taskrelevant activities, and interpersonally oriented style, defined as a concern with maintaining interpersonal relationships by tending to others’ morale and welfare. This distinction of leadership styles was developed further. Into the task-oriented style the following behavior was included: encouraging subordinates to follow the rules and procedures, maintaining high standards for performance, and making leader and subordinate roles explicit. The behaviors are such as helping and doing favors for subordinates, looking out for their welfare, explaining procedures and being friendly and available was included into interpersonally oriented style. Transactional leaders use reward and cohesion power in exchange process in order to satisfy immediate needs (Burns 1978). They ensure through the use of rewards and sanctions that followers the followers perform the required behaviors. It is like social exchange: leaders can offer resources to followers in exchange for the followers’ compliance and the loyalty to the leader (Kanungo & Mendonca 1996). The focus of the transaction influence process is solely on the leader’s objectives, needs and concerns (Kanungo & Mendonca, 1996). Transactional leadership involves reinforcement: leaders either make assignments or consult with followers about what is to be done in exchange for implicit or explicit rewards and the desired

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allocation of resources (Bass & Steidlmeier 2004). The central traits of this style can be summed up as follows: reward-based, exchange-based, importance of self-interests. Transformational leadership, in contrast, concentrates on satisfying higher needs (Burns 1978). It is about bringing a change in the followers’ attitudes and values (Kanungo & Mendonca 1996). Transformational leadership is motivating, uplifting and more ethical (Burns 1978). Transformational leadership consists of charisma (idealized influence), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized considerations (Bass 1985). Empirical study In this research we examined the HR functions and practical applications of Multinational Company (MNC) subsidiaries in Estonia. The current research is part of a long-term cooperative research consortium – the Central and Eastern European International Research Team (known hereafter as CEEIRT) – that is composed of researchers from different universities from the Central and Eastern European (CEE) Region and aimed at examining the changing Human Resource (HR) practices and roles in MNC subsidiaries. We seek to understand what trends have emerged in the professional practice of HR and the key roles of HRM in our geographic area in response to the socio-economic changes in the region. Survey was conducted among human resource managers of 50 Estonian companies. 45 were subsidiaries of multinational companies. The examined subsidies employ the 13% of the employees of the foreign owned Estonian companies. The majority of the companies in current study (67%) were small enterprises based on the number of their employees (under 250 persons). 22% were middle-size companies with number of employees between 251 and 1000, and 11% were bigger. The participating companies entered Estonia from 18 different countries. Some 70% of the companies surveyed came from the following six countries: Finland (24%), Sweden (24%), Denmark (7%), Germany (7%), Austria (4%), and France

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(4%). The remaining 30% represent another 12 countries. The majority (46%) of the organizations examined is engaged in manufacturing while the others (54%) in trade, tangible and intangible services. The gender distribution of the professionals participating in the interview is almost equal (4852%). Some 53% of the participating individuals are over 40 years of age, another almost 36% are between 30 and 40 and only a few (21%) of the professionals are very young. Almost all the interviewees participating in the survey have university, college or equivalent qualifications, one of them also has a PhD degree. The majority of the interviewees obtained qualifications in social sciences (52%) or engineering and natural sciences (16%). Almost three quarter (67%) of the individuals participating in the survey are top HR managers. 24% of respondents work in HR. Nearly 40% of the respondents have worked in their current positions for less than three years. However, the majority have spent longer time, typically 3 to10 years in their positions. If we take a look at the management culture of the companies, the highest proportions of companies in the sample analyzed belong to the so-called Northern (57%) and the Germanic (13%) management cultures. Note that in Estonia besides the groups of traditional MNCs (93%) (American, Western European and Japanese), companies from the so-called emerging and transitional countries (7%) have also appeared Results Human resource management function In the participating companies nearly 71% of the total number of HR staff carried out administrative tasks while 24% were HR professionals. The HR departments of the companies examined are relatively large as the number of HR staff was higher than 5 persons in the case of more than 37% of the respondents and in the case of 9% it was higher than 20

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persons. Only five organizations participated in the survey that did not have a HR department, moreover they did not even employ a single HR professional. About one third of the subsidiaries participating in the survey had the labor cost ratio is higher than 35%. The vast majority (65%) of the companies operated with a relatively low (under 30%) labor cost ratio. The results of our survey in this respect do not confirm the common view that there is no room for employees over 45 years of age in multinational companies as more than 10% of the employees of the subsidiaries participating in the survey fell within this age group. The proportion of employees under 25 years of age was around 25% and the body consisted of the employees between 25-45 years of age – with a percentage over 60%. In around 55% of the companies examined, the relative size of the training budget was under 3% of total labor costs. Only about one third of the companies examined spent 3-7% of the annual labor budget on training employees. Moreover, there were some respondents (13%), whose expenditures on trainings were higher than 7%. Survey results indicated that human resource planning was considered most critical among HR areas, being ahead of performance evaluation and the issue of compensation and benefits. Training and development, and talent management were also important. Recruitment and selection were one of the least critical areas. The respondents considered the following three areas to be the most important: (1) change management (64%), teamwork (60%) and personal credibility (50%). The perceived criticality of quick decision making and knowledge sharing were followed, with respect to importance, by business knowledge. The majority of the respondents regard most of the interventions in the key functions of HR as the result of a joint decision in which the final decision is made by the local line management, based usually on consultation with the HR department. External service

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providers were most often used in training and these external providers were also often involved in recruitment and selection and in the area of compensation and benefits (BCG&EAPM, 2009). The respondents found local training to be the most important method of professional development and they thought that mobility between the parent company and its subsidies also play a very important role. Organizational changes The analyses of change taking place in Estonian companies are based on Burke-Litwin’s model of organizational performance and change (Burke & Litwin 1992). Respondents received a list of areas of change: transformational factors strategy, culture and leadership; and transactional factors structure, task requirements, individual skills of employees and systems. They entered the symbol‘+’ if they had made changes in this area. Respondents were also asked to evaluate changes in every area on a 10 point scale, where the number 10 means the most successful change. They received a separate question about leadership. Respondents had to evaluate leadership at different levels – involving supervisors, middle managers, top management teams and top managers - on a 10 point scale. The highest grade was 10. In order to find connections between different variables a correlation analysis was carried out. Correlations between the success of changes and leadership Table 1 includes correlations between strategic orientations, the success of changes and leadership. Almost half (48%) of the respondents indicated that they were seeking stability during the period under examination. Some 39% of the companies surveyed were characterized by growth and portfolio expansion strategies. Changes were most successful in companies which had experienced cut-backs. Leadership was evaluated most highly during the stability phase (Table 1).

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Correlations between the success of changes and leadership indicate that transactional factors were more strongly connected with leadership in the company than transformational factors. Higher evaluations granted to the leadership of supervisors were connected with more successful changes in the individual skills of employees (r=0.536), leadership (r=0.489) and changes in task requirements (r=0.443). Furthermore, the success of changes in systems (r=0.398) and strategy (r=0.327) correlated with the leadership of supervisors. Similar results appeared in the group of middle managers, where almost the same sequence of correlation was found. One difference did emerge, however. Higher evaluations given to the leadership of middle managers were connected with successful changes in the structure (r=0.357), compared to the same category for the group of supervisors (r=0.121). The higher grades granted to top management teams were most strongly connected with more successful changes in the individual skills of employees (r=0.670) and in leadership (r=0.558), followed by more successful changes in structure (r=0.460) and task requirements (r=0.406). Higher evaluations for top managers were most strongly connected with successful changes in task requirements (r=0.358), followed by organizational culture (r=0.230) and structure (r=0.198).

Correlations between HRM, success of changes and leadership Respondents were asked to mention the competitive factor in the company. 48% of respondents chose the workforce as the most important competitive factor. The changes were most successful if the competitive factor was financial resources, with the next most influential competitive factor being management (Table 2). Change in leadership was successful if the workforce was viewed as a competitive factor simultaneously. A protected, regulated market and production technology did not have an impact on the success of the

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changes. If the competitive factor was management, changes in transactional factors were successful. Leadership was evaluated highest at all levels if Management was considered as a competitive factor. The next competitive factor influencing the evaluations of the leadership in a positive way was the workforce. Respondents were asked to mark the critical Human Resource (HR) issues for the company (Table 3). Successful changes in mission and leadership were connected with Training and Development and Recruitment. Evaluations of the leadership of managers (especially middle managers) were highest if the focus was on Performance Evaluation. Training and Development were connected with the higher evaluations granted to Supervisors (r=0.185). Table 4 shows the correlation between the corporate headquarters (HQ) and the local HR. Changes were more successful if the HR role played by corporate headquarters (HQ) was more advisory and supportive rather than directive. The provision of resources and advice when requested was the most beneficial for changes. Providing detailed HR models, policies, procedures and rules was not useful. From the key competencies for HR executives and HR services, Knowledge sharing, Teamwork and Change management competencies had the most positive impact on the success of changes (Table 5). Change in the culture required Change management competencies and also teamwork. The leadership of top managers was evaluated highest when teamwork was considered to be a key competency of HR executives. This indicates that if the HR manager is himself/herself good at teamwork he/she will also evaluate his/her superior more highly. Change management as a competency was connected with higher evaluations granted to the leadership of the top management team. Business partnership as a competency resulted in higher evaluations of the leadership of supervisors (Ulrich et al, 2009).

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Respondents were asked how significant the modes of gaining personal competencies in the field of HRM were (Table 6). Local training, Cross-cultural training and both Formal and Informal learning had the most positive influence on changes and leadership. Training in the headquarters had no impact on changes in the subsidiary, but had a positive impact on evaluations of the top management team and top managers. Knowledge flow enablers in Table 7 are the conditions needed to transfer knowledge about HR practices and techniques between the parent company and the subsidiary. Respondents were asked to indicate the importance of the following knowledge flow enablers in the field of HRM. Results indicated that motivation to transfer knowledge was most important for the success of changes. The respondents ranked knowledge flows within their own subsidiaries as the most important when compared to the different HR knowledge flows, and knowledge flow from the parent company was ranked only second (Table 8). Many respondents pointed out that the parent company welcomed the HR experiences and action proposals coming from the subsidiaries. Both knowledge flows from and to the parent company have a positive impact on the success of change in the task requirement and structure. Knowledge flows to the parent company were useful for strategic change. Knowledge flows within subsidiaries had a positive impact on the evaluations of the leadership of top managers. In Table 9 respondents predicted the major issues, patterns or trends effecting HRM within their own subsidiary for the next 24 months. Companies with the most successful changes planned Eastern expansion. Eastern expansion and efficiency improvement were positively connected with better leadership. Table 10 shows how companies improve the business efficiency of HR professionals.

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In order for a change in culture to be more successful the business focus of HR staff needs to have been improved by measuring and providing incentives based on business performance (r=0.707) and next by hiring people from outside of HR(business people) (r=0,577). In addition, prioritizing business knowledge in HR staff selection (r=0,408) and offer training on business issues (r=0,412) are useful for changing culture. Conclusion In order to survive in a changing environment, organizations should change their practices. Human resource management is one part of the management practices of organizations responsible for training service providers (Little & Little 2009). Survey results from 50 companies indicated that during a crisis human resource planning was considered the most critical among HR areas, being slightly ahead of performance evaluation and the issue of compensation and benefits. The respondent subsidiaries deemed training and development, and talent management almost just as critical. Recruitment and selection were one of the least critical areas despite the fact that many of them operate with quite a high fluctuation rate. However, this opinion is hardly surprising, considering the high national unemployment rate during the crisis. From the list of HRM competency areas identified by Dave Ulrich et al. in 2009, 64% of respondents chose the management, 60% chose teamwork and 50% of respondents chose personal credibility. The perceived criticality of quick decision making and knowledge sharing were followed, in order of importance, by business knowledge. Although the 48% of respondents chose the workforce as the most important competitive factor, financial resources and management were the most important for the implementation of changes. Change in leadership was successful if workforce was seen as a competitive factor simultaneously. The protected, regulated market and production technology did not

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have an impact on the success of changes. If the competitive factor was management, changes in transactional factors were successful. Successful changes in mission and leadership were connected with Training and Development and Recruitment. Evaluations on the leadership of managers were highest if the focus was on Performance Evaluation. Training and Development were connected with the higher evaluations given to Supervisors. Changes were more successful if the HR role played by corporate headquarters was limited to the provision of resources and advice when requested. Providing detailed HR models, policies, procedures and rules was not useful. HR executives’ key competencies as HR services, knowledge sharing, teamwork and change management competences had the most positive impact on the success of changes. A change in culture required change management competencies and also teamwork. The leadership of top managers was evaluated highest when teamwork was considered to be the key competency of HR executives. Local training, cross-cultural training and both, formal and informal learning had the most positive influence on changes and leadership. Training in headquarters had no impact on changes in the subsidiary, but had a positive impact on evaluations of top management team and top managers. To conclude, the results of the current study indicated that HRM has a significant impact upon the success of the implementation of change and attitudes towards leadership. Leadership influenced change in transactional factors – structure, task requirements, individual skills and systems - more than change in transformational factors – strategy, culture and leadership.

The research was supported by ETF grant 7357. 240


References Bales, R. F. 1950, Interaction process analysis: A method for the study of small groups, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. Bass, B. M. 1985, Leadership and performance beyond expectations, Free Press, New York. Bass, B. M. & Steidlmeier, P. 2004, Ethics, character, and authentic transformational leadership behavior, in Ciulla, J. B. (Ed.) Ethics, the heart of leadership, Praeger. pp. 175-196. Burns, J. MG. 1978, Leadership, Harper & Row, New York. Kanungo, R. N. & Mendonca, M. (Eds) 1996, Ethical dimensions of leadership, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks. Stogdill, R. M. 1974, Handbook of leadership: A survey of the literature, Free Press, New York. Ackerman, L. S. 1984, “Development, Transition or Transformation: The Question of Change in Organizations”, Organizational Development Practitioner, December, pp. 18. BCG&EAPM, 2009,Creating people advantage in time of crises (Research report), The Boston Consulting Group and European Association for People Management. Beer, M., Spector, B., Lawrence, P., Mills, D. & Walton, R. 1985, Human Resources Management: A General Manager's Perspective, Free Press, New York. Bergquist, W. 1993, The postmodern organisation: mastering the art of irreversible change, Jose-Bass Publisher. Burke, W. & Litwin, G. 1992, “A Casual Model of Organizational Performance and Change”, Journal of Management, Vol. 18, pp. 523-545. Daft, R., L. 2006, The New era of management. International edition, Thomson, SouthWestern. Dopson, S. & Neumann, J. E. 1998, “Uncertainty, contrariness and the double-find: Middle managers’ reactions to changing contracts”, British Journal of Management, Vol. 9, pp. 53-70. Fombrun, C. J., Tichy, N.M. & Devanna, M.A. 1984, Strategic Human Resource Management, Wiley, New York. Kaarelson, T. 2010, Human Resource Managament function in Estonian organisations: formation of the characteristics in the institutional and cultural context, The PhD thesis, EBS Print, Tallinn. Little, A., B. & Little, D.W. 2009, “The ’Home team’ approach to service quality: Linking and leveriging communications between Human Resources, operations and marketing”, Journal of Organizational Culture, Communications and Conflict, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 57-70. Mathis, R. L. & Jackson, J. H. 2002, Human resource management: Essential Perspectives, 2nd edition, South-Western Publishing, Cincinnati, Ohio. Nadler, D. A. & Tushman, M. L. 1989, “Organizational Frame Bending: Principles for Managing Reorientation”, The Academy of Management, Executive Magazine, Vol. 3, Issue 3, pp. 194-204. Whelan-Berry, K. S., Gordon, J. R. & Hinings, C. R. 2003, “The relative effect of change drivers in large-scale organizational change: an empirical study”, in Woodman, R. W., Pasmore, W. A. (Eds.) Research in Organizational Change and Development, Vol. 14, pp. 99-146. Ulrich, D., Allen, J., Brockbak, W., Younger, J. & Nyman, M. 2009, HR Transformation. New York, McGraw Hill. 241


Wright, P.M., McMahan, G.C. & McWilliams, A. 1994, “Human resources and sustained competitive advantage: A resource based perspective”, International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 5, Issue 2 , pp. 301-326. Tables Table 1. Connections between strategic orientations, success of changes and leadership Strategic orientations Growth, market expansion Stability Cut-back, outsourcing What was changed Strategy -0,259 0,191 0,178 Mission -0,296 -0,148 0,296 Culture -0,147 -0,282 -0,014 Leadership -0,038 -0,114 0,342 Structure -0,158 0,119 0,193 Task requirements 0,046 0,156 0,248 Individual skills 0,213 -0,068 0,266 Systems 0,080 0,181 0,080 Leadership Supervisors 0,124 0,439 0,008 Middle managers -0,081 0,342 0,292 Top management team 0,278 0,125 0,060 Top manager 0,004 -0,080 0,113

Table 2. Connections between most competitive factor, success of changes and leadership. Competitive factor

Optimal plant / Workfo Financial Manage Production Protected, organization rce resources ment technology regulated size market What was changed Strategy -0,118 -0,218 0,122 -0,032 -0,032 -0,462 Mission -0,191 0 0 -0,270 0,296 -0,296 Culture -0,368 0,063 0,397 -0,491 -0,022 -0,147 Leadership -0,417 0,255 0,240 0,017 -0,342 -0,522 Structure -0,113 -0,167 0,370 0,091 -0,140 -0,695 Task -0,103 -0,203 -0,043 0,300 0,109 -0,124 requirement Individual -0,230 -0,017 0,053 0,272 -0,238 -0,206 skills Systems -0,157 -0,270 0,464 0,254 -0,468 -0,377 Leadership Supervisors 0,105 0,204 -0,163 0,134 -0,080 0,180 Middle 0,043 0,275 -0,233 0,272 -0,211 -0,261 managers Top -0,132 0,266 -0,378 0,433 0,225 0,039 management team Top manager -0,116 -0,092 -0,343 0,350 0,327 0,074 242


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Table 3. Connections between Human Resource issues, success of changes and leadership. Human Resource Planning

Recruitm Performan Training Compensa Industrial- Employee ent ce and tion and Labour Communi Evaluation Developm Benefits Relations cation ent -0,297 -0,233 -0,337 -0,288 0,084 -0,296 0,837 0,068 0,540 0,795 0,357 -0,105 0,114 -0,267 0,112 0,143 -0,493 -0,081 0,506 -0,163 0,005 0,229 0,122 -0,162 0,016 -0,484 -0,286 -0,084 -0,328 -0,144 0,110 0,006 -0,150 0,025 -0,085 -0,151 0,067 -0,276 -0,269 -0,098 -0,152 -0,171 -0,226 -0,448 -0,578 -0,308 -0,234 -0,311 0,064 0,267 0,185 0,056 -0,145 -0,360 0,203 0,417 0,033 -0,209 -0,181 -0,147 -0,125 0,193 -0,009 -0,273 -0,365 0,141 0,231 0,053 -0,165 0,019 -0,244 0,129

1 -0,052 2 0,429 3 -0,353 4 -0,157 5 -0,483 6 -0,031 7 -0,304 8 -0,514 9 -0,105 10 0,002 11 0,168 12 -0,176 NOTE: 1 Strategy 2 Mission 3 Culture 4 Leadership 5 Structure 6 Task requirements 7 Individual skills 8 Systems 9 Supervisors 10 Middle managers 11 Top management team 12 Top manager

Table 4. Relationsip between headquarters (HQ) and local HR, success of changes and leadership. Relationship between headquarters and local HR

Hands off, source of last resort in case of a local problem What was changed Strategy -0,451 Mission -0,592 Culture -0,061

Provide resources and advise when requested

Provide general guidelines and framework for actions

0,168 0,810 0,316

-0,025 0,675 0,458

Solicit informati on and reports auditor’s role

Provide detailed HR models, policies, procedures and rules

0,120 0,148 0,368

-0,031 0 0,196

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Source of all remotely significant HR decisions N/A N/A N/A

Leadership Structure Task requirements Individual skills Systems Leadership Supervisors Middle managers Top management team Top manager

-0,411 -0,174 -0,411

0,174 0,200 0,387

0,224 0,059 0,234

0,190 0,193 -0,009

-0,009 -0,273 -0,235

N/A -0,095 0,081

-0,617

0,221

0,112

0,428

-0,019

N/A

-0,550

0,249

-0,020

0,155

0,226

0,206

-0,362 -0,323

-0,014 0,037

-0,085 -0,146

0,022 -0,126

-0,122 -0,146

N/A N/A

-0,128

-0,059

0,067

-0,017

-0,444

N/A

0,163

-0,219

0,019

-0,094

0,004

N/A

Table 5. Connections between key competencies for HR executives, success of changes and leadership. Business Quick Team partners decision work hip -making

Change Knowle Knowle manage dge of dge ment foreign sharing languag es

Strategi Persona HR c l services contribu credibili tion ty

Usage of HRMIS (IT)

What was changed Strategy 0,055 0,264 0,248 -0,434 -0,031 0,628 -0,128 -0,702 0,533 0,237 Mission 0,080 0,561 0,405 0,148 0,314 0,917 N/A -0,466 0,466 N/A Culture -0,064 -0,086 0,196 0,472 -0,063 0,066 -0,198 0,173 0,186 0,478 Leadership -0,065 0,220 -0,038 0,348 0,081 0,233 -0,272 -0,104 -0,045 0,062 Structure -0,116 0,156 0,472 -0,092 0,148 0,378 -0,297 -0,276 0,125 0,281 Task 0,215 0,410 0,367 -0,088 0,140 0,383 -0,097 -0,250 0,439 0,278 requirements Individual 0,087 0,276 0,111 0,011 -0,055 0,259 -0,531 -0,349 0,424 0,328 skills Systems 0,028 0,441 0,310 -0,303 -0,322 0,004 -0,338 -0,281 0,400 0,461 Leadership Supervisors 0,228 -0,047 -0,130 0,048 -0,156 -0,234 -0,041 -0,152 0,465 -0,026 Middle 0,129 0,131 -0,128 0,129 0,245 -0,078 -0,089 -0,106 0,290 0,048 managers Top -0,037 0,102 -0,021 0,216 0,192 0,042 -0,544 -0,060 -0,090 -0,266 management team Top manager -0,030 0,144 0,329 0,150 -0,012 0,038 -0,327 -0,062 0,282 0,213

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Table 6. Connections between modes of gaining personal competencies, success of changes and leadership. Modes of Mobility Mobility Training Local gaining between between in HQ traini personal parent and subsidiaries ng competencies subsidiary What was changed Strategy -0,373 -0,211 -0,465 0,013 Mission -0,575 -0,360 -0,550 0,127 Culture -0,105 -0,055 0,069 0,060 Leadership -0,115 -0,140 0,041 0,233 Structure -0,041 -0,285 -0,033 0,259 Task 0,041 -0,096 0,140 0,346 requirements Individual skills -0,081 -0,235 0,007 0,378 Systems 0,283 0,030 -0,157 0,008 Leadership Supervisors 0,075 0,089 0,071 0,232 Middle -0,096 -0,244 0,061 0,209 managers Top 0,091 -0,156 0,393 0,319 management team Top manager 0,177 -0,025 0,258 0,226

Form al learni ng

Inform Crossal cultural learni training ng

0,243 0,324 0,316 0,348 0,566 0,380

0,007 0,475 0,635 0,487 0,201 0,254

-0,241 0,039 0,538 0,401 0,539 0,360

0,358 0,301

0,202 0,286

0,578 0,231

0,087 0,112

0,306 0,239

-0,048 0,332

0,151

0,098

0,354

0,346

0,442

0,269

Table 7. Connections between Knowledge flow enablers, success of changes and leadership. Knowledge flow enablers

Content/Kind of knowledge

What was changed Strategy Mission Culture Leadership Structure Task requirements Individual skills Systems Leadership Supervisors Middle managers Top

Motivation to Ability to transfer knowledge transfer knowledge

Form of knowledge transfer

-0,137 -0,135 0,195 0,187 0,022 -0,051

0,081 0,142 -0,056 0,142 0,171 0,239

0,370 -0,113 -0,100 -0,067 0,337 0,204

-0,043 -0,405 -0,272 -0,057 0,358 0,279

-0,014

0,165

0,131

0,207

-0,069

0,126

0,313

0,207

0,207 0,089

0,264 0,278

0,254 0,137

0,075 0,281

0,064

0,175

-0,002

0,422

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management team Top manager

0,023

0,202

0,197

0,253

Table 8. Connections between Knowledge flows, success of changes and leadership. Knowledge flows

Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge flows Knowledge flows flows from flows to between within your parent parent subsidiaries subsidiary What was changed Strategy -0,008 0,246 0,030 0,217 Mission -0,519 0,531 0,157 0,459 Culture -0,176 -0,078 -0,066 -0,066 Leadership -0,315 0,009 -0,042 -0,156 Structure 0,142 0,234 0,047 0,060 Task 0,236 0,333 0,163 0,134 requirements Individual 0,077 0,124 0,062 -0,153 skills Systems 0,192 0,154 0,116 0,028 Management -0,251 -0,064 -0,101 -0,191 practices Leadership Supervisors 0,232 0,032 0,313 0,142 Middle -0,016 -0,008 -0,012 -0,070 managers Top 0,190 0,083 0,077 -0,012 management team Top manager 0,054 0,164 0,187 0,284

Table 9. Connections between key business challenges in the next 1-2 years, success of changes and leadership. Conform to globaliza tion What was changed Strategy -0,221 Mission -0,105 Culture -0,086 Leadership 0,184 Structure 0,091 Task -2,3E-17

Effici ency impro veme nt -0,150 -0,444 -0,233 0,085 -0,076 -0,073

Compan y develop ment

Company reconstruc tion

0,150 N/A 0,589 0,111 0,133 0,100

0,008 -0,314 -0,179 0,0219 -0,337 0,196

Eastern expansion

Distribution developmen t

EU change s

0,071 0,177 0,212 0,106 0,284 -0,230

-0,040 -0,418 -0,713 -0,604 -0,335 -0,477

0,505 0,642 0,327 0,503 0,565 0,331

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requirement s Individual skills Systems Leadership Supervisors Middle managers Top management team Top manager

-0,172

0,159

0,213

0,065

0,688

-0,008

-0,257

-0,291

0,320

0,429

0,203

0,221

-0,045

0,329

-0,106 0,048

0,150 -0,081

0,307 0,112

0,217 0,301

-0,335 -0,246

0 -0,233

0,099

0,172 0,361 6 0,060

-0,226

0,249

0,414

-0,161

0

-0,175

0,113

0,054

0,202

0,055

-0,292

0,401

Table 10. Connections between, success of changes and leadership. Offer training s on busines s issues

Offer training s on specific HR fields What was changed Strateg -0,667 -0,5 y Missio N/A N/A n Cultur 0,412 N/A e Leader 0,343 0 ship Structu -0,486 -0,242 re Task 0,127 -0,248 require ments Individ -0,064 0,023 ual skills Syste N/A 0,191 ms Leadership Superv 0,030 0,156 isors Middle -0,059 0,239 manag ers

Offer rotation programs (outside the HR department) for HR staff

0,971 N/A

Measure and provide incentives based on business performance -0,667 N/A

Prioritize business knowledge in HR staff selection

N/A N/A 0,408

Hire people from outside of HR (business people) -0,971 N/A

-1

0,707

-0,408

-0,456

N/A

0,408

0,535

-0,183

N/A

-0,548

0,264

-0,262

0,076

-0,611

0,052

-0,452

0,158

-0,337

0,242

-0,669

-0,132

-0,087

0,234

-0,011

-0,060

-0,161

-0,451

0,048

N/A

248


0,577

-0,505

Top manag ement team Top manag er

0,087

-0,026

-0,476

-0,039

-0,090

0,164

0,638

0,273

-0,593

-0,184

-0,273

0,115

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PART TREE: Aspects of Marketing Management

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MEDIA STRATEGY FOR SIMCARD ADVERTISEMENT PRODUCT CATEGORY Alamanda, Dini Turipanam Institut Manajemen Telkom Bandung Abstract

This research was conducted to examine television media strategy for SIMcard product category. In order to extent comprehension on how TV advertisers select TV spot, it is important to understand what factor being considered by TV advertiser for selecting the suited TV spot particularly for SIM card product category. The source of data for this study was obtained from A. C. Nielsen, using Arianna software. It is consisted TV advertisement data every day for one month (March 2010). The factors which are evaluated are television rating, rate, program, time (day and hour), and category of a brand/product. This research covers 10 national TV stations in Indonesia, which are RCTI, SCTV, Trans TV, Trans 7, Global TV, ANTV, TPI (MNC), Metro TV, Indosiar and TV One. Finding in this research include that in some of television station, advertiser did not always considered advertisement cost, or the timing of advertisement. Some advertisers tend to consider other aspects such as rating and the number of viewer, not only about the television rate. But still, a television program that has high rating not always attract more ads. Keyword: Advertising, Television, SIM card Category, Media Selection

I.

Introduction

In recent years, national ad spending continues to increase sharply. Data of PPPI (Association of Indonesian Advertising Company) records ad spending continues to increase. In 2007 reached Rp35, 1 trillion, in 2008 reached Rp41 trillion, in 2009 reached Rp48, trillion, and the first half of 2010 reached Rp28, 5 trillion or 58 percent of total spending in 2009 (Lubis, 2010). Wahyudi (2010) states that advertising expenditure reached 62 trillion and telecommunications companies are the largest contributors followed by banking and some consumer goods companies. Wahyudi also expressed in terms of quantity, 60 percent of ad spending spread to television and the remaining 30 percent spread to the print media and radio. Managing Director of Nielsen Audience Measurement of Nielsen stated that television advertising is dominated by telecommunications service providers. The largest advertising 251


expenditure allocation incurred by PT XL Axiata worth Rp 593 billion with a 66 percent increase compared with 2009. Then, Telkomsel (all SIM card) worth Rp 538 billion, Telkomsel SIMpati worth Rp 438 billion, Telkomsel AS worth Rp 398 billion, Axis worth Rp 396 billion, and Indosat worth IM3 Rp 320 billion (Pratignyo, 2010). In general, television has two target consumers (as a source of income), the audience (viewers) and the advertiser. Knowing the desired target market and show a better program is the key to the success of a television. If a program has a lot of viewers, it will automatically increase the rating of the program itself. The programs that have high rating usually attract great attention from advertisers to invest their money there. However, the rating is not the only thing to be considered by the advertisers. There are many other factors that influence, such as day part and ad rates. It is very important to understand the behavior of the advertiser (company SIM card) in choosing a television station as an advertising medium with the restrictions the following issues: a. Variables used in this study consists of time (day and hour), television ratings, advertising rates, and brand / product category b. Source data obtained from A. C. Nielsen, using Arianna Software with time period February 2010. c. This study includes 10 national television in Indonesia, including RCTI, SCTV, Trans TV, Trans 7, Global TV, SCTV, TPI (MNC), Metro TV, Indosiar and TVOne

II.

Literature Study According to Kotler (2003:814), advertising is a form of impersonal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services by a specific sponsor needs to be paid. In this case could mean that advertising is a form of impersonal communication with the costs incurred by the company in the use of mass media to persuade and influence potential customers.

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Peter and Olson (2000:222) stated that in practice advertising is able to create emotional to consumers. External stimuli that create positive emotions can be paired with the product so the product gets positive effect. According to Farbey (1987), television is a medium that preferred among advertisers because of its effects. Television uses color, sound, movement, and music. Additionally viewers can be selected according to the type and time of the program. Television is a medium capable of reaching vast areas, and can be used by all advertisers to test marketing or launching a new product. Like other media used in advertising, television also has strengths and limitations. Rhenald Kasali (in Durianto and Liana, 2004) concluded that and presented in Table 1. Table 1. The Strengthen and The Weaknesses of Advertising in Television Strengthen Cost efficiency Strong Impact Strong Influence

Weaknesses Big cost Unselected target market Technical difficulty

Some advertising experts argue that in order for an advertising campaign to be effective, advertising must contain great ideas that attract the attention of consumers, get a reaction, and separating the products and services that are advertised other products in the competition (Lee and Johnson, 1999). Shimp (2000) states that invest heavily in advertising suggest that many companies have confidence in the effectiveness of advertising. These SIM card companies currently are the largest television advertising users in Indonesia. Director of Telecom Practice Group Nielsen, Viraj Juthani in Seputar Indonesia (2010) mentions that the telecommunications industry for ad spending up 43% after a decline of 11% in 2009. While the telecom operator company that issued the largest advertising expenditure is Telkomsel (Rp1, 4 trillion), followed by Indosat (Rp639 billion), XL Axiata (around

253


Rp631 billion), Natrindo Cellular Phone (Rp396 billion), Bakrie Telecom (Rp296 billion), Telkom Indonesia (Rp295 billion), and Hutchinson 3G (Rp278 billion).

III.

Methodology This study used exploratory method. The purpose of exploratory method is to obtain information relating to research and deep understanding of things that are not yet known. Figure 1 is a flow chart of this study.

Figure 1. Research Flow Chart Data obtained from Arianna software. Arianna is another invention in the innovation process analysis software of AGB Nielsen Media Research, where Arianna changed the face and the ability of the AGB Workstation.

IV.

Results and Discussion

254


Figure 2 Chart of Total SIMcard Ads

Figure 3 Chart of Total SIMcard Ads (In Percent) Total number of SIM Card ads in February 2010 for 10 television stations is 3393. The average number of SIM Card ads per day is 121 ads, and 5 ads/hour. Based on the chart in figure 2, Global TV has the greatest number of ads by 581 advertisements, followed by Trans TV (467 ads), TPI (432 ads), SCTV (421 ads), RCTI (321 ads), Indosiar (313 ads), ANTV (280 ads), Trans 7 (276 ads), TVONE (218 ads) and Metro TV (84 ads). The total number of SIM Card ads in February 2010, in all television stations, in the form of percentage can be seen from figure 3. Global TV was superior with 17%, followed by Trans TV (14%), TPI (13%), SCTV (12%), RCTI (10%), INDOSIAR (9%), ANTV and Trans 7 (8%), TVONE (6%) and Metro TV (3%).

Figure 4 Ads in February 2010 based on Day of Week Figure 4 above shows that the highest number of Ads is on Thursday (982) and Friday (906). While the lowest number of Ads is on Sunday (697). Next, this research will analyze more detail about ads based on Day of Week per television station.

255


256


Figure 5 Total Food Ads in February 2010 All Channels

Figure 6 SIM Card Ads on TV Stations Based on Day of Week in February 2010 Based on Figure 6 above, it can be seen that all television stations have the greatest number of SIM Card Ads on weekday.

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Figure 7 SIM Card Ads on TV Stations Based on TVR in February 2010 Figure 7 shows the relationship between program TV rating (x) and total number Figure 7 SIM Card Ads on TV Stations Based on TVR in February 2010 Figure 7 shows the relationship between program TV rating (x) and total number of ad (y) on all television stations. The figure indicates that SIM Card product choose low rating programs.

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choose low rating programs.

Figure 8 SIM Card Ads on TV Stations Based on Dayparts in February 2010 Figure 8 shows the relationship between hours and total number of Ads. From the Figure 8 SIM Card Ads on TV Stations Based on Dayparts in February 2010 Figure 8 shows the relationship between hours and total number of Ads. From the figure above, it can be seen that SIM Card category ads are advertised 24 hours.

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5. Conclusion, Suggestions and Further Research 5.1 Conclusion 1. On the average, all television stations (RCTI, SCTV, TPI (MNC), Indosiar, Global TV, Trans TV, Trans 7, TV One, Metro TV, and TV One) have the highest number of Ads at the middle of the week, which is on Thursday (982 ads) and Friday (906 ads). There are very significant difference between the number of ads on weekends and workday. On weekend the number of ads is about 600 advertisements only, but on workday almost reached the number of 1000. 2. Most corporate advertisers prefer to make advertisement on workday than weekend. In this research found that all of the television stations have more expensive average rate on weekend than on workday. This may be one reason why the number of ads on workday is more than on weekend, it is because the price is cheaper. 3. Some television stations still have more ads in the higher rate (more expensive), than the regular rate. This finding represent that some advertisers tend to consider other aspects such as rating and the number of viewer, not about the advertising rate. So, although the price of best performance time is higher, it still has the highest number of ads. 5. Each television stations have the highest number of ads in at a certain time. It is different one to another station. In conclusion, television stations have the highest number of ads not always in the prime time (18.00-19.00). 6. A television program that has high rating not always attracts more ads.

5.2 Suggestions To maximize awareness and be effective, the advertising must reach the maximum number of the target audience. The advertiser can concentrate commercials in areas where market

260


potential is greatest. By choosing higher rating program, advertiser could reach larger viewer. So, it would optimize the effectiveness of the Advertising. Another consideration of corporate advertiser in buying TV time is selecting the right period and program for advertiser’s commercial messages. The various day part segments attract different audiences in both size and nature, so advertising rates varies accordingly. This is important to advertisers since they attract different demographic groups. Advertisers must decide when to air commercials and on which programs.

5.3 Further Research For further research, a longer period of research can be used (yearly data processing). Further research could also measure the relationship between variables using tools such as crosstab analysis which is better than using excel graphic processing.

References Durianto, Darmadi & C. Liana (2004). Analisis Efektivitas Iklan Televisi Softener Soft & Fresh di Jakarta dan Sekitarnya dengan Menggunakan Consumer Decision Model. Jurnal Ekonomi Perusahaan. 11: 35-55 Farbey,AD (1987). How to Produce Succesful Advertising, Marketing in Action Series. Jakarta: Gramedia Juthani,Vijay (2010). Analisa Penetrasi Ponsel Indonesia 2010 3 Kali Lipat 2005. www.okezone.com. Diunduh 12 Oktober 2011. Kotler, Philip (2000). Marketing Management : Analysis, Planning, Implementation, and Control, Tenth Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall International,Inc. Lee, Monle & Carla Johnson (1999). Prinsip-Prinsip Pokok Periklanan Dalam Perspektif Global. Jakarta: Kencana Prenada Media Group. Lubis, Anggraini (2010). Belanja iklan capai Rp62 triliun. www.waspada.com. Diunduh 17 Agustus 2011 Peter & Olson (2000). Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategy. Jakarta: Erlangga Pratignyo, Irawati (2010). Belanja Iklan 2010 Capai Rp60 Triliun. www.ciputraentrepreneurship.com. Diunduh 17 Agustus 2011 Wahyudi, Mufid (2010). Belanja iklan capai Rp62 triliun. www.waspada.co.id. Diunduh 2 Agustus 2011

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KELUARAN DALAM TIM LINTAS FUNGSI TERHADAP MUTU PELAYANAN TERPADU Studi pada Jasa Pelayanan Kesehatan V.Rachmadi Parmono Indira Sari Astuti

Abstract In health service company, the existence of cross functiona team is common. This study is intended to examine the influence of cross functional team to total quality service. Path analysis is used toinvestigate the influence between the dimensions of cross functional team on total quality service. The dimension of cross functional team are: organizational context, interna process and outcome. The findings of this study revealed that only outcome is significantly influence the total quality service. The implication will be discussed. Keywords: cross functional team, total quality service, path analyses

I. PENDAHULUAN A. Latar Belakang Masalah Studi mengenai manajemen pelayanan terpadu dalam industri kesehatan adalah studi yang berkembang pesat. Studi-studi yang dilakukan oleh Kyun Kiam et al (2008), Chahal (2008), Moxham dan Wiseman (2009), Lonial et al (2010), Sureshchandar et al (2002) dan Camgoz-Akdog dan Zineldin (2010) menunjukkan arti penting mutu pelayanan terpadu memiliki makna signifikan dalam industri pelayanan kesehatan. Total Quality Service (TQS) adalah sebuah sistem manajemen mutu pelayanan strategik, yaitu sebuah pendekatan sistem untuk merumuskan strategi mutu pelayanan sebuah organisasi. Tjiptono (2002) mendefinisikan TQS sebagai sistem manajemen strategik dan integratif yang melibatkan semua manajer dan karyawan, menggunakan 262


metoda kualitatif dan kuantitatif secara berkesinambungan, agar dapat memenuhi kebutuhan, keinginan dan harapan pelanggan. Dalam TQS, diperlukan keterlibatan seluruh anggota organisasi dalam menunjang pelaksanaan strategi. Oleh karena itu dibutuhkan alat (tools) atau kendaraan untuk implementasi dan operasionalisasi strategi perusahaan.

Organisasi Lintas Fungsi (OLF) adalah

organisasi yang

memberdayakan dan memanfaatkan keterlibatan dari seluruh anggota organisasi sehingga dengan kombinasi sistem manajemen strategi TQS dan Organisasi Lintas Fungsi, maka organisasi dapat memiliki strategi yang baik dan mampu pula mengimplementasikan dan mengoperasionalisasikan dengan baik (Mulyadi, 2007). Prinsip-prinsip organisasi lintas fungsi ini sesungguhnya memiliki kesamaan dengan prinsip-prinsip manajemen mutu terpadu. Prinsip manajemen mutu terpadu menyatakan bahwa manajemen mutu berorientasi pada pewujudan kebutuhan konsumen yang dilakukan oleh seluruh komponen dalam organisasi dan dilakukan dalam bentuk perbaikan terus menerus. Berdasar latar belakang permasalahan tersebut di atas, maka penulis bermaksud mengkaji peran organisasi lintas fungsi terhadap manajemen mutu pelayanan. Organisasi lintas fungsi didekati dengan proksi konteks organisasional, proses internal dan keluaran dari kelompok lintas fungsional (Denison et al, 1996). Mutu pelayanan terpadu didekati dengan proksi persepsi mutu pelayanan terpadu oleh seluruh anggota organisasi (Sureshchandar et al, 2002). Pertanyaan penelitian yang diajukan dalam penelitian ini adalah sebagai berikut: 1.

Apakah konteks organisasional dalam kelompok lintas fungsi mempengaruhi mutu pelayanan ?

2.

Apakah proses internal kelompok lintas fungsi mempengaruhi mutu pelayanan ?

263


3.

Apakah keluaran dalam kelompok lintas fungsi mempengaruhi mutu pelayanan?

II. TINJAUAN PUSTAKA A. Manajemen Mutu Pelayanan Terpadu (Total Quality Service) Berbagai studi yang menyatakan bahwa terdapat keterkaitan antara manajemen mutu terhadap kinerja perusahaan menunjukkan bahwa manajemen mutu menjadi sebuah tool atau resep tanpa memberikan penjelasan yang memadai tentang bagaimana manajemen mutu perlu dilakukan dalam wadah organisasi (Sureshchandar et al, 2002). Selanjutnya Sureshchandar et al (2002) menawarkan model sistem struktural dari manajemen mutu yang memandang pentingnya aspek konteks mutu, manajemen mutu aktual, manajemen mutu ideal dan kinerja mutu. Berkaitan dengan hal tersebut, Powell (1995) dalam Sureshchandar et al (2002), menemukan bahwa isuisu lunak (soft issues) dari manajemen mutu memiliki peran signifikan dibandingkan dengan isu-isu tradisional yang selama ini dikenal seperti pelatihan karyawan, benchmarking dan seterusnya. Dalam studinya, Powell (1995) justru menemukan bahwa komitmen pimpinan, pemberdayaan, keterbukaan, kolaborasi antar unit justru sangat vital bagi peningkatan mutu organisasi. Terdapat perbedaan cara memandang kinerja mutu organisasi manufaktur dan organisasi yang berbasis pelayanan. Sejalan dengan paradigma service dominant logic (Vargo dan Lusch, 2008), maka industri pelayanan sesungguhnya merupakan suatu “game of person”, maka pokok perhatian pada industri ini harus dipusatkan pada keberadaan para pribadi yang terlibat dalam proses bisnis, yaitu para penyedia jasa dan konsumen. Dalam konteks ini, definisi produk yang baik adalah produk yang mampu memenuhi keinginan dari konsumen (Sureshchandar et al, 2002). Kepuasan konsumen merupakan ukuran utama dari kinerja usaha. Keberhasilan usaha pada

264


dasarnya dipengaruhi oleh persepsi konsumen terhadap mutu pelayanan yang diberikan oleh organisasi bisnis (Parasuraman et al, 1994). Jika dalam organisasi manufaktur dikenal adanya perangkat manajemen mutu terpadu (TQM) maka dalam organisasi berbasis pelayanan dikenal perangkat manajemen pelayanan terpadu (TQS). Riset utama mengenai manajemen pelayanan terpadu dilakukan oleh Waldman dan Gopalakhrisnam (1996) dalam Sureshchandar et al (2002). Mereka menemukan bahwa dimensi operasional, organisasional dan manajemen sumber daya manusia dari manajemen pelayanan terpadu memiliki hubungan signifikan dengan persepsi konsumen mutu pelayanan suatu organisasi. Sureshchandar et al (2002) menunjukkan bahwa terdapat tiga dimensi kritikal yang mempengaruhi manajemen pelayanan terpadu. Ketiga dimensi tersebut adalah: pertama, dimensi yang bersifat kritikal baik bagi organisasi manufaktur maupun pelayanan. Kedua, dimensi yang semakin dipertimbangkan konsumen dan ketiga, dimensi yang bersifat unik bagi organisasi berbasis pelayanan. Dimensi mutu yang bersifat khas dan unik bagi organisasi yang berbasis pelayanan adalah budaya pelayanan dan lingkungan fisik yang ramah terhadap pelanggan maupun karyawan. Di sisi lain, Gronroos (2000) menyederhanakan dimensi manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu menjadi dua yaitu dimensi teknikal dan dimensi fungsional. Dimensi teknikal berkaitan dengan segala sesuatu yang apa yang dibeli dan kesesuaiannya dengan acuan pelayanan yang dijanjikan. Sedangkan dimensi fungsional adalah karakteristik pelayanan yang dilakukan oleh organisasi terhadap konsumen. Dimensi fungsional juga meliputi hubungan antara konsumen dengan organisasi penyedia pelayanan yang bersangkutan.

B. Tim Lintas Fungsi dalam Manajemen Mutu Pelayanan Terpadu

265


EFQMs (European Foundation for Quality Management) dalam Oakland dan Oakland

(1998)

menyebutkan

bahwa

untuk

mewujudkan

organisasi

yang

berkomitmen terhadap mutu pelayanan maka dibutuhkan upaya dan strategi yang jelas untuk memampukan seluruh personal dalam organisasi untuk mengeluarkan segenap potensinya. Upaya tersebut dapat dilakukan dengan cara membangun komunikasi, komitmen dan partisipasi, teamwork, pemberdayaan dan pengembangan. Upayaupaya tersebut mengimplikasikan bahwa persoalan mutu bukan hanya persoalan pimpinan, persoalan salah satu departemen, persoalan seseorang semata, namun menjadi persoalan seluruh komponen dalam organisasi. Salah satu cara untuk meningkatkan koordinasi dan integrasi seluruh komponen dalam organisasi adalah terwujudnya suatu tim lintas fungsi (Denison et al, 1996). Tim lintas fungsi mengandaikan organisasi berbentuk seperti kelompok kerja dan menghubungkan berbagai departemen dalam organisasi. Organisasi lintas fungsi ini dibangun sebagai jawaban atas semakin meningkatnya tantangan yang dihadapi oleh organisasi. Tim lintas fungsi telah banyak berhasil diterapkan dalam industri kesehatan di Amerika Serikat (Alexander et al, 2005). Tim lintas fungsi dalam industri kesehatan terbukti mampu memberikan wadah terjadinya sintesis pengetahuan dari berbagai disiplin ilmu untuk menyelesaikan berbagai permasalahan yang kompleks. Denison et al (1996) menandai ciri tim lintas fungsi antara lain: pertama, bahwa setiap anggota tim sesungguhnya merupakan perwakilan dari setiap unit yang ada dalam organisasi. Setiap anggota tim memiliki tanggung jawab dan identitas sosial terhadap unit asal tersebut, kedua,tekanan pekerjaan dalam tim sangat besar sehingga titik kritis pembentukan tim berada dalam masa awal pembentukan tim lintas fungsi, ketiga harapan terhadap kinerja tim lintas fungsi lebih besar dibandingkan terhadap kelompok konvesional. Kinerja tim akan diukur dalam bentuk kemampuannya

266


mempersingkat waktu siklus kerja, membangkitkan dan berbagi pengetahuan baru serta penyebaran pembelajaran organisasi (Nonaka, 1991). Ciri tim lintas fungsi ini kemudian diadaptasi dalam tingkat organisasi menjadi ciri yang harus dimiliki apabila organisasi hendak menjadi organisasi lintas fungsi (Mulyadi, 2007). Menurut Mulyadi (2007), organisasi lintas fungsi dicirikan sebagai organisasi yang memiliki sifat sebagai berikut: komunikasi yang lancar antar unit, aksesibilitas data, keterlibatan semua fungsi dalam organisasi, fleksibilitas, akuntabilitas, lingkungan yang kondusif terhadap pembelajaran organisasional (learning environment), berorientasi pada pelanggan, perbaikan terus menerus, penghargaan pada nilai-nilai pribadi (personal value), pembentukan tata berpikir yang berorientasi pada sistem (system thinking) dan pemanfaatan teknologi informasi. Koura (1991) menunjukkan bahwa tim lintas fungsi sudah menjadi bagian yang integral dalam pengembangan manajemen mutu pelayanan di Jepang. Meningkatnya kebutuhan akan mutu dan efisiensi tidak lagi mampu diantisipasi melalui koordinasi yang bersifat horizontal. Keterbatasan koordinasi horizontal ini diperbaiki melalui mekanisme koordinasi yang bersifat lintas fungsi. Sehingga pembentukan tim lintas fungsi menjadi bagian yang diperlukan dalam pewujudan manajemen mutu. Studi tentang organisasi lintas fungsi didasarkan atas studi tentang tim lintas fungsi. Terdapat dua aliran besar penelitian tentang tim lintas fungsi (Denison et al, 1996).

Aliran

pertama

adalah

aliran

studi

mengenai

tim

dan

konteks

organisasionalnya. Aliran kedua mempelajari tim lintas fungsi dalam kontek proses internal dan keluaran yang dihasilkannya. Proses internal adalah proses yang terjadi dalam tim dalam menggunakan berbagai sumber keahlian untuk menghasilkan keluaran tertentu.

267


III. METODE PENELITIAN A. Strategi Penelitian Penelitian ini adalah penelitian yang bersifat eksplanatori. Penelitian eksplanatori adalah penelitian yang menjelaskan pengaruh suatu variabel independen (eksogen) terhadap variabel dependen (endogen).

B. Model Penelitian Model penelitian yang diajukan akan dirumuskan dalam bentuk persamaan matematika sebagai berikut : y = a + b1x1 + b2x2 + b3x3 + e Variabel penelitian yang digunakan adalah sebagai berikut : 1. Variabel dependen (y) Variabel dependen yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu. Manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu diukur dengan mengadaptasi pada kuesioner yang dibangun oleh Sureshchandar et al (2002). 2. Variabel independen yang terlibat dalam model ini adalah sebagai berikut : a. Variabel konteks organisasional (x1) Kuesioner diadaptasi dari kuesioner Denison et al (1996). b. Variabel Proses Internal (x2) Kuesioner diadaptasi dari kuesioner Denison et al (1996). c. Variabel Keluaran (x3) Kuesioner diadaptasi dari kuesioner Denison et al (1996).

C. Definisi Variabel

268


1. Konteks organisasional adalah segala sesuatu yang berada dan melingkupi keberadaan tim. Konteks bisa berupa peristiwa, pernyataan dan fakta yang menjadi latar belakang keberadaan tim (Denison et al, 1996). 2. Proses internal adalah proses manajemen yang terjadi di dalam tim (Denison et al, 1996) 3. Keluaran adalah hasil yang didapatkan oleh tim sebagai implikasi dan keberadaan tim lintas fungsi (Denison et al, 1996).

D. Populasi dan Sampel Populasi dari penelitian ini berjumlah 44 orang. Populasi tersebut terdiri dari level direksi, manager, kepala unit dan staf. Pengukuran akan dilakukan secara sensus, yaitu melakukan pengukuran terhadap seluruh anggota populasi.

IV. TEMUAN DAN ANALISIS DATA A. Profil Responden Penelitian dimaksudkan untuk mendapatkan respon dari seluruh responden.. Sehingga penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan sensus dan bukan sampling. Dari sejumlah 44 orang karyawan tersebut, hanya 32 orang (72,7%) yang bersedia mengisi kuesioner penelitian. Responden terdiri atas 12 orang laki-laki (37,5%), dan 20 orang perempuan (62,5%). Jenjang pendidikan responden tersebar sebagai sebagai berikut: 2 orang berpendidikan SMU (6,25%), 10 orang berpendidikan D3 (31,25%), 17 orang berpendidikan S1 (53,12%) dan 3 orang berpendidikan S2 (9,37%). Sebaran posisi manajerial terdiri atas 2 orang manajemen puncak (6,25%), 8 orang manajemen

269


menengah (25%) dan 22 orang pelaksana (68,75%). Jumlah tenaga medik berjumlah 16 orang (50%), seimbang dengan jumlah tenaga nonmedik, yaitu 16 orang (50%).

B. Temuan dan Analisis Data Tujuan dari penelitian ini untuk mengetahui relasi antara variabel konteks organisasional, proses internal, dan keluaran terhadap manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu. Variabel konteks organisasional , proses internal dan keluaran merupakan indikator dari tim lintas fungsi. Analisis data yang dilakukan dengan menggunakan bantuan SPSS 15 menghasilkan temuan penting yang disajikan dalam Tabel 1 sebagai berikut :

Tabel 1 Ringkasan Hasil Penelitian Informasi

Nilai

Arti

Koefisien determinasi (R2)

47,5%

Secara bersama,variabel-variabel independen memiliki pengaruh sebesar 47,5% terhadap variabel dependen

ANOVA

8,43 (sig =0,00)

Secara bersama,variabel-variabel independen fit mempengaruhi variabel dependen.

Uji F (df=3,α=5%) Uji t



(Uji pengaruh variabel independen secara parsial terhadap variabel dependen)



t=1,45; sig=0,157 b1 = 0,257



konteks organisasional→manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu tidak signifikan



proses internal→manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu tidak signifikan

270


 



Analisis korelasi

 

t= 0,60; sig=0,553 b2 = 0,106

t= 2,91; sig=0,007 b3 = 0,462 rx1x2=0,60 ; sig = 0,00



rx1x3= 0,45; sig = 0,00



rx1y= 0,53; sig = 0,00



keluaran→manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu signifikan.



korelasi antara variabel konteks organisasional dengan: o variabel proses internal bersifat kuat dan positif o variabel keluaran bersifat lemah dan positif o variabel manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu bersifat kuat dan positif korelasi antara variabel proses internal dengan: o variabel keluaran bersifat lemah dan positif o variabel manajemen mutu terpadu bersifat lemah dan positif korelasi antara variabel keluaran dengan: o variabel manajemen mutu terpadu bersifat kuat dan positif



 

rx2x3 = 0,45; sig = 0,01



rx2y= 0,47; sig = 0,01

271






rx3y= 0,63 sig = 0,00

Analisis jalur yang dilakukan adalah sebagai berikut:

e

Konteks organisasional (x1) d

a b

Manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu (Y)

Proses internal (X2) f

c

Keluaran (X3) Dari analisis jalur dapat diringkas sebagai berikut: 

Kuat hubungan langsung variabel konteks organisasional dengan variabel manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu (a) = 0,39



Kuat hubungan langsung variabel proses internal dengan variabel manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu(b) = 0,24



Kuat hubungan langsung variabel keluaran dengan variabel manajemen mutu terpadu (c)= 0,31



Kuat hubungan langsung variabel konteks organisasional dengan variabel proses internal (d) = 0,6

272




Kuat hubungan langsung variabel konteks organisasional denganvariabel keluaran (e) = 0,45



Kuat hubungan langsung variabel proses internal dengan variabel keluaran (f) = 0,45



Kuat hubungan langsung :



Kuat hubungan tak langsung: bf + ae = 0,24 x 0,45 + 0,39 x 0,45 =0,29



Kuat hubungan total = kuat hubungan langsung + kuat hubungan tak langsung = 0,6.

c = 0,31

. C. Kesimpulan Dari hasil penelitian ditemukan bahwa variabel keluaran memiliki peran yang paling penting dalam mempengaruhi manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu. Variabel konteks organisasional memiliki hubungan yang kuat dan positif mengindikasikan adanya pola pergerakan yang sama dan searah diantara variabel konteks organisasional dan variabel manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu. Bahkan kuat hubungan langsung variabel konteks organisasional terhadap variabel manajemen mutu pelayanan terpadu merupakan hubungan yang terkuat dibandingkan kuat hubungan variabel independen lainnya. DAFTAR PUSTAKA Alexander, J.A., Lichtenstein, R., Jinnet, K., Wells, R., Zazzali, J., dan Liu, D., (2005), “Cross Functional Team Processes and Patient Functional Improvement,” Health Research and Educational Trust, Vol. 40, No. 5, pp. 1335-1356. Alhatmi, Y.S., (2010), “Quality Audit Experience for Excellence in Healthcare”, Clinical Governance: International Journal, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 113-127. Appelbaum,S.H. dan Gonzalo, F. (2007), “Effectiveness and Dynamics of Cross Functional Teams: a case study of Northentranspo Ltd,” Journal of American Academy of Business, Vol.10, No.2, pp.36-44. Camgoz-Amdag,H., dan Zineldin, M., (2010), “Quality of Healthcare and Patient Satisfaction: an exploratory investigation of 5Qs model at Turkey”, Clinical Governance: International Journal, Vol.15, No. 2, pp.92-101. Chahal, H., (2008), “Predicting Patient Loyalty and Service Quality Relationship: a case study of civil hospital. Journal of Business Perspective, Vol. 12. No. 4, pp.45-55. 273


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*) V.Rachmadi Parmono adalah staf pengajar Fakultas Ilmu Administrasi Bisnis dan Komunikasi Unika Atma Jaya Jakarta *) Indira Sari Astuti adalah alumni Program Magister Teknik Industri Universitas Islam Indonesia. Saat ini berprofesi sebagai professional di bidang service quality management.

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BRANDERPRENEURSHIP: BRAND DEVELOPMENT-BASED ENTREPRENEURSHIP Bambang Sukma Wijaya Department of Communication Studies, Bakrie University

ABSTRACT In this era of tight competition nowadays as well as greater consumer power, developing a business can not solely rely upon the strength of funds and human resources, but should also be built synergistically with brand communications. Most entrepreneurs regard branding activity merely as a cost, not as an investment. Hence, branding activity has always been on bottom priority despite the fact that strong brands will provide added value to a business, increase competitive advantage and potentially mobilize market faster. This paper describes how entrepreneurial spirit can be grown in synergy with the mindset of branding in developing a business. We propose some steps that need to be pursued in developing the brand in order to synergize with business development, e.g. identify, create, deliver, communicate, evaluate and upgrade values. Keywords:

branderpreneurship, wirausahawan

pengembangan

merek,

merek,

kewirausahaan,

.

PENDAHULUAN Kapferer (2008: 51) mengajukan ungkapan retoris dalam bukunya The New Strategic Brand Management: “Does branding affect all companies? Yes. Are all companies aware of this? No. For many industrial companies or commodity sellers, the concept of the brand applies only to mass markets, high-consumption products and the fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) sector. This is a misconception. A brand is a name that influences buyers and prescribers alike.” Hal ini mengindikasikan bahwa seringkali seorang wirausahawan atau sebuah perusahaan terjebak dalam dilema antara memprioritaskan pengembangan usaha atau pengembangan merek. Banyak pengusaha, terutama pengusaha yang bisnisnya tidak menyasar mass markets atau lebih cenderung bersifat business-to-business company, akhirnya memilih yang pertama, yakni fokus pada pengembangan bisnis dan mengabaikan strategi maupun aktivitas pengembangan merek. Tentu saja pilihan tersebut sangat mudah 277


dipahami, sebab pengusaha harus memikirkan Break Event Point (BEP) dari usahanya. Lebih cepat BEP kembali adalah lebih baik. Padahal, pengembangan bisnis dan merek dapat disinergikan, apapun jenis bisnisnya, karena keduanya dapat saling menunjang. Bisnis berkembang baik karena performa merek yang dimiliki oleh perusahaan berkembang baik, begitu pula sebaliknya. Merek dapat berperforma baik karena didukung oleh sumber daya perusahaan yang baik. Doyle (2008: 227) memberikan ilustrasi bagaimana pentingnya sebuah merek bagi perusahaan: In today’s information-based economy, intangible assets are usually much more important than the tangible assets that appear on corporate balance sheets. Intangible assets are of various forms, but in many industries, the equity in the company’s brand is the most important. The value arises from the trust that customers place in the company’s brand. This trust creates a relationship between the brand and the customer that encourages preference, brand loyalty and a willingness to consider the new products and services that the company may offer in the future under its brand name. Paper ini bertujuan memaparkan bagaimana seorang wirausahawan atau sebuah perusahaan berpeluang untuk dapat mengembangkan bisnis dan merek secara sinergis, melihat keuntungan yang muncul dari pengembangan usaha berbasis pengembangan merek, dan langkah-langkah penting apa yang dibutuhkan dalam mengembangkan nilai merek sehingga memberi dampak baik terhadap perkembangan usaha.

PEMBAHASAN Kewirausahaan (Enterpreneurship) Kewirausahaan merupakan penerapan kreativitas dan inovasi untuk memecahkan masalah serta upaya memanfaatkan peluang-peluang yang dihadapi orang setiap hari (Zimmerer, 2008: 43). Dari definisi ini dapat dikatakan bahwa hal paling utama dalam kewirausahaan adalah (1) kreativitas dan inovasi untuk memecahkan masalah, dan (2) upaya memanfaatkan peluang-peluang yang ada. Kreativitas

dalam

perspektif

kewirausahaan

merupakan

kemampuan

untuk

mengembangkan ide-ide baru dan menemukan cara-cara baru dalam melihat persoalan dan peluang-peluang. Ketika kaum urban terlalu disibukkan oleh pekerjaan dan kegiatan rutin 278


sehingga menipiskan kesempatan bersosialisasi, maka timbul ide bagaimana membuat jaringan sosial tanpa harus meninggalkan tempat kerja. Ketika banyak pria bertanya-tanya tentang status dan berbagai hal berkaitan dengan wanita yang ditaksirnya namun hambatan psikologis dan sosial menjadi kendala, maka diperlukan sebuah media yang dapat mengakses berbagai informasi penting mengenai status dan kegiatan terkini seseorang. Sedangkan

inovasi adalah kemampuan untuk mengaplikasikan atau mewujudkan

solusi kreatif terhadap persoalan dan peluang-peluang untuk meningkatkan atau memperkaya kehidupan masyarakat. Dari ide-ide yang muncul oleh problem dan kebutuhan sosialisasi tanpa meninggalkan tempat serta kebutuhan untuk mengetahui status dan kegiatan seseorang yang ditaksir tanpa perlu repot memanfaatkan jasa mak comblang, maka lahirlah Facebook sebagai solusi kreatif yang membantu banyak orang dalam memecahkan persoalan dan membuat hidup mereka lebih nyaman. Facebook adalah inovasi. Setidaknya ada tiga ungkapan kunci dalam kewirausahaan (Tranggono, 2011: 7), yaitu: pertama, mengejar kecenderungan dan perubahan lingkungan yang tak dilihat serta diperhatikan orang lain. Kedua, inovasi perubahan, perombakan, pergantian bentuk dan memperkenalkan pendekatan-pendekatan baru, produk baru, serta cara baru dalam melakukan bisnis. Ketiga, mengejar pertumbuhan melalui kerja keras sambil terus mencari berbagai kecenderungan, inovasi, dan pendekatan baru. Pendek kata, tiga hal utama yang mendorong pertumbuhan kewirausahaan adalah ide, sumber daya manusia dan uang (Lodish, et al., 2001: 203). Sementara itu, wirausahawan, menurut Zimmerer (2008: 5) adalah orang yang menciptakan bisnis baru, siap menghadapi risiko dan ketidakpastian untuk tujuan mencapai keuntungan dan pertumbuhan dengan mengidentifikasi peluang-peluang yang signifikan serta mengumpulkan sumber daya yang diperlukan untuk dikembangkan semaksimal mungkin sehingga menghasilkan keuntungan yang lebih besar.

Dengan demikian, seorang

279


wirausahawan adalah seseorang yang memiliki mental kuat dalam menghadapi tantangantantangan berupa risiko dan ketidakpastian, tapi juga sekaligus memiliki intuisi dan visi dalam melihat peluang-peluang yang dapat dimanfaatkan untuk mencapai keuntungan dan perkembangan usaha yang digelutinya. Pengusaha memiliki keyakinan yang kuat tentang peluang bisnis dan mengatur sumber daya mereka secara efektif untuk mencapai hasil yang mengubah interaksi yang ada (Sharma, et al., 2010). Salah satu peluang yang dapat dimanfaatkan oleh seorang wirausahawan dalam mengembangkan usahanya adalah peluang menciptakan nilai lebih melalui pengembangan merek usaha (corporate/ business brand) atau produk (product brand), bahkan dirinya sendiri (personal brand). Pengembangan merek dengan strategi komunikasi yang terarah, cerdas dan terpadu akan memberikan keuntungan yang lebih bertahan lama, karena merek yang kuat berpotensi menciptakan ekuitas merek (brand equity) yang pada akhirnya memberi nilai merek (brand value) yang menguntungkan perusahaan maupun konsumen secara terusmenerus.

Pengembangan Merek (Brand Development) Merek (brand) adalah tanda jejak yang tertinggal pada pikiran dan hati konsumen, yang menciptakan makna dan perasaan tertentu (brand is a mark on people’s mind and heart that creates certain meanings and feelings). Dengan demikian, maka merek lebih dari sekadar logo, nama, simbol, merek dagang, atau sebutan yang melekat pada sebuah produk. Merek adalah sebuah janji (Morel, 2003). Merek merupakan sebuah hubungan (McNally et al., 2004) –yakni hubungan yang melibatkan sejenis kepercayaan. Sebuah merek adalah jumlah dari suatu entitas, sebuah koneksi psikis yang menciptakan sebuah ikatan kesetiaan dengan seorang pembeli/ calon pembeli serta penawaran, dan hal tersebut seringkali mencakup lapisan nilai tambah yang dipersepsikan (Post, 2005: 10).

280


Sedangkan pemerekan (branding) adalah proses penciptaan atau peninggalan tanda jejak tertentu di benak dan hati konsumen melalui berbagai macam cara dan strategi komunikasi sehingga tercipta makna dan perasaan khusus yang memberikan dampak bagi kehidupan konsumen (branding is a process of placing a mark on people’s mind and heart through communications hence creating meanings and feelings that impacts on their lives). Aktivitas branding merupakan implementasi dari strategi pengembangan merek (brand development). Butuh waktu tidak sedikit untuk membangun sebuah merek agar benar-benar kuat. Kapferer (2008, 55-56) menyebutkan dua rute atau dua model dalam melakukan pengembangan merek (yang dalam perspektif brand management disebutkan bahwa merek memiliki dua kaki), yakni: merek berkembang dari pengembangan produk, komunikasi fokus pada kelebihan fungsional (functional benefit) produk, lalu bergerak menuju kelebihan emosional (emotional benefit) yang merupakan nilai-nilai yang tak nyata (intangible values), atau sebaliknya, dari nilai-nilai dan misi produk yang biasanya tak nyata menuju pengembangan (fitur-fitur/ atribut) produk (dari intangible values ke tangible values) seperti tergambarkan dalam diagram berikut. Intangible added values Values, mission Personality Benefits Attributes Ingredients Tangible added values

Time Gambar 1. Dua model pengembangan merek sepanjang waktu Sumber: Kapferer, 2008 Model pertama, pengembangan merek dimulai dari produk dengan mengembangkan ingredients-nya, atribut dan fitur-fitur produk, keuntungan-keuntungan atau benefit produk, lalu membentuk kepribadian produk/ merek, disempurnakan dengan nilai-nilai dan misi 281


merek sehingga produk memiliki nilai lebih yang tak nyata (intangible added values) bagi konsumen. Contoh untuk model pertama adalah produk-produk komoditas yang kemudian dikemas dengan sebuah merek tertentu dan terkomunikasikan secara alami yang dengan berjalannya waktu kemudian menjadi terkenal, hingga akhirnya mereknya dikelola secara profesional (misalnya: Teh Botol Sosro, dan lain-lain). Model kedua dimulai dari konsep atau ide.

Contoh untuk ini adalah merek-merek yang sejak awal menjual gaya hidup (parfum,

branded fashion, rokok, dan lain-lain) ketenaran sebuah nama (Harry Potter, Disney, dan lain-lain) atau merek-merek yang lahir dari pemahaman mendalam terutama sisi psikologis konsumen melalui consumer insights sehingga cenderung menawarkan emotional benefits. Seiring berjalannya waktu, merek-merek ini kemudian mengembangkan fitur-fitur dan kelebihan fungsionalnya sehingga memberikan nilai tambah nyata (tangible added values) bagi konsumen. Sementara itu, dalam perspektif komunikasi merek, proses branding memiliki tingkatan-tingkatan tertentu yang sekaligus mengindikasikan sejauh mana perkembangan merek dalam hubungannya dengan kedekatan terhadap konsumen. Tingkatan ini disebut hierarchy of branding.

Mind share Market share Gambar 2. Hierarchy of Branding

Heart share

Ketika merek pertama kali diluncurkan, merek masih dalam tahap mengetuk kesadaran konsumen, sehingga kemungkinan konsumen hanya sebatas mengenal atau mengetahui sedikit mengenai merek tersebut. Tahap ini disebut brand awareness. Semakin dikenal, semakin banyak pula atribut maupun benefit-benefit merek yang diketahui oleh konsumen, sehingga konsumen tidak lagi sekadar mengenal, tetapi juga mengetahui lebih 282


banyak tentang merek atau produk tersebut. Tahap ini disebut brand knowledge. Seiring berjalannya waktu dan intensifnya komunikasi, konsumen kemudian memiliki persepsi tertentu atau mengasosiasikan sesuatu terhadap merek tersebut sehingga membentuk citra di benak konsumen (brand image). Seiring berjalannya waktu dan gencarnya komunikasi pula, konsumen tentunya telah mencoba produknya atau bersentuhan langsung dengan merek, sehingga konsumen memiliki pengalaman khusus berkaitan dengan merek tersebut yang membentuk makna-makna dan perasaan baru berkaitan dengan merek tersebut. Tahap ini disebut brand experience. Kombinasi antara citra positif dan pengalaman menarik yang memberi makna dan perasaan khusus akhirnya menguatkan posisi merek di benak dan hati konsumen, sehingga merek memiliki ekuitas yang baik (brand equity). Merek yang memiliki ekuitas yang bagus cenderung mengikat loyalitas konsumen sehingga konsumen tidak mudah untuk pindah ke lain merek. Tahap ini disebut brand loyalty. Pada akhirnya, konsumen tidak hanya menyetiai sebuah merek, tapi juga memiliki sense of belonging yang kuat terhadap merek, merasuk menjadi bagian dari nilai-nilai hidup yang dianutinya dan mempengaruhi cara pandangnya terhadap kehidupan. Pada tahap ini, kebahagiaan rohani dan nilai-nilai hidup yang diperolehnya berkaitan dengan merek yang dicintainya tersebut kemudian berusaha dibagi dan disebarkan kepada konsumen lain, agar konsumen ikut merasakan dan mengalami seperti yang dialaminya, menjadi bagian dari lingkungan kehidupannya dan bersama-sama mencapai kebahagiaan bersama dalam komunitas yang kuat. Inilah puncak pencapaian sebuah merek di hati konsumen ketika sebuah merek menjadi jawaban atas kebutuhan rohani atau menjadi bagian dari nilai-nilai hidup konsumen, yakni brand spirituality. Sepanjang perjalanan merek dari tahap brand equity hingga brand spirituality merupakan ultimate journey bagi pemilik merek atau share holders, karena pada tahap tersebut merek telah memiliki nilai (brand value) yang tinggi. Brand value mewakili apa

283


yang merek (brand) berikan atau berkontribusi bagi pencapaian tujuan perusahaan (Srivasta, et al. dalam Raggio, et al., 2007), dan itu tergantung pada kemampuan pemilik merek (brand owner) untuk meningkatkan ekuitas merek (brand equity), sementara nilai merek tentu saja mempengaruhi nilai bagi pemegang saham (shareholder value) (Raggio, et al., 2007). Dengan demikian, maka dapat dikatakan bahwa pengembangan merek memberi keuntungan yang signifikan bagi pemilik merek atau pengusaha, karena merek yang memiliki nilai tinggi berkontribusi sangat besar bagi kemajuan usaha.

Branderpreneurship dan Pengembangan Nilai (Value Development) Sharma, et al. mengatakan bahwa seorang wirausahawan memiliki kesempatan untuk membangun bisnisnya berdasarkan janji merek yang kuat melalui entrepreneurial branding. Enterpreneurial branding adalah suatu hal yang berkaitan dengan kesinambungan, keseluruhan (melihat dan mencoba berbagai teknik branding, bukan hanya satu), bertanggung jawab terhadap banyak hal, berpikiran terbuka, memahami bisnis secara keseluruhan baik dalam lingkungan kerja sendiri maupun dalam lingkungan bisnis afiliasi, dan sebagainya (Sharma, et al., 2010). Di sini Sharma mencoba menggabungkan antara praktik branding dan sikap maupun perilaku kewirausahaan, namun belum memaparkan secara rinci langkah-langkah atau strategi apa yang harus dilakukan untuk memadukan keduanya dalam suatu sinergi pengembangan usaha berbasis pengembangan merek atau branding. Sebagaimana disampaikan sebelumnya, bahwa Zimmerer, et al. mendefinisikan kewirausahaan sebagai penerapan kreativitas dan inovasi untuk memecahkan persoalan dan memanfaatkan peluang-peluang. Hal tersebut melibatkan strategi yang fokus pada ide-ide dan insights baru untuk menciptakan produk atau servis yang memuaskan kebutuhan konsumen atau memecahkan masalah mereka (Zimmerer, et al., 2008: 44). Namun demikian, memiliki sebuah produk yang hebat (berkualitas tinggi) tidak cukup dalam era kompetisi moderen

284


dewasa ini (Kapferer, 2008: 57). Diperlukan pengembangan merek karena merek menciptakan nilai bagi konsumen (consumer value) yang membantu mereka dalam proses pemilihan suatu produk (Doyle, 2008: 231). Karena itu penerapan branderpreneurship merupakan hal yang patut dipertimbangkan oleh para wirausahawan. Branderpreneurship adalah suatu penerapan strategi pengembangan merek yang terarah dan terpadu dengan memaksimalkan sumber-sumber daya yang ada dalam menunjang pengembangan usaha sehingga memberikan nilai tambah bagi kewirausahaan. Berikut ini adalah langkah-langkah strategis dalam pengembangan dan pengelolaan nilai (value development) yang merupakan inti branderpreneurship, sehingga merek yang dikelola dapat menunjang pengembangan suatu usaha. Proses ini disebut the circle of value development.

Gambar 3. The circle of value development Identifying Values Sebelum memulai usaha atau menelurkan sebuah produk/ servis, seorang wirausahawan sebaiknya menggali informasi dari konsumen atau pasar mengenai apa yang sesungguhnya diinginkan, dibutuhkan, didambakan, diobsesikan, baik secara sadar maupun tanpa sadar oleh konsumen berkaitan dengan ide usaha/ produk/ servis yang akan 285


diluncurkan. Proses ini disebut consumer insights. Pemahaman yang baik dan mendalam terhadap konsumen akan meminimalisir the failure of product launching, sekaligus berpotensi menimbulkan emotional bond secara efektif, karena konsumen merasakan apa yang ditawarkan seolah mengerti dirinya yang sesungguhnya. Creating Values Berdasarkan consumer insights yang baik, seorang wirausahawan kemudian mulai mengembangkan bisnis/ produk/ servisnya dengan melakukan modifikasi dari ide awal. Hal ini dapat berupa penambahan atau penggantian fitur dan atribut produk, modifikasi lokasi, waktu, kemasan atau the way of consume maupun the way of involve. Pendek kata, value yang diciptakan berdasarkan consumer insights dapat berkaitan dengan konten maupun konteks produk. Dalam tahap ini juga seorang wirausahawan mendialogkan hasil temuan dengan situasi kompetisi, sehingga apa yang diputuskan untuk ditawarkan kepada konsumen tidak hanya sesuai dengan insights konsumen, tetapi juga memiliki diferensiasi yang tajam serta keunggulan yang kompetitif (competitive advantage). Delivering Values Setelah modifikasi ide dan kreasi penawaran dari usaha/ produk/ servis telah final, maka seorang wirausahawan kemudian mengemas dan menyampaikannya kepada konsumen melalui berbagai saluran yang sesuai dengan insights konsumen. Di sini fungsi distribusi dan saluran penjualan/ pengantaran nilai merek memegang peran utama. Dengan memahami kebiasaan konsumen dan tempat-tempat maupun cara penyampaian yang membuat nyaman konsumen (baik online maupun offline, tangible maupun intangible), seorang wirausahawan dapat menjalankan bisnisnya secara lebih efisien dan efektif, karena wirausahawan tidak perlu melakukan trial and error untuk mendapatkan dampak atau respons yang baik dari konsumen. Sekali lagi, peran consumer insights di tahap identifying values sangat penting dalam menunjang kesuksesan di setiap tahap pengembangan nilai.

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Communicating Values Jika penyampaian produk/ servis telah pasti dan lancar, yang tak kalah pentingnya adalah komunikasi. Nilai-nilai berupa penawaran dan benefit yang akan diperoleh konsumen dikomunikasikan secara tepat dan kreatif, sehingga merek lebih cepat dikenal (brand awareness), diketahui lebih banyak (brand knowledge), dipersepsikan bagus (brand image) dan dirasakan/ dialami secara baik (brand experience), sehingga membuat konsumen menjadi pelanggan yang setia (brand loyalty) dan bahkan membantu menjualkan nilai-nilai yang dirasakannya kepada konsumen lain dan masyarakat secara luas melalui berbagai medium (baik online berupa social media dan personal media maupun offline berupa traditional word-of-mouth serta media-media komunikasi lainnya). Pemilihan media tentunya tak terlepas dari consumer insights. Jika konsumen pengguna atau calon pengguna produk kita lebih sering dan nyaman menggunakan social media, maka media tersebutlah yang sebaiknya menjadi media utama. Jadi brand communication tidak harus menggunakan traditional mass media seperti televisi, koran, radio dan sebagainya. Sementara itu, alat Komunikasi pemasaran dan merek yang dapat digunakan pun tidak harus berupa iklan konvensional di media massa yang cenderung berbiaya besar. Pemilik merek dapat menggunakan iklan-iklan di media alternatif dan kreatif seperti iklan ambient media, online direct mail, creative publicity, sponsorships, brand placement, guerilla advertising, dan banyak lagi. Kuncinya adalah fokus, kreatif dan terpadu berdasarkan consumer insights yang baik. Evaluating Values Dalam periode tertentu, seorang wirausahawan harus melakukan evaluasi terhadap apa yang telah dilakukannya. Apakah tawaran-tawaran yang diberikan masih relevan? Apakah ada perkembangan baru (teknologi, bencana, dan lain-lain) yang mengubah cara pandang konsumen dalam memaknai apa yang ditawarkan produk/ servis/ usaha? Bagaimana dengan kompetitor? Follower? Me-too product? Bagaimana respons konsumen terhadap

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mereka? Semua memerlukan evaluasi berupa audit merek (brand audit) dan riset konsumen. Fungsi ini dapat diintegrasikan dengan fungsi consumer insights. Tidak harus berbiaya besar. Seorang wirausahawan dapat melakukannya sendiri atau memanfaatkan sumber daya yang ada. Upgrading Values Dari hasil evaluasi tersebut kemudian dilakukan peningkatan nilai penawaran produk/ servis/ usaha sehingga konsumen senantiasa memperoleh sesuatu yang baru dan menyenangkan. Hal-hal baru dan menyenangkan dari apa yang ditawarkan kepada mereka pada akhirnya akan membuat hidup mereka pun lebih segar dan bernilai, sehingga menguatkan ikatan emosional dengan merek yang mereka gunakan. Upgrading Values dapat berupa penambahan fitur dan benefit fungsional, emosional, simbolik dan sosial, atau dapat berupa pembaruan kemasan, lay-out ruangan, penambahan cabang, franchising, maupun cara komunikasi baru yang lebih kreatif sehingga member nilai tambah baru (new added values) bagi konsumen.

KESIMPULAN Kewirausahaan dapat bernilai tambah dengan menyinergikan strategi pengembangan usaha dan pengembangan merek atau branding. Beberapa wirausahawan melihat branding sebagai cost, bukan investment, karena bagi mereka branding adalah berkomunikasi lewat media-media konvensional yang berbiaya tinggi. Padahal medium komunikasi yang digunakan tidak harus berbiaya tinggi, karena pilihan medium yang berdasarkan consumer insights dapat lebih efektif dan efisien. Medium yang dipilih dapat benar-benar tepat dan fokus sesuai khalayak konsumen, misalnya pemaksimalan word-of-mouth, social media, guerilla media, creative publicity, dan banyak lagi. Sebagian wirausahawan juga menganggap branding hanya untuk produk-produk consumer goods atau FMCG (fast moving consumer goods), sehingga usaha yang bersifat

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business-to-business (B2B) tidak memerlukan branding. Padahal branding sebenarnya diperlukan bagi segala macam usaha, dengan target khalayak maupun konsumen sesuai jenis usahanya. Bagi FMCG, khalayak dan konsumennya adalah mass market, sehingga merek yang dikembangkan kebanyakan adalah product brands, sedangkan bagi B2B, konsumennya adalah korporat atau SME (small medium enterprise) sehingga merek yang dikembangkan adalah corporate brand atau service brand dan personal brand pemiliknya. Apapun bentuk mereknya, semua memerlukan strategi pengembangan merek agar dapat memberi nilai tambah bagi usaha. Untuk itu, langkah-langkah yang terdapat dalam the circle of value development dapat dijadikan acuan bagi para wirausahawan dalam menyinergikan pengembangan usahanya dengan pengembangan merek yang dimilikinya, sehingga tidak hanya membuat usahanya lebih efisien dan efektif mencapai tujuan, tetapi juga dapat memberi keuntungan yang sustainable melalui nilai merek (brand value) yang dimilikinya. Konsep branderpreneurship ini sebaiknya ditindaklanjuti melalui penerapan yang sistematis di dunia kewirausahaan, serta pengembangan konsep melalui riset-riset berikutnya untuk menguji berbagai dimensi terkait praktik branderpreneurship pada berbagai kasuskasus nyata di lapangan. Studi kasus dalam penerapan branderpreneurship, baik yang sukses maupun gagal akan memberikan kontribusi penting baik bagi ilmu kewirausahaan maupun ilmu komunikasi merek atau pemasaran.

REFERENSI Abimbola, Temi & Christine Vallaster. 2007. ‘Brand, Organizational Identity and Reputation in SMEs: An Overview’. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 341-348 Brexendorf, Tim O. & Joachim Kernstock. 2007. ‘Corporate Behavior vs Brand Behavior: Towards An Integrated View?’. Journal of Brand Management, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 3240 Doyle, Peter. 2008. Value-Based Marketing: Marketing Strategies for Corporate Growth and Shareholder Value. 2nd Edition. West Sussex, England: Wiley Kapferer, Jean-Noel. 2008. New Strategic Brand Management: Creating and Sustaining Brand Equity Long Term. 4th Edition. USA: Kogan Page 289


Lodish, Leonard M., Howard Lee Morgan, Amy Kallianpur. 2001. Enterpreneurial Marketing: Lesson From Wharton’s Pioneering MBA Course. NY: John Wiley & Sons Majumdar, Satyajit. 2008. ‘Modeling Growth Strategy in Small Entrepreneurial Business Organizations’. Journal of Entrepreneurship, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 157-168 McNally, David & Karl D. Speak. 2004. Be Your Own Brand. Penerj: Sikun Pribadi. Jakarta: Gramedia Morel, Mary. 2003. Promote Your Business. NSW, Australia: Allen & Unwin Post, Karen. 2005. Brain Tattoos: Creating Unique Brands that Stick in Your Customers’ Minds. NY: Amacom Raggio, Randle D. & Robert P. Leone. 2007. ‘The Theoretical Separation of Brand Equity and Brand Value: Managerial Implications for Strategic Planning’. Journal of Brand Management, Vol. 14, No. 5, pp. 380-395 Rode, Verena & Christine Vallaster. 2005. ‘Corporate Branding for Start-Ups: The Crucial Role of Entrepreneurs’. Corporate Reputation Review, Vol. 8, No.2, pp. 121-135 Salinas, Gabriela dan Tim Ambler. 2009. ‘A Taxonomy of Brand Valuation Practice: Methodologies and Purposes’. Journal of Brand Management ,Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 39-61 Sharma, Gulnar, Pritee Saxena & Satish Ailawadi. 2010. ‘Entrepreneurial Branding’. Journal of Synergy, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 112-124 Tranggono, Indra. 2011. Pasar Rakyat dalam Rezim Genderuwo Liberalisme. Harian Kompas, 17 Oktober Wilson, Jerry R. 1994. Word-of-Mouth Marketing. Canada: John Wiley & Sons Wood, Lisa. 2000. ‘Brands and Brand Equity: Definition and Management’. Journal of Management Decision, Vol. 38, No. 9, pp. 662-669 Zimmerer, Thomas W. & Norman M. Scarborough. 2008. Essentials of Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management. 5th Edition. New Jersey: Pearson

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APPLICATION OF CAUSE-RELATED MARKETING (CRM) COMMUNICATIONIN CREATING BRAND LOYALTY

Tuti Widiastuti Program Studi Ilmu Komunikasi, Universitas Bakrie Kampus Universitas Bakrie

Abstract Corporate communication strategic is related to social responsibility concerning to external demand on corporate influence in their society. It can be more significant when an institution core business is in supplying public needs, for example Aqua supplies drinking water. Application of social responsibility through Cause-Related Marketing (CRM)communication can be created a basic to strengthen brand or product differentiation. A case from CRM communication is program of “Aqua Satu untuk Sepuluh”. CRM communication is a marketing program used to increase corporate performance and support a meaningful cause in a way connecting fund rising on corporate products and services. This article is a purpose to analyze application of CRM communication to create brand loyalty within case study approach. Findings of this study are CRM communication program can increase consumer’s affection and behavioral aspect toward brand loyalty. People seen CRM communication program can be additional value that support existing brand in society.Otherwise, duration of application this program is not indicating corporate commitment to social responsibility. Key words:

cause related marketing communication, brand loyalty, corporate social

responsibility

Introduction Aqua on strategic marketing takes one literAqua equal to ten liters clean water as a tagline. This advertisement takes setting on Nusa Tenggara Timur community that known hard to find water sources. The popular quotation we can find from this advertisement is: ”Sekarang sumber air sudekat. Beta sonde pernah terlambat lagi. Lebih mudah bantu Mamak ambil air untuk mandi adik. Karena mudah ambil air, katong bisa hidup sehat.”This advertisement is evidencethat Aqua produces packaging drinking water aware about their

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corporate social responsibility within create Cause Related Marketing(CRM) program through helping water supply. CRM program “Satu untuk Sepuluh” invites people to buy or use Aqua product whereas part of their profit will be donated to support society within difficulty water resources such as Nusa Tenggara Timur. The program is very specialized, which is Aqua try to attain a certain aim clean water supply for community of Timor Tengah Selatan, Nusa Tenggara Timur. This CRM Program is related to image Aqua Company as a mineral water producer. On Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) theory, program of "Satu untuk Sepuluh", Aqua will be categorized as a form of Cause-Related Marketing (CRM). This is caused Aqua has moral and ethical responsibility to develop and empower Indonesia society, especially at Nusa Tenggara Timur. The CRM program is held with invite people to buy or use Aqua productby means to collect some donation to support their program in coping water scarce. In the middle of drinking water business highly competitive, a company should search strategic to differentiate their products. A strategic took by Aqua is combining social activity in business activity as a corporate social responsibility. In global context, word of CSR starting used since 1970s and become popular especially after book launchedCannibals with Forks: the Triple Bottom Line in 21st Century Business, written by John Elkington (1998). CSR is developing three important components on sustainable development, that is: economic growth, environmental protection, and social equity. The three componentsare presented on Brundtland Report (1987), The World Commission on Environment and Development. According to Elkington (1998),a good company not only catches economical advantage (profit), but also cares about environment harmony (planet) and people welfare (people). This jargon is called 3P: profit, planet, and people.

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In the other sides, the highly competitive business and the scarcely differentiation product, CRMprogram is one alternative that innovative and hard to be adopted by competitor in a way to maintain good relationship with customer. Just because every corporate has different strategy in implementing their program, like CRMprogram from Aqua certainly will be different from other water drinking companies CRM program. For that reason, this article want to explore whether CRM program CRMwill be affected significantly to consumer behavior, especially impact on brand loyalty to related product. Base on this description then research question that will be formulated in this research is: “How is application of Cause-Related Marketing (CRM) communication in creating brand loyalty?”

Literature Review Cause Related Marketing (CRM) Communication Currently, social responsibility has been implemented by corporate. This is because external corporate demand to prove their social responsibility above impact of corporate performance to their social environment. However, the implementing of social responsibility basically could be choosing as one alternative to strengthen brand or product differentiations that are produced. Porter dan Kramer (2002) support this statement with their opinion that economical profit in business will gain through implementing social responsibility program. Communication is a relationalprocess of creating and interpreting messages that elicit a response. Messages could be present as a text. Text is record of a message that can be analyzed by others; for example, books, films, DVDs, phonographs, or any transcript or recording (Griffin, 2012: 6-7). Generally, social responsibility is held through corporate social responsibility activities. The extension of this activity, CSR results an embryo that is social alliance. Social

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alliance tries to increase non economical goal without sacrifice corporate economical goal.Social alliance form that often implemented is Cause related Marketing (Smith, 1994). Varadarajan dan Menon (1998: 60) state that CRM seen as a process formulating and implementing corporate marketing activities that characterized with offer to give amount of fund to a cause when customer involve in exchange transaction that can satisfy organization and individual objectively. Such was the case;cause could be understood as social activity that supported by corporate through fund collection activity (Mareta, 2006: 2). Afterwards, Miller (2002) explains that in other way, Cause Reated Marketing is as an effective tool to create image and customer loyalty to related brand with a special cause. The comprehensive understanding about Cause Related Marketing could be started by reading CRM definition from Varadarajan and Menon (1988: 60).They define Cause Related Marketing as: The proses of formulating and implementing marketing activities that are characterized by an offer from the firm to contribute a special amount to a designated cause when customer engage in revenue providing exchanges that satisfy organizational and individual objectives. Varadarajan and Menon (1988) said basically CRM is a marketing program that used to increase corporate performance and support cause by means in a way connect fund raising on product purchase and/or from corporate. There are two indications that motivate marketing in CRM. First, as big part of charity contribution that is given by corporate through CRM program is not from philanthropy activity. Second, amount of fund that is used by corporate to promote CRM then stimulate bigger demand than maximum contribution has been donated. Adkins (2004: 51) quoted Business in The Community, defineCRM as: “A comercial activity by which business and charities or good cause form a partnership with each other to market image, product or service for mutual benefit.”With this definition, Adkins (2004) triedstressing that are several important things in CRM,thus commercial activities, 294


partnership, marketing in order to catch mutual benefit relationship. Then, Adkins (2004) explained that to get successes so partnership in CRM should be a representative from business values and ethics. The elaboration was told by Adkins (2004) then could be explained by statement from Marconi (2002). According to Marconi (2002), there is special partnership connected between business and their stakeholders in CRM. Basically, partnership relations could be seen on corporate action that donates some of portion from every action of customer purchase to be given on special cause. Because of that reason, Lafferty (1999) gave perspective that CRM comprehension in micro perspective didn’t highly different from brand alliance. But, there still a crucial differentiation is brand alliance seen clearly on several brands or products which are converged in a way to collect profit and a tangible program. Marconi (2002) explained that special partnership relationship sometime showed on corporate activities in order to create awareness and educate some of cause. Besides that, Marconi (2002) said special relationship created by CRM could be formedonly if it is a good corporate and has clear position. Some benefits from this CRM have been declared by Lafferty (1999). According to Lafferty (1999), every party involved in CRM program can find profit. Corporate can increase their product selling; create relationship with consumer; and recovery corporate and brand image. Besides, CRM can difference corporate from their competitor with create emotional and spiritual band with customer. In term of CRM, consumer not only donates their money for the cause but also take something on corporate products and services.This is because donation activities to some cause automatically convergent in product or brand purchases. Cause Related Marketing (CRM) is a form of activity that has elements or stages which is Philip Lesly (1993: 106) called as “New Question” within formula 5 W + 1 H. This

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formula content should be organized solidly start from planning a program. Those elements are: a. What, this element relates to form of activity, format, and impression or message that want to performed. In this case, CRM want to be held better to have appropriate stage between causeswith product line, product image, brand positioning, or market oriented in corporate perspective. b. Why, includes goal of activity implementation. c. When, includes items that connect to frequency of CRM activity. One factor that can show corporate commitment is intensity on implementing CRM program. The duration would be categorized in short, middle, and long period. CRM focuses on middle to long period have bigger potential to increase consumer perception to corporate product. d. Where, relates to location of action implementation and support facility. e. Who, relates to target audience, who is involved and siapa saja yang terlibat dan be took responsibility. f. How, relates to how the program implemented. Commonly, resources investment in CRM program is focused on charity form of donating some portion from each consumer purchasing to somespecial cause. But, type of resources on CRM program could be increased with investing time or staff skill, volunteer, and other non-monetary alternatives.

Brand Loyalty Brand loyalty takes important role especially on market condition with level of competitive is tight. This is because exist loyal customer is needed in order to make corporate survive. There are some definitions about brand loyalty, such as: a. Aaker (1997:56) defines brand loyalty as a standard consumer to a brand. This standard should give description about possibility consumer to change into other brand that is

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offered by competitor, especially if they find the product or service different about price or other attributes. b. Mowen (1995:531), brand loyalty is defined as the degree to which a customer holds a positive attitude toward a brand, has a commitment to it, and intends to continue purchasing it in the future as such, brand loyalty is directly influenced by the customer satisfaction dissatisfaction with the brand. c. Schiffman, brand loyalty must be measured by attitudes toward a brand rather than by purchase consistency. d. Assael, brand loyalty is represent a favorable attitude toward and consistent purchase of single brand over time. Base on those definitions is taken understanding that brand loyalty could be seen as tendency to make purchase consistency to the brand satisfaction. In term of brand loyalty, there as several stages about loyalty, such as: (Aakar, 1997: 58) a.

Switcher Consumer on this stage of loyalty could be told as consumer on lower level. More frequent customer to move their purchase from one brand to another brand is indicated they are as customer without any loyalty to some brand. On this stage, they see every brand proper to buy and the product has little impact on their purchase decision. The real characteristic from this stage is they buy some product because of the cheap price.

b.

Habitual Buyer Customer in this loyalty stage could be categorized as customer that satisfies with product brand they consume or at least they don’t satisfy in consuming this product. On this stage, there is not enough reason to create desire to buy other brand product or move to other brand, especially if this transfer need some effort, cost, or other sacrifices. So it is conclusion that customer buy some brand is based on their habitual.

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c.

Satisfied Buyer On this stage, buyer some brand come to this categorize if they consume those brands, even though they switch their purchase to other brand with carry on some cost as a switching cost related to time, money, or performance risk inherent in their switching brand action. To get customer interest in this stage could be done with offering some bigger benefits as compensation is called switching cost loyal.

d.

Likes the Brand Customer in this stage is the real customer that really likes this brand. On this stage, there is emotional involvement to brand. Customer feeling could be based on association relate to the symbol, experience series on prior used that happen personally as well as by their peer or because highly quality impression.

e.

Commited Buyer On this stage, there is loyal customer. They have pride as user some brand and moreover these brands become an important to them in term of functional aspect and some expressions about who they are. One actualization from customer loyalty on these stages is showed by recommendation action and promotion these brand to other people. Lu Ting Pongand Tang Pui Yee (2001) said about indicators to know the real loyal

customer, such as: a.

Repeat Purchase Behavior Tendency to purchase in consistent frequently is as one action to show loyalty.

b.

Word of Mouth In loyalty context, word of mouth could be understood as to recommend other people to make purchasing for some brands. For that reason, loyal customer not only uses some brand product but also they pleasure to tell positive things about this brand.

c.

Price Tolerance

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Loyal customer will be ready to pay with premium price. This is because high perceived risk so that make customer willing pay on higher price to avoid risk. d.

Choice Reduction Behavior Choice reduction behavior is a real result from loyalty. This is because customer within high loyalty can reduce motivation to search another alternative.

e.

First in Mind Idealy, the loyal customer has only one choice that is first option in their mind.

Method Research method used in is a case study. Case study is a research strategy which focuses on one case (an individual, a group, an organization, etc.) within its social context at one point in time, even if that one time spans months or years, or a design with a long and respected history. In case study, generalizability is limited due to relatively small numbers of participant (Clark, 2011: 178-181). For data collection techniques, this research applied indepth interview.

Findings and Discussion Application of Caused-Related Marketing (CRM) Communication Based on information from informant, most of them agree that CRMprogram "Satu untuk Sepuluh" implemented by Aqua has connection with their own business is mineral water. This information indicates majority of informant deal with CRM program related to Aqua image product that cares to health environment.

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Picture 1. Aqua’s CRM Program "Satu untuk Sepuluh"

Regarding to message on media advertising says: ”Sekarang sumber air su dekat. Beta sonde pernah terlambat lagi. Lebih mudah bantu Mamak ambil air untuk mandi adik. Karena mudah ambil air, katong bisa hidup sehat,” informantcan repeat this message fluently. They say this message is simple so that not take any effort to make them come into their mind. Thus, informant agree with the assumption which is key message from Aqua’s CRM Program "Satu untuk Sepuluh" is easy to be understood. From the indicator of attractiveness, key message from CRM program "Satu Untuk Sepuluh" could be perceived as attractive message. This media advertising takes setting on society of Nusa Tenggara Timur, Indonesia that has unique pronunciation. Compare to presidential election which was tagline “Inga…inga….ting”, Aqua’s CRM program also obtain positive impression from audience. As we know, Indonesia has several locations within scarce water resources, such as Gunung Kidul, Flores, etc. Nusa Tenggara Timur is territory within much location could be identifies as scarce water resources. Most of informant agrees that Nusa Tenggara Timur society is identified stronger scarce water resources than other location in Indonesia, and then this location could be picturingsome scarce water resource locations in Indonesia. The intention to support scarce water society with water supply from this CRM

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program, Aqua will help people to get clean water. On program CRM "Satu untuk Sepuluh", Aqua is perceived as a company within charity orientation, not only selling product but also supporting people with clean water. Regarding to corporate commitment to help people in their CRM program, more than half informant said that they didn’t agree if CRM program is identic with it is. This data is very important because generally our assumption predicts charity program as a commitment to support some society to help them out from their program. The implementation of CRM program doesn’t directly connect with corporate commitment to make this program running for long time. Informantneed more evidences to convince them that Aqua truly commits to support scarce water society. In order to ask information about appropriate duration in held CRM program, not all informants agree. Most of them said that Aqua need more advertise their CRM program in other location, so that could be stronger their program. Aqua until know, is not yet implementing their CRM program in another scarce water resources in Indonesia, or CRM program "Satu untuk Sepuluh" is the only one program from Aqua. Most of informan said that Aqua as mineral water producer has shown that support people in scarce water recources is important. Support people to coping with their problem could be done in methods, one of them is through CRM program. Aqua’s Management show to us that by means of support people could be along with collecting profit. From all reasons above, this research indicates that Aqua as a profit institution could package their program through CRM program. Aqua creates corporate image seriously more than just a corporate social responsibility program. Advertisement message also can bring other message about corporate marketing communication strategic in a way to promote their product on CRM program.

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Impact of CRM Communication to Brand Loyalty Regard to product satisfaction, most of informant said that they satisfy with Aqua’s drinking water mineral. They use this product more than one year. It indicates that informantloyal to Aqua brand, but it doesn’t mean all of them arecommitted buyer. To become committed buyer, customer should want to use this product for long period and have pride as user some brand and moreover these brands become an important to them in term of functional aspect and some expressions about who they are, and show by recommendation action and promotion these brand to other people. As a loyal buyer, informant showstheir loyalty by intention to buy Aqua product frequentlythan other brand but they still have a chance to buy other products in case Aqua is not in market. They say there are some alternatives products to replace Aqua in market, such as Fit and Ades. But, they are highest priority still Aqua than others products. More information that showscustomer loyalty is through top brand on informant perception. If informant is asked about first brand that come to their mind when asked drinking water mineral,they will answer Aqua on the first time. It is not surprising because Aqua is pioneer of water drinking mineral in Indonesia. Once Aqua came to market, some people underestimate that it product will be success. Aqua proves they will be a leader in tight competitive among water drinking producers. In CRM program implementation, big a chance to customer pays more than ordinary price. This is because some companies put their CRM cost to customer. When these items ask to informant, most of them don’t want to pay higher than usual. Standardize price could be significant factor in term of maintain customer loyalty. A company can’t determine their price only because they have to add more cost on production. For that reason, a company should calculate production cost and benefit that they can obtain. Regarding to brand loyalty in the future, not all of informant wants to buy Aqua

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product but more than half of them still want to use it. Trend to use same brand in the future indicates brand loyalty. Brand loyalty could be seen as tendency to make purchase consistency to the brand satisfaction, within several stages start fromswitcher, habitual buyer, satisfied buyer,likes the brand, and commited buyer. To get customer interest in every stages could be done with offering some bigger benefits as compensation, explainingassociation relate to the symbol, giving experience series on prior used that happen personally as well as by their peer or because highly quality impressionto get emotional involvement to brand. Customer in stage of habitual buyer could be categorized as customer that use some brand frequently. Customer in this stage is hoped to increase one or two stages level to satisfied buyer and likes the brand. On satisfied buyer, customer has not enough reason to create desire to buy other brand product or move to other brand, especially if this transfer need some effort, cost, or other sacrifices. Customer on likes the brand is feeling could be based on association relate to the symbol, experience series on prior used that happen personally as well as by their peer or because highly quality impression. Finally, if customer switches to like the brand stage, they could be a commited buyerwith recommendationaction and promote the brand to other people. Half of informant wants to recommend other people to buy and to use Aqua drinking water mineral, but rest of them doesn’t want. Intention to recommend purchase behavior not only determinedby product image, but also by experience on using it. Then, tendency in usingAqua product can influencepeople to ask others in using it but doesn’tdirectly. There are some prerequisites to ask other people to buy and use some product, like as: 

experience in using product,



product image,



availability on market, and



competitor

303


Water is basic need for all of us, but not all people can access clean water resources in their daily lives. Some areas in the world—includes Indonesia, have scarce water supply because type of topography. For people in this topographyneed water supply infrastructure system to make them able to access it. Access to clean water, sanitasion, health environment, and community prosperityescalation are important and interconnected.Water is important for our lives, sanitation is a key for health; both of them support achieving sustainability health environment. All of them at the endgive contribution on world prosperity. Many areas in Indonesia have scarce clean water, whereas clean water is a significant factor to prove health life. In many areas in Nusa Tenggara Timur most of people have difficulty to access clean water. To get clean water, seldom they must walkfar though in remote area. Many children loss their time to play,because they must collect clean water for their family. One village in Timor Tengah Selatan (TTS), Nusa Tenggara Timur, and distance among community home is far. At least one hour take to get water in jerry can every day. Based on this fact, Aqua chooses village of Amanatun Utara and Boking, Nusa Tenggara Timurto implement Aqua’s CRM program “Satu untuk Sepuluh.” After running program for one year, now more than 12.000 people at Amanatun Utara andBoking villages could enjoy better access to clean water. This program is arranged for nest ten years. In a way running this program, Aqua collaborates with their partner— Nongovernment Organization; Action Contre La Faim (ACF). Besides, in order to support sustainability of local community empowerment, Aqua collaborates with Yayasan Ndua Ate (YASNA)and Timor Timur Selatan local government. When a corporate states that part of their profit or selling of their product will be donated to special social activities, then this corporate have been implemented Cause-Related Marketing (CRM) program. Cause is viewed as social activity that supported by corporate through fund raising. In this term, Aqua collects some funds from their product selling.

304


Conclusion Corporate social responsibility should be a program that becomes responsibility for a company. A corporation should put corporate social responsibility as their annual program without asked by government law. It is because of every institution has social awareness and responsibility to their society. Based on thosereasons and research findings, the conclusions on this research are: There is significant relationship between Cause Related Marketing (CRM) programand brand loyalty.CRMprogram can elevate customer’s affection and behavioral toward brand loyalty. Case study on Aqua’s CRM program “Satu untuk Sepuluh” indicates positiveresponse on customer brand loyalty. So that the advantages could be obtained in a way implementing CRM program are: a. Attract new customer, which is people in beginning, has been attracted to do some cause then promoted by corporate. b. Fund avaibility to implement some social actions. This social action could be definiteby corporate who find connection between their product and some social actions. c. A corporation which is implementing CRM program can gain their market space accurately. Because, CRM program can connect product with social issue, and people will be interested in its issue. Finally, they will grab association between certain product and some issue that become their interest when promotions have been held correctly. d. Selling output rises because of additional customer and market space. e. Formed partnership with other parties which have mutual interest. f. Corporation obtains brand identity positively.

305


From those conclusion above, relationship between Cause Related Marketing (CRM) program toward brand loyalty could be maintain through giving serious attention to some indicators such as duration (period) and cost budgeting CRM program implementation.

References Aaker, David A. (1991). Managing Brand Equity: Capitalizing on the Value of a Brand Name. New York: Free Press. Adkins, Sue (2004). Cause Related Marketing: Who Cares Wins.http://www.corporateresponsibility.ch/modules/. Clark, Adler (2011). An Invitation to Social Research: How It's Done. Canada: Wadsworth Cangange Learning. Griffin, Em (2012). A First Look at Communication Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill International Edition. Lafferty, Barbara A. (1999). Assesing Cause-Brand Alliance Evaluation on Subsequent Attitudes toward the Cause and the Brand. Michigan: Bell &Howell Information and Learning Company. Lesly, Philip(1993). Everything You Wanted To Know About Public Relations.Singapore: SSMB. Lu Ting Pong, Johnny and tang Pui Yee, Esther (2001). An Integrated Model of Service Loyalty, Academy of Business & Administrative Sciences. International Conferences, Brussels, Belgium. Marconi, Joe (2002). Cause marketing: Build Your Image and Bottom Line through Socially Responsible Partenership, Programs, and Events. USA: Dearborn Trade. Mareta. Mia Dian (2006). Pengaruh Cause-Related Marketing terhadap Sikap dan Niat Membeli Konsumen, Studi Kasus: Program Lifebouy Berbagi Sehat. Thesis unpublished. Miller, Beth Armknecht (2002). Social Initiative can Boost Loyalty. Marketing News, p. 1415. Mowen, John C., & Minor, Michael (1998). Consumer Behavior, 5thed. New Jersey:Prentice Hall. Porter, M.E., & Kramer, M.R. (2002). The Competitive Advantage of Corporate Philanthropy. USA: Harvard Business School Pres. Smith, Craig (1994). The New Corporate Philanthropy. USA: Harvard Business School Pres. Van den Brink, Odekernen-Schroder, Gaby, & Pauwels, Pieter (2006). The Effect of Strategic and TacticalCause-Related Marketing on Consumer’s Brand Loyalty. The Journal of Consumer Marketing No. 23, p. 15-25.

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PENGARUH KEPUASAN PELANGGAN DAN BRAND IMAGE TERHADAP LOYALITAS PELANGGAN PADA TOPAS GALERIA HOTEL BANDUNG Ida Nurnida Relawan Mahasiswa Program Doktor Ilmu Administrasi Universitas Padjadjaran, Ketua Program Studi Administrasi Bisnis Institut Manjemen Telkom Sambudi Hamali Mahasiswa Program Doktor Ilmu Ekonomi Universitas Padjadjaran, Universitas Nasional Pasim; Program Studi Administrasi Bisnis Institut Manjemen Telkom

ABSTRACT This research is conducted at Topas Galeria Hotel Bandung, was aimed to know how customer satisfaction, brand image and customer loyalty, and also to know the influence of customer satisfaction and brand image to customer loyalty either through jointly or severally at Topas Galeria Hotel Bandung. Respondent in this research are 98 people, sampling technique use accidental sampling and processed by descriptive and associative method, where testing influence between independent variable with dependent variable use multiple regression analysis. Result from this research indicate that the Customer satisfaction pursuant to spanning incoming classification in good category, Brand image pursuant to spanning incoming classification in good enough category, and Customer loyalty pursuant to spanning incoming classification in good category. Result test by partial indicate that the customer satisfaction and brand image have an effect on to customer loyalty. While result test the multiple linear regression by together (simultan) show there customer satisfaction influence and brand image to customer loyalty at Topas Galeria Hotel Bandung, where Adjusted Coefficient of Determination (Adjusted R2) = 0,445 = 44,5% at level significant 5%. Keywords: Customer satisfaction, brand image, customer loyalty

PENDAHULUAN Pada prinsipnya hotel adalah salah satu bentuk perdagangan jasa. Sebagai industri jasa setiap pengusaha hotel akan berusaha memberikan pelayanan yang maksimal bagi para tamunya. Tidak ketinggalan dalam hal menyambut wisatawan domestik dan mancanegara, perkembangan hotel tumbuh dengan pesat di Kotamadya Bandung. Dari tabel 1.1 terlihat bahwa jumlah hotel di Kotamadya Bandung begitu banyak, mereka akan saling berebut pelanggan yang datang ke kota Bandung. Tabel 1.1 Data Hotel di Kodya Bandung Klasifikasi Jumlah Hotel Bintang 5 6 307


Hotel Bintang 4 20 Hotel Bintang 3 29 Hotel Bintang 2 16 Hotel Bintang 1 9 Hotel Melati I 52 Hotel Melati II 56 Hotel Melati III 81 Jumlah 269 Sumber : Dinas Pariwisata Kota Bandung, 2010 Untuk memenangkan persaingan yang ketat di bisnis perhotelan tersebut, maka usahausaha untuk memanjakan pelanggan harus ditempuh. Memuaskan pelanggan merupakan hal yang terbaik dalam menghadapi persaingan. Perusahaan yang berhasil menjaga agar pelanggan selalu puas menyebabkan pelanggan menjadi lebih setia (loyal), dalam arti pelanggan tersebut lebih sering membeli, rela membayar lebih banyak untuk menggunakan layanan badan usaha itu. Selain memuaskan pelanggan, cara lain yang efektif untuk mencapai loyalitas pelanggan adalah meningkatkan pengetahuan akan brand dan membangun kesadaran akan merek. Menurut Ogba & Tan (2009) brand image secara positif dapat mempengaruhi loyalitas pelanggan ke pasar dan menawarkan kemungkinan meningkatkan komitmen pelanggan Topas Galeria Hotel merupakan salah satu hotel berbintang di Kota Bandung, yang terletak di Jalan Dr. Junjunan 153 yang didirikan pada tanggal 14 September 1994. Hotel yang bernuansa seni ini memadukan unsur bisnis dan galeri, sehingga para tamu yang menginap diharapkan dapat menikmati suasana Bandung Tempo Doeloe. Fenomena yang penulis dapatkan pada survey awal, terlihat bahwa tingkat hunian kamar mengalami penurunan pada awal tahun 2010 dibandingkan akhir tahun 2009. Secara eksplisit dapat dilihat pada tabel 1.2 berikut : Tabel 1.2 Rekapitulasi Data Tamu Menginap dan Kamar Terjual Awal Tahun Pada Topas Galeria Hotel Bandung Nopember 2009 – Maret 2010 Bulan Jumlah Kamar Jumlah Tamu Terjual Menginap 308


Nopember 2009 2.347 Desember 2009 2.607 Januari 2010 1.606 Pebruari 2010 1.706 Sumber : Topas Galeri Hotel, 2010

3.520 4.141 2.988 2.898

Sehubungan dengan paparan dan keterangan di atas, maka dapat dirumuskan permasalahan yang ingin dikaji yakni bagaimana kepuasan pelanggan, brand image dan loyalitas pelanggan pada Topas Galeria Hotel Bandung dan apakah ada pengaruh kepuasan pelanggan dan brand image baik secara sendiri-sendiri maupun bersama-sama terhadap loyalitas pelanggan pada Topas Galeria Hotel Bandung

TUJUAN PENELITIAN Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah: a). Untuk mengetahui kepuasan pelanggan, brand image dan loyalitas pelanggan pada Topas Galeria Hotel Bandung b). Untuk mengetahui apakah ada pengaruh kepuasan pelanggan dan brand image baik secara sendiri-sendiri maupun bersama-sama terhadap loyalitas pelanggan pada Topas Galeria Hotel Bandung

LANDASAN TEORI Perusahaan berupaya untuk meminimalisir ketidakpuasan pelanggan dengan memberikan pelayanan yang semakin baik. Pada saat yang bersamaan perusahaan diharuskan pula untuk memperhatikan konsumen yang tidak puas (Fandy Tjiptono, 2004:146). Usaha untuk memuaskan pelanggan dengan mengembangkan kualitas produk atau jasa sesuai dan melebihi kriteria yang diharapkan pelanggan, karena kepuasan pelanggan secara garis besar tergantung pada pelayanan perusahaan yang berhasil memuaskan pelanggan dengan baik. Kepuasan pelanggan menurut Westbrook dan Oliver (1991) dalam Giese and Cote (2000) : “a postchoice evaluative judgment concerning a specific purchase selection”. Kepuasan 309


pelanggan dapat dilihat sebagai pemenuhan tujuan konsumsi konsumen yang dialami dan digambarkan oleh konsumen (Oliver, 2006 dalam Marteson, 2007). Respon konsumen terhadap evaluasi ketidaksesuaian yang dirasakan antara harapan sebelumnya (atau beberapa norma kinerja) dan kinerja aktual produk yang dirasakan setelah mengkonsumsinya (Tse & Wilton, 1998:204 dalam dalam Giese and Cote, 2000). Kepuasan adalah "penilaian bahwa suatu produk atau fitur layanan, atau produk atau layanan itu sendiri, yang disediakan (atau memberikan) memenuhi tingkat menyenangkan konsumsi terkait, termasuk tingkat di bawah atau di atas pemenuhan konsumen "(Oliver, 1997:13 dalam dalam Marteson, 2007) Selanjutnya Oliver dan Swan (1989) menggunakan 6 dimensi dalam pengukuran kepuasan pelanggan yaitu Pleased, Contented, Satisfied, Wise Choice, Unhappy, Good job. Pada penelitian menggunakan dua dimensi saja yaitu dimensi Contented indikatornya (1) puas dan (2) senang, dan dimensi Wise Choice indikatornya (1) Pilhan yang tepat dan (2) Memenuhi harapan. Brand Image merupakan persepsi pelanggan tentang merek seperti tercermin oleh asosiasi merek yang diadakan di memori konsumen (Herzog, 1963; Keller, 1993a, b dalam Ogba & Tan, 2009), mereka berpendapat bahwa asosiasi ini bisa berasal dari pengalaman pelanggan langsung atau dari informasi yang diperoleh pada penawaran pasar atau karena dampak pra-asosiasi yang sudah ada dengan organisasi itu pada konsumen. Brand image merupakan gambaran mental atau persepsi merek atau produk bermerek atau jasa dan termasuk makna simbolik bahwa konsumen mengasosiasikan dengan atribut tertentu dari sebuah produk atau jasa (Dobni and Zinkhan, 1990; Padgett and Allen, 1997; Aperia and Back, 2004 dalam Ogba & Tan, 2009). seperangkat keyakinan yang dimiliki oleh pelanggan tentang merek tertentu, didasarkan pada beberapa atribut intrinsik dan ekstrinsik dari penawaran pasar yang dihasilkan untuk persepsi kualitas, dan kepuasan pelanggan (Garcia Rodriguez dan Bergantinos, 2001 dalam Ogba & Tan, 2009). Sedangkan brand image

310


menurut Aaker (1996:71) : bagaimana sebuah merek dirasakan oleh konsumen yang merupakan singkatan dari himpunan asosiasi merek di ingatan konsumen ". Konsumen yang terbiasa menggunakan merek tertentu cenderung memiliki konsistensi terhadap brand image. Jadi apabila suatu konsep merek yang kuat dapat dikomunikasikan secara baik kepada pasar sasaran yang tepat, maka produk akan menghasilkan brand image yang dapat mencerminkan identitas merek yang jelas. Berdasarkan definisi brand image menurut David A.Aaker (1996:71), dimensi brand image : 1). Merek yang dirasakan 2). Asosiasi merek

Loyalitas didefinisikan oleh Oliver (1999) dalam

Ogba & Tan (2009) sebagai:

“Komitmen yang mendalam untuk membeli kembali atau belanja ulang produk/jasa yang lebih disukai secara konsisten di masa depan, sehingga menyebabkan pembelian berulang merek yang sama atau pengulangan merek yang sama, meskipun pengaruh situasional dan usaha pemasaran memiliki potensi untuk menyebabkan perilaku berpindah kepada pesaing”. Oliver (1999) dalam Ogba & Tan (2009) juga menunjukkan bahwa loyalitas pelanggan utamanya adalah fungsi dari keunggulan produk yang dirasakan, ketabahan pribadi, ikatan sosial, dan efek sinergis mereka. Peneliti lain mengatakan loyalitas merupakan aspek komitmen yang disebut komponen sikap atau emosi dari komitmen (Meyer dan Allen, 1991, 1997; Meyer et al, 1993;. Ogba, 2008 dalam Ogba & Tan, 2009). Uncles et al. (2003) dalam Ogba & Tan (2009) melihat loyalitas pelanggan dari 3 perspektif dimensi, pendekatan yang tampaknya berasal dari Meyer dan Allen (1991) studi tentang komitmen karyawan; menurut Uncles et.al : Pertama, loyalitas disebut sebagai sikap yang mendukung atau keyakinan untuk satu merek yang tampaknya dapat menjadi keterikatan emosional pada merek itu. Kedua,

311


loyalitas dapat dilihat sebagai faktor perilaku, misalnya, perilaku pembelian untuk satu merek khusus dan Ketiga, loyalitas sebagai pendekatan asiden yang mengandaikan korelasi antara sikap

dan

perilaku.

Dari defenisi mengenai Loyalitas pelanggan yang telah dijelaskan di ats, pada penelitian ini ada dua dimensi loyalitas pelanggan yaitu dimensi perilaku dan dimensi sikap. Menurut Obga dan Tan (2003) brand image positif dapat mempengaruhi kualitas yang diterima pelanggan, kepuasan, loyalitas pelanggan dan komitmen. Menurut Caruana (2002) dalam Henry (2006:23) loyalitas dipengaruhi oleh kepuasan pelanggan.

HIPOTESIS Hipotesis 1 : Kepuasan pelanggan berpengaruh signifikan secara parsial terhadap terhadap loyalitas pelanggan Hipotesis 2 : Brand image berpengaruh signifikan secara parsial terhadap terhadap loyalitas pelanggan Hipotesis 3 : Kepuasan pelanggan dan brand image berpengaruh signifikan secara bersama-sama terhadap terhadap loyalitas pelanggan.

METODE PENELITIAN Berdasarkan tingkat eksplanasinya jenis penelitian yang digunakan pada penelitian ini adalah deskriptif dan asosiatif. Penelitian menurut tingkat ekplanasi adalah penelitian yang bermaksud menjelasankan kedudukan variabel-variabel yang diteliti serta hubungan antara

312


variabel yang satu dengan variabel yang lain. Penelitian deskriptif adalah penelitian yang dilakukan untuk mengetahui nilai variabel mandiri, baik satu variabel atau lebih (indepeden) tanpa membuat perbandingan, atau menghubungkan dengan variabel yang lain. Sedangkan Penelitian asosiatif merupakan penelitian yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui hubungan antara dua variabel atau lebih (Sugiyono, 2008). Populasi dari penelitian ini adalah diambil pelanggan Topas Hotel yang bermalam di bulan Desember 2009, karena di bulan ini jumlah pelanggan yang tertinggi, maka jumlah populasi adalah 4.141 orang. Dalam industri perhotelan dikenal istilah tamu (guest) dan pelanggan (client atau customer). Penggunaan istilah tamu kalau yang datang adalah pengguna jasa yang baru pertama kali menginap di hotel. Kalau tamu itu sering datang dan menginap di hotel tersebut, mereka disebut pelanggan (Oka A. Yoeti, 2004). Pada penelitian ini sampel yang diambil adalah pelanggan yaitu yang bermalam di Topas Galeri Hotel lebih dari satu kali. Untuk ukuran sampel digunakan rumus Slovin (Husein Umar, 2001) seperti berikut :

N 1  N (e) 2 Keterangan : n = Jumlah Sampel N = Jumlah Populasi (= 4.141 orang) e = Kelonggaran ketidaktelitian karena kesalahan pengambilan sampel yang dapat ditolerir (= 10%). Jadi jumlah sampel pada penelitian ini sebanyak 98 orang. n

Teknik penarikan sampel yang dilakukan secara non probability sampling dengan teknik Sampling Insidental, adalah teknik penentuan sampel berdasarkan kebetulan, yaitu siapa saja yang secara kebetulan/insidental bertemu dengan peneliti dapat digunakan sebagai sampel, bila dipandang orang yang kebetulan ditemui itu cocok sebagai sumber data (Sugiyono, 2008:67). Data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah sumber data primer dan data sekunder. Data primer yaitu pengumpulan data yang dilakukan secara langsung terhadap objek yang

313


diteliti untuk memperoleh jawaban dari responden, sedangkan data sekunder adalah data yang diperoleh dari perusahaan, literatur dan informasi lain yang dianggap relevan dan menunjang dengan penelitian ini. Metode yang digunakan dalam pengumpulan data menggunakan metode kuesioner dengan sistem tertutup, artinya setiap pertanyaan

telah disediakan

jawabannya. Kuesioner yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini menggunakan skala Likert. Skala dibuat dengan gradasi dari sangat tidak setuju (skor = 1) sampai dengan sangat setuju (skor = 5). Dalam penelitian ini terdapat dua variabel, yaitu variabel independen (bebas) dan variabel dependen (terikat). Variabel independen atau varibel X adalah kepuasan pelanggan dan brand image, sedangkan variabel dependen atau variabel Y adalah loyalitas. Data yang diperoleh dari responden melalui kuesioner selanjutnya dilakukan pengujian validitas dan reliabilitas. Pengujian validitas menggunakan teknik Korelasi Pearson Product Moment dan pengujian reliabilitas menggunakan teknik Alpha Croncbach’s. Selanjutnya dilakukan analisis deskriptif dan analisis asosiatif. Analisis deskriptif mengunakan

analisis pembobotan. Untuk mencari nilai bobot standar dapat dilakukan

dengan mencari panjang rentang bobot. Untuk mencari nilai bobot standar dapat dilakukan dengan mencari panjang rentang bobot kelima klasifikasi. Adapun langkahnya sebegai berikut: R

(Skor tertinggi x jumlah sampel) - (Skor terendah x jumlah sampel) 5

R

(5 x 98) - (1x 98) 5

R  78,4  79

Keterangan : R

= Rentang klasifikasi

314


Kemudian pembobotan dibagi ke dalam lima tingkatan berdasarkan pengklasifikasian di atas, dimulai dari tingkatan terendah ke tingkatan tertinggi dengan panjang rentang yaitu 53. Klasifikasi nilai bobot standar yang dihasilkan adalah sebagai berikut : Tabel 3 Nilai Bobot Standar Nilai Bobot Kategori 98 – 176 Tidak Baik 177 – 255 Kurang Baik 256 – 334 Cukup 335 – 413 Baik 414 – 490 Sangat Baik Analisis asosiatif dilakukan untuk melihat bagaimana pengaruh antara variabel independen dengan dependen dalam hal ini pengaruh kepuasan pelanggan (X1) dan brand image (X3) terhadap loyalitas (Y), pada penelitian ini digunakan analisis regresi berganda. Sebelum dilakukan analisis regresi dilakukan perubahan data dari ordinal ke interval menggunakan MSI, selanjutnya diilakukan uji asumsi klasik : normalitas data, multikolonieritas, heterokedastitas dan auto korelasi. Selain itu juga dilakukan analisis korelasi untuk melihat kekuatan hubungan diantara variabel X dengan variabel Y menggunakan teknik Korelasi Pearson Product Moment. Model regresi berganda mengambil bentuk : yi   0   1 X 1   2 X 2  ei

di mana

0

adalah konstanta;

1,

2

dan

3

adalah koefisien regresi berganda yang ditaksir

dari sampel dan e adalah kekeliruan. Sedangkan variabel-variabel yang dimaksud dalam model tersebut adalah : X1 : Variabel kepuasan pelanggan X2 : Variabel brand image Y : Variabel loyalitas Analisis data pada penelitian ini menggunakan bantuan software SPSS versi 15.

315


HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN

Hasil uji validitas dan uji reliabilitas instrumen dari semua variabel X (X1 dan X2) dan variabel Y menyatakan semua valid dan reliabel. Hasil uji asums klasik menunjukan datanya normal, tidak ada multikolonieritas, heterokedastitas dan auto korelasi. Hasil deskripsi rata-rata pembobotan untuk variabel Kepuasan pelanggan menunjukkan nilai bobot rata-rata sebesar 393 dengan klasifikasi baik. Secara keseluruhan hasil ini mencerminkan bahwa pada prinsipnya kepuasan pelanggan pada Topas Galeria Hotel Bandung adalah baik. Namun demikian dimensi Contented memiliki nilai bobot dibawah bobot rata-rata variabel Kepuasan pelanggan, indikator yang memiliki nilai dibawah bobot rata-rata variabel Kepuasan pelanggan adalah puas dan memenuhi harapan. Hasil deskripsi rata-rata pembobotan untuk variabel Brand image menunjukkan nilai bobot rata-rata sebesar 302 dengan klasifikasi cukup baik. Secara keseluruhan hasil ini mencerminkan bahwa pada prinsipnya Topas Galeria Hotel Bandung memiliki brand image yang cukup baik. Namun demikian dimensi Asosiasi Merek (Brand Association) memiliki nilai bobot dibawah bobot rata-rata variabel Brand image. Indikator yang memiliki nilai dibawah bobot rata-rata variabel Brand image adalah dekat pusat kuliner dan mall. Hasil deskripsi rata-rata pembobotan untuk variabel Loyalitas menunjukkan nilai bobot 399 dengan klasifikasi baik. Secara keseluruhan hasil ini mencerminkan bahwa pada prinsipnya pelanggan Topas Galeria Hotel Bandung memiliki loyalitas yang baik. Namun demikian masih ada indikator yang memiliki nilai dibawah bobot rata-rata variabel Loyalitas adalah Keinginan menginap kembali dan Konsisten untuk komit Selanjutnya hasil regresi linear berganda dengan pengujian secara parsial atau sendirisendiri (pengaruh kepuasan pelanggan dan brand image terhadap loyalitas secara parsial) hasil perhitungan menunjukkan bahwa nilai masing-masing t hitung yakni kepuasan

316


pelanggan (X1) sebesar 5,509 dan brand image (X2) sebesar 2,651 melebihi t tabel (=1,990) pada level signifikansi 5%. Korelasi kepuasan terhadap loyalitas sebesar r = 0,645, berdasarkan kriteia Champion (Akdon dan Hadi, 005) termasuk hubungan yang kuat. Sedangkan Korelasi brand image terhadap loyalitas sebesar r = 0,531, berdasarkan kriteia Champion termasuk hubungan yang cukup kuat.

Tabel 4 Hasil Uji Secara Sendiri-sendiri (parsial) Coefficientsa

Model 1

(Constant) Satisfaction Brand Image

Unstandardized Coefficients B Std. Error 1.621 .930 .476 .086 .270 .102

Standardized Coefficients Beta .506 .244

t 1.744 5.509 2.651

Sig. .084 .000 .009

Collinearity Statistics Tolerance VIF .678 .678

1.476 1.476

a. Dependent Variable: Cusomer Loyalty Correlations

Correlations

Satisfaction

Cusomer Loyalty

Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N

Satisfaction 1 . 98 .645** .000 98

Cusomer Loyalty .645** .000 98 1 . 98

Brand Image

Cusomer Loyalty

Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N

Brand Image 1 . 98 .531** .000 98

Cusomer Loyalty .531** .000 98 1 . 98

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Hasil regresi linear berganda dengan pengujian secara bersama-sama (pengaruh kepuasan pelanggan dan brand image terhadap loyalitas) hasil perhitungan menunjukkan bahwa nilai F hitung = 39,817 melebihi F tabel (= 3,03) untuk derajat bebas pembilang 2 dan derajat bebas penyebut 95 (98 – 2 – 1 = 95) dan level signifikansi 5%. Karena F hitung lebih besar dari F tabel, maka variabel-variabel bebas (X1 & X2) secara bersama-sama mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap variabel terikat Y. Hal ini memiliki makna bahwa variabel-variabel kepuasan pelanggan dan brand image secara bersama-sama mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap loyalitas. Dengan nilai multiple correlation 0,675 yang mengandung makna keseluruhan variabel bebas (kepuasan pelanggan dan brand image) memiliki keeratan hubungan dengan variabel terikat (loyalitas pelanggan) menurut kriteria Champion termasuk hubungan yang kuat. Sedangkan koefisien determinasi yang disesuaikan (Adjusted R2) 317


sebesar 0,445 memiliki makna bahwa 44,5% kemampuan model atau seluruh variabel bebas (kepuasan pelanggan dan brand image) yang digunakan dalam persamaan regresi ini secara bersama-sama mampu memberikan kontribusi terhadap loyalitas pelanggan. Sedangkan sisanya 55,5% dijelaskan oleh variabel independen yang berada diluar penelitian ini. Tabel 5 Hasil Uji Secara Bersama-sama Model Summaryb Model 1

R .675a

R Square .456

Adjusted R Square .445

Std. Error of the Estimate 2.358640

Durbin-W atson 2.045

a. Predictors: (Constant), Brand Image, Satisfaction b. Dependent Variable: Cusomer Loyalty ANOVAb Model 1

Regression Residual Total

Sum of Squares 443.014 528.503 971.517

df 2 95 97

Mean Square 221.507 5.563

F 39.817

Sig. .000a

a. Predictors: (Constant), Brand Image, Satisfaction b. Dependent Variable: Cusomer Loyalty

Keterbatasan penelitian Walaupun penelitian ini berdasarkan kepada literatur sebelumnya dan analisis data menggunakan alat statistik komputer, ada beberapa keterbatasan termasuk diantaranya mengenai ukuran sampel penelitian dalam kaitannya dengan populasi yang sebenarnya dari pelanggan Topas Galeria Hotel; kendala ini mungkin memiliki dampak langsung terhadap kemungkinan generalisasi hasil penelitian dan oleh karena itu, untuk penelitian selanjutnya dapat menggunakan ukuran sampel yang lebih besar. Keterbatasan lebih lanjut dapat diidentifikasi dari metode analisis data menggunakan regresi linear berganda, untuk penelitian selanjutnya dapat menggunakan analisis SEM (Structural Equation Modelling) selain itu juga dapat melihat sejauhmana hubungan kepuasan secara langsung terhadap loyalitas maupun tidak langsung dengan melalui brand image, disamping itu juga dapat dilihat hubungan timbal balik antara kepuasan pelanggan dengan brand image.

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Implikasi Manajerial Dari hasil penelitian ini, manajer sebaiknya terus melakukan peningkatan dari segi kualitas dan kuantitas kepada karyawannya melalui program-program pendidikan dan pelatihan, terutama dalam hal yang berhubungan langsung dengan pelanggan, selain itu dari sisi brand image, manajer terus melakukan strategi public relation kepada masyarkat agar dapat meningkatkan pengetahuan akan brand dan membangun kesadaran akan merek, yang kemudian secara otomatis brand tersebut berada di dalam ingatan yang pertama dalam pikiran masyarakat dan Menciptakan produk perusahaan memiliki perbedaan kualitas yang lebih baik dari produk pesaing

DAFTAR PUSTAKA Aaker, David A.. 1996. Building Strong Brand. New York : The Free Press Akdon dan Hadi, Sahlan. 2005. Aplikasi Statistika dan Metode Penelitian untuk Administrasi & Manajemen, Cet. 1, Bandung: Dewa Ruchi. Fandi Tjiptono. 2004. Manajemen Jasa. Yogyakarta : PT. Andi Offset. Giese, J. and Cote, J . 2000. Defining Customer Satisfaction. Academy of Marketing Science Review. Available at www.amsreview.org/theory/giese00-01.html Henry Adhi Nugraha. 2006. Pengaruh Service Quality dan Customer Satisfaction Terhadap Service Loyalty Pada Nasabah Bank Danamon. Tesis Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Indonesia. Tidak diterbitkan Husein Umar. 2001. Metode Penelitian untuk Skripsi dan Tesis Bisnis. Jakarta : PT. RajaGrafindo Persada. Obga, Ike-Elechi. and Tan, Zhenzhen. 2009. Exploring the impact of brand image on customer loyalty and commitment in China. Journal of Technology Management in China, Vol. 4, No.2, pp. 132-144. (c) Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Oka A. Yoeti. 2004. Strategi Pemasaran Hotel. Cetakan Ketiga. Jakarta : PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Oliver, Richard L and Swan, John E. 1989. Consumer Perception of Interpersonal Equity and Satisfaction in Transactions : A Field Survey Approach. Journal of Marketing, Vol 53 (April), pp. 21 – 35. Marteson, Rita. 2007. Corporate brand image, satisfaction and store loyalty : A study of the store as a brand, store brands and manufacturer brands. International Journal of Retail Distribution Management. Vol. 35, No.7, pp. 544-555. (c) Emerald Group Publishing Limited Sugiyono. 2008. Statistik untuk penelitian. Bandung: Alfabeta

LAMPIRAN-LAMPIRAN 1. Pendapat Responden Tentang Kepuasan Pelanggan (X1) 319


No.

PERNYATAAN

1.

Puas menjadi pelanggan Topas Galeria Hotel Senang menginap di Topas Galeria Hotel Menginap di Topas Galeria Hotel merupakan pilihan yang tepat Menginap di Topas Galeria Hotel dapat memenuhi harapan saya

2. 3. 4.

JAWABAN SS S RR TS STS

2. Pendapat Responden Tentang Brand Image (X2) No.

PERNYATAAN SS

1. 2. 3. 4.

JAWABAN S RR TS STS

Memilih Topas Galeria Hotel karena hotel galeri Topas Galeria Hotel yang diingat bila ke Bandung Saya memilih Topas Galeria Hotel karena serasa di rumah sendiri Saya memilih Topas Galeria Hotel karena dekat pusat kuliner dan mall

3. Pendapat Responden Tentang Loyalitas Pelanggan (Y) No 1. 2. 3. 4.

PERNYATAAN SS

JAWABAN SS SS SS SS

Saya ingin menginap kembali di Topas Galeria Hotel di lain kesempatan Saya akan setia terhadap Topas Galeria Hotel Akan merekomendasikan kepada pihak lain untuk menginap di Topas Galeria Hotel Saya akan konsisten untuk komit kepada Topas Galeria Hotel

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Normal P-P Plot of Regression Standardized Residual Dependent Variable: Cusomer Loyalty 1.00

Expected Cum Prob

.75

.50

.25

0.00 0.00

.25

.50

.75

1.00

Observed Cum Prob

Scatterplot Dependent Variable: Cusomer Loyalty Regression Studentized Residual

2

1

0

-1

-2 -3

-2

-1

0

1

2

Regression Standardized Predicted Value

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Personal Branding in the Entrepreneurship Avianto Nugroho Putro, S.Sos., MSi. Abstract: The general perception of ‘entrepreneurship’ is that of starting new business. In the case of new business opportunity development, there are some aspects that sometimes would make people reluctant to pursue their will to be an entrepreneur, which are: ideas, innovations, opportunities, and investment. However in the digital era nowadays, especially in communications field, the opportunity to be an entrepreneur is widely open and people can really start small to be an entrepreneur. The study cases based on the theories of entrepreneurship and communication strategy show how the personal branding could be one of key factor that will support the success of an entrepreneurship. This study would help people to have a new perspective in how to start to be an entrepreneur.

Key words: Entrepreneurship, Business Opportunity, Communication, Personal Branding

Introduction It is very common that many questions come across our mind when we were challenged to start to be an entrepreneur. The first question might what and how would be the product or service is going to be sold. In this case, sometimes we tend to think too hard to find the product and it would end up in a dead end. While the fact we can actually start with what we heave. We can start with ourselves. Start it with the question: What do I really capable in? What do I love? What is my passion in life? Try to explore what we have and develop it as your product. Then, the next step would be “Who”. Who is going to be your target market? In this step, just looking around your surroundings, your family, close friends, and relatives could be your first market. And the other rule that we have to prepare is “how”. How would you sell the product? Those steps were just some part of homework we have to do as part of the real business plan we have to develop. Because how small your business is, still it needs a comprehensive business plan. However in this paper, we will discuss more on how to sell the product through personal branding.

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If we are looking at the steps above, what-who-how, in a way they sounds like basic communications theory itself. Communication theory based on Laswell model: "who says what to whom in which channel with what effect”, it describes a simple communications model with a sender transferring the message to a receiver. Linked with the “how do we have to sell the product?” it is clear that how to communicate the product or brand would play a key role in the success of your business. Your product is your message that needs to be communicated to the target market through the most effective channel.

Previously mentioned, to start a business we may explore what we have. Product or brand discovery is about figuring out what you want to do for the rest of your life, setting goals, writing down a mission, vision and personal brand statement (what you do and who you serve), as well as creating a development plan. In the other way, you represent the brand. You are the brand itself, and when you communicate the brand that is you, that is Personal Branding.

Personal Branding Personal branding is, for some people, a description of the process whereby people and their careers are marked as brands. It has been noted that while previous self-help management techniques were about self-improvement, the personal branding concept suggests instead that success comes from self-packaging. Further defined as the creation of an asset that pertains to a particular person or individual; this includes but is not limited to the body, clothing, appearance and knowledge contained within, leading to an indelible impression that is uniquely distinguishable. The term is thought to have been first used and discussed in a 1997 article by Tom Peters.

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Personal branding, self-positioning and all individual branding by whatever name, was first introduced in the 1981 book: "Positioning: The Battle for your Mind", by Al Ries and Jack Trout, as stated "Positioning Yourself and Your Career - You can benefit by using positioning strategy to advance your own career. Key principle: Don’t try to do everything yourself. Find a horse to ride". In case of entrepreneurship, your product or brand could be positioned as your positioning. For the example is one of Indonesian businessman Aburizal Bakrie uses his last name as the brand itself: Bakrie Telco, Bakrie Land, etc. or a smaller business scale like notable traditional fried chicken “Ayam Goreng Nyonya Suharti”. However there is also tendency that many people think that personal branding is just for celebrities such as Paris Hilton or Britney Spears, yet each and every one of us is a brand. Personal branding, by definition, is the process by which we market ourselves to others. As a brand, we can leverage the same strategies that make these celebrities or corporate brands appeal to others. We can build brand equity just like them. Your personal brand is a combination of who you are and how you can solve someone’s problems. And having a consistent and compelling brand will help you throughout your career.

Now, how the personal branding should start? First, there are some guidance to develop our own brand: 1. Know your brand or product story It is about what is behind your brand. Brand should know the reason why it is exist, the origin of the idea, and how the product would benefit the consumer. The single biggest mistake people make is that they either brand themselves just for the sake of doing it or that they fail to invest time in learning about what’s in their best interests. The key to success, and this isn’t revolutionary, is to be compensated based on your passion. In order to find your passion, you need a lot of time to think, some luck and you need to do some research online to figure out what’s out there. 324


Brand discovery is about figuring out what you want to do for the rest of your life, setting goals, writing down a mission, vision and personal brand statement (what you do and who you serve), as well as creating a development plan. There the story of your brand can be developed.

2. Know what is your brand or product Unique Selling Point (USP)

Have you ever got compliment because of the way you dress from others? Or people think that you are good in motivate others? Or you may start to question: What is unique to your value that cannot be duplicated or replaced? Those kinds of compliments are your unique selling point. We may use and develop it as the base of your product or you may develop your product and put a unique attribute on it, which could be the name, the appearance, or the packaging that people will easily remember and connected to your brand. Your unique value proposition emerges from the combined needs, skills, and competitor matrix. Your personal brand’s “competitors” are people with a similar skill set, both domestically and internationally, automation, and other substitutes for your skills, personality, and presence.

3. Know what is your target consumer needs People will not buy our product or brand if it doesn’t give any benefits to them. In starting the business, it would be better if your brand answers the niche market needs. It is in line with the USP point above. Niche market needs a unique brand or product that can answer their special need as well. It is also will be hard to compete with the established mass product in the market. With the niche product, you may also be more mastered in the field.

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4. Build your networks Network is one of the key of personal branding success. At the moment you may not famous, but you can connect and build networks with other people who has greater network than you. Joining certain club or organization, active in discussion board on social network, or engage with the people that can endorse you, will put you in the greater network. Or in the other hand, you may help other people brand first by become a “connector” of two other people who could mutually benefit each other. It is easier to build relationship and your brands, when you help people out first.

5. Start small In starting a business, there are many considerations to think about. The amount of investment you can make, and also your capability in fulfill the demand. Start small, you can mastering your product, have a better quality control, and gradually learn how to handle the growing customer along with developing the existing business plan. It is also minimize the risk for instance. However keep on think big, while you are start small.

At most traditional way, personal branding based business will work effectively through word of mouth. The positive recommendation about your specialties or unique product to one another in the network will bring success to the business. Though this practice still become the root to build the personal branding, but today’s emerging digital communications tools will make the personal branding process much easier. These are some tools that can be your “Personal Branding Toolkit”:

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1. Yourself: You represent your brand or you are even the brand itself. So equip yourself with as much knowledge about the expertise or product you sell and wrapped it in an original, nice and warm personality to inspire people. 2. Wardrobe: Your personal style is tangible and is extremely important for standing out from the crowd. Select clothing that best represents you because it will be viewable through your pictures/avatars online, as well as when you meet people in reality. You don’t have to be a trendsetter, but you may create your own trademark and become noticeable in a positive way. 3. Business card: It doesn’t matter if you’re a college student, CEO, or a consultant, everyone should have their own business card. Complete your business card with your picture or your product picture, your personal brand statement, as well as your clear contact information and the logo if necessary. Always bring your business card everywhere you go, because everyone can be your next customer. You also can create your own business card and share it through your mobile phone using mydropcard.com or rmbrme.com. On the web, BusinessCard2.com is a great social network for creating and distributing your personal business card. 4. Resume/cover letter/references document: These are typical documents that you need for applying for jobs and when you go on interviews. But in personal branding and developing your business, resume can help you sell yourself in the higher step. Let people know about your experiences and expertise. There also possibilities that people will ask you to be a speaker on their event based on your resume. So be sure to prioritize each document with information custom to the target position. Take your resume online and add social features to it to make the ultimate social media resume, promoting your personal brand to the world and making it shareable.

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5. Portfolio: You may use a CD, web or print portfolio, it’s a great way to showcase the work you’ve done in the past, which can convince someone of your ability to accomplish the same results for the future. Figdig.com and carbonmade.com are social networks for people who want to show off their creative skills to the world.

6. Blog/website: Create your own yourname.com or a website that aligns with your name in some fashion. Depending on who you are, how much time you have on your hands and if you can accept criticism, you should either start a blog or stick with a static homepage. Don’t just share about your brand and product, but also share your thought on any related topics to your business. Show to your blog readers that you really understand your business and brand. Those who blog will have a stronger asset than those who don’t because blogs rank higher in search engines and lend more to your expertise and interest areas over time. For better exposure you may link your blog to other’s blog with related business and also your own other social page account such as facebook or twitter.

7. LinkedIn profile: Compare to any other social networking page, LinkedIn is more into professional and serious type page. A LinkedIn profile is a combination of a resume, cover letter, references document and a moving and living database of your network. Buiold your good reputation and develop your professional network here to get any endorsement for you and your brand. Also create your own personal advertising, to search for jobs or meet new people.

8. Facebook profile: Indonesia is in the first rank in the world in term of Facebook users. More than 160 million people all over the world have profiles, but almost none of them have branded themselves properly using this medium. When you start a personal branding, be sure to include a Facebook picture of just you, without any obscene gestures or unnecessary vodka bottles. Also, input your work experience and fill out your profile, 328


while turning on the privacy options that disable the ability for people to tag you in pictures and videos. Please re-think before you post any status or comments to other page, be wise and avoid unnecessary comment. You may create your brand or product account in Facebook to make it more focus.

9. Twitter profile: Twitter now is another powerful tool for personal branding. Your Twitter profile could have an avatar that is carved out of your Facebook picture and used in your LinkedIn profile that people will remember you easily. Share small thought or fun facts about your brand and link it to your blog and or website for further details about the information. Since it is an open social page, there is possibility people will disagree with your thought and give harsh critics. Accept it. All you have to do is avoid the tweet war, though you are in the right position, it rarely helps you to build your brand. Provide any supporting articles or writing from sites or more credible blogs to support your tweet.

10. Video resume: A video resume is a short video of you talking about why you are the best for a specific job opportunity. Make your video short interesting, entertaining, but also informative to give best description about your brand or product. Upload it in YouTube, and link it with your any other social page to invite more people to see it.

11. Email address: Don’t overlook your email address as not being a significant part of your toolkit. Most people use email over all social networks and when you connect with someone on a social network, you are notified via email, so get used to it. Your email address poses a great opportunity for your brand. I recommend using gmail because of the acceptance of Google and since GTalk allows you to form tighter relationships with others. For your address, use “[email protected].”

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Those are some basics to start your personal branding. Maintain all your tools and keep on exploring the possibilities to maximize the use of the tools. Beside the social pages mentioned above, nowadays, the digital social networking is getting more and more specific and skewed to the niche market. Pick as much as possible to branding your brand. You can share your thoughts and ideas, slide presentations, picture, design, or even sell anything through the internet.

The key in starting your entrepreneurship with personal branding is the originality, a unique point of difference (your differentiation) and continuously innovate around it. The key as with any brand is to also have integrity and ‘walk your talk’. So the brand promise —the person’s content, delivery and dialogue are all critical factors to providing a brand experience that consumers believe is unique and enduring.

Bibilography 1. Lair, Daniel J.; Sullivan, Katie; Cheney, George (2005). "Marketization and the Recasting of the Professional Self". Management Communication Quarterly 18 (3): 307– 343. doi:10.1177/0893318904270744. 2. Jeffrey Scott Sherman (2009). Creating a Truly Unique Money Making Asset the Art of Personal Branding 3. Tom Peters (August 1997). "The brand Called You". Fast Company (Mansueto Ventures LLC.) (10): pp. 83. 4. Ries, Al; Trout, Jack (1981). Positioning: The Battle for your Mind. McGrawHill. ISBN 9780071359160. 5. Barnlund (1968), D. C. Interpersonal Communication: Survey and Studies. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 6. Dan Schwabel, www.personalbrandingblog.com

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Strategi Publisitas Melalui Media Online pada Institusi Jasa Pendidikan (Studi pada Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia (LPT YAI), Jakarta) Disusun oleh: Erna Mariana Susilowardhani, S.Sos., M.Si. Meilani Dhamayanti, S.Sos., M.Si. ABSTRAK Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia (LPT YAI), Jakarta was established on 1972. Based on service activities, of course LPT YAI wants to achieve the satisfaction of service users. The satisfaction to be achieved is not only related to education services, but also information services. Especially in the era of information, the community is very easy to access the information. The improvement and advances of technology also encourages the use of online media as a proposition for distributing and accessing information. Therefore, the utilization of online media really needs to be optimized to support the marketing communications activities, which can also support marketing activities, especially in publicity. In the competition era, publicity hold important role to get client, build image, etc. This study aims to learn how the strategies of education services publicity activities are implemented by Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia (LPT YAI), Jakarta by the using of online media. This research was supported by the theories and concepts related to marketing communication, specifically the concepts of publicity, public relations functions, and about online media. By doing a qualitative-descriptive approach, the authors hope that the aim of this research can be achieved. Therefore, the authors conducted in-depth interviews to obtain the integral information to several informants who have the competencies related to this study. The implications of this study are expected to provide inputs to Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia (LPT YAI) and other education institutions in optimizing the online publicity.

1. PENDAHULUAN 1.1 Pengantar Kemajuan teknologi, khususnya di bidang informasi dan komunikasi membawa dampak di segala aspek kehidupan. Tak terkecuali pada aspek sosial kemasyarakatan dan juga institusi. Terutama lahirnya teknologi media baru, yaitu internet yang berbasis pada media online, menjadikan hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan komunikasi tidak lagi terhalang oleh jarak dan waktu. Imbasnya, tentunya arus informasi semakin cepat dan mudah didapat.

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Keberadaan media online ini juga dimanfaatkan oleh institusi jasa pendidikan, seperti Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia (LPT YAI), yang berlokasi di pusat Ibukota Negara Indonesia, yaitu Jakarta. Berbasis pada kegiatan pelayanan, tentunya hal yang ingin dicapai adalah kepuasan dari pengguna jasa. Kepuasan yang ingin dicapai tidak hanya terkait dengan pelayanan pendidikan, tetapi juga pelayanan informasi. Apalagi di era keterbukaan informasi ini, di mana masyarakat sangat mudah mengakses informasi, utamanya yang berbasis media online. Karena itu, pemanfaatan media online sangat perlu dioptimalkan guna menunjang kegiatan komunikasi pemasaran, yang lebih lanjut dapat pula menunjang kegiatan pemasaran. Terlebih di arena kompetisi yang semakin tinggi di antara lembaga pendidikan tinggi.

1.2 Tujuan Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui bagaimana strategi yang diterapkan Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia (LPT YAI), Jakarta dalam melakukan kegiatan publisitas dengan memanfaatkan media online. Hal-hal apa saja yang mereka optimalkan terkait penggunaan media online tersebut.

1.3 Signifikansi Penelitian 1.3.1 Signifikansi Ilmiah Penelitian ini diharapkan dapat menambah jumlah kajian tentang fungsi public relations, terutama dalam mendukung kegiatan komunikasi pemasaran dengan berbasis pada pemanfaatan media online. 1.3.2 Signifikansi Praktis Hasil penelitian ini dapat memberikan gambaran tentang pemanfaatan media online sebagai bagian dari kegiatan publisitas di Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi

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Indonesia (LPT YAI), Jakarta. Selain itu, tentunya diharapkan dapat memberikan masukan kepada LPT YAI dan juga institusi jasa pendidikan lainnya agar dapat lebih mengoptimalkan pemanfaatan publisitas melalui media online.

2. KERANGKA KONSEP 2.1 Komunikasi Pemasaran Komunikasi pemasaran merupakan aplikasi komunikasi yang ditujukan untuk membantu kegiatan pemasaran sebuah perusahaan. Aplikasi tersebut sangat dipengaruhi oleh berbagai bentuk media yang digunakan, daya tarik pesan, dan frekuensi penyajian. Penerapan komunikasi bisnis sangat penting, khususnya dalam menyampaikan pesan-pesan komunikasi yang dihadapkan pada berbagai persoalan, seperti: perbedaan persepsi, perbedaan budaya, dan keterbatasan media yang digunakan (Soemanagara, 2008: 4). Komunikasi pemasaran dapat juga dinyatakan sebagai kegiatan komunikasi yang ditujukan untuk menyampaikan pesan kepada konsumen dan pelanggan dengan menggunakan sejumlah media dan berbagai saluran yang dapat dipergunakan dengan harapan terjadinya tiga tahapan perubahan, yaitu perubahan pengetahuan, perubahan sikap, dan perubahan tindakan yang dikehendaki (Soemanagara, 2008: 4).

2.2 Public Relations Dalam buku Effective Public Relations, Scott M. Cutlip, Aleen H. Center, dan Glen M. Broom (dalam Ardianto, 2009: 3) menuliskan salah satu definisi public relations, yaitu fungsi manajemen yang menilai sikap publik, mengidentifikasi kebijakan-kebijakan dan prosedur-prosedur dari individu atau organisasi atas dasar kepentingan publik dan melaksanakan rencana kerja untuk memperoleh pengertian dan pengakuan publik.

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Sementara John E. Marston mendefinisikan public relations sebagai kegiatan komunikasi persuasif dan terencana yang didesain untuk mempengaruhi publik yang signifikan (Kriyantono, 2008: 4). Cutlip & Center (dalam Kriyantono, 2008: 22) menyebut fungsi public relations sebagai berikut: a. Menunjang kegiatan manajemen dan mencapai tujuan organisasi. b. Menciptakan komunikasi dua arah secara timbal balik dengan menyebarkan informasi dari perusahaan kepada publik dan menyalurkan opini publik kepada perusahaan. c. Melayani publik dan memberikan nasihat kepada pimpinan perusahaan untuk kepentingan umum. d. Membina hubungan secara harmonis antara perusahaan dan publik, baik internal maupun eksternal.

2.3 Marketing Public Relations Konsep Marketing Public Relations (MPR) diperkenalkan oleh Thomas L. Haris dalam buku The Marketer's Guide to Public Relations. Menurut Haris, Marketing Public Relations bekerja karena ia memberi nilai tambah pada produk melalui kemampuannya yang unik dalam memberikan kredibilitas pada pesan produk (Kriyantono, 2008: 58). MPR didefinisikan sebagai sebuah proses perencanaan, eksekusi, dan evaluasi program-program yang mendorong atau menganjurkan pembelian dan kepuasan konsumen melalui komunikasi yang kredibel dalam menyampaikan informasi dan menciptakan impresi yang mengidentifikasi perusahaan dan produknya dengan kebutuhan, keinginan, perhatian, dan kepentingan konsumen. Dengan demikian, upaya menjual produk jangan hanya berdasarkan profit-oriented, tetapi juga consumer's oriented (Kriyantono, 2008: 58).

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Di saat efektivitas iklan di media massa dirasa makin menurun, belakangan pemasar lebih memalingkan perhatiannya kepada MPR. Mereka menyadari bahwa MPR sangat efektif dalam membangun awareness dan brand knowledge, baik untuk produk lama maupun baru. MPR juga sangat efektif untuk berinteraksi dengan masyarakat setempat dan menjangkau kelompok atau etnis tertentu. MPR juga lebih efektif dari segi biaya ketimbang iklan (Sulaksana, 2007: 129).

2.4 Cyber Public Relations Cyber Public Relations kini sudah semakin dikenal. Bidang PR ini sangat terkait dengan perkembangan teknologi komunikasi mutakhir (terutama munculnya media online atau internet) (Ardianto, 2009: 150). Penggunaan Internet oleh para profesional merupakan cikal-bakal dari perkembangan teknologi Internet. Pemakaian Internet sangatlah efektif, terutama pada masa krisis komunikasi, mengidentifikasi masalah, manajemen, dan komunikasi interaktif. Kegunaan lainnya adalah untuk pembuat newsletter (terbitan berkala) elektronik, pengiriman pesan kepada khalayak sasaran, dan aplikasi Internet dan web one to one dalam kegiatan marketing dan komunikasi (Holtz dalam Ardianto, 2009: 150). Kini, dunia PR memasuki masa keemasan karena teknologi Internet ini telah membawa praktisi mampu mencapai publik sasaran secara langsung tanpa intervensi dari pihak-pihak lain, seperti redaksi atau wartawan di media massa, yang biasanya bertindak sebagai penjaga gawang pesan komunikasi, dan melakukan penyensoran terhadap pesan informasi PR bagi khalayak (publik) (Ardianto, 2009: 151).

2.5 Publisitas

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Menurut Lesly (dalam Iriantara dan A. Yani Surachman, 2008: 190), publisitas adalah penyebaran pesan yang direncanakan dan dilakukan untuk mencapai tujuan lewat media tertentu dari organisasi dan perorangan tanpa pembayaran tertentu pada media. Sementara menurut Cutlip dan Center (dalam Iriantara dan A. Yani Surachman, 2008: 190), publisitas adalah penyebaran informasi secara sistematis tentang lembaga atau perorangan. Publisitas merupakan salah satu teknik yang biasa digunakan dalam public relations (PR) sehingga fungsi publisitas pun pada dasarnya merupakan fungsi PR, yaitu menjaga citra positif, menangani publisitas negatif, dan meningkatkan efektivitas unsur-unsur dalam bauran promosi (promotion mix).

3. METODOLOGI 3.1 Pendekatan Penelitian Penulis menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif dalam penelitian ini. Secara mendasar, peneliti kualitatif mencoba menganalisis dan menjaga format situasi, konten, dan pengalaman dari tindakan sosial (Lindlof and Taylor, 2002: 18). Menurut Bogdan dan Taylor (dalam Moleong, 2004: 3), metodologi kualitatif didefinisikan sebagai prosedur penelitian yang menghasilkan data deskriptif berupa kata-kata tertulis atau lisan dari orang-orang dan perilaku yang dapat diamati. Menurut mereka, pendekatan ini diarahkan pada latar dan individu tersebut secara holistic (utuh). Jadi, dalam hal ini, tidak boleh mengisolasikan individu atau organisasi ke dalam variable atau hipotesis, tetapi perlu memandang sebagai bagian dari suatu keutuhan. Pada penelitian kualitatif, Neuman (1997:14) menyebutkan bahwa fokus penelitian kualitatif terletak pada proses interaktif, konstruksi realitas sosial, otentisitas merupakan kunci, value are present and explicit, situationally constrained, analisis tematik, dan peneliti terlibat.

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Dalam penelitian kualitatif, desain dapat disusun sebelumnya secara tidak lengkap. Ketika desain tersebut sudah mulai digunakan, maka desain tersebut dapat dilengkapi dan disempurnakan. Adapun desain dapat senantiasa diubah dan disesuaikan dengan data yang diperoleh di lapangan dan disesuaikan pula dengan pengetahuan baru yang ditemukan (Moleong, 2004: 20).

3.2 Jenis Penelitian Jenis penelitian yang penulis lakukan adalah penelitian deskriptif. Sesuai dengan artinya, penelitian deskriptif hanyalah memaparkan situasi atau peristiwa. Penelitian ini tidak mencari atau menjelaskan hubungan, tidak menguji hipotesis atau membuat prediksi (Rakhmat, 1999: 24).

3.3 Teknik Pengumpulan Data Dalam mengumpulkan data, penulis melakukan wawancara mendalam kepada para informan yang telah penulis tetapkan, yaitu Bagian Humas LPT YAI yaitu Ibu Ratna dan Bagian Pengelola Sistem Informasi LPT YAI, yaitu Bapak Thantawi. Tujuannya adalah mendapatkan keterangan yang dijadikan data primer sebagai bahan analisis. Selain itu, penulis melakukan observasi, terutama terkait dengan situs website resmi yang dimiliki LPT YAI guna mengetahui format-format dan tools yang disajikan dalam website resmi tersebut. Studi pustaka juga penulis lakukan guna mendukung kajian analisis secara konseptual.

3.4 Kriteria Kualitas Penelitian Kriteria

kualitas

penelitian

yang

penulis

gunakan

adalah

trustworthiness.

Trustworthiness yaitu menguji kebenaran dan kejujuran subjek dalam mengungkapkan realutas menurut apa yang dialami, dirasakan, atau dibayangkan (Kriyantono, 2008: 70).

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Trustworthiness mencakup dua hal, yaitu authenticity dan triangulasi. Authenticity penulis gunakan dengan memberikan kesempatan seluas-luasnya kepada informan dalam memberikan informasi kepada penulis sebagai sumber data primer. Sementara yang terkait dengan teknik triangulasi, penulis menggunakan triangulasi sumber. Triangulasi sumber yaitu membandingkan atau mengecek ulang derajat kepercayaan suatu informasi yang diperoleh dari sumber yang berbeda (Kriyantono, 2008: 70).

4. ANALISIS 4.1 Pemanfaatan Media Online di LPT YAI Pemanfaatan media online dilakukan sebagai upaya meningkatkan pelayanan. Sejak tahun 2010 LPT Yai telah melakukan berbagai upaya untuk meningkatkan pelayanan kepada publik internal, yaitu mahasiswa. Hal ini dapat dilihat dengan adanya fitur-fitur online yang dapat dimanfaatkan oleh mahasiswa, yaitu di antaranya adalah pengisian KRS dan daftar ulang. Terkait dengan pelayanan khususnya untuk mahasiswa, tentunya dapat memudahkan mereka dalam mendapatkan informasi tentang kampus di mana pun mereka sedang berada. Berikut menurut Bapak Thantawi, ”... hal ini (pelayanan via media online) diharapkan dapat mempermudah mahasiswa bila mereka tidak sedang di Jakarta.”

Sebenarnya pula menurut Bapak Thantawi, untuk nilai melalui siskamaya sudah lebih dahulu dilakukan. Setidaknya menurut Bapak Thantawi akan mempermudah mahasiswa untuk melihat nilai tanpa harus datang ke kampus. Hal yang sama juga disampaikan oleh Ibu Ratna. Bahkan, ke depan mereka telah mempersiapkan alamat email untuk mahasiswa dan dosen. Sebagai upaya mengoptimalkan pelayanan kepada publik internal, khususnya mahasiswa, pihak UPI YAI berencana akan

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memfasilitasi setiap mahasiswa memiliki e-mail pribadi mereka yang terintegrasi dengan sistem jaringan komputerisasi UPI YAI. Kegunaannya antara lain, agar arus informasi menjadi lebih lancar, langsung, terjaga secara konten, dan cepat diterima oleh mahasiswa via e-mail mereka.

4.2 Peran Public Relations Dalam Menjalin Hubungan via Media Online Berdasarkan fungsinya, PR sangat berperan penting dalam membina hubungan. Cutlip & Center (dalam Kriyantono, 2008: 22) menyebut fungsi public relations, yang salah satunya adalah membina hubungan secara harmonis antara perusahaan dan publik, baik internal maupun eksternal. Salah satu yang dilakukan PR dalam membina hubungan adalah dengan pemanfaatan media, baik media internal ataupun media eksternal. Seiring dengan kemajuan teknologi, PR juga dituntut untuk dapat memanfaatkan berbagai media online yang saat ini banyak menjadi perbincangan. Pemanfaatan media online memiliki banyak keuntungan, di antaranya menjangkau publik yang lebih luas serta respons yang cepat. Sangat disayangkan dalam praktiknya, LPT YAI belum memanfaatkan media jejaring sosial. Sesuai penuturan Ibu Ratna selaku humas yang menjelaskan bahwa : ”Kami sadar bahwa media jejaring sosial sangat besar manfaatnya. Hanya saja keterbatasan SDM membuat kami belum dapat memanfaatkan media tersebut.” Apalagi facebook sifat medianya terbuka. Karena administrasinya belum jelas, dikhawatirkan terjadi misalnya, perang komentar. Facebook belum ada administratornya, dikhawatirkan tidak terkontrol. Padahal, keberadaan media jejaring sosial ini dapat diperuntukkan misalnya, dalam menjaga image organisasi. Namun, jika belum ada yang menangani secara khusus, penggunaannya dikhawatirkan justru tidak mendukung image organisasi. Disampaikan pula oleh ibu Ratna bahwa sebenarnya pernah ada salah satu organisasi mahasiswa di lingkungan YAI yang bersedia untuk meng-handle facebook. 339


”Sangat disayangkan mereka hanya mau facebook tersebut untuk fakutas mereka sendiri bukan untuk semua. Karenanya kami tidak menyepakati.”

4.3 Upaya Membangun komunikasi dua arah Cutlip & Center (dalam Kriyantono, 2008: 22) juga menyebut fungsi public relations, yaitu menciptakan komunikasi dua arah secara timbal balik dengan menyebarkan informasi dari perusahaan kepada publik dan menyalurkan opini publik kepada perusahaan. Hal ini pun selalu diupayakan pihak LPT YAI. Terkait dengan pemanfaatan media online, pihak LPT YAI berupaya membangun dan terus mengoptimalkan sarana media online tersebut. Salah satu cara dalam membangun komunikasi dua arah adalah terciptanya interaktivitas yang dilakukan via media online. Misalnya saja, pengumuman nilai, perpustakaan online (kataloging buku), dan E-learning.

4.4 Kendala Dalam Pemanfaatan Media Online Pengembangan website yang dilakukan LPT YAI bukan tanpa hambatan atau kendala. Berikut beberapa kendala yang ditemukan sebagaimana pemaparan Ibu Ratna dari divisi humas, yaitu: (1)sentralisasi. Hal ini terlihat dari beberapa hal yang masih terpusat di yayasan, misalnya pembayaran kuliah. Menurut ibu Ratna, ”Akan sangat membantu sekali bila mahasiswa yang telah melakukan pembayaran langsung dapat konfirmasi secara online. Sebaliknya yang terjadi bila mahasiswa telah melakukan pembayaran, pihak humas harus mengecek dulu ke bagian keuangan.”

(2)koordinasi. Kendala koordinasi menjadi faktor penting dalam semua aktifitas pengembangan materi di website. Minimnya koordinasi antara organisasi mahasiswa di setiap fakultas dengan Bagian Humas membuat tidak semua event dapat ter-update dengan cepat.

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Disampaikan oleh ibu Ratna bahwa, ”Saya sering kewalahan bila ada event. Apalagi mahasiswa tidak proaktif”. Masalah koordinasi juga terlihat kemiripan peran dan tanggung jawab dalam pengembangan

materi

website

antara

Bagian

Humas

dan

Puskom

(Pusat

Komputerisasi). (3)Secara resmi pengembangan materi di website merupakan tanggung jawab humas. Hanya saja pengembangan materi di website sering tidak tertangani karena Humas LPT YAI hanya 1 (satu) orang. Tidak hanya itu, hal ini juga berdampak pada kurang optimalnya pemanfaatan media sosial seperti facebook, twitter, dan Yahoo Messenger yang sebenarnya memiliki nilai lebih bagi sebuah media online. (4)Skill pengguna. Tidak setiap staf memiliki kemampuan untuk menggunakan media online. Kadang ada staf yang kurang menguasai teknologi, sehingga menghambat dia untuk menggunakan media online

5. PENUTUP 5.1 Kesimpulan (1) Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia (LPT YAI), telah memanfaatkan website sebagai media online dalam publisitas. Pemanfaat media online dilakukan untuk membentuk image serta meningkatkan pelayanan. (2) Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia (LPT YAI) belum memanfaatkan media jejaring sosial secara optimal. Hal ini dapat dipahami karena adanya keterbatasan SDM yang sulit untuk menangani seluruh media. (3) Pengembangan materi website dilakukan oleh Bagian Humas dan Puskom. Hanya saja antara keduanya tidak jelas sejauh mana peran dan tanggung jawab masing-masing.

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5.2 Saran (1) Akan sangat baik jika Lembaga Pendidikan Tinggi Yayasan Administrasi Indonesia (LPT YAI) dapat meningkatkan pemanfaatan media online tidak hanya bagi mahasiswa tapi juga bagi para staf pengajar. Hal ini mengingat staf pengajar menjadi ujung tombak dalam berinteraksi dengan mahasiswa. (2) Pemanfaatan media jejaring sosial sangat penting dalam meningkatkan komunikasi antara seluruh lapisan. Akan sangat baik jika ada staf yang khusus menangani hal tersebut. (3) Lebih diperjelas sejauh mana peran, tanggung jawab, dan koordinasi yang harus dilakukan oleh antara Bagian Humas, dan Puskom. Hal ini sangat memudahkan dalam penyelesaian tugas yang tertangani.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA Ardianto, Elvinaro. 2009. Public Relations Praktis. Bandung: Widya Padjajaran. Iriantara, Yosal dan A. Yani Surachman. 2008. Media Relations. Konsep, Pendekatan, dan Praktik. Bandung: Simbiosa Rekatama Media. Kriyantono, Rahmat. 2008. Teknik Praktis Riset Komunikasi. Jakarta: Kencana Prenada Media Group. ________________ 2008. Public Relations Writing: Teknik Produksi Media Public Relations dan Publisitas Korporat. Jakarta: Kencana Prenada Media Group. Lindlof, Thomas R. and Bryan C. Taylor. 2002. Qualitative Communication Research Methods. Second Edition. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc. Moleong, Lexy J. 2004. Metode Penelitian Kualitatif. Cetakan ke-18. Bandung: Penerbit PT Remaja Rosdakarya. Newman, W. Lawrence. 1997. Social Research Methods. Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Third Edition. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Rakhmat, Jalaluddin. 1999. Metodologi Penelitian Komunikasi. Bandung: Penerbit PT Remaja Rosdakarya. Soemanagara, Rd. 2008. Strategi Marketing Communication: Konsep, Strategis, dan Terapan. Bandung: Penerbit Alfabeta. Sulaksana, Uyung. 2007. Integrated Marketing Communications: Teks dan Kasus. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Pustaka Pelajar.

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SHOPPING THROUGH SOCIAL MEDIA: A STUDY ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN FACEBOOK’S ONLINE SHOP PAGE Albert STIKOM The London School of Public Relations Jakarta Hersinta STIKOM The London School of Public Relations Jakarta

ABSTRACT Nowadays, social media like Facebook and Twitter, showed increasing number rapidly from time to time. In Indonesia, Facebook has become the largest social media, being the second place in user number, comparing to other countries. As a result, one of the aspects that affected by this social media phenomena is business. The development of social media provides a developing prospect for E-marketers and digital enterpreneurs. If E-marketers know the insights on their buyers’ characteristic, they could get insights on how customers interpret and receive stimuli (messages/informations), which could affect customers’ decisions. This paper focuses on interpreting factors which affect young people’s online shopping in Facebook, as well as finding consumers online characteristic factors which include cultural, social, personal and psychological factors. In this research, 15 consumers from various online shop in Facebook were interviewed and observed as informants. Those informants are in Y generation category (age 20-30) who had experienced shops online, male and female, to see if there any differences between gender in their psychological characteristics. From interviews and observations, male and female have different perceptions; female’s reasons to buy are more because of convenience, while male’s reasons are mainly because of customer service factor, such as uniqueness and safetyness. While safetyness and reliabilities are main concern for male consumers, female did not have the same concern. Keywords: Online Shopping, Consumer Behavior, Social Media

1.

Introduction With the existence of web 2.0, online user behavior becomes more complex. The

development of online social media, like forum, microblogging and social networking sites that very much appreciate liberty of speaking, required more insight to consumers’ behavior. And marketing consultant has to be more careful in doing communication approach to their consumers. Understanding online user behavior and how they interact is something they have to do before they decide how they want to communicate.

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Based on research by IBM ASEAN, respondents who are from the Y generation (2030 years old) are very much willing to use various of technology and alternative channels. They are also following the retail company in the social media. From that phenomena, IBM concludes that customer trend nowadays are instrumented, interconnected and intelligent. Instrumented because customer want to use various kind of technology. They have instant access information about the retail. The information could be about the product, other customers’ testimonials through technology. Interconnected because customers are connected with not only other customers but also the retailers themselves. They use various type of technology to interact one another. Intelligent because customer knows what they want. They clearly defined their expectation to the retailer about current condition and in the future. This fact is also changing human behavior in real world. One of the best examples is consumer buying behavior. Nowadays, consumer buying behavior is changing from offline to online shopping. Actually this change was already happening in western country, and now is adapting in eastern country especially in Asian region. Moreover, with the forthcoming of mobile internet era which can gives possibilities to the user to access the social media anytime and anywhere. According to Lauren Boyer, CEO of Underscore Marketing, consumers spend less time actually going to stores, many are seeking out virtual interactions as a replacement for the face-to-face contact they crave. Through brand sites that create a community of users, or websites that actually bring shoppers together, consumers are finding a way to create their very own store-like experiences (www.mashable.com). With social networking sites like Facebook, consumers not only could make an online purchasing, but they could also giving comments, message, testimonials and pictures, as well connect directly with the shop’s owner and share their buying stuffs with friends.

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As a result, there are now many digitalpreneurs set up their business through social media. The term “digitalpreneur” is given to someone who builds his/her own business with internet as its main base. The development of telecommunication infrastructure, and the increasing numbers of internet users in Indonesia, have speed up the growing of digitalpreneurs or “ICT-preneurs”. In an article from SWA magazine, it is stated that the success of social networking sites like Facebook, has inspired, and led to the birth of new generation of digitalpreneur. In an interview with the magazine, Richardus Eko Indrajit, the chairman of APTIKOM (Asosiasi Perguruan Tinggi Informatika dan Komputer) said that the ICT-preneur phenomena increased because of some factors, such as: (1) they only required small capital to start the business; (2) the risk of doing this kind of business is relatively low; and (3) the business could in-line with personal interest or hobbies. As the number of Facebook user in Indonesia keep increasing from time to time, from Socialbakers.com we can see Indonesian Facebook users has reach more than 35.000.000 users (which is in second place after United States). And this is also means that as a company who wants to enter online market they have more than 35 million potential customers. Based on the fact above, this research sets out to analyze online consumers’ behavior, of how and why they shop online on social networking sites like Facebook. Based on psychological online characteristic defined by Smith and Rupp (2003), there are psychological characteristics of consumer behavior, which act as questions the online consumer would ask himself before making a purchase. For this research, we interviewed 15 informants from Y generations (20-30 years old), who shops regularly on Facebook online shop.

Our goal is to interpret factors which affect young people’s online shopping in

Facebook shop, based on categories in psychological online characteristic, such as motivation, perception, personality, attitude and emotions.

2.

Related Literature 345


The term online shopping is meant as an umbrella term covering a relatively wide semantic field of different practices starting from spending leisure time, having fun, searching for information about products and services, browsing the selection, making bookings, to completing actual purchases, which is

synonymously with the concept of e-shopping

(Raamat, et.al., 2008). From a study on consumers’ attitude toward online shopping in New Zealand, it is stated that online shopping is, however, a different experience from shopping in a physical retail store (Shergill & Cheng, 2005). The absence of store atmospherics [Engel et al., 1990, in Shergill & Cheng, 2005] have a direct effect on customer mood and behavior, with store’s physical aspects such as colours, music and layout of products. Web stores so far cannot fully simulate the ambience of a physical store on account of the limitations of devices. So, the system design of the E-retailing experience must compensate for the loss of traditional instore ambiance (Shergill & Cheng, 2005). One of the factors which could compensate the loss of the physical store ambience is convenience. Compared to traditional way of shopping, in online shopping consumers have the ability to view and purchase products at any time (Hasslinger, Hodzic & Opazo, 2005). They could also visualize their needs with products, and discuss products with other consumers (Joines, et.al, 2003 in Hasslinger, Hodzic & Opazo, 2005). With so many informations and opinions on the internet, consumers have many access to suppliers and product/service opinions (Smith and Rupp, 2003 in Hasslinger, Hodzic & Opazo, 2005). Shen, et.al (2006) identified the key factors from previous literature that contributes to people’s choosing to do online shopping, such as; (1) informativeness, consists of visual appeal and information accessibility; (2) customer service, which means reliability, security and efficiency; (3) convenience, which means ease of use and payment, also speed of

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delivery; and (4) experimental uniqueness, which could also means the fun factor, entertainment value, as a means of escapism, and personalization for consumers. The increasing number of users on social networking sites (SNS), such as Facebook, had already made companies, organizations and individuals create a presence on SNSs. In these SNSs, companies can create profiles and fan pages, stage events, and follow or fan potential consumers (Jansen, Sobel & Cook, 2011). Moreover, users of SNSs can also purchase gifts to send to friends or business associates. These gifts can be virtual and free (or with a virtual currency), while other gifts can be real and purchased with actual money. While SNS like Facebook has a main function as a place to connect and engaged with other friends, which provides features such as giving comments, message, testimonials, pictures, and album which we can share it with our friend, marketers and individual entrepreneurs see this as a potential way to reach customers. Rutledge (in Jansen, Sobel & Cook, 2011) reports that younger internet users desire low-cost and convenient online methods to purchase products like music, books and apparel. Tapscott (in Jansen, Sobel & Cook, 2011) also believes teenagers are a crucial part of online buying, with students (in 2006) earning almost $200 billion a year and purchasing $190 billion worth of goods. Based on a study on influencing factors of online shopping (Wang, Liu & Cheng, 2008), it is found that culture, social, personal and psychological factors still had influencing role. Cultural online characteristic identified by Smith and Rupp (in Hasslinger, Hodzic & Opazo, 2005) as the difference social class creates a difference in purchasing online behavior. Consumers from a higher social class generally purchase more and have a higher intention to purchase online because there is a higher probability that they posses computer and also greater access to the internet, while consumes from lower social class would not have the same opportunities.

347


Social online characteristics are also important in order to understand online consumer behavior. Social online characteristic refers to social influence on the online consumer comes from new media reference group. For the online consumer were identified as virtual communities, consisting of discussion of groups on a website. The consumer can read about other people’s experience and opinion which have shown to have effect (Christopher & Huarng, 2003 in Hasslinger, Hodzic & Opazo, 2005). Personal online characteristic based on Monsuwe, Dellaert and Ruyter (2004) explored the personal online consumer characteristic and concluded that income has a vital role for online purchasing behavior. Age factor also identified as a determinant for online purchase intentions. They think older people had no frequent interaction with the internet and computer would not use the internet as a medium for purchase, while most of the young adult would do that. Psychological online characteristic defined by Smith and Rupp (2003) in Hasslinger, Hodzic & Opazo (2005), as psychological characteristic of consumer behavior as question the online consumer would ask himself before making a purchase. There are some categories in psychological online characteristic: 1. Motivation – the consumers are reasoning for incentives to engage in a particular behavior. He may ask himself a question like “should I look for better price?”, “should I shop more often?”, or “How much do I really need this product?”. 2. Perception – the consumer is interpreting acquired information by closing it. Question such as “I think this site is very secure, it seems has a good product but how can I be so sure?” 3. Personality – the consumer is adapting to influences of his cognition. The question could be “what type of website are best suits for my personal buying preferences?”

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4. Attitude – the consumer is working out what his like or dislike is in respect to a particular situation. The consumers may ask themselves “should I really be buying items from the internet?” or “if I do not buy the item online, how can I get it?” 5. Emotions – the consumer is without conscious effort detecting how he is being affected by his cognitive choice. He may ask himself “last time I ordered from the internet I had bad experiences, should I try to buy it again?” or “what is the future of buying online?”

3.

Methodology This research uses case study research with qualitative approach, as a means to

explore as much data as possible about the research subject by using some methods, including interview, observation, document investigation, and any kind of data to elaborate a case in detail. The data used in this research primarily compiled by interviewing 15 informants, by online and offline (face-to-face) interviews. To gain a deeper understanding on online consumer behavior, informants were chosen by a specific criteria, those are in Y generation category (aged 20-30), who shop regularly on Facebook, to . answer on questions regarding their online shopping habit. The questions mainly based on four dimensions which influence online shopping behaviors, including informativeness, convenience, customer service and experiential uniqueness. Moreover, informants also been interviewed regarding the psychological characteristic of online consumer behavior, such as motivation, perception, personality, attitude and emotion.

4.

Results and Findings Based on interviews, we tried to to observe the behavior of the informants in relation

of their buying pattern, the item they bought, key dimensions which influence online shopping behaviors and the psychological characters. We separated the answers based on

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gender, in order to seek any differences or similarities that will come out from each answers. From datas that we have observed, we could conclude into the table below:

Table 1 Observation on Buying Behavior Based by Gender Buying

Female

Male

factor/Gender Introduction to Facebook - Friend’s references

-Try out

online shop

- Friend’s references

- Already know the owner

Sites

Item bought

Facebook

Kaskus

Kaskus

Facebook

Twitter

Gaming forum

Webstore

Webstore

Clothes

Gadget/gadget accessories

Fashion accessories

Clothes

Snacks

Fashion accessories

Dietary supplement

Gaming Voucher

Gadget/gadget accessories Books

Snacks Handphone voucher

Houseware Cosmetics Budget Spent Online Reasons to buy

Rp.200.000 – 2 million

Rp. 500.000 – 1,5 million

- Convenience/Ease of use

- Product Uniqueness

- Experience Uniqueness

- Customer Service:

(Fun)

Competitive pricing, Special

350


Difficulties

- Product Uniqueness

offer/discount

- Customer Service:

- Convenience

(Flexibility, Special offer,

- Security, reliability

discount, free shipping)

- Experience Uniqueness

- Security

(Fun)

- Problems in shipping

Nothing, only sometimes

- Being deceived by false have to wait for re-stock account Recommend to friend

Yes

Yes

Special offer

Yes

Yes

From the table above, we could conclude that there are similarities and differences on online buying behavior between male and female. From 15 respondents, only 4 are male while 11 others are female. At the beginning of data collection process, when we started to post this topic on Facebook wall in order to find informants, some other male respondents stated clearly that they were interested to see items on Facebook online shop, especially gadget and shoes, but since the reliability and security are still big issues for them, they have not make a purchase decision yet. From the observation, we also found some facts about the characteristic of the online products which consumers often bought. The products usually is not on the high price list, packable, not a daily needs product, not too big in term of size of the product, mostly not an easy broken product such as glass. Another characteristic of the product they usually they do not buy is daily need product such as FMCG. Most consumers in Y generation which we interviewed do not look for this product online. In term of the size of the product, the product sold online

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usually is not very big, otherwise this would lead to difficulties in terms of shipping. And on top of female shopper’s list are clothes and fashion accessories, while male’s interest are gadget and its accessories, as well as clothes. Preferences of sites to do online shopping are also different between the two genders. While male prefer Kaskus more than Facebook because of the items offered (online games voucher) and more reliability (Kaskus has a rating system for the sellers, such as “cendol” for positive ratings and “bata” for negative ratings), female prefer Facebook more because of its convenience and ease of use. According to research found in the Journal of Electronic Commerce, if one focuses on the demographic characteristics of the in-home shopper, in general, the higher the level of education, income, and occupation of the head of the household, the more favorable the perception of non-store shopping (Enrique, 2005). Demographically speaking, most of the online consumers interviewed here are university and high school graduate, with various jobs ranging from freelancer, teacher, secretary, dentist to entrepreneur. Their budget for doing online shopping were also various, ranging from 200.000 – 2 million rupiahs. They also likely to recommend their experiences on online shopping to friends and relatives. Female shoppers tend to experienced more problems in online shopping, ranging from minor (such as shipping problem) to major (being deceived by false online shop’s account). While male states that no serious problem occurred, only very minor, such as items ordered were not in stock yet, so they have to wait for longer time until the items arrived.

5.

Discussion From the interview and observation being done, we did some analysis

according to theories and concepts used in this research. As serve as the objective of this

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research is to analyze online consumers’ behavior, of how and why they shop online on social networking sites like Facebook. The identified characteristics are some key characteristic in regard to online consumers, which include: Cultural online characteristic, Social online characteristic, Personal online characteristic, and Psychological online characteristic. Cultural online characteristic identified by Smith and Rupp (2003) in Hasslinger, Hodzic & Opazo (2005) as the difference social class creates a difference in purchasing online behavior. From what we found, some informants who come from upper social class still do some comparison in order to get the best price, and they are still really price sensitive. From the social characteristic, Social online characteristic refers to social influences on the online consumers, which usually comes from new media reference group. For the online consumer were identified as virtual communities, consisting of discussion of groups on a website. From the research findings, we can say that all of the informants influenced by their social communities at the lowest influence. At least, all the informants were introduced to online shopping world by their friends whether that particular friend is a shop owner or they also shop at the same place. Even more, after the informant had done some online shopping, they still ask for their friends for some references like most informants do in “mutual friend” feature in Facebook. Personal characteristic concluded that income has a vital role for online purchasing behavior and also identified age factor as a determinant for online purchase intentions. From this research we can say that money or income has the most vital part of all. For the simplest logic, the one with higher income have the budget more than the lower income. Not only from the buying power we could also see that people with higher income buy things differently. People with higher income tend to buy items with higher price such as

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gadget, shoes, or watches but the one with lower income tend to buy something which are not really expensive such as clothes, handphone casing, accessories, etc. The last characteristic and consider as the most important parts in affecting consumer behavior is psychological characteristic. Motivation, is the consumers’ reasoning for incentives to engage in a particular behavior. From this research, we can see that most informants were using the term “smart shopping” which refers to compare all shops to find the best price offer. From the urgency level, we can say that most of the informants shop when they think they really need that product, but some of them are still shopping just for the fun of it, or entertainment value. This value is called “experiential uniqueness”, which refers to how the Web is unique from other shopping channels, and emphasizes some features only provided by the Internet. Entertainment value is the appreciation for the retail “spectacle” or those who shop for the sake of entertainment. Some of the informants said that they were enjoying looked at the “cute stuffs” on Facebook online shop page, sometimes ended in purchase decision. The second is perception, means the consumer is interpreting acquired information by closing it. From the findings we can say most of the informants, especially male, trying to convince themselves about the security not only from the site but furthermore “is it secure if we buy in this shop?” or “can I trust the shop owner?” all of that question they answer by asking for references from someone they believe trustworthy. The third is personality, means the consumer is adapting to influences of his/her cognition. Most of the informants starts their online shopping behavior from Kaskus because Kaskus is the largest community forum in Indonesia and it is more well known if we would like to buy something, but after some certain time period most of the informant choose to change their source of shop. Facebook has become their destination to shop because so many reasons behind it.

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Attitude is the fourth dimension of psychological characteristic, means the consumer is working out what his like or dislike is in respect to a particular situation. We can say this category is relating on the doubt in credibility of internet. From the research we can see that most of the informants try to buy something in cheap price such as clothes, accessories, handphone casing, etc for they believe it is some kind of testing because they think it is better to lose money in few than much. The last is emotion, means the consumer is without conscious effort detecting how they were being affected by their cognitive choice. In this category, we found that informants who experienced problems in online shopping, choose not to buy anymore from the page/site, but they still buy it from another site which they think is more safe. We could conclude that the key dimension which affect people to do online shopping, in this case is convenient factor, that often refers to the opportunity to shop on a flexible 24/7 schedule from home (Hofacker, 2001) in Shen, et.al (2006). According to the same source, convenience is regarded as one of the most frequently identified antecedents of consumer adoption of online shopping, because it includes the opportunity to search and compare a large number of alternatives at a relatively low search cost (Alba et al., 1997) and eliminates frustrating encounters such as traffic, lack of parking, avoidance of check out lines and travel to and from various stores (Childers, Carr, Peck, & Carson, 2001). However, in this research, female consumers stated that convenience is the highest factor that motivates them to do online shopping, while male consumers regarded that customer service dimension which includes reliability and selection as the most important thing.

6.

Conclusions and Implications

After looking at all the findings and analyses, we could come to the conclusion and implications in which:

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1. Convenience, customer service (completeness, safety, competitive price), product and experiment uniqueness are some factors that affect consumer’s behavior in online shopping. 2. From those factors, convenience and customer service are two main factors that give the most significant effect on the behavior. 3. From this research, the researcher believes that there is a big chance for company or entrepreneur who like to starts business online by knowing some facts: a. Better understanding of their online consumer behavior will help entrepreneur or company to market online. b. There are some differences between offline and online consumer.

The most

significant difference between online and offline consumer is their psychology characteristics, how they think and act tends not to be the same. c. Improve the customer service dimensions. For example, more focus on the selection and uniqueness of the product type not only product line. Like, it is better for shop owners to sell only shoes but we have many type of shoes, rather than we sell shoes and sandals for both man and women but with only one or two varieties. Make the price reasonable for the item and give special offer like personalized item or custom made that could contributes to purchase and re-purchase intentions of the customers REFERENCES Albert R.C, Smith M. S. and Swiyard R. W.(2006). E-Shopping Lovers and Fearful Conservatives: A Market Segmentation Analysis. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management 34: 4-5, 308-333 D. Boyd and N.B. Ellison. (2007). Social network sites: definition, history, and scholarship, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 13(1) 19 Daymon, C and Immy, H (2008). Qualitative Research on Public Relation and Marketing Communication. Yogyakarta : PT Bentang Pustaka 356


Hasslinger, Anders. Hodzic, Selma & Opazo, Claudio (2007). Consumer Behavior in Online Shopping. Kristianstad University, Department of Business Studies. Holmes, D (2004). Communication Theory: Media Technology and Society. Sage. Holz, Shel (2002). The Communication’s Guide to Online Content. San Fransisco: VABC Jansen, Bernard J., K. Sobel and G. Cook. (2011). Classifying Ecommerce Information Sharing Behaviour by Youths on Social Networking Sites. Journal of Information Science. 37 (2), 120-136. Kotler, P et al (2005). Principles of Marketing an Asian Perspective. Singapore: Prentice Hall. Kotler, P and Amstrong, G (2007). Principles of Marketing, Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall. Kotler, P and Keller, L, K. (2006), Marketing Management. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall Monsuwé, P. T., Dellaert, C. G. B. and Ruyter, K. (2004). What drives consumers to shop online? A Literature Review. International Journal of Service Industry Mangement 15: 1, 102 – 121. N.B. Ellison, C. Steinfield and C. Lampe, The benefits of Facebook ‘Friends’: social capital and college students’ use of online social network sites http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol12/issue4/ellison.html Raamat, Reelika., Keller, Margit., Martensen, Anne and Tufte, Birgitte. Young Estonians and Danes as online shoppers : A comparative study. Young 16: 3, 303-324. Shen, Dong. Kelley, Craig A. Richards, Joseph & Bridges, Claudia. (2006). Online Shopping Behavior: Key Dimensions and Research Synthesis. Contemporary Management Research. 2 (1), 3-16. Shergill, Gurvinder S. Chen, Zhaobin. (2005). Web-based Shopping: Consumers’ Attitudes towards Online Shopping in New Zealand. Journal of Electronic Commerce Research. 6 (2), 79-94. Smith, D. A. and Rupp, T.W. (2003). Strategic Online Customer Decision Making: Leveraging The Transformational Power of the Internet. Online Information Review Thurlow, C. Lengel, L & Tomic, A (2004). Computer Mediated Communication: Social Interaction and the Internet. London: Sage Wang, Na., Liu, DongChang & Cheng, Jun. (2008). Study on the Influencing Factors of Online Shopping. Proceedings of the 11th Joint Conference on Information Sciences, Atlantis Press Ziphiris, P and Chee, S, A (2008). Human Compter Interaction: Concept, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications. Hershey : Yurchak Printing Inc

Other Sources: http://www.projectsparadise.com/consumer-behaviour-online-shopping/# april 14 2011 http://ecom.fov.unimb.si/proceedings.nsf/0/c9beda3ca328c8b7c1256ea1002c72b8/$FILE/16Cheung.pdf april 14 2011 http://swa.co.id/2011/03/teknologi-jadikan-konsumen-lebih-cerdas/ accessed March 20th 2011 http://swa.co.id/2010/12/media-sosial-sebagai-ajang-pemasaran-baru/ accessed March 21st 2011 http://swa.co.id/2010/10/hermawan-kertajaya-marketing-manager-wajib-hayati-perilakunetizen/ accessed March 20th 2011

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http://swa.co.id/2010/02/gelombang-baru-digitalpreneur-indonesia/ accessed March 20th 2011 http://swa.co.id/2009/08/demam-akses-internet-via-ponsel/ accessed March 22nd 2011 http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats3.htm accessed March 20th 2011 http://www.scribd.com/doc/39043935/Changing-Indian-Rural-Consumer-Behaviour-Soapsand-Detergents-1 accessed March 23rd 2011 http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Computer-mediated_communication accessed April 13th 2011 http://sbinfocanada.about.com/od/marketing/g/internetmarket.htm accessed April 14th 2011 http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Comp-De/Consumer Behavior.html accessed April 14th 2011 http://www.socialbakers.com/facebook-pages/20531316728-facebook accessed March 22nd 2011 http://sarahsiewert.files.wordpress.com/2008/10/social-media2.jpg accessed March 20th 2011 http://mashable.com/2010/11/18/social-shopping-loneliness/ accessed October

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Memahami Perilaku Pemilih di Indonesia ( Sebuah Kajian dari Perspektif Political Marketing) Oleh: Arif Sugiono Lecturer in Business Administration Departement, Lampung University Email : [email protected]

The main problem discussed in this research is how far the influence of external factor to choosing decision in determining the choose of President and Vice President candidates in second round year 2004 from Political Marketing Perspective. This research uses external variables in order to understand the large of its external factors to choosing decision which includes (1). Public policy/program (2). Social image (3) Emotional feeling (4). Candidate image (5). Outstanding event (6). Personal event and (7). Epistemic issues. The research methods being used are descriptive and explanatory survey. While research area being chosen is Woro Village, Kepohbaru Subdistrict, Bojonegoro Regency. The population is people who have used their election rights in the General Election. The data was analysized by using SEM/Structural Equation Model. After testing the influence among variables, this study has conclusions, First, there are influence to choosing decision in General Election of President and Vice President year 2004. Second, choosing decision on first round shows the work of AIDA concept chronologically. Meanwhile, on second round, it was experienced heuristics from previous process. Keywords : Voter Behavior and Political Marketing.

I. Pendahuluan Salah satu implikasi logis dari tatanan baru di era reformasi, adalah semakin dominanya peran ilmu marketing dalam dunia politik. Hadirnya ilmu marketing dalam dunia politik/political marketing, baik di Indonesia, mapun dinegara-negara lain tidak lepas dari pro dan kontra. Kekhawatiran hadirnya industrialisasi politik, yang disebabkan hadirnya ilmu marketing dalam dunia politik,

lebih pada terbagunnya sebuah skeptisme peran ilmu

marketing dalam dunia politik itu sendiri, Firmanzah (2004). Berbagai skeptisme tersebut muncul lebih pada permasalahan trust (Laczianak & Michie, 1979), etika (Lock & Harris, 1996) , ketakutan adanya gejala Amerikanisasi dalam kehidupan politik (Elebash, 1984 dalam Firmanzah, 2004), dan dominanya komersiaisasi dunia politik yang akan mereduksi arti dari berpolitik itu sendiri (O’saughnessy, 2001). Seiring dengan kekhawatiran para peneliti di atas, beberapa pihakpun telah meyakinkan kepada kita, betapa pentingnya peran ilmu pemasaran dalam dunia politik. Beberapa peneliti tersebut diantaranya, Bagozzi 359


(1974,1975) ; Levy & Kotler (1979) ; O”Cass (1996, 2001) ; Hayes & McAllister (1996) ; O” Shaughnessy (2001) dalam Firmanzah (2004) Di satu sisi, dalam perkembangannya setiap individu dalam perannya sebagai pemilih, lebih senang memposisikan sebagai seorang customer/voter, bukan lagi sebagai pengikut. Sebagai seorang customer,seorang individu lebih memposisikan

pada terbangunnya hubungan

transaksional. Ketika seorang pemilih memilih seorang kandidat, setiap individu pasti mempunyai ekspektasi tertentu, dengan tujuan ekspektasi tersebut dapat terpenuhi apabila memilih kandidat tersebut. Pemahaman tentang perilaku pemilih, terutama faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi perilaku pemilih menjadi sangat penting. Karena dengan berbekal pemahaman yang cukup tentang perilaku pemilih, maka seorang kandidat dan sebuah partai politik

akan dengan mudah dalam merumuskan, menetapkan, menerapkan, serta

mengevaluasi strategi dan metode pendekatan untuk memenangkan pemilihan umum secara efektif dan efesien. Peneliti-peneliti baik yang berasal dari Eropa, Amerika, Asia dan Indonesia yang memfokuskan pada perilaku pemilih, terutama faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan memilih diantaranya Berelson (1954) ; Cambell (1960) ; Rieker & Ordenshook (1968) ; Butler & Stoke (1969) ; Watanuki dalam La Palombara (1974) ; Ferejhon & Fiorina (1974) ; Muller, Tollison, Willet (1976) ; Thomassen (1974) & Kaase (1976) dalam Niemi (1984). Sementara peneliti-peneliti yang fokus pada perilaku pemilih diantaranya Geertz (1982) Affan Gaffar (1988), J Kristiadi (1993) Muhammad Asfar (1997 ; 2004). II. Kajian Pustaka & Kerangka Pikir 2.1. Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Perilaku Pemilih. Penelitian di bidang perilaku pemilih, terutama faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi perilaku pemilih, telah banyak dilakukan oleh para peneliti dari Eropa, Amerika, Asia dan Indonesia sendiri. Studi pustaka yang dilakukan penulis tentang faktor - faktor yang mempengaruhi

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perilaku memilih, menunjukkan bahwa para peneliti berusaha menjelaskan perilaku pemilih berdasarkan faktor-faktor

sosiologis / ekternal , psikologis / internal , faktor-faktor

sosiokultural.

2.1.1. Faktor Ekternal. Peneliti-peneliti yang menfokuskan pada faktor-faktor sosiologis, pada umumnya berangkat dari sebuah asumsi bahwa kepartaian dan pengelompokkan pemilih pada umumnya didasarkan pada kelas sosial. Sebagaimana menurut Van der Muijezenberg dan Bambang Gunawan dalam J Kristiadi (1993), Lipset (1985), Butler & Stoke di Inggris (1996). Lijphart (1990 ) Rose (1974) menunjukkan juga, bahwa variabel-variabel budaya, agama, dan sosial juga mempengaruhi keputusan memilih di beberapa negara, diantaranya Italia, Belgia, dan Jerman Barat.

Sedangkan di beberapa negara Asia, seperti

Jepang dan India juga

menunjukkan hal yang sama. Sebagaimana dikemukakan Watanuki dan Rajni Kothari, dalam La Palombara (1974). Sementara, penelitian Lipset dalam Sherman dan Aliza Kolker (1987 : 205), menunjukkan hubungan agama dengan perilaku pemilih di beberapa negara, di mana partai tidak mempunyai batas yang jelas dengan agama, kelompok minoritas, di bidang ekonomi, politik atau diskriminan-diskriminan tertentu cenderung untuk memilih partai yang berpaham liberal atau partai yang berhaluan kiri. Sementara kelompok mayoritas cenderung untuk memberikan suaranya pada partai konservatif atau partai sayap kanan. Di AS misalnya, penganut agama Katholik dan Yahudi, kulit hitam Hispanic (keturuanan latin) merupakan pendukung setia partai Demokrat. Sementara kaum Protestan Anglo Saxon memberikan dukungan pada partai Republik. Pada pemilihan presiden tahun 1984, 68 % orang yahudi di Amerika Serikat memberikan suaranya untuk partai Demokrat di banding dengan 39 % suara dari kaum protestan.

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2.1.2. Faktor Internal Muhammad Asfar (1996) melakukan telaah kritis terhadap penelitian-penelitain yang hanya memfokuskan pada faktor-faktor ekternal/sosiologis, Asfar mempertanyakan, apakah benar variabel-variabel utama dalam pendekatan sosiologis, itu memberi sumbangan pada perilaku pemilih. Tidakkah varibel-variabel itu baru dapat dihubungkan dengan perilaku pemilih ketika sudah melalui proses sosialisasi. Untuk itu sosialisasilah yang sebenarnya menentukan, bukan karaktersitik sosiologis. Muhammad Asfar, juga mengkritik bahwa faktor-faktor sosiologis terlalu deterministik, sehingga hanya menempatkan individu hanya sebagai obyek dari struktur, baik struktur dalam pengertian budaya maupun lembaga

dan seolah-olah

individu tidak mempunyai kehendak bebas. Selanjutnya, banyak peneliti-peneliti yang memfokuskan pada faktor-faktor internal, yang berangkat dari sebuah asumsi bahwa pada dasarnya teori perilaku pemilih dilandasi oleh konsep sikap dan sosialisasi. Sikap seseorang sangat mempengaruhi perilaku politiknya. Sikap tersebut dipengaruhi oleh proses sosialisasi yang berjalan cukup lama. Proses sosialisasi bisa melalui berbagai cara, diantaranya, perilaku bisa dipengaruhi dari perilaku politik orang tua, kelompok acuan, seperti kelompok pekerjaan, kelompok olah raga dan lainlain. Proses-proses sosialisasi seperti ini yang akan membentuk ikatan yang kuat terhadap sebuah partai politik. Proses inilah disebut sebagai proses identifikasi partai yang merupakan variabel inti untuk menjelaskan perilaku pemilih. Cambell (1960) dalam J Kristiadi (1993: 30), menjelaskan proses terbentuknya perilaku pemilih dengan istilah “Funnel of Causality”. Pengandaian itu dimaksudkan untuk menjelaskan fenomena voting yang di dalam model terletak paling atas dari “funnel” / cerobong. Digambarkan bahwa di dalam cerobong terdapat as (axis) yang mewakili dimensi waktu. Kejadian-kejadian yang saling berhubungan satu sama lain bergerak dalam dimensi waktu tertentu mulai dari mulut sampai ke ujung cerobong. Mulut cerobong adalah latar

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belakang sosial (agama, ras, etnik, daerah), status sosial (pendidikan, pekerjaan, kelas) dan watak orang tua. Semua unsur tadi mempengaruhi identifikasi kepartaian seseorang yang merupakan bagian berikutnya dari proses tersebut. Pada tahap selanjutnya, identifikasi partai akan mempengaruhi penilaian terhadap para kandidat dan isu-isu politik. Sedangkan proses yang paling dekat dengan perilaku pemilih adalah kampanye sebelum pemilu maupun kejadian-kejadian yang diberitakan oleh media massa. Dan akhirnya masing-masing unsur dalam proses tersebut akan mempengaruhi perilaku pemilih. Dalam perkembangannya beberapa peneliti, seperti Affan Gaffar (1988), melakukan penelitian tentang perilaku pemilih di Yogyakarta, J. Kristiadi (1993) melakukan penelitian tentang perilaku. Kemudian Abdul Munir Mulkan (1989) dan Muhamad Asfar (1997). 2.2. Proses Keputusan Memilih. Berkaitan dengan keputusan memilih, Antropolog James Spradley (1993) menjelaskan bahwa, setiap individu dalam memutuskan sesuatu, pada umumnya dimulai dari kognitif seseorang. Kognitif menurut Spradley adalah apa yang tertanam dalam benak seseorang. Yakni sesuatu yang dipercayai dan diterima sebagai sesuatu yang benar oleh seseorang atau komunitas tertentu atau masyarakat dalam budaya tertentu. Spradley juga menekankan bahwa, prinsip - prinsip kognitif mucul dari persepsi. Persepsi menurut Spradley adalah gambaran mental dari tanggapan manusia terhadap seseorang. Terbentuknya Persepsi seseorang sendiri disebabkan karena rangsangan / stimulus luar berupa obyek atau peristiwa tertentu, menjadi simbol-simbol yang disalurkan ke satu atau beberapa organ panca indra, lalu disampaikan oleh sel-sel saraf ke otak. Simbol-simbol tersebut diolah diotak dengan mengaitkan kepada suatu rujukan tertentu, dan kemudian terbentuklah persepsi. Proses selanjutnya adalah terbentuknya makna subyektif yang tertanam dalam benak orang tersebut dan menjadi dasar orientasi perilaku.

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Para peneliti perilaku telah memformulasikan sejumlah model berurutan / sequence model untuk menjelaskan proses yang dilalui konsumen dalam mengambil tindakan pembelian. Ada empat model tahapan respon konsumen dalam memutuskan pilihannya, yang oleh Kotler disebut dengan “response hierarchy models” . (Kotler ,2003:568) keempat model tersebut adalah Model AIDA, model efek hirarki / hierarchy of effects model, model AdopsiInovasi / Innovation-Adoption Model dan model komunikasi / Communication model. Lebih jelasnya keempat model tersebut dapat di lihat dalam gambar 1 (Lihat Lampiran 1.)

2.3. Kerangka Pikir Terkait dengan dinamika politik yang menunjukkan bekerjanya gejala political marketing. Maka kajian-kajian perilaku pemilih tidak hanya dimonopoli oleh peneliti-peneliti yang berlatar belakang pendidikan ilmu politik. Tapi juga melibatkan beberapa peneliti yang berasal dari berbagai disiplin ilmu, diantaranya mereka yang berlatar belakang keilmua pemasaran dan psikologi. Bukti keterlibatan ahli-ahli marketing dalam kajian perilaku pemilih adalah sebagaimana ditunjukkan Newman & Sheeth (1985) yang menghasilkan teori perilaku pemilih yang memfokuskan pada faktor ekternal, yang terdiri dari 7 domain terpisah diantaranya Program / Kebijakan Publik, Citra sosial, Perasaan Emosional, Citra Kandidat, Peristiwa Mutakhir, Peristiwa Personal, dan Faktor-faktor epistemik. Penelitian ini memfokuskan pada pengaruh faktor-faktor eksternal/personality candidat di atas terhadap keputusan memilih dalam Pilpres RI 2004, Putaran Kedua. Alasan dipilihnya ketujuh varibel eksternal yang bersifat personality kandidat, karena adanya kecendrungan bahwa individu dalam perannya sebagai pemilih, selalu berusaha untuk melihat secara utuh sang kandidat, Newman (1999). Penelitian dilakukan di Desa Woro, Kec. Kepohbaru, Kab. Bojonegoro. Alasan dipilihnya daerah tersebut, karena secara sosial politik menunjukkan miniatur dari pemilih di Indonesia, 364


yang pada Pemilu 2004, masih ditandai dominannya trikotomi Gertz, dengan mempolakan pemilih di Indonesia dengan tiga kelompok, yakni priyayi, santi dan abangan. Walaupun dalam perkembangannya (Pilpres RI 2009 dan Pemilukada dibeberapa daerah, yang penulis amati, Seperti Kab. Bojonegoro, Tuban, Lamongan ) kondisi masyarakat semakin mencair, dan semakin menunjukkan lunturnya trikotomi tersebut. Adapun Paradigma Penelitian lebih jelasnya dapat di lihat dalam Lampiran 2. III. Metodologi Penelitian Tipe metode penelitian ini adalah explanatory survey. Selain menggunakan metode tersebut, digunakan juga

metode deskriptif. Penggunaan metode ini bertujuan untuk

mengambarkan sifat sesuatu yang tengah berlangsung pada saat riset dilakukan dan memeriksa sebab-sebab dari suatu gejala tertentu. Penggunaan metode ini dimaksudkan untuk melengkapi metode explanatory. Sebagaimana pendapat Babbie (1995) yang berpendapat, “Description is precise measurement and reporting of the caracteristic of some population or phenomenon under study”. Untuk menguji model digunakan SEM / Structural Equation Model. Sebagai alat analisis multivariate hanya mengenal dua jenis skala metrik (interval/ratio) dan skala non metrik. Oleh karena skor yang diperoleh mempunyai tingkat pengukuran ordinal, maka sebelum dianalisis,

indikator-indikator

tersebut

ditransformasikan

menjadi

interval

dengan

menggunakan program statistik LISREL. Dalam pengujian model dengan menggunakan SEM. Jenis data yang dibutuhkan dalam penelitian ini adalah data sekunder dan data primer. Unit analisis dalam penelitian ini adalah masyarakat yang memiliki hak pilih di Desa Woro, Kecamatan Kepohbaru, Kabupaten Bojonegoro, Jawa Timur. Berdasarkan data dari Panitia Pemungutuan Suara / PPS di tingkat desa, jumlah pemilih di lokasi penelitian sejumlah 1482 pemilih. Menurut Hair dalam Augusty Ferdinand (2000 : 43) berkaitan dengan pedoman ukuran sampel dalam SEM, meyatakan bahwa : 365


“Besarnya sampel sangat tergantung pada jumlah indikator yang digunakan dalam seluruh variabel laten. Jumlah sampel adalah jumlah indikator dikali 5 sampai 10. Sebagai contoh, bila terdapat 20 indikator, besarnya sampel adalah 100 sampai 200. Bila ukuran sampel menjadi terlalu besar misalnya lebih dari 400 maka metode “sangat sensitif” sehingga sulit untuk mendapatkan ukuran-kuran goodnes-of-it yang baik. “

Bantler dan Chou dalam Schumacher dan Lomax (1996) menyarankan minimal 1 : 5 (satu berbanding lima) antara jumlah indikator dengan jumlah responden untuk penelitian yang menggunakan SEM. Oleh karena itu, berdasarkan dalam operasionalisasi variabel di atas, jumlah indikator dalam penelitian ini berjumlah 40 Indikator. Sehingga jumlah sampel dalam penelitian ini sebesar 200. Penarikan sampel menggunakan teknik sampling acak sederhana / simple random sampling. Operasionalisasi variabel penelitian, lebih jelasnya dapat di lihat dalam Tabel 1. Lampiran 3.

IV. Hasil Penelitian 4.1. Pengaruh Faktor Eksternal Terhadap Keputusan Memilih Sebagaimana telah dijelaskan dalam bagian terdahulu, alat analisis yang digunakan adalah SEM, maka akan dijelaskan structural model dan measurement model. Model struktural atau structural model adalah merupakan model yang menjelaskan hubungan kausal diantara variabel / konstruk / Variabel Laten.

Pengujian ini merupakan uji hipotesis penelitian.

Sedangkan Model Pengukuran atau measurement model adalah model yang menjelaskan hubungan antara indikator dan konstruknya.

Adapun secara lengkap hasil estimasi

persamaan struktural disajikan pada gambar 3 dalam lampiran 4. Berdasarkan

gambar tersebut, dapat di lihat nilai t-hitung untuk uji statistik pengaruh

variabel program terhadap keputusan memilih sebesar 0.4484 dengan nilai t-hitung untuk uji statistik sebesar 5.5252, citra sosial terhadap keputusan memilih sebesar 0.1520 dengan nilai t-hitung untuk uji statistik sebesar 2.0569, perasaan emosional terhadap keputusan memilih sebesar 0.1572 dengan nilai t-hitung untuk uji statistik sebesar 2.2162, citra kandidat terhadap

366


keputusan memilih sebesar 0.1427dengan nilai t-hitung untuk uji statistik sebesar 2.0035, peristiwa muthakir terhadap keputusan memilih sebesar 0.2102 dengan nilai t-hitung untuk uji statistik sebesar 2.8864, peristiwa personal terhadap keputusan memilih sebesar 0.1520 dengan nilai t-hitung untuk uji statistik sebesar 2.1982, dan isu-isu epistemik terhadap keputusan memilih sebesar 0.2157 dengan nilai t-hitung untuk uji statistik sebesar 3.0399. Untuk penelitian sebesar 0,05, nilai untuk batas dinyatakan uji signifikan adalah 1,965. Lebih jelasnya dapat dilihat dalam tabel 2 Lampiran 5. Jadi dapat disimpulkan pengaruh program, citra sosial, perasaan emosional, citra kandidat, peristiwa muthakir, peristiwa personal, isu-isu epistemik secara parsial tehadap keputusan memilih signifikan secara pengujian statistik karena nilai t-hitung untuk setiap pengujian lebih besar dari t-tabel 1,965. Hasil Pengujian secara statistik mengenai pengaruh program (1), citra sosial (2), perasaan emosional (3), citra kandidat (4), peristiwa muthakir (5), peristiwa personal (6), isu-isu epistemik (7) tehadap keputusan memilih () dengan menggunakan structural equation modeling menunjukan secara parsial terdapat pengaruh nyata (signifikan). Adapun besarnya pengaruh masing-masing faktor eksternal (program, citra sosial, perasaan emosional, citra kandidat, peristiwa muthakir, peristiwa personal, isuisu epistemik) tehadap keputusan memilih dapat di lihat pada tabel 3 Lampiran 6 : Berdasarkan hasil penelitain di atas, dapat dijelaskan bahwa pengaruh parsial dari ketujuh variabel di atas secara berturut-turut terhadap keputusan memilih adalah program dari sang kandidat, isu-isu epistemik, peristiwa muthakir yang terjadi menjelang pemilihan umum putaran kedua, perasaan emosional yang muncul dari sang kandidat, citra sosial dan peristiwa personal (mempunyai besar pengaruh yang sama), kemudian yang paling kecil adalah citra kandidat. 4.2. Keputusan Memilih.

367


Setelah dianalisis, secara sederhana, proses keputusan memilih dalam Pilpres RI 2004, putaran ke dua, dapat dilihat dalam table 4. Berdasarkan tabel di atas, terlihat indikator Y3 (Desire) memiliki bobot faktor yang lebih besar dibanding 2 indikator lainnya. Kondisi ini mengindikasikan bahwa Y3 menjadi faktor dominan dari variabel keputusan memilih. Selanjutnya Indikator pembentuk Keputusan memilih secara berturut-turut adalah Y1 (Attention) dan Y2 (Interst). Lebih jelasnya dapat dilihat dalam Tabel 4 Lampiran 6. Pemilih dalam memutuskan untuk memilih pada putaran kedua ini menunjukkan adanya heuristic / penyederhanaan dalam penentuan pilihan. Penggunaan penyederhanaan diyakini memudahkan bagi pemilih untuk menentukan pilihan dengan informasi yang tersedia tanpa harus menunggu kelengkapan informasi. Hal ini berbeda dengan keputusan memilih pada putaran pertama. Pemilih pada putaran pertama masih menjalankan fungsinya sebagai individual information process dengan baik, yang ditandai dengan bekerjanya domain kognitif, afektif, behavior secara berurutan. Terjadinya heuritic / penyederhanaan dalam proses pengambilan keputusan dikarenakan untuk menghindari penumpukkan informasi / overload information. Sebagaimana dijelaskan juga oleh Kanuk (2003). Berkaitan dengan karakteristik proses pengambilan keputusan dalam dunia politik yang sering mengalami proses heuritic, Popkins dalam Firmazah (2005) lebih senang menggunakan terminologi ”low information rationality” yang menekankan bahwa keputusan politik didominasi oleh proses short cut kognitif. Kompleksitas, ketaatan kebimbangan, dan ketidak pastian adalah ciri khas yang selalu hadir pada saat pemilih harus menentukan pilihannya, Aldrich (1982). Hal ini lebih sering disebabkan oleh penggunaan bahasa legal oleh kandidat yang sangat sulit untuk dimengerti, ketiadaan waktu dan keterbatasan kemampuan analisa atas konsekwensi logis dari program yang diajukan sang kandidat dan tanggapan isu-isu yang berkembang oleh kandidat. Sedangkan sang kandidat sering berusaha memposisikan diri seluas mungkin atas isu-isu yang berkembang dan permasalahan politik

368


yang sering kali muncul. Hal ini ditujukan agar sang kandidat bisa diinterpretasikan dan dinilai (melalui bekerjanya kekuatan kognitif) oleh masyarakat yang memiliki skala prioritas yang berbeda-beda atas sebuah isu politik dan permaslahan politik tersebut. Selain itu, ketidakjelasan posisi juga bisa disebabkan kurangnya kemampuan seseorang kandidat dalam memposisikan dirinya terhadap isu dan permasalahan politik yang berkembang. Melimpahnya informasi dan pesan politik menjelang pemilihan dan pada saat kampanye, kadangkala menyulitkan pemilih untuk mengolah dan menganalisanya. Selain itu juga, informasi yang tersedia sering kali bertolak belakang dari kenyataan sebenarnya. Hal ini bisa diakibatkan oleh teknik manipulasi politik untuk menyudutkan lawan politik, janji-janji politik dan sebagainya. Sementara para pemilih memiliki keterbatasan kognitif / bounded rasionality, sehingga penggunaan penyederhanaan diyakini memudahkan si pengambil keputusan untuk menentukan pilihan dengan informasi yang tersedia tanpa harus menunggu kelengkapan informasi. Starbuck & Milliken, dalam Firmazah (2005).

V. Kesimpulan & Saran Berdasarkan hasil penelitian di atas, maka kesimpulan dari penelitian ini adalah : 1. Besarnya Pengaruh Program yang ditawarkan para kandidat terhadap keputusan memilih pada putaran kedua sebesar 20,11 %. Hal ini menunjukkan, produk dari sang kandidat yang berkaitan dengan program di berbagai bidang mempunyai pengaruh yang relatif kuat. Indikator pembentuk variabel pada putaran kedua meliputi program di bidang politik menjadi indikator pembentuk dominan, kemudian diikuti hukum, sosial, ekonomi, luar negeri dan budaya.

369


2. Besarnya pengaruh citra sosial terhadap keputusan memilih dalam pemilihan presiden putaran kedua sebesar 2, 31 %. indikator pembentuk pada putaran kedua, juga mengalami perubahan. Gender menjadi indikator dominan kedua, baru kemudian etnik. 3. Besarnya pengaruh perasaan emosional / emosional feeling, terhadap keputusan memilih dalam pemilihan presiden putaran kedua sebesar 2,47 %. Indikator pembentuk variabel ini. Secara berurutan adalah ketegasan dar sang kandidat, sosok yang mampu melindungi, dan kandidat yang mempunyai jiwa patriot. 4. Besarnya pengaruh citra kandidat terhadap keputusan memilih citra kandidat terbentuk atas kesopanan tetapi oleh kesehatan, kesopanan dari para kandidat, kejujuran, energik dan stabil. 5. Besarnya pengaruh peristiwa muthakir terhadap keputusan memilih dalam pemilihan presiden putaran kedua sebesar 4,42 %. Selain itu, temuan studi ini menunjukkan pada pemilu presiden putaran kedua yang sangat diperhatikan dan menjadi indikator pembentuk variabel peristiwa muthakir adalah adanya pro konta yang berkembang tentang netralitas survei dan intervensi asing dalam survei tersebut, kemudian koalisi dan bagi-bagi kekuasaan yang akan dilakukkan ketika menang pemilu yang dilakukan para kandidat juga menjadi indikator pembentuk kedua. Selain itu penolakan presiden wanita menjadi indikator pembentuk ketiga, baru kemudian berakhirnya politik aliran. 6. Besarnya pengaruh peristiwa personal terhadap keputusan memilih dalam pemilihan presiden putaran kedua sebesar 2,31 %. Selain itu, temuan studi ini menunjukkan pada putaran kedua pendidikan tidak lagi menunjukkan domiansinya, tapi indikator yang paling dominan dalam membentuk variabel ini adalah seorang kandidat yang telah menjadi korban pemerintahan terdahulu. 7. Besarnya pengaruh isu-isu epistemik terhadap keputusan memilih dalam pemilihan presiden putaran kedua sebesar 4,65 %. Temuan studi ini menunjukkan pada pemilu

370


presiden putaran kedua, Isu-isu yang menajdi fokus dari para pemilih ketika dikaitkan dengan kemampuan para kandidat menunjukkan bahwa kemampuan mengatasi krisis menajdi indikator utama. Setelah itu diikuti oleh kemampuan meningktakan kesejahteran rakyat, dan mampu memberikan jaminam keamanan. 8. Berkaitan dengan keputusan memilih, pada putaran kedua terjadi heuritic / penyederhanaan, bekerjanya proses response hierarchy dalam menentukan keputusan memilih. Sesuai dengan temuan studi di atas, maka dapat disarankan beberapa hal, yang meliputi : 1.

Sebagaimana yang telah dikemukan pada bab terdahulu, bahwa kajian political marketing adalah sesuatu yang baru, diawal kemunculannya di Indonesia. Hasil studi ini menunjukkan bahwa pengaruh di luar variabel ini masih sangat besar, sehingga peluang bagi peneliti - peneliti lain yang tertarik dengan fokus kajian political

marketing

dapat

mengembangkan

konfigurasi

teorits

dengan

memunculkan variabel-variabel lain (faktor eksternal diluar ini serta faktor internal) baik melalui studi eksploratif maupun exsplanatory tentang voter behavior di Indonesia dari perspektif political marketing

masih sangat terbuka. Selain itu,

peluang penelitian yang memfokuskan pada perilaku non voting (Faktor yang mempengaruhi dan besarnya pengaruh faktor tersebut ) dari perspektif political marketing juga sangat terbuka. 2.

Bagi partai politik yang akan mencalonkan para kandidatnya sebaiknya mempersiapkan dengan baik program-program yang akan ditawarkan oleh kandidat tersebut. Oleh karena itu, kehadiran tim sukses yang benar-benar berkualitas dari berbagai pakar dibidangnya sangat dibutuhkan. Diharapkan tim tersebut, akan mampu melakukan analisis dan merumuskan strategi melalui penciptaan program yang mampu menjawab kebutuhan dan permasalahan pemilih.

371


3.

Memposisikan seorang kandidat dengan menempatkan sang kandidat tersebut merupakan representasi kelompok, golongan atau kelas tertentu sudah kurang begitu efektif. Akan lebih baik pada bagaimana seorang kandidat harus lebih terfokus pada pentingnya Management issue dalam menanggapi peristiwa-peristiwa yang terjadi, dengan memperhatikan kajian-kajian psikologi massa dan komunikasi massa menjelang pemilihan umum berlangsung, dengan tetap mengedepankan etika political marketing. Hal itu didasarkan pada temuan studi di atas dimana pengaruh peristiwa muthakir dan isu-isu epistemik mempunyai pengaruh yang cukup besar dalam keputusan memilih dibanding citra sosial.

4.

berkaitan dengan emotional felling, disarankan seorang kandidat harus berusaha make your voter fall in love with you. Ketika seorang kandidat membuat para pemilih jatuh cinta pada kandidat tersebut, tentu sang kandidat akan berusaha keras untuk memenuhi segala keinginan para pemilih, dengan memunculkan sisi-sisi emosional. Untuk itu sang kandidat harus memastikan bahwa desain produk dan materi komunikasi didukung dengan

bahasa tubuh yang harus menyentuh dan

merangsang otak kanan para pemilih, dengan menyentuh sisi emosional pemilih. Selain itu, SDM yang akan mendukung para kandidat pun harus memperhatikan EQ dan bukan sekedar IQ. 5.

Berkaitan dengan citra kandidat, sang kandidat harus menciptakan aura, dengan menjalankan emotional branding secara konsisten. pencitraan kandidat tidak dapat diperoleh dengan cepat dan instan, oleh karena itu dibutuhkan kesabaran dan konsisten.

6.

Selalu berusaha menjalankan komunikasi politik, dengan mengedepankan prinsipprinsip efesien, dan efektif untuk menghindari terjadinya overload information, yang berakibat terjadinya heuritic dalam pengambilan keputusan.

372


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Lampiran 1. Gambar 1. Response Hierarchy Models.

Stage

AIDA

Hierarchy of

Innovation-

Communication

Model

Effects Model

Adoption Model

Model

Awwarness

Cognitive

Exposure

Attention

Awwarness

Reception

Knowledge

Stage

Cognitive Response

Interst

Interst Liking

Attitude

Affective Preference

Stage

Conviction

Intention

Desire

Evaluation

Trial

Behavior Stage

Action

Behavior

Purchase Adoption

Sumber : Kotler (2006 :568)

375


Lampiran 2. Gambar 2. Paradigma Penelitian

X1

X2

X3

Y X4

(Keputusan Memilih dalam

X5 X6

X7 ( Epistemic Issues)

Lampiran 3

376


Tabel. 1 Operasionalisasi Variabel, Dimensi dan Indikator Variabel/

Dimensi Variabel

Indikator

Satuan Ukuran

Skala Ukur

Sub variabel 1

2

3

Program /

Kebijakan

Kebijakan

program-program

Publik

ditawarkan

apabila

dia 

memenangkan

pemilihan

yg

X1

-

kebijakan

/ 

yang

akan berlangsung.

4

Kebijakan

di

bidang

Tingkat

Persetujuan

5 pemilih

Terhadap

Ordinal

Indikator program / kebijakan publik yang

ekonomi. Kebijakan

di

bidang

ditawarkan

calon

presiden

dan

wakil

presiden

politik. 

Kebijakan

di

bidang

Kebijakan

di

bidang

di

bidang

hukum. 

budaya. 

Kebijakan sosial.



Kebijakan di bidang luar negeri.

Citra Sosial X2

Citra kandidat dalam pikiran 

Demografi

:

pemilih mengenai berada dalam

Usia (contoh ; mewakili orang

posisi apa, tergolong kelompok

muda),

sosial mana, sebuah partai atau  (contoh

kata lain, penciptaan stereotip

bangsa dari kaum hawa),

sebuah

seorang

partai

kandidat,

menciptakan kandidat atau

:

calon

atau 

dengan

asosiasi

antara

partai

dengan

Persetujuan

pemilih

Terhadap

Ordinal

Indikator citra sosial

Gender

seorang kandidat. Atau dengan

terhadap

Tingkat

pemimpin

Etnik (contoh : partai wong Jawa)

segmen-segmen tertentu dalam masyarakat Perasaan

Dimensi

emosional

yang 

Patriotik.

Tingkat Persetujuan pemilih Terhadap

Emosional

nampak dari seorang kandidat, 

Tegas.

Indikator perasaan emotional pada saat

X3

yang pada umumnya terlihat dari 

Pelindung

menentukan pilihannya.

Ordinal

pendapat yang dikemukakan dan kebijakan yang diambil Sifat-sifat pribadi yang penting 

Sehat


Citra kandidat

yang dianggap sebagai karakter 

Sopan

Indikator citra kandidat pada saat

X4

kandidat. Beberapa sifat yang 

Jujur,


juga

Stabil,

merupakan

candidat 

personality.



Peristiwa

Meliputi

Muthakir

peristiwa yang terjadi selama

X5

masa menjelang

pada

pemilihan

Penolakan Presiden

sampai  umum.

Tingkat Persetujuan pemilih Terhadap Indikator peristiwa-peristiwa muthakir pada

Militer Penolakan Presiden

saat menentukan pilihannya

Wanita

Peristiwa mutakhir dapat di bagi  menjadi Peristiwa domestik dan Peristiwa luar negeri

Energik.

kumpulan 

kampanye

Pro Kontra Tafsir Kesehatan Capres.



Ordinal

Konvensi partai Golkar.

377


Ordinal

Variabel/

Dimensi Variabel

Indikator

Satuan Ukuran

Skala Ukur

2

3

4

5

Sub variabel 1



Munculnya Golongan Putih



Gugatan Tim Wiranto – Wahid.



Akhir Politik Aliran.



Intervensi Asing dan Netralitas Survei



Koalisi dan Bagi-bagi kekuasaan.

Mengacu

pada

kehidupan 

Seorang kyai / ulama,


Putri Mantan Presiden,

Indikator peristiwa personal pada saat

Tokoh reformis,


Peristiwa

pribadi

Personal

pernah di alami secara pribadi 

X6

oleh seorang kandidat selama  karier yang dijalani sebelum

Menjadi korban rezim

dan

peristiwa

yang 

menjadi seorang kandidat

Ordinal

tertentu,



Mantan Jenderal / Bekas TNI



Pernah Aktif & kader dari NU Pernah Aktif & Kader dr Muhamadiyah



Seorang Profesor



Seorang Pengusaha

Isu-isu pemilihan yang spesifik  Isu-Isu

yang

dapat

keingintahuan Epsitemik X7

mengenai

memicu


Mampu memberantas

para

pemilih 

kemampuan

sang

Ordinal

Indikator isu-isu epistemik pada saat

Korupsi.


Mampu mengatasi Krisis.

kandidat dalam menangani isu  tersebut.

Mampu memberikan jaminan keamanan.



Mampu meningkatkan kesejahteraan rakyat.

Serangkaian proses yang Keputusan

dilakukan oleh calon pemilih

Pemilih

dalam memutuskan tindakan

Untuk



adanya Attention atau Perhatian

Y

sampai pada Action pada pemilu presiden dan wakil presiden putaran pertama dan kedua.



yang diberikan oleh pemilih 

memilih yang dimulai dari

Memilih

Perhatian / Attention



Timbulnya keinginan /



akan

Ketertarikan

pemilih

Ordinal

Tingkat

disebabkan manfaat yang ditawarkan.

Desire untuk memilih 

perhatian

kampanye kandidat.

Rasa Tertarik / Interest pemilih



Tingkat

Tingkat melakukan presiden

Tindakan memilih

tindakan dan

wakil

untuk

memilih

calon

presiden

yang

ditawarkan.

pasangan calon presiden dan wakil 

presiden.

keinginan

Pilihan thd pasangan calaon presiden

378


Nominal

Lampiran 4 Gambar 3. Persamaan SEM

379


2 0.7

67

0.4719

0.4309

0.4310

0.6577

0.4484

0.2936

0.5162

0.5876

X1.3

0. 7543 (t

X1.5

X2.2 X2.3

0 .74

0.2006

0.3693

X3.2 X3.3 X4.1

0.5382

0.5382

0.5668

X4.2

0 .84

11,5

973

1

x

2

x

3

80 7)

(t = 1 50) .4 = 11 10,6

05 (t

355

)

0.6956 (t = 95435)

0.6422 (t = 8. 83

3 (t =

10 .92

70) 36 )

0.8941(t = 14.2703)

0.7941 (t

) 62 21 72 . =2 5 (t 0.1

) 36 .61 12

= 12 = .3

106) t 0( 96 ) 0.7 1 73 .9 1 1

0.7 6

t 41 (

=

0.7258 (t =1

1.1130 )

X4.4

0.6555 (t =

9.7221)

X4.5

0 .70 35 (

X4.3

x

4

Y 10.6 5990 ) 2 ) 0 .7 t =1

84 ( 0.70 9) 0.655 (t = 1 8 4 0 .70

0 .2 10 (t = 2 2 .8 864 )

X5.2

0.3540

X5.3

0. 8037 X5.4

(t =12

x

5

x

6

0.4015

0.3410

0.4444

0.4175

0.4031

0.3741

0.1865

0.4194

0.3641

8 0.7

X6.2 X6.3 X6.4 X6.5

X6.6

X6.7

X7.1

0.

t= 7( 773

(t =1 0.8118

12.

603

) 3.5361

0.7454 (t = 11.9495)

0 .76 32 (

t =1 2.3 5 79 )

0.7 72 6

(t =

12

6 25)7 85 2.89 ) t=1 12 ( 0.79 0.9020 (t

Y2 0.3143

Y3 0.4719

30 )99

0.3801

0.2840

.0 5t(1 = 2 2 1. 0 89 2 )

t 93 6 ( 2. 48(t = 1 7 . 0 73 3)

X6.1

0.7 5) 544 (0.7412 t 1=.2 7567 1 (t = = 11.5572 7121 ) . (t 0 .86 75 )

6985)

) 32 .02 ) 2 =1 0 2

0.4396

Y1

t=

0.8182 (t = 13.0108) 0.3305

.1043257 ) 0.0 (t =2

0.6170

X5.1 0.4981

0.5033

x

X3.1

0.4165

0.3759

24 (t =

0 .6

0 .718 0.4840

4) = 11,838

0.5851 (t = 8,50 94)

X1.6

X2.1

09)

)25 484 ) 9 02 25 4 65 51 . 5 = t(.0 0.2= .0 t(

0.5138

0.75

X1.4

4 11 ,8

= 44 (t

X1.2

) 45 ,2 4 11

2(.0 t 1 5 = .37

X1.1

(t =

2) = 15.693

X7.2 x7 X7.3 X7.4

0.7620 (t =

12. 2224)

0.79 74 (t

= 13

.04 3 9)

Lampiran 5. Tabel 2. Uji Hipotesis Pengaruh Secara Parsial Faktor Ekternal Terhadap Keputusan Memilih dalam Pilpres Putaran Kedua. No

Hipotesis

Koefisien Jalur

1

Program berpengaruh tehadap keputusan memilih

0.4484

t tabel

T hitung

5.5252

>

1,965

Kesimpulan Statistik

H0 ditolak terdapat pengaruh

380


No

Hipotesis

Koefisien Jalur

2

Citra social berpengaruh tehadap keputusan memilih

3

0.1520

2.0569

Perasaan emosional berpengaruh tehadap

t tabel

T hitung

0.1572

2.2162

0.1427

2.0035

Kesimpulan Statistik

>

1,965


>

1,965


>

1,965


>

1,965


>

1,965


>

1,965


keputusan memilih 4

Citra kandidat berpengaruh tehadap keputusan memilih

5

Peristiwa muthakir berpengaruh tehadap

0.2102

2.8864

keputusan memilih 6

Peristiwa personal berpengaruh tehadap

0.1520

2.1982

keputusan memilih 7

Isu-isu epistemic berpengaruh tehadap

0.2157

3.0399

keputusan memilih Sumber : Hasil Penelitian.

Lampiran 6

No

Tabel 3. Besar Pengaruh Parsial Faktor Ekternal Terhadap Keputusan Memilih dalam PILPRES Putaran Kedua. (Berurutan Sesuai Besarnya Pengaruh) Koefisien Variabel Jalur

Pengaruh

1

Pengaruh program terhadap keputusan memilih

0.4484

20.11%

2

Pengaruh isu-isu epistemik tehadap keputusan memilih

0.2157

4.65%

3

Pengaruh peristiwa muthakir tehadap keputusan memilih

0.2102

4.42%

381


No

Koefisien

Variabel

Pengaruh

Jalur

4

Pengaruh perasaan emosional tehadap keputusan memilih

0.1572

2.47%

5

Pengaruh citra sosial tehadap keputusan memilih

0.1520

2.31%

6

Pengaruh peristiwa personal tehadap keputusan memilih

0.1520

2.31%

7

Pengaruh citra kandidat tehadap keputusan memilih

0.1427

2.04%

Sumber : Hasil Penelitian. Tabel 4. Hasil Estimasi Variabel Keputusan Memilih Pada Putaran Kedua Error

Parameter

Loading Faktor

R2

Y1

0.8179

0.6690

0.3310

Y2

0.7975

0.6360

0.3640

Y3

0.8313

0.6911

0.3089

Variance

Sumber : Hasil Penelitian.

382


Brand Management Mapping: An Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC) Perspective Helpris Estaswara Fakultas Ilmu Komunikasi Universitas Pancasila

Abstract In the communication era, brand can no longer be viewed simply as a part of the product, such as packaging, colors and so on. Nor it is merely a name, symbols or words. Brand should be understood as “beyond the product”. It is because brand is a promise and provides internal focus. In fact, brand management becomes an important topic today. No doubt that writings and researches on brand are widely publicized in a significant amount and number of brand concept is also increased and become more complex, and it was expanding from product-brand to corporate-brand based on corporate-level marketing. Conversely, writings that give details on how relating between one brand concept to another in a thorough understanding based on IMC perspective is still limited. This paper aims at elaborating on how all significant brand concepts work together in the context of integrated brand communication to create brand loyalty and equity. Keywords: Brand management, Corporate-brand, Product-brand, Brand identity, Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC)

Pendahuluan Brand management sebagai sebuah disiplin ilmu telah melahirkan banyak konsep, seperti brand value, brand awareness, brand positioning, brand image, brand identity, brand personality, brand relationship, employee branding, brand activation, sampai brand culture, brand loyalty serta brand equity dan masih banyak lagi (Heding et al, 2009:9-17). Di samping itu, menurut Heding et al, (2009:20-21)―yang telah mempelajari secara mendalam perkembangan sejarah penelitian seputar brand management yang pernah dilakukan oleh para akademisi dan diterbitkan di berbagai jurnal ilmiah internasional selama 20 tahun lebih (1985-2006)―mengungkapkan ada tujuh pendekatan (school of thought) yang dibangun dalam tiga periode waktu yang berbeda. Di sisi lain, teridentifikasi pula terdapat dua paradigma besar yang melingkupi perkembangan penelitian tentang brand management

383


(Heding et al, 2009:26). Lebih lanjut, selama ini pemahaman tentang brand management selalu hanya didudukkan pada level produk yang dikerangkakan dalam perspektif traditional marketing (product-level marketing). Menurut Brexendorf dan Kernstock (2007:33), dari hasil penelitiannya menunjukkan adanya persamaan antara corporate behaviour dan brand behaviour. Muncullah kemudian konsep corporate brand management yang merupakan gabungan dari brand management dengan corporate identity yang dibangun dalam perspektif corporate-level marketing (Brexendorf & Kernstock, 2007:33). Pemahaman di atas juga mendukung pemikiran Burmann dan Zeplin (2005:282-283) yang menyatakan bahwa corporate behaviour sebenarnya merupakan representasi dari employee behaviour di mana employee sendiri dikatakan sebagai “part-time marketer” bagi perusahaan (Madhavaram et al, 2005). Muncullah kemudian ide yang mengaitkan antara organisational citizenship behaviour—di mana employee sebagai elemen utama, dengan brand citizenship behaviour—dengan brand sebagai fokus utama kajiannya (Burmann & Zeplin, 2005:283). Uraian di atas menunjukkan bahwa pembahasan tentang brand management sampai saat ini sudah sedemikian kompleks. Mulai dari sisi sender, kemudian bergeser ke receiver dan terakhir mengulas dalam konteks budaya (Heding et al, 2009:26). Di samping itu, fokus brand management juga tidak lagi hanya seputar product-brand, di mana sekarang sudah bergeser ke arah corporate-brand (Hatch & Schultz, 2003:1041; Wallström, et al, 2008:4041). Hal yang sama juga terjadi dengan konsep brand equity yang sudah tidak lagi dipelajari hanya sebatas pada level produk (Ahonen, 2008; Juntunen et al, 2011). Terkait dengan kompleksitas ide-ide tentang brand management di atas, pertanyaan yang muncul kemudian adalah bagaimana bangunan kerangka konseptual atas brand management yang mampu memberikan big picture yang menyeluruh (totalitas deskripsi)—

384


atau yang disebut dengan brand management mapping—yang relevan di era komunikasi hari ini. Mengingat bahwa mengelola brand hingga menjadi merek yang didambakan oleh konsumen, pelanggan maupun stakeholders lain bukanlah suatu pekerjaan yang mudah, karena bersifat lintas departemen dalam jangka panjang yang membutuhkan keterpaduan antarbagian dan memerlukan juga keselarasan antara internal dan external brand communication (Balmer & Wilkinson, 1991; Punjaisri & Wilson, 2007; Estaswara, 2008), maka untuk menjawab persoalan ini, Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC) akan digunakan sebagai pendekatan yang utama dalam tulisan ini.

Brand Management: Pergeseran Perspektif Brand management sendiri dapat didefinisikan sebagai, “A total approach to managing brands that is sometimes extended, by those who understand the power of brands, to cover the whole approach to managing the company” (Gupta, 2009:1). Berdasarkan definisi tersebut, brand management pada dasarnya bukan sekedar cara mengelola merek an sich. Lebih dari itu, brand management juga merupakan persoalan “pengelolaan perusahaan”. Bicara mengenai brand, dari banyak kasus yang terjadi di Indonesia, seringkali hanya diletakkan pada tataran produk. Brand selalu identik dengan produk. Padahal, pemahaman brand pada tataran produk (product-level brand), bagaimanapun juga sudah banyak ditinggalkan. Sekarang ini, banyak pemikiran tentang brand yang dibawa ke ranah corporate (corporate-level brand) (de Chernatony, 2001; Harris & de Chernatony; 2001; Knox & Bickerton; 2003; Leitch & Richardson, 2003; Balmer & Greyser; 2006; Wallström, et al, 2008). Gagasan ini bersumber dari pemikiran bahwa perusahaan-perusahaan yang bergerak di bidang jasa kenyatannya memiliki product-brand yang sama dengan corporate-brand, seperti Garuda Indonesia. Selain itu, perusahaan-perusahaan besar yang memiliki banyak

385


sekali produk di mana setiap produknya juga mempunyai merek sendiri-sendiri—seperti Unilever (multi-brand firms) yang memiliki sekitar 400 product-brand (Sudarmadi & Palupi, 2006)—membutuhkan sebuah brand umbrella yang dapat mengomunikasikan identitasnya secara jelas, yaitu corporate brand. (Balmer, 2005; Brexendorf & Kernstock, 2007). Lebih lanjut, product-brand based juga teridentifikasi tidak mampu memberikan penjelasan yang memuaskan terkait dengan persoalan brand extension dan perluasan unit bisnis yang ingin dilakukan oleh suatu perusahaan. Berbagai kondisi seperti inilah yang kemudian melatarbelakangi gagasan tentang pentingnya pemahaman terhadap corporate-brand dalam konteks brand management. Pemahaman bahwa brand bukanlah semata persoalan produk sebenarnya sudah tersurat dalam beberapa definisi. Salah satunya adalah definisi yang pernah diungkapkan oleh Duncan (2002:13), yang mengatakan bahwa brand merupakan a perception of an integrated bundle of information and experiences that distinguishes a company and/or its product offerings from the competition. Dari definisi ini teridentifikasi secara jelas bahwa brand juga merupakan masalah pada tataran perusahaan, tidak hanya sekedar produk. Memang, tinjuan dari berbagai literatur (Fombrun, 1996; Ind, 1997; Keller, 2000; Knox & Maklan, 1998; Knox et al, 2000; Olins, 2000) menunjukkan bahwa persoalan branding antara produk dan corporate pada dasarnya memiliki perbedaan, dan—dalam konteks Indonesia—banyak pemikir yang masih tetap membedakkan keduanya. Bahkan, ketika membicarakan brand, banyak yang menganggap hanya merupakan persoalan produk, sedangkan persoalan corporate branding merupakan wilayah public relations, karena terkait dengan masalah corporate identity, corporate reputation, corporate image, dan corporate communications, dengan alasan bahwa konsep-konsep tersebut merupakan tradisi intelektual dalam disiplin public relations dan selama ini telah dipraktekkan dalam aktivitas profesinya. Namun, satu hal penting dari pemahaman ini adalah fakta pergeseran pemikiran

386


tentang brand management dari yang dulunya hanya berfokus kepada produk menjadi corporate. Di samping itu, kaitan antara produk dan corporate bagaimanapun juga tidak bisa dilepaskan,

mengingat

bahwa corporate-brand kenyataannya dapat

secara efektif

memberikan nilai tambah (value added) yang signifikan kepada semua produk yang ditawarkan oleh perusahaan (Hatch & Schultz, 2003:1044). Lebih lanjut, terkait dengan perbedaan fokus antara corporate-brand dengan productbrand, harus diakui akan banyak bersinggungan dengan public relations. Perkembangan terkini, pemikiran tentang corporate-brand telah diperluas tidak hanya sekedar berfokus pada konsumen atau pelanggan, namun juga melingkupi semua stakeholders (significant public) perusahaan. Hal ini terkait dengan lingkungan bisnis yang berubah cepat akibat globalisasi dan perkembangan teknologi informasi—dari mulai banyaknya merger, akuisisi, public offering, implementasi good corporate governance, sampai regulasi pemerintah dan tingginya tekanan publik atas corporate social responsibility serta tuntutan green company— yang membuat kompleksitas kepentingan bisnis perusahaan dalam menciptakan profit (wealth) menjadi semakin tinggi. Di sisi lain, bagaimanapun juga dengan pemahaman tentang corporate-brand seperti ini, mampu menjawab fenomena pengelolaan brand secara lebih realistis dalam merespon berbagai tuntutan perusahaan di era komunikasi hari ini, di banding hanya berputar-putar dalam konteks product-brand. Dengan demikian, dapat dikatakan bahwa sifat dari corporatebrand lebih strategis, di mana keterlibatan CEO mutlak dibutuhkan (Hatch & Schultz, 2003:1045). Memahami perbedaan di atas, terkait dengan pengelolaan komunikasinya, productbrand umumnya hanya berbasis pada marketing communications yang mengandalkan elemen-elemen promotion mix. Lain halnya dengan corporate-brand yang membutuhkan totalitas corporate communication (Balmer, 2001). Dalam product-brand, pengelolaan

387


komunikasi pemasaran kebanyakan dilakukan dengan cara menggabungkan antara corporate advertising, corporate storytelling, customer relations management dan marketing communication tools lainnya yang relevan, serta penggunaan berbagai teknik public relations seperti press conference, media event dan sebagainya (Hatch & Schultz, 2003:1050). Walaupun pada titik ini dapat dikatakan sebagai IMC, namun IMC yang sebenarnya lebih dibutuhkan dalam konteks corporate-brand, di mana melibatkan interaksi dinamis antara komunikasi internal dan eksternal perusahaan berdasarkan prinsip multi-audience, multimedia, tetapi single message. Dengan demikian, pemikiran Balmer (2001; Hatch & Schultz, 2003) di atas dapat dikatakan juga sebagai IMC—pengelolaan corporate brand communication secara terintegrasi (Estaswara, 2008)—yang berbasis perspektif corporatelevel marketing (Brexendorf & Kernstock, 2007). Pertanyaannya kemudian adalah apakah product-brand tidak diperlukan lagi? Product-brand tetap relevan untuk diangkat. Ada dua alasan yang mendasari pemikiran ini. Pertama, pada kenyataannya tidak semua perusahaan bersifat multi-brand atau multibusiness. Banyak perusahaan yang memiliki satu produk (dalam artian barang), yang umumnya adalah perusahaan yang sedang berkembang, kompleksitas kepentingannya tidak setinggi perusahaan-perusahaan besar. Perusahaan seperti ini masih berfokus pada productbrand, penjualan dan konsumen. Kedua, product-brand dan corporate-brand sejatinya harus selaras dan saling memerkuat satu dengan yang lain. Ketika sebuah perusahaan sudah berkonsentrasi pada pembangunan corporate-brand, bukan berarti persoalan product-brand tidak lagi relevan. Berdasarkan prinsip bahwa semakin high profit sebuah perusahaan, maka, akan semakin tinggi pula inovasi produk, merek, dan bisnis yang dilakukan. Inovasi produk terbatasi oleh product life cycle (PLC) dan kecepatan perubahan needs and wants konsumen, namun tidak dengan brand. Dengan demikian, pengembangan merek, seperti brand extension ataupun

388


pengembangan unit bisnis merupakan arah dan tujuan dari banyak perusahaan yang mapan. Sebagai contoh, Telkom yang melakukan repositioning atas corporate-brand-nya menandakan adanya persoalan strategis terkait dengan pengembangan unit bisnis yang tidak lagi dapat direpresentasikan dengan image lamanya. Walaupun teridentifikasi adanya pergeseran perspektif dalam brand management, dan berangkat dari dua alasan yang telah dijabarkan di atas, tulisan ini tetap mengakomodasi kedua perspektif tersebut dalam suatu kerangka integrated brand communication yang berbasis IMC.

Brand is a Promise Mengutip Michael Maskus, Head of Group Marketing dari Allianz Group, terkait dengan brand management, pernah mengatakan bahwa “you have to deliver what you promise” (Burmann & Zeplin, 2005:279). Berangkat dari titik ini maka dapat dikatakan bahwa brand adalah janji, a brand is a promise (Gupta, 2009; Estaswara, 2011). Brand adalah janji perusahaan, bukan janji produk. Janji perusahaan tentang produk (barang, jasa dan ide) yang ditawarkan ke pasar. Sebuah janji yang mampu memberikan arah dan kredibilitas perusahaan dalam mencapai tujuannya, yaitu penciptaan profit jangka panjang. Janji merek bersifat intangible (tak berwujud) yang akan menjadi “sangat nyata” jika janji tersebut dikomunikasikan oleh perusahaan. Namun, janji tersebut juga harus bisa dipenuhi oleh perusahaan. Jangan sampai muncul ungkapan “janji-janji manis tanpa kenyataan” atau “high promise, low delivery” (Estaswara, 2011c). Dengan demikian, untuk menciptakan brand yang kuat, janji merek harus jelas, konsisten dan selaras dengan apa yang diberikannya (Aaker, D.A., 1996:340). Brand promise delivery ini pada dasarnya terkait dengan brand identity yang menunjukkan hubungan keterkaitan antara brand, customer dan stakeholder lainnya melalui penciptaan proposisi nilai. Intinya, brand identity adalah proposisi nilai yang dapat menciptakan

389


asosiasi-asosiasi yang menguntungkan merek (brand associations) terkait dengan bagaimana sebuah merek ingin dikenal, dicitrakan, dan diingat yang secara inherent, menyiratkan janji kepada pelanggan (Kapferer, 2007:99) dan juga stakeholder lainnya (Hawabhay et al, 2009:3). Secara umum, brand identity dapat dikatakan sebagai kesatuan asosiasi yang unik, terbedakan, dan terekspresikan secara jelas tentang merek yang ingin distrategikan dan dikomunikasikan perusahaan, yang mencerminkan visi merek jangka panjang dan mampu menggerakkan aktivitas branding perusahaan (Estaswara, 2011). Pemikiran tentang brand promise delivery di atas menyiratkan persoalan strategic vision of the brand. Menurut Collins dan Porras (1994) visi adalah “what the organisation aspires to be in the future”. Menariknya, hasil riset yang dilakukannya menunjukkan bahwa banyak perusahaan yang sukses ternyata membangun visi mereka dari pendefinisian dan penemuan kembali nilai-nilai inti perusahaan daripada melakukan perubahan revolusioner. Artinya, walaupun visi bisa dibangun untuk mencapai tujuan baru (new goals) ataupun pencapaian yang lain, pada dasarnya akan terkait dengan masalah “nilai-nilai budaya” (heritage) perusahaan (Hatch & Schultz, 2003:1048). Dengan demikian, brand promise harus menjadi visi tentang what the organisation aspires to be in the future yang terinternalisasi sebagai budaya perusahaan. Sebagai contoh, Garuda Indonesia (GI) memberikan janji “keyamanan dan pelayanan” dalam penerbangan kepada pelanggannya. Di mana janji atau proposisi nilai tentang “kenyamanan dan pelayanan” tersebut harus dapat di-deliver oleh GI. Namun, janji tersebut akan dapat dapat di-deliver dengan baik jika “keyamanan dan pelayanan” menjadi budaya perusahaan di GI. Contoh lainnya adalah Unilever, corporate-brand yang dilambangkan dengan huruf “U” dan didesain menggunakan elemen gambar kecil-kecil yang mewakili konsep ratusan productbrand-nya, dibangun berdasarkan konsep vitalitas (kekuatan) yang menyimbolkan ‘U’ can make a difference dengan visi bahwa Unilever selalu percaya akan kekuatan brand dalam

390


meningkatkan kualitas kehidupan orang-orang dan dalam melakukan hal yang benar (www. unilever.co.id). Visi corporate-brand tersebut memayungi visi setiap merek produk yang ditawarkan. Di samping itu, konsep atas visi ini juga menjadi dasar pembangunan budaya perusahaan. Dengan memahami konsep brand promise delivery semacam ini, maka janji yang tersirat dalam visi merek akan dapat dapat di-deliver dengan baik. Brand promise tidak hanya semata-mata dikomunikasikan kepada pelanggan ataupun external stakeholders, namun yang terpenting dan utama harus dikomunikasikan kepada karyawan (internal stakeholders). Nilai-nilai merek yang dijanjikan oleh perusahaan, harus dipahami dan menjadi pedoman bertindak (culture) bagi karyawannya. Dengan demikian, brand promise delivery sangat terkait dengan persoalan keselarasan dan hubungan dinamis antara vision dan value yang terinternalisasi dalam budaya perusahaan (Hatch & Schultz, 2003:1048). Upaya ini sering disebut dengan employee branding atau “memerekkan” karyawan dengan tujuan menciptakan living the brand. Living the brand sendiri merupakan konsep branding di mana karyawan dianggap sebagai pihak yang paling penting dalam “menghidupkan” brand, terutama ketika mereka sedang melayani stakeholders. Living the Brand artinya membuat karyawan mampu menjiwai dan hidup dengan values and vision of the brand sehingga mampu mengomunikasikan brand with spirit and passion (Heding et al, 2009:16).

Brand Identity Menuju Brand Relationship Living the Brand sangat berhubungan dengan brand identity. Brand identity pada dasarnya bersifat internal atau diupayakan oleh perusahaan, baik terkait dengan brand visualisation (Duncan, 2002) maupun proposisi nilai (positioning) (Aaker. D.A., 1996). Secara umum brand identity dapat juga dikatakan sebagai kesatuan asosiasi yang unik, terbedakan, dan terekspresikan secara jelas tentang brand yang ingin distrategikan dan dikomunikasikan

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perusahaan, yang mencerminkan brand vision dalam jangka panjang dan brand values yang terinternalisasi dalam budaya perusahaan. Dewasa ini, gagasan tentang membangun merek secara internal sebagai sebuah proses penyelarasan antara perilaku para employee dengan brand identity dalam perusahaan telah menjadi perhatian para akadimisi di seluruh dunia (de Chernatony, 2001; Keller, 1999; LePla & Parker, 1999; Macrae, 1996; Mitchell, 2002; Tosti & Stotz, 2001). Perhatian ini dicurahkan dalam rangka mengurangi kesenjangan antara brand identity yang ingin dibangun oleh perusahaan dan apa yang dirasakan para stakeholders perusahaan (Urde, 1994; Harris & de Chernatony, 2001; Balmer & Soenen, 1999). Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa karyawan memainkan peran yang penting. Konsep ini disebut dengan brand behaviour. Dengan demikian, brand behaviour yang konsisten mendukung pengembangan brand identity dan penciptaan brand image perusahaan, merupakan determinan faktor keberhasilan dalam brand management (Vallaster & de Chernatony, 2006). Pemikiran ini juga dipertegas oleh Burmann dan Zeplin (2005:282), yang menyatakan bahwa, “the crucial role of employees in brand building is due to the fact that all sources of brand identity are based on the decisions and actions of employees.” Menurut Kapferer (2007:99), brand identity merupakan cara perusahaan (sender) tentang bagaimana brand ingin dipersepsikan. Cara ini kemudian akan mengarahkan brand image atau bagaimana brand diasosiasikan (brand associations) dan dipersepsikan (brand perception) yang terletak pada sisi receiver (Rindova, 1997; Balmer, 2001; Hatch & Schultz, 2001; Hawabhay et al, 2009:3). Oleh karena itu, brand perception―atau dengan kata lain brand image―selalu berada di sisi receiver. Brand image memang dengan mudah berubah dari waktu ke waktu. Namun, tidak demikian dengan karakter brand identity. Brand identity mampu mewakili nilai-nilai merek dalam jangka panjang. Brand image sering dianggap tidak lebih dari sekedar aset taktis, sedangkan brand identity merupakan aset strategis perusahaan (Kotler & Pfoertsch, 2006:94).

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Bahkan, identitas dari suatu perusahaan yang direpresentasikan dalam brand identity diakui sebagai sumber daya strategis dan menjadi sumber keunggulan kompetitif (Melewar & Jenkins, 2002:76). Pentingnya identitas perusahaan dan kaitannya dengan brand image dan brand strategy juga disintesiskan oleh van Rekom (1997:412), dengan pernyataan sebagai berikut, “in the long term, management can influence the organization’s identity, and, depending on management’s chosen corporate strategy, can realize an improved or repositioned corporate image.” Dengan demikian, kaitan dinamis antara brand vision, brand values (keduanya membentuk brand identity) dan brand image akan menciptakan apa yang disebut dengan brand personality. Brand vision memberikan arah jangka panjang dan proposisi nilai (positioning) bagi corporate-brand maupun product-brand. Sedangkan brand values yang terinternalisasi ke dalam budaya perusahaan akan menciptakan living the brand bagi employee (brand behaviour). Terakhir, brand image merupakan persepsi konsumen dan stakeholders lainnya tentang perusahaan dan apa yang di-“jual”-nya. Pembangunan brand personality sendiri melibatkan brand communication yang bersifat internal dan eksternal. Komunikasi atas brand identity merupakan internal brand communication. Sedangkan brand image merupakan external brand communication (outcome). Keselarasan antara brand identity yang dikomunikasikan oleh perusahaan dengan brand image yang dipersepsikan konsumen, pelanggan dan stakeholders lain, pada akhirnya akan menciptakan brand personality. Secara umum, inti dari brand personality adalah kemampuan brand identity dalam membangun brand image, sehingga personalitas merek dapat terbedakan secara jelas. Menurut Jennifer L.A. (1997:347), brand Personality didefinisikan sebagai a set of human characteristics associated with a brand. Di samping itu, brand personality juga dapat dikatakan sebagai satu kesatuan karakteristik manusia yang melekat pada merek. Selain itu,

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brand personality bisa dianggap pula sebagai sesuatu yang dapat memberikan alasan bagi stakeholders untuk menjalin hubungan baik dengan merek. Relationship pada intinya adalah exchange (pertukaran), di mana perusahaan berupaya untuk memberikan keuntungan kepada pihak lain untuk mendapatkan sesuatu, dan sebaliknya. Pada titik ini, brand vision dan brand values yang telah terinternalisasi dan menjadi budaya kerja bagi manajemen serta employee beserta citra baik perusahaan yang telah terbentuk, merupakan kunci penentu dalam menjalin hubungan (relationship) dengan stakeholders. Seperti dikatakan de Chernatony (2001), Harris dan de Chernatony (2001), Hatch dan Schultz (2001), serta Wilson (2001), bahwa, “employees are key to building relationships with all the company’s stakeholders as well as contributing to the meaning of the brand.” Menurut Heding et al (2009:152-153), brand relationship pada dasarnya terkait dengan teori tentang loyalitas. Loyalitas sendiri merupakan sensasi atas hubungannya dengan merek. Menciptakan brand loyalty merupakan suatu pengelolaan brand-consumer exchange dalam jangka panjang, bukan sekedar masalah transkasi penjualan jangka pendek. Dengan demikian, ketika sebuah perusahaan mampu mengelola brand-consumer exchange secara tepat, akhirnya brand loyalty akan dicapai dan pada gilirannya akan menciptakan brand equity yang kuat.

Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC): Brand Management Mapping Mengingat pembangunan brand identity menuju brand relationship membutuhkan keselarasan antara komunikasi internal dan eksternal, maka akan lebih efektif jika dikelola melalui IMC. Menurut Madhavaram et. al. (2005:74) ada dua faktor yang dapat secara efektif digunakan untuk mengintegrasikan brand communication, yaitu IMC synergy dan IMC effectiveness. Bicara IMC memang tidak pernah lepas dari istilah “sinergi”. Sinergi sendiri dapat diartikan sebagai sebuah fenomena di mana efek gabungan dari beberapa kegiatan komunikasi merek

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melebihi jumlah dari efek masing-masing (Belch & Belch, 1998; Naik & Raman, 2003). Hal senada juga dikatakan oleh Reid (2003), di mana melalui IMC, sinergi dari semua komunikasi dapat dicapai oleh perusahaan, yang pada gilirannya akan meningkatkan kinerja merek. Hal ini karena sinergi bisa menjamin berbagai aktivitas komunikasi merek dapat saling memerkuat satu dengan yang lainnya (Duncan & Moriarty, 1998; Eagle & Kitchen, 2000; Hines, 1999; Reid, 2003; Estaswara, 2008a). Dalam IMC synergy, ada tiga hal yang perlu diperhatikan, yaitu interactivity, strategic consistency, dan complementary. Menurut Duncan dan Moriarty (1998), interaktivitas mengacu pada proses komunikasi yang dapat menghubungkan antara stakeholders dengan merek dan juga perusahaan. Sedangkan strategic consistency mengacu pada koordinasi atas semua pesan dalam komunikasi merek dan penciptaan efek ‘one voice’ (Brown, 1997; Estaswara, 2008b). Terakhir, menurut Madhavaram (et. al., 2005), complementary atau saling melengkapi atas berbagai aktivitas komunikasi merek merujuk pada efek yang memperkuat semua aktivitasaktivitas komunikasi merek yang dilakukan perusahaan. Sedangkan faktor yang kedua, IMC effectiveness, menyatakan bahwa sinergi dari semua aktivitas komunikasi merek melalui pendekatan IMC, memiliki potensi besar untuk tercapainya efektivitas tujuan yang telah ditetapkan (Madhavaram et. al., 2005). Konsepsi tentang IMC di atas tidak hanya digunakan sebagai dasar dalam merumuskan strategi IMC yang bersifat eksternal saja. Namun juga digunakan untuk komunikasi internal. Hal ini mengingat bahwa internal communication juga membutuhkan sinergi dan efektivitas IMC dengan tujuan untuk menyelaraskan brand perception dari semua internal stakeholders (Estaswara, 2010, 2011c). Gambaran pendekatan IMC dalam pembangunan brand identity menuju brand relationship guna menciptakan brand loyalty dan equity dapat dilihat dalam Gambar 1 di bawah ini.

IMC SYNERGY IMC EFFECTIVEN ESS

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IMC SYNERGY IMC EFFECTIVEN ESS

Mengacu pada gambar di atas, pemahaman bahwa brand adalah promise yang dibangun melalui brand vision dan values merupakan persoalan bagaimana proposisi nilai harus dirumuskan dan dikomunikasikan kepada karyawan (employee branding), sehingga tercipta living the brand. Ini semua akan memberikan dasar bagi terciptanya brand identity yang berbasis budaya perusahaan. Gagasan ini merupakan bentuk dari internal IMC atau internal brand communication. Selanjutnya, merespon komunikasi merek dari perusahaan, external stakeholders, termasuk pelanggan, akan melakukan reflection terhadap brand. Hasil dari perilaku ini akan membangun persepsinya tentang brand identity yang telah dikomunikasikan oleh perusahaan (penciptaan brand image). Tidak hanya itu, juga akan membangun asosiasi-asosiasi (brand associations) serta kepercayaannya tentang brand. Semua respon ini selanjutnya akan

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menciptakan eksternalisasi merek ketika berhubungan dengan suatu merek (interactivity dalam IMC synergy―Madhavaram et. al., 2005) berdasarkan atas brand associations serta kepercayaannya atas merek tersebut (Kapferer, 2007). Konsepsi ini disebut eksternalisasi atau “pembudayaan” nilai-nilai merek yang berasal dari eksternal. Semua proses ini dikatakan sebagai external IMC atau external brand communication, yang merupakan respon terhadap komunikasi brand identity (outcome) menuju terciptanya brand relationship. Terakhir, outcomes dari interaksi dinamis yang berbasis two-way communications antara brand communication internal dan eksternal akan menciptakan brand loyalty (Estaswara, 2011a, 2011b) yang pada gilirannnya brand equity akan terbentuk.

Penutup Brand management sebagai sebuah disiplin ilmu telah melahirkan beragam perspektif, salah satunya adalah apa yang telah dijabarkan dalam tulisan ini yang mengadopsi pendekatan brand identity dan tetap mempertahankan perspektif klasik, yaitu sender-focused dalam kerangka paradigma positivis. Namun demikian, tulisan ini juga mencoba membedah dari sisi receiver (konsumen, pelanggan dan stakeholders) dalam merespon komunikasi merek perusahaan. Hal ini mengingat bahwa brand management hari ini harus memahami needs dan wants audience-nya. Di sisi lain, walaupun tulisan ini telah menjelaskan brand management mapping secara holistik, namun sifatnya hanya umum dan masih banyak ruang yang perlu untuk dikembangkan, seperti penajaman pemikiran terkait dengan hubungan antara product-brand dengan corporate-brand, kaitan antara brand personality dengan brand relationship yang menyertakan konsepsi tentang stakeholder relations, dan lainnya, sehingga mampu menghasilkan big picture of reality secara lengkap dan mendalam.

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PART FOUR: The Role of Communication & Media in Winning Competition

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VALUE CREATION THROUGH RELATIONSHIP IN ENTREPRENEURIAL MARKETING – A PUBLIC RELATIONS PERSPECTIVE

By: Suharyanti Department of Communication Studies Faculty of Economics and Social Science – Universitas Bakrie

Due to the tough competition and the increasing demand of customers, firms need to improve its entrepreneurial marketing as an anticipation of a rapid changing environment. Entrepreneurial marketing prior research found that value creation through relationship and alliance are the one of the characteristic of entrepreneurial marketing behavior. Therefore, the traditional marketing which is entrepreneurial emphasizing only on transactional relationship may not be adequate for today’s dynamic business environment. Instead of transactional relationship, the concept of relationship marketing which concerning of valuable mutual relationship creation between firms and broader stakeholders, is more suitable. In communication perspective, the important of relationship building with stakeholder is the domain of public relations concept. The contribution of public relations in entrepreneurial marketing which is focused on creating stakeholder value is the concern of this paper. “Relations” in public relations encompass an external and internal stakeholder of the firm. Related to the concept of entrepreneurial marketing and relationship marketing, public relations also concern with building and maintaining reciprocal communication and mutual understanding with firm’s stakeholder, in order to create long term and valuable relationship Key Words: Entrepreneurial marketing, , Value creation, Public relations, Relationship . I.

Pendahuluan

Semakin ketatnya persaingan dalam dunia bisnis dan situasi dunia usaha yang bergejolak dan seringkali sulit diprediksi mengubah paradigma di bidang pemasaran , dari bisnis yang berorientasi pada produksi pada awal abad ke-20, menuju bisnis yang berorientasi pada membangun dan mempertahankan hubungan. Paradigma baru ini menggambarkan telah terjadi pergeseran orientasi bisnis dari yang semula bersifat transaksional dan berorientasi pada kepentingan perusahaan menjadi bisnis yang lebih bersifat relasional dengan mementingkan hubungan jangka panjang dan berorientasi pada kepentingan stakeholder.

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Seiring dengan kondisi diatas, salah satu hal yang perlu diantisipasi perusahaan adalah meningkatkan kemampuan entrepreneurial marketing. Konsep entrepreneurial marketing merupakan sinergi dari dua konsep yang berbeda namun saling terkait satu sama lain, yaitu konsep pemasaran dan entrepreneurship.

Backbro dan Nystrom

yang melakukan penelitian tentang entrepreneurial marketing

menyatakan bahwa : “Entrepreneurial marketing is the overlapping aspects between entrepreneurship and marketing; therefore it is the behavior shown by any individual and/or organization that entrepreneurial marketing is to establish and promote market ideas, while developing new ones in order to create value.” (Backbro, Nystrom, 2006).

Entrepreneurial marketing

juga

didefinisikan sebagai, the proactive identification and

exploitation of opportunities for acquiring and retaining profitable customers through innovative approaches to risk managentrepreneurial marketingent, resource leveraging and value creation.” (Morris et al., 2002) . Dari dua definisi tersebut tampak bahwa value creation atau penciptaan nilai merupakan salah satu aspek penting dalam entrepreneurial marketing. Studi

mengenai entrepreneurial marketing yang pernah dilakukan oleh

Kilenthong, Hills, Hutman dan Sclove menunjukkan bahwa value creation melalui relationship dan strategic alliance merupakan salah satu karakteristik dari perilaku entrepreneurial marketing (Kilenthong et al.,2005). Karakteristik tersebut sesuai dengan paradigma relationship marketing yang penekanannya pada value creation melalui hubungan timbal balik yang setara dan saling menguntungkan antara perusahaan dengan stakeholder nya .

Dalam perspektif ilmu komunikasi, pentingnya membina hubungan baik dengan stakeholder sering menjadi pembahasan dalam ranah public relations. Substansi dari berbagai kajian 403


tentang konsep public relations pada dasarnya bermuara pada creating valuable relationship. Makalah ini khusus membahas tentang kontribusi public relations dalam entrepreneurial marketing, khususnya yang terkait dengan stakeholder value creation.

II.

Value Creation dalam Entrepreneurial Marketing

Beberapa penelitian terdahulu mengenai entrepreneurial marketing tentang value creation (Hills, Hansen, Hultman, 2005).

banyak membahas

Value creation menjadi fokus

penting dalam entrepreneurial marketing karena dalam situasi bisnis yang tidak menentu dan terus bergerak dinamis diperlukan langkah-langkah yang proaktif, inovatif dan berorientasi pada stakeholder , dimana salah satu konsep penting dari langkah-langkah tersebut adalah value creation. Beberapa penelitian terdahulu mengenai entrepreneurial marketing juga mengedepankan pentingnya value creation dari berbagai perspektif yang berbeda. Backbro dan Nystrom menekankan pada pentingnya value creation yang inovatif khususnya untuk usaha kecil dan menengah (Backbro, Nystrom, 2006). Kemampuan untuk menangkap peluang usaha, juga merupakan salah satu aspek dalam value creation yang menjadi pokok bahasan dalam penelitian Hills, Hansen dan Hultman. (Hills, Hansen dan Hultman, 2005)

Peneltian Kilenthong, Hills, Hultman dan Sclove membahas value creation dalam studi kuantitatif mengenai relasi sistematis antara beberapa karakteristik - dalam perusahaan yaitu firm’s age, size dan operator dengan karakteristik entrepreneurial marketing , dimana salah satu karakteristik yang dibahas adalah value creation melalui relationship dan strategic alliance (Kilenthong, Hills, Hultman dan Sclove, 2010).

Seperti telah dikemukakan

sebelumnya, makalah ini akan membahas value creation dalam entrepreneurial marketing dari perspektif public relations. Secara spesifik makalah ini akan menelaah keterkaitan antara value creation melalui relationship dan strategic alliance, entrepreneurial marketing 404


dan public relations , serta bagaimana kontribusi konsep-konsep public relations dapat memperkaya kajian entrepreneurial marketing .

III. Apa yang menjadi Value dalam Public Relations? Di dalam organisasi, public relations menjembatani antara kepentingan perusahaan dengan kepentingan stakeholder

agar tercipta hubungan harmonis antara kedua belah pihak.

Hubungan timbal balik yang harrmonis dapat dibangun hanya jika terjadi komunuikasi dua arah antara perusahaan dengan stakeholder. Public relations didefinisikan sebagai planned process to influence public opinion, through sound character and proper performance, based on mutually satisfactory two way communication (Seitel, 2011). Disamping itu definisi dari Public relations Society of America (PRSA) yang dikutip oleh Frank Seitel menyebutkan bahwa: Public relations helps an organization and its publics adapt mutually to each other (Seitel, 2011). Dari definisi-definisi diatas dapat diambil benang merah bahwa inti dari kegiatan public relations adalah segala sesuatu yang terkait hubungan perusahaan dengan stakeholder. Pada sisi

stakeholder hubungan yang baik dengan perusahaan akan menciptakan kepercayaan bagi stakeholder yang pada gilirannya akan berkontribusi pada kinerja perusahaan, baik yang terkait dengan produktivitas, profit dan dalam jangka panjang adalah reputasi perusahaan. Hon dan Grunig mengaitkan relationship ini dengan efektivitas organisasi sebagai berikut;

Effective organizations choose and achieve appropriate goals because they develop relationships with their constituencies, which public relations practitioners typically call publics. Ineffective organizations cannot achieve their goals, at least in part, because their publics do not support and typically opposemanagement efforts to achieve what publics consider illegitimate goals. goals (Hon, Grunig, 1999)

405


Stakeholder dalam perusahan sangat bervariasi antara satu perusahaan dengan perusahaan lainnya, tergantung pada jenis usaha yang ditekuni oleh perusahaan yang bersangkutan. James Grunig, menyebutkan bahwa secara umum satu perusahaan mentrepreneurial marketingiliki enam kelompok publik atau stakeholder seperti yang terlihat pada gambar 1. (Grunig, Hunt 2000) Gambar 1. Publik (stakeholder) pada Organisasi, (James Grunig dan Tod Hunt)

Overseas Customers Governments Int bank Int agency Business partners

Government Central Regional local

relations

dalam

perusahaan

Publics Broad based grouping Opinion formers Pressure Groups Media

Financial Financial media Shareholde rs/ owners Banks

Compan y

Commercial Suppliers Wholesalers/R etailers Customer Potential Cust

Internal Entrepreneur ial marketingplo yees Managentrep reneurial marketingent bertanggung

jawab

Public untuk

mengelola hubungan dengan seluruh stakeholder tersebut. Dalam implementasinya, hal ini tidaklah semudah membalik telapak tangan, karena karakter, kepentingan dan ekspektasi setiap stakeholder dalam perusahaan seringkali berbeda-beda satu sama lain bahkan kadangkala justru kepentingan dan ekspektasi diantara mereka saling bertentangan satu sama lain. Dalam kondisi yang lebih ekstrim friksi diantara perusahaan dengan stakeholdernya akan mengarah pada munculnya isu-isu dan bermuara pada terjadinya krisis. Memenuhi 406


kepentingan dan ekspektasi seluruh stakeholder yang terkait dengan perusahaan dan meyelaraskannya dengan kepentingan perusahaan bukanlah hal yang mudah. Oleh karena itu Grunic dan Hon dalam penelitiannya mengenai hubungan dengan stakeholder menyatakan bahwa dari sekian banyak stakeholder yang harus dikelola hubungannya, public relations harus dapat membuat skala prioritas untuk menentukan stakeholder- yang paling stategis bagi perusahaan. Public relations makes an organization more effective, therefore, when it identifies the most strategic publics as part of strategic management processes and conducts communication programs to develop and maintain effective long-term relationships between management and those publics. (Hon, Grunig, 1999)

Ketika public relations dapat mendukung perusahaan untuk membangun hubungan yang baik dengan stakeholder-stakeholder utama , maka resiko timbulnya friksi yang menyangkut masalah litigasi, regulasi, boikot, kampanye yang menyudutkan perusahaan atau kerugian finansial dapat ditekan. Di sisi lain hubungan baik dalam bentuk dukungan dari stakeholder seperti konsumen, donor, pemegang saham dan pemerintah secara tidak langsung dapat membantu meningkatkan profit. (Hon, Grunig, 1999). Dari uraian tersebut dapat dilihat bahwa value dari public relations , baik secara konseptual maupun pada tataran praktis terletak pada relationship.

IV. Kontribusi Public Relations dalam Entrepreneurial Marketing Suatu relationship yang sukses dalam public relations memiliki beberapa dimensi, yaitu (Hon, Grunig, 1999)  Control Mutuality; organisasi dengan stakeholder mempunyai kekuatan untuk saling memengaruhi  Trust; stakeholder memiliki keyakinan dan kesediaan untuk membuka diri kepada pihak lain atas dasar: 407


o

integrity – percaya bahwa organisasi bertindak dengan adil dan terbuka (fair.) dependability – percaya bahwa organisasi memiliki

o

melakukan apa yang seharusnya o

niat baik untuk

dilakukan.

competence – percaya bahwa organisasi memiliki kemampuan untuk melakukan apa yang seharusnya dilakukan.

 Satisfaction; organisasi dan stakeholder merasa puas satu sama lain karena adanya ekspektasi yang positif dari penguatan hubungan antara kedua belah pihak.  Commitment; stakeholder yakin bahwa hubungan yang terjalin layak dan berharga untuk dipertahankan. Dimensi ini terdiri dari dua aspek, yaitu continuance commitment yang berorientasi tindakan nyata dan affective commitment yang lebih menekankan pada hubungan emosional.  Exchange Relationship; organisasi memberikan sesuatu pada stakeholder hanya jika stakeholder dapat memberi manfaat atau diharapkan dapat memberi manfaat bagi organisasi  Communal Relationship; organisasi merasakan manfaat atas hubungan yang terjalin tanpa mengharapkan imbalan dalam bentuk apapun dan semata-mata karena adanya tanggung jawab sosial

Pembahasan mengenai value creation dalam entrepreneurial marketing sering dibahas dari perspektif, manajemen, pemasaran atau kepemimpinan (Mc.Daniel, B. A. 2002), (Hollensen, S. 2004).

Sejauh ini masih jarang penelitian

yang menjelaskan hubungan

antara

entrepreneurial marketing dengan public relations , padahal jika dilihat dari perspektif public relations khususnya mengenai valuable relationship, terdapat keterkaitan yang erat anatar kedua konsep tersebut.

408


Perilaku (behavior) entrepreneurial marketing mensyaratkan adanya pola pikir yang bersifat Entrepreneurial. (Hills, Hutman, 2002). Adapun pola pikir entrepreneurial yang diadaptasi oleh penelitian-penelitian terdahulu, (Miller & Friesen, 1983), (Covin & Slevin,1994), (Krzner, 1973), oleh Hill dan Hutman meliputi ; innovative, calculated risk takes, proactive dan opportunity. Keempat pola pikir inilah yang menjadi dasar bagi terbentuknya perilaku entrepreneurial marketing. menyatakan bahwa

Seperti telah dikemukakan sebelumnya,

Hills dan Hutman

salah satu karakterisrik perilaku entrepreneurial marketing

adalah

relationship dan strategic alliance . Implementasi dari karakteristik ini tentunya juga harus didasari pola pikir innovative, calculated risk takes, proactive dan opportunity.

Jika dikaitkan dengan konsep public relations, relationship dan strategic alliance yang berdasarkan pola pikir innovative, calculated risk takes, proactive dan opportunity dapat dielaborasi melalui enam dimensi successful relationship yang dikemukakan oleh Hon dan Grunig, yaitu control mutuality, trust, satisfaction, commitment, exchange relationship dan communal relationship, seperti terlihat pada gambar 2.

Gambar 2. Kontribusi Public Relations dalam perilaku Entrepreneurial marketing Entrepreneurial Thinking Relationship  Innovative  calculated risk takes  proactive  opportunity

Entrepreneurial Marketing Behavior

Relationship and Strategic Alliance

Succsesful      

Sinergi antara entrepreneurial thinking dan succesfull relationship

control mutuality trust satisfaction commitment exchange relationship communal relationship

melebur dalam

409


karakteristik relationship and strategic alliance. Dari sudut pandang entrepreneurial thinking, valuable strategic alliance dapat dibentuk

apabila organisasi secara proaktif

mampu mengoptimalkan peluang untuk menciptakan ide-ide yang inovatif dalam mengelola hubungan dengan tetap memperhitungkan berbagai resiko yang ada.

Sementara dari perspektif public relations, value dari karakeristik relationship dan strategic alliance terletak pada bagaimana organisasi menjalin hubungan yang berorientasi jangka panjang, Hal ini tercermin dari sejauh mana organisasi mampu mengelola hubungan yang setara serta

saling menguntungkan dengan stakeholder berdasarkan komitmen dan

kepercayaan (trust), Disamping itu, pada kondisi-kondisi tertentu, organisasi juga perlu mempertimbangkan unsur tanggung jawab sosial dari sebuah hubungan .

Dari uraian diatas dapat dikatakan bahwa kontribusi konsep public relations entrepreneurial marketing, adalah mengenai valuable relationship pemikiran

lebih komprehensif

pada

yang memberikan

dalam menganalisis salah satu karakteristik perilaku

entrepreneurial marketing, yaitu relationship dan strategic alliance.

V.

Kesimpulan

Value creation

dalam konteks perilaku entrepreneurial marketing , khususnya pada

karakteristik relationship dan strategic alliance erat kaitannya dengan esensi konsep public relations, yaitu ‘relationship’. Jika latar belakang pemikiran perilaku entrepreneurial marketing; innovative, calculated risk takes, proactive dan opportunity lebih mengarah pada

bagaimana

menciptakan relationship dan strategic alliance, perspektif public relations mengajinya dari sisi bagaimana mengelola dan mempertahankan hubungan tersebut dengan mengacu pada

410


dimensi controllable mutually, trust, satisfaction, commitment, exchange relationship dan communal relationship.

Elaborasi yang lebih komprehensif maupun spesifik mengenai

keterkaitan antara entrepreneurial marketing , relationship dan strategic alliance dalam perilaku entrepreneurial marketing serta public relations tentunya perlu dilakukan melalui studi lanjut baikdalam bentuk pemikiran konseptual, maupun melalui penelitian studi kasus di suatu organisasi.

Daftar Pustaka Bäckbro, Johan, Nyström, Hampus and Gustafsson, Karl Erik. (2006), “Entrepreneurial Marketing; Innovative Value Creation”, Jonkoping Interational Business School. Dees, J. Gregory.(1998), “The Meaning of Social Entrepreneurship, Stanford University. Grunig, James and Hunt Todd. (1984), Managing Public Relations, Wadsworth Publishing; 1 edition. Hills, Gerald E., Hansen, David J. and Hultman, Claes, (2005), “International Journal Entrepreneurship and Small Business”, Vol 2, No 4. Hollensen, S. (2004), “Global Marketing, a Decision-Oriented Approach”, 3rd ed. Pearson Education: England. Hon, Linda Childers and Grunig, James E., (1999), Guidelines for Measuring Relationship in Public Relations, Institute of Public Relations. Kilenthong, Pitsamorn, Hills, Gerald E., Sclove, Stanley L. and Hultman, Claes, (2005) “Entrepreneurial Marketing Practice: Systematic Relationships with Firm Age, Firm Size, and Operator’s Status”, University St Gallen, Swiss. McDaniel, B.A. (2002), “Entrepreneurship and Innovation, an Economic Approach. New York, U.S.A.: M. E. Sharpe Inc. Morris, M., Schindehutte, M. and La Forge, R. W. (2002) “EntrepreneurialMarketing: A construct for Integrating Entrepreneurship and Marketing Perspectives”, Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, Vol. 10, No. 4. Seitel, P. Fraser. (2011), “The Practice of Public Relations”, Pearson Education, Inc. New Jersey.

411


Pembentukan Cyber Culture dalam Forum Komunitas Online Kaskus Fiona Suwana Sherly Haristya STIKOM The London School of Public Relations - Jakarta ABSTRACT The existence of a unique phenomenon in which Internet community forums have grown includes Kaskus.us from Indonesia that has nearly 4 million members. In this forum, there are symbolic interactions of words and the rules which eventually form a culture marked by cohesion and solidarity between the members of kaskus. Theories that have been used are the symbolic interaction, new media, online forum, and online community. This study applies a phenomenological approach, in other words, research that focuses on the true meaning of a phenomenon based on actual experiences of individuals. Data collection methods were through participant observation and in-depth interviews. This study tries to find out how the formation of cyberculture through symbolic interaction in the online community forums. Keyword: symbolic interaction, new media, online forum, online community

A.

Latar Belakang Fenomena yang ada dalam perkembangan media baru adalah maraknya forum komunitas

online, salah satunya adalah Kaskus.us. Forum komunitas online yang asli Indonesia ini memiliki member terbanyak dibandingkan dengan forum-forum lainnya, yaitu hampir 4 juta member. Segala interaksi simbolik member di dalamnya, terjadi dengan menggunakan simbol, kata-kata, dan peraturan sehingga pada akhirnya membentuk suatu kultur yang ditandai dengan kohesivitas dan solidaritas di antara member terhadap forum komunitas online itu sendiri. Kaskus.us adalah salah satu situs Indonesia yang paling banyak dibuka di dunia dengan menyediakan tempat untuk saling berbagi berbagai macam hal. Pada bulan November 1999, Andrew Darwis, mahasiswa Indonesia yang berkuliah di Seattle, Amerika Serikat mendirikan sebuah forum komunitas online sebagai pemenuhan sebagian dari tugas kuliahnya. Andrew mendirikan forum ini berfungsi sebagai wadah bertukar informasi dan menyalurkan hobi dengan leluasa bagi para mahasiswa Indonesia yang menjalani kuliah di Amerika. Forum tersebut diberi nama Kasak Kusuk kemudian disingkat menjadi Kaskus.

412


Berikut ini adalah kutipan hasil wawancara dengan Andrew Darwis yang diambil dari Koran Topsoccer “Pada mulanya Kaskus dibuat untuk menyalurkan hobi saya berkomunitas di internet, kebetulan pada waktu itu hampir tidak ada situs komunitas di Indonesia” (Edisi Kamis, 8 April 2010: 16). Seiringnya waktu Kaksus semakin berkembang dan diminati oleh masyarakat Indonesia sehingga komunitas online ini bisa dibilang besar mengingat jumlah anggotanya yang terus bertambah. Kaskus memiliki kultur unik di dalamnya yaitu simbol-simbol kata, aturan tidak tertulis, kohesivitas, dan loyalitas di tengah-tengah anggotanya yang beragam. Istilah di kalangan komunitasnya seperti sebutan “Kaskuser” bagi para pengakses Kaskus.us, “bata” sebagai penanda reputasi negatif bagi Kaskuser nakal yang melanggar aturan di Kaskus, “cendol” sebagai bentuk penghargaan bagi reputasi baik Kaskuser dan thread yang dipostingnya, “pertamax” sebagai kebanggaan seorang Kaskuser akan keberhasilannya memberikan respon di peringkat pertama pada suatu thread, aturan larangan untuk memposting thread yang sama lebih dari satu kali, dan lainnya. Contoh tersebut adalah bentuk nyata akan simbol berupa kata-kata yang dimiliki komunitas Kaskus dan peraturan tidak tertulis yang bergulir begitu saja dan dipertukarkan secara meluas dari mulut Kaskuser satu ke mulut Kaskuser lainnya tanpa adanya sosialisasi dan kontrol ketat dari Andrew. Semua itu merupakan hasil interaksi dan komunikasi antar anggotanya. Penggunaan berbagai istilah dan peraturan tidak formal tersebut membentuk suatu kultur di dalam forum komunitas online Kaskus.us. Member kaskuser yang mendapatkan reward cendol dari Kaskuser lainnya akan semakin dipercaya, namun sebaliknya jika mendapatkan punishment bata justru akan tidak dipercaya ketika dia berinteraksi dan memposting suatu thread. Secara hukum alam di dunia Kaskus, dengan adanya bata kaskuser akan tidak dipercayai (tersingkir) bahkan akunnya bisa diblokir oleh moderator (momod). Momod adalah member Kaskus yang memiliki hak dan kewajiban lebih di dalam menenggarai suatu forum di dalam Kaskus.

413


Dari pemaknaan tiap individu akan simbol-simbol dan peraturan yang berlaku di Kaskus, kemudian akan membentuk kohesivitas di antara sesama Kaskuser, bahkan lebih jauh dari itu akan membentuk cyberculture di dalam komunitas Kaskus. Ada rasa bangga yang melekat di diri Kaskuser ketika menggunakan istilah-istilah tersebut yang kemudian menjadi pemersatu dan menimbulkan solidaritas di antara mereka sehingga dengan senangnya mereka berbagi informasi penting, serta dengan mudahnya mempercayai Kaskuser lain ketika berkomunikasi atau melakukan transaksi jual beli. Fenomena unik Kaskus ini begitu dahsyatnya sehingga mengalami perkembangan tidak hanya sebatas pada saat pengaksesan Kaskus.us, tetapi juga menular pada komunikasi di media online lainnya bahkan hingga terbawa di dunia nyata, seperti pengakuan ini: Ada beberapa istilah yang menarik seperti ‘gan’ singkatan dari juragan untuk menyapa sesama anggota Kaskusers, ‘cendol’, ‘bata’, dan lain sebagainya. Nampaknya hal ini sudah menjadi budaya bahasa tersendiri di dunia maya dan kadang terbawa ke kehidupan nyata yang dapat mencirikan bahwa ia adalah seorang Kaskusers. Ada kebanggaan tersendiri ketika sesama Kaskusers berbicara dengan bahasa Kaskus di dunia nyata. Memang forum online ini memiliki bahasa, kelas sosial, dan etika yang tercipta secara tidak sengaja dan dapat dikatakan mirip sebuah Kultus. (http://yepiye.wordpress.com/2009/04/21/kaskusforum-komunikasi-online-indonesia-yang-nyaris-menjadi-budaya/, Senin, 4 Juli 2011). Menurut Cerulo dalam Thomsen (1998) perlunya penelitian lebih lanjut mengenai kualitas interaksi yang terjadi dalam komunitas online dengan komunitas pertemuan fisik,

sehingga

melalui uraian di atas, maka permasalahan yang akan dikaji adalah bagaimana praktek interaksi simbolik yang berlangsung diantara para anggotanya dan bagaimana terbentuknya cyberculture melalui interaksi simbolik tersebut di dalam forum komunitas online Kaskus.us.

A. Teori dan Konsep Potensi Teori Interaksi Simbolik dalam Media Baru Simbol merupakan konsep utama Interaksi Simbolik yang memiliki 4 makna, yaitu simbol adalah objek sosial, simbol penuh makna, simbol untuk komunikasi dan representasi, dan simbol sengaja digunakan. Ada kata yang paling mudah dikenali sebagai simbol. Ada body language

414


yang bisa dijadikan simbol untuk merepresentasikan sesuatu dan ada objek fisikal seperti warna, pakaian, aksesoris, bendera, serta lainnya bisa dijadikan simbol (Charon 2007:141). Menurut Charon, bahasa merupakan simbol yang istimewa karena diproduksi dan mampu merepresentasikan realitas sebenarnya. Bahasa merupakan sistem simbolisasi yang didefinisikan dalam interaksi sosial, digunakan untuk berkomunikasi, dan merupakan kumpulan kata yang memiliki makna ketika sudah distandarisasi berdasarkan pada aturan yang berlaku. Dalam Kaskus ada banyak sekali bahasa “gaul” yang digunakan, seperti sebutan Juragan untuk menyapa anggota lainnya, Pertamaz jika berhasil menjadi komentator pertama, Cendol diberikan pada mereka yang memiliki Good Reputation, Bata Merah diberikan pada mereka yang memiliki Bad Reputation. Tiga konsep pemikiran Mead dalam Interaksi Simbolik (mind , self, dan society) Society, masyarakat (organisasi) manusia itu selalu dimulai dengan interaksi sosial, dimana bergantung dengan kerjasama, dan saling memupuk ketergantungan. Masyarakat bisa Mind, merupakan bagian dalam interaksi simbolik. Dalam interaksi simbolik, mind merupakan jenis dari tindakan, maka Charon menyebut mind sebagai “mind action” karena mind mempengaruhi segala tingkah laku manusia. Ketika orang berbicara pada dirinya sendiri maka itu tergantung mind, ketika orang memaknai sebuah simbol maka mind ikut terlibat. Mind selalu aktif untuk menghubungkan konsep self dan simbol dalam interaksi (2007:152). Charon (2007) menjabarkan proses terbentuknya Self,

dimulai dengan Preparatory

stage: interaksi yang dilakukan oleh self hanya sebatas imitasi dimana self belum mengerti mengenai suatu makna. Play stage: self dimulai dikenali oleh significant other dan self sudah mampu menyatakan suatu objek dengan kata yang memiliki makna bersama. Game stage: self mulai menggabungkan beberapa significant other menjadi satu generalized other (society). Interaksi dengan society membawa self berhadapan dengan peraturan dan perspektif yang berlaku untuk bertindak. Reference stage: self berinteraksi dengan society, mulai terikat dengan kelompok

415


yang opininya dinilai penting sehingga memiliki banyak social self. Keberadaan setiap kelompok akan mempengaruhi, memaknai diri, bertindak, serta bisa memutuskan mengenai rujukannya. Society terus berlanjut dikarenakan budaya dikembangkan, dimana itu menjadi penting bagi individu-individu yang membangun masyarakat. Untuk sampai pada interaksi simbolik, terdapat 3 kualitas penting yang dapat membuat masyarakat tetap hidup (Charon, 2007:155), yaitu 1. Society Is Symbolic Interaction Shibutani menekankan dunia sosial dibuat oleh individu-individu yang berkomunikasi dengan simbol-simbol dan berbagi perspektif. Dunia sosial ini kurang terikat secara geografis namun diselenggarakan melalui komunikasi dan berbagi realitas. Secara logika, dunia sosial dengan masyarakat tidak terikat dengan kesatuan geografis tapi melalui interaksi simbolik dan komunikasi yang berlangsung melalui pengertian dari simbol. Suatu kelompok dibentuk dari individu-individu yang bertindak kepada lainnya, mereka memperhatikan tindakan terkait; ikut serta; saling bergantung; tidak saling meniru; dan setiap tindakan dari indivdiu lainnya menjadi penting. Revolusi dunia dalam interaksi sosial terus berjalan melalui handphone, kemudahan berpergian, kabel optik fiber, kerjasama multinasional, dan internet yang secara meningkat telah membuat satu masyarakat dunia yang belum pernah ada sebelumnya (Charon, 2007:157-158). 2. Society is Symbolic Interaction that is Characterized by Cooperation Action Masyarakat melibatkan keterikatan aksi kerjasama. Masyarakat terdiri dari koordinasi atas aksi (coordination of action), turut serta (join action), tindakan dimana para aktor bekerja sama di samping tujuan masing-masing. Masyarakat eksis selama orang-orang bekerja sama di samping perbedaan mereka, terdapat ketergantungan dalam interaksi sosial dimana orang-orang mencapai tujuan-tujuannya yang cocok, melengkapi, dan terkadang sama. Suatu masyarakat dapat tebentuk ketika saling berinteraksi secara kooperatif (Charon, 2007:159). 3. Society is Social Interaction that is Symbolic, that is Characterized by Cooperation and that Develops Culture

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Cultural Is a Shared Perspective, interaksi simbolik yang kooperatif menghasilkan budaya, setiap masyarakat memiliki budaya. Budaya bisa untuk menghasilkan pemandu untuk beraksi. Budaya bisa berarti konsensus dari suatu kelompok, perjanjian, tujuan, pengetahuan, pemahaman, nilai-nilai, berbagi bahasa yang muncul bersama-sama. Culture is a Generalized Other, budaya tidak dapat dianggap sebagai suatu cara untuk mendefiniskan realitas tapi harus diperluas untuk mencakup suatu aturan. Generalized other berisi hukum yang harus ditaati seperti sistem, adat, aturan formal/informal, prosedur, hal yang tabu, tradisi, moral. Itu bisa berarti suatu panduan untuk berperilaku yang baik dalam kelompok. Culture Maintains Society, produk dari budaya itu penting karena menjadi kontinuitas dari society, bisa terjadi karena masyarakat datang untuk berbagi. A generalized other itu menjadi penting untuk mengkontrol dan mengarahkan diri, dimana membuat aksi konsisten melalui apa yang dilakukan orang lain, disepakati, dan dibangun dalam interaksi daripada keinginan mendadak dari setiap individu (Charon, 2007:162-164). Peran Media Baru dalam Perkembangan Komunikasi Online Media baru yang dalam hal ini diekspresikan dalam teknologi Internet, mengacu pada pengunaan publik seperti berita online, iklan, penyiaran, aplikasi (berupa music downloading, dan lainnya), forum/aktivitas diskusi, world wide web, pencarian informasi, dan potensi pembentukkan komunitas tertentu. Pergerakan menuju era komunikasi digital telah menghasilkan lingkungan media baru yang bersifat interaktif dan memungkinkan berbagai macam fungsi komunikasi dilakukan melalui komputer (McQuail,2005:136,140). Karakteristik Media Baru Istilah ‘media baru’ merujuk pada jangkauan yang luas terhadap perubahan dalam media produksi, distribusi, dan penggunaan. Perubahan ini termasuk teknologikal, tekstual, konvensional, dan kebudayaan. Syarat utama dalam wacana tentang media baru adalah digital, interaktif, hipertekstual, virtual, jaringan, dan simulasi. (Lister, et al., 2009)

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Forum Online Forum diskusi yang melibatkan kelompok yang besar atau khalayak yang bertemu sebagai hasil dari kegiatan lain. Forum digunakan untuk mengumpulkan opini publik atau mendengarkan keluhan warga kota karena melibatkan sejumlah orang, walau bertele-tele tetapi bermanfaat untuk mencapai tujuan yang berguna untuk mendorong keterlibatan warga kota (Curtis, Floyd, dan Windsor,2002:168). Ada hal yang dianggap amat penting dalam forum diskusi online yaitu interaktivitas. Interaktivitas penting untuk memfasilitasi keterlibatan dan menyangga kestabilan keanggotaan kelompok. Menurut Rafaeli dan Sudweeks (Thurlow and etc 2007:67), interaktivitas dapat didefinisikan sampai batas mana rangkaian pesan terhubung saling terhubung, dan khususnya sampai batas mana pesan terakhir dapat menjelaskan pesan sebelumnya. Teknologi internet sebagai pendukung interaktivitas merupakan keuntungan luar biasa bagi komunikasi melalui media komputer (Thurlow, Engel, and Tomic, 2007:66). Komunitas Online Kemunculan komunitas online yang termasuk dalam teknologi komunikasi internet dianggap dapat “menghilangkan” komunitas yang sesungguhnya. Komunikasi dengan media komputer (Computer Mediated Communication) juga dianggap oleh Sproull dan Kiesler dapat merusak norma dan pengaruh sosial dimana orang tidak merasa harus menaati peraturan dan berperilaku dengan pantas (Thurlow, Engel, Tomic, 2007:61). Menurut McQuail (2005:149), beberapa ciri dari komunitas yang “asli” memang dapat ditemukan dalam komunitas online seperti interaksi, tujuan umum, identitas dan sense of belonging, berbagai norma dan aturan tidak tertulis. Pendapat ini diperkuat McLaughlin dan koleganya (Thurlow, Engel, Tomic, 2007:65) yang memberi contoh bahwa orang yang tergabung dalam newsgroup atau mailing list sering menegur siapapun yang melanggar aturan kelompok. Dalam forum kaskus, anggota yang berada di dalammnya bisa saling menegur satu sama lain dengan memberikan komentar kepada anggota yang menggunakan bahasa kasar mengandung SARA, menipu di dalam forum jual beli (FJB).

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Namun hanya admin dan moderator yang bisa memberikan aksi langsung seperti membuang posting dan mem-banned profil anggota yang melanggar.

B.

Metode Metode yang bisa digunakan adalah wawancara mendalam dan observasi. Teknik

pengumpulan data yang digunakan adalah data primer dari hasil wawancara mendalam dan observasi. Observasi dimana peneliti berusaha memperhatikan objek penelitian secara seksama akan aksi, karakter, bagaimana cara mereka berinteraksi serta argot yang mereka gunakan. Argot adalah bahasa khusus atau terminologi yang digunakan member sebuah kelompok yang berinteraksi secara rutin. (Neuman, 2006:396-398). Sampling penelitian ini adalah purposive sampling, yang digunakan untuk memilih anggota yang sulit dijangkau, populasi yang khusus. (Neuman, 2006: 222). Pengambilan sampling ini dilakukan dari Internet (World Wide Web) dengan menggunakan forum komunitas, di mana pengambilan sampling dari Internet bisa menjanjikan dalam memberikan sampel secara luas. Menurut Boster dan Sherry, Internet dapat menyediakan akses ke kelompok yang terlibat dalam perilaku komunikasi tertentu. Kelompok-kelompok ini sering menjadi target untuk penelitian berbasis CMC dan mudah ditemukan karena mereka memilih untuk menempatkan dirinya di situssitus internet berdasarkan kontennya (Berger, 2010: 57-58). Seperti halnya dalam penelitian ini, yang menyasar kaskuser dalam forum komunitas Kaskus.us sebagai narasumber yaitu Adi Baskoro menjadi Kaskuser sejak tahun 2009 dan Mirza Basyiruddin sejak tahun 2004.

C. Analisis Interaksi dalam Kaskus.us Saat pertama bergabung di Kaskus, Adi Baskoro mengaku bahwa dirinya tidak berani langsung mem-post thread di forum-forum yang didatanginya. Status keanggotaannya sebagai

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newbie-lah yang mengurung dirinya melakukan post thread. Selama masih menyandang status newbie, Informan hanya memulai interaksinya dengan memberikan komentar di thread yang diikutinya. Senada dengan Adi, Mirza pun mengaku awal dia memulai interaksi dengan penghuni Kaskus lainnya dengan memberikan komentar di thread yang diikuti. Hal ini serupa dengan preparatory stage, tahap awal konsep pengembangan diri yang dikemukakan oleh Mead (Charon, 2007), dimana interaksi yang terjadi hanya berupa imitasi, sedikit makna, dan pemahaman simbolik sehingga hanya berani mengimitasi tindakan Kaskuser lainnya dengan cara memberikan komentar di thread orang lain, tetapi belum berani memulai thread dari diri sendiri. Posting pertama Adi Baskoro terjadi di Forum Jual Beli (FJB) yang didasarkan pada kebutuhannya akan pembelian atau penjualan laptop dan telepon genggam. Mirza beberapa kali bertransaksi di FJB untuk membeli DVD band kesukaannya yang sulit ditemukan di pasaran. Yang menarik adalah keduanya sama-sama percaya untuk bertransaksi dunia maya yang rentan akan penipuan. Mirza mengatakan apa yang membuatnya yakin bertransaksi di Kaskus adalah para pengguna bisa membaca testimonial dari orang lain yang pernah bertransaksi sebelumnya, “Kalo emank ada yang gak jujur langsung aja ada info dari Kaskuser lain, kalo misalnya ada korban yang ketipu langsung aja dia ngepost gitu. Ya udah orang langsung tahu dia gak baik”. Pada saat pertama kali Informan melakukan posting thread pribadi, mereka mulai memasuki Play Stage (Charon, 2007) dimana self dimulai dikenali oleh significant other dan self juga sudah mampu menyatakan suatu objek dengan kata yang memiliki makna bersama. Hal inilah yang memberanikan diri Informan untuk melakukan posting pribadi karena mulai dikenali dan sudah mampu menggunakan istilah bersama di Kaskus. Significant other di sini adalah Kaskuser lain yang bisa memberikan informasi, simbol, aturan, dan lainnya. Selain FJB, Mirza juga sering mengakses forum lain, seperti film, musik, dan komik. Kebutuhannya dapat terpenuhi melalui pertukaran informasi dalam thread-thread yang membahas mengenai informasi itu. Baginya, pertukaran informasi di Kaskus.us lebih cepat dari media lainnya. Mirza juga mengatakan

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berinteraksi dalam Kaskus.us dapat memenuhi kebutuhan sosialnya, seperti pengakuan dan aktualisasi diri. Penghargaan dari pengguna lain akan menandakan bahwa Informan diterima di lingkungan tersebut. Mirza yang merupakan pengguna senior menyebutkan juga bahwa apapun yang dikatakan walau itu tidak penting/relevan dengan topik yang ada namun tetap mendapatkan penghargaan dari kaskuser lainnya. Kaskuser bisa memenuhi kebutuhan penggunanya dengan menyatakan pendapat sekaligus menyediakan berbagai informasi, sehingga membuat Kaskus begitu melekat di pikiran para penggunanya. Kaskus bisa memenuhi kebutuhan dengan tersedianya informasi spesifik, ruang publik bebas, dan orang-orang yang memiliki minat sama. Tujuan masing-masing individu mungkin berbeda-beda. Ada yang ingin berjualan, ada yang haus pertemanan, ada yang memperluas network, ada pula yang seperti Mirza yaitu mencari informasi spesifik yang cepat dan bisa dipercaya, dan masih banyak lainnya. Tujuan yang berbeda ini bisa saling melengkapi sehingga membentuk suatu komunitas yang kooperatif. Kesediaan Kaskuser untuk saling membantu dan bekerja sama inilah yang membentuk, apa yang disebut Charon (2007) dengan society. Charon mengatakan bahwa interaksi juga bertanggung jawab terhadap society, karena melalui interaksi sehingga society terbentuk, dikukuhkan, dan diubah. Penggunaan Bahasa Kaskus Karakter Adi Baskoro yang ekstrovert, hal tersebut jadi tercermin dari sikapnya yang berusaha untuk mengikuti bahasa yang ada di Kaskus. Adi mengatakan: ”Ibaratnya, kalau saya mau masuk di satu komunitas, dimanapun, kita harus cepet mempelajari bagaimana tata cara mereka berkomunikasi biar cepet nyambungnya”. Informan berusaha mengikuti dan mempelajari cara berinteraksi, agar interaksi selanjutnya dapat berjalan sesuai dengan lingkungan Kaskus. Informan menginginkan dirinya menjadi bagian dari Kaskus, sebagai sebuah lingkungan baru tempat Informan berinteraksi. Dalam interaksi semacam ini, Informan berada dalam tahapan the Game Stage dalam tahap pembangunan diri yang diungkapkan oleh Mead.

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Bahasa Kaskus adalah ciri khas dari Kaskus.us, sesuatu yang membedakannya dengan forum-forum online sejenis. Tidak heran jika Informan berusaha mengikuti istilah-istilah yang terbentuk di sana. Diakui Mita, salah satu karyawan Kaskus.us yang mengatakan bahwa Andrew sebelumnya juga tidak tahu menahu soal istilah yang tercipta di dalam Kaskus.us. Yang dimana istilah-istilah yang saat ini ada, justru tercipta begitu saja. Penciptaan istilah juragan untuk menyapa pengguna Kaskus coba ditelaah oleh Adi Baskoro.Ia menduga bahwa sapaan juragan berasal dari FJB, juragan digunakan untuk memberi penghormatan kepada penjual barang misalnya juragan HP, juragan laptop, dan lainnya; hingga meluas penggunaannya ke forum-forum lain untuk menyapa sesama. Mirza lebih cenderung memahami bahasa melalui konteks yang ada pada interaksi yang terjadi. Penggunaan ‘Maho’ disadarinya merupakan kata untuk hinaan, walaupun belum tahu arti namun melalui interaksi, jadi disadari dan memahami konteks penggunaan ‘Maho’ yang artinya Makhluk Homo. Charon

(2007)

mengatakan,

memanggil

sesuatu

dengan

nama

artinya

telah

mengidentifikasi, menandai, membedakan, serta menyimpannya untuk kegunaan di masa datang. Hal yang sama terjadi pada kedua informan, dengan mengetahui pengertian dari istilah-istilah tersebut, pada saat dan konteks tertentu akan mampu digunakan sama seperti pengguna lain. Lebih jauh, Halliday (dalam Charon, 2007) berkata bahasa untuk menafsirkan semua pengalaman, mengurangi fenomena yang bervariasi dari dunia dalam diri dan sekitar kita, proses kesadaran kita sendiri ke beberapa fenomena untuk menggeneralisasi peristiwa, tindakan, objek, orang dan lembaga, dan lainnya. Selain istilah-istilah tersebut di atas, masih ada lagi sejumlah istilah lainnya yang bisa terbentuk dan digunakan anggotanya karena interaksi yangberlaku dalam Kaskus . Cohesion terhadap Kaskus Baik Mirza maupun Adi Baskoro mengaku memiliki keterikatan terhadap Kaskus. Artinya ada perasaan dalam diri informan bahwa dirinya adalah bagian dari Kaskus.us. Bagi Mirza, sekalipun keterikatan itu tidak begitu kuat pada Kaskus secara keseluruhan; akan tetapi pada

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thread tertentu di forum yang ia ikuti, ia merasakan keterikatan dan menjadi bagian dari dirinya. Ia bahkan merasakan thread tersebut layaknya keluarga kecil baginya. “..at least dari keluarga kecil ya thread itu, satu dua thread kecil itu aja sich. Ya ada rasa seneng aja”, ujarnya. Sedangkan bagi Adi Baskoro, rasa keterikatan itu terlihat lebih besar karena Kaskus dapat memberikan motivasi untuk menjadi pengguna yang baik. Dia merasakan adanya tindakan yang kooperatif satu sama lain antara kaskuser, terlepas dari kebutuhan jual-belinya. Keterikatan ini terjadi karena interaktivitas begitu berkembang di dalam kaskus.us. Sebagaimana Thurlow, et al. (2007) mengatakan bahwa dengan interaktivitas, suatu kelompok komunikasi bermediasi komputer dapat terikat karena bisa memfasilitasi perjanjian dan mempertahankan kestabilan kelompok. Selain itu, keterikatan yang ditunjukkan Informan juga menunjukkan adanya cohesion atau kecenderungan untuk tetap bersama-sama (Reber dalam Thurlow, 2007). Aturan dalam Kaskus Terdapat sejumlah aturan dalam Kaskus.us, dimana aturan ini terbagi menjadi tertulis dan tidak tertulis. Aturan tertulis dalam Kaskus dapat ditemui saat pertama kali seseorang mendaftar sebagai anggota berupa terms of use. Aturan ini bersifat standar dan hampir bisa ditemui di semua situs penyedia e-mail, fasilitas keanggotaan. Aturan dibuat oleh moderator untuk menjaga ketertiban interaksi yang ada dalam forum-forum. Moderator (momod) adalah ketua forum yang secara sukarela mengelola forum dalam Kaskus. Momod bisa dikatakan sebagai ‘hansip’ karena berwewenang untuk menindak segala pelanggaran aturan di forum Kaskus. Untuk melaporkan tindak pelanggaran aturan kepada momod, seorang pengguna cukup meng-klik icon ‘laporkan hansip’ yang ada di setiap box Kaskuser. Bagi Adi Baskoro, peran Administrator (Andrew Darwis, pencipta kaskus, disebut Mimin) dan Moderator adalah yang paling penting dalam forum Kaskus karena bisa mengontrol dan menghapus thread yang dianggap tidak sesuai. Secara senada, menurut Mirza, peran moderator bukan hanya sebatas pembuat aturan, akan tetapi juga mengawasi serta memperhatikan interaksi agar tidak ada yang melanggar aturan.

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Dalam hal ini, moderator dan administrator berperan sebagai significant other bagi para pengguna kaskus. Significant Other disebutkan Mead dalam Charon (2007) dengan pihak yang dianggap penting bagi setiap individu, mereka ingin mendapatkan pengakuan darinya, disegani, dan dengannya individu jadi bisa mengidentifikasi diri. Selain aturan tertulis atau tidak tertulis juga dipatuhi dan dilaksanakan oleh kaskuser. Mirza mengatakan bahwa postingan yang berbau SARA, gambar yang vulgar akan ditindak oleh moderator. Selain itu, aturan juga mencakup larangan memberikan post yang sudah ada sebelumnya jadi pengguna harus mencari tahu dulu apakah thread yang akan di-post ternyata sudah pernah ada atau belum. Adi Baskoro juga menambahkan tidak me-repost ini hanyalah ‘imbauan moral’, artinya jangan sampai memunculkan thread yang pernah ada. Selain itu dilarang juga mem-post sesuatu yang berbau SARA. Dari interaksi simbolik yang ada jadi memunculkan kooperatif antara tiap self dengan banyak kelompok (society), sehingga terbentuknya peraturan terutama dan tidak tertulis yang pada akhirnya jadi menciptakan budaya yang membantu menciptakan kesinambungan dari waktu ke waktu dan akhirnya dijadikan pedoman bertindak oleh setiap pelakunya atau Kaskuser.

D. Diskusi Penggunaan teori interaksi simbolik bisa untuk melihat bagaimana simbol dan budaya dikembangkan melalui interaksi sosial. Interaksionisme simbolik dapat menyatakan perubahan pada cara berinteraksi seseorang jika orang tersebut berada dalam suatu pola sosial (society) yang baru dimana dipengaruhi oleh kebudayaan yang ada. Mind yang menjadi panduan bertindak bagi self di dalam forum komunitas online akan membentuk proses interaksi simbolik yang kemudian jika kebutuhan self terpenuhi di dalam society tersebut maka akan membentuk society dan cyber culture yang kooperatif. Proses interaksi simbolik yang berkesinambungan inilah yang menopang keberlangsungan forum komunitas online. Puncaknya konsep society menjadi klimaks dalam proses interaksi simbolik, jika konsep mind dan self hanya melingkupi dalam satu individu.

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Namun society telah melibatkan banyak individu yang terdiri dari berbagai mind dan self. Sama halnya ketika berada di dalam media baru seperti kaskus yang anggotanya hampir 4 juta, dimana para anggota saling memahami satu sama lain dan berinteraksi dengan menggunakan simbolsimbol serta peraturan-peraturan yang berlaku di dalam forum komunitasnya. Komunitas Kaskus ini juga hanya muncul secara online dalam konteks virtual, sehingga terjadinya komunitas yang tidak terpaku pada lokasi geografis dengan waktu tertentu untuk bertemu dan berinteraksi satu sama lain. Hal ini sangat menarik ketika para anggotanya bisa berkumpul tanpa perlu melakukan interaksi tatap muka langsung, namun tetap bisa menghasilkan dan mempertukarkan budaya (cyber culture). Dengan tingginya tingkat interaksi yang dilakukan karena kemudahan akses virtual dimana dan kapan pun, serta fakta bahwa orang-orang dalam komunitas online Kaskus bisa berinteraksi sebagai teman berbagi bukan hanya pendengar pasif yang menerima saja namun juga memberi informasi. Hal-hal tersebut yang membuat komunitas online menjadi sesuatu yang terus berkembang bahkan keterikatan (sense of belonging) sukarela oleh para anggotanya bisa terjadi dalam forum Kaskus ini.

E. Simpulan dan Saran Melalui fenomena ini, dapat ditarik kesimpulan bahwa dalam setiap cyber community, selalu akan ada simbol-simbol komunikasi yang berbeda dengan penerapan di dunia offline atau online baik itu bahasa, aturan, dan lainnya. Teori interaksionisme simbolik menyatakan adanya suatu perubahan dari cara berinteraksi, jika orang tersebut berada dalam suatu pola sosial yang baru dan dipengaruhi oleh kebudayaan tertentu, begitu juga dengan cyber community yang akhirnya bisa menghasilkan dan menggunakan cyber culture. Dimulai ketika seorang Kaskuser memutuskan bergabung pada forum di Kaskus, awalnya dia akan merefleksikan terlebih dahulu simbol-simbol yang dipergunakan. Berjalannya waktu, dia akan mulai mempergunakan dan mempertukarkan simbol tersebut di dalam interaksi untuk menjadi pedoman bertindak bagi dirinya

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ketika berhadapan dengan Kaskuser lain, Moderator, dan juga Mimin selaku pengelola Kaskus.us yang berperan sebagai significant other. Mind dalam para Kaskuser memungkinkan self untuk merefleksikan simbol yang ada pada forum komunitas online di dalam dirinya terlebih dahulu dengan cara memperhatikan dan kemudian self akan ikut serta dalam interaksi. Proses pertukaran makna dimana akan menjadi acuan bagi self untuk bertindak. Dalam proses ini, self akan berhadapan dengan self lainnya yang meliputi significant other dan generalized other atau society. Tiap self yang memiliki tujuan yang sama dan berbeda akan melakukan interaksi dan ketika kebutuhan dari tiap self bisa terpenuhi maka akan membentuk society dan cyber culture yang kooperatif seperti penggunaan bahasa, peraturan, simbol, dan lainnya. Semua proses interaksi simbolik ini akan terus berulang karena hal itu menjadi sesuatu yang penting bagi tiap self di dalamnya guna keberlangsungan society (tempat berkumpul). Proses interaksi simbolik ini akan terus berlanjut karena para Kaskuser terus mempertahankan keberadaan forum Kaskus yang dianggap bisa memenuhi kebutuhan mereka. Saran Media baru akan terus berkembang ke depannya karena sekarang berada pada era web 2.0, dimana internet menjadi suatu bentuk baru media komunikasi yang interaktif. Pada pengguna atau komunitas online yang menghasilkan berbagai konten informasi, bisa berdampak bagi masyarakat sehingga terbangun jaringan interaktif diantara penggunanya. Sehingga disarankan bagi para pelaku di dunia akademis untuk mencoba melihat kemungkinan penerapan interaksi digabungkan teori komunikasi interpersonal, publik, massa yang dikaitkan dengan teori media baru sehingga bisa melanjutkan perkembangan ilmu mengenai komunikasi dengan media baru.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA Buku Berger, Charles R, et.al. (2010). Alternative Methodological Approaches to Communication Science, 2nd ed. Sage Publications, California.

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Charon, Joel M (2007), Symbolic Interactionism: An Introduction, An Interpretation, An Integration, California: Pearson Denzin, Norman K & Yvonna S. Lincoln (2009), Handbook of Qualitative Research, Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar Lister, et al, New Media: A Critical Introduction, Second Edition. New York: Routledge, 2009 McQuail, Dennis. (2005) McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory Fifth Edition. London: Sage Publication Ltd, 2005 Neuman, W Lawrence (2006), Social Research Methods Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. (5th Edition). USA: Perason Education. Inc. Ruben, Brent D & Lea P Stewart (1998), Communication and Human Behavior, United State of America: A Viacom Company, Thurlow, Crispin, Laura Engel and Alice Tomic. (2007). Computer Mediated Communication: Sosial Interaction and the Internet. London: Sage Publication Ltd Journal Egoboo vs. altruism: the role of reputation in online consumer communities Sonja Utz New Media Society , 2009, http://nms.sagepub.com/content/11/3/357 Customer-to-Customer Interactions: Broadening the Scope of Word of Mouth Research Barak Libai, Ruth Bolton, Marnix S. Bügel, Ko de Ruyter, Oliver Götz, Hans Risselada and Andrew T. Stephen, 2010, http://jsr.sagepub.com/content/13/3/267 Ethnomethodology and the study of online communities: exploring the cyber streets, Steven R. Thomsen, Joseph D. Straubhaar, Drew M. Bolyard, Information Research, Vol. 4 No. 1, July 1998. Situs http://boardsus.playstation.com/playstation/board/message?board.id=announcements&messa ge.id=16#modteam, Selasa, 5 Juli 2011. http://www.vbulletin.com/forum/faq.php?faq=vb3_board_usage#faq_vb3_forums_threads_p osts, Senin, 4 Juli 2011. http://yepiye.wordpress.com/2009/04/21/kaskus-forum-komunikasi-online-indonesia-yangnyaris-menjadi-budaya/, Senin, 4 Juli 2001

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THE ROLE OF SOCIAL IDENTITY AND ALTRUISM ON ACCEPTANCE AND ACTUAL USE OF SOCIAL NETWORK SERVICES Rahab Management Department, Faculty of Economics, Jenderal Soedirman University Abstract Social network services are emerging as a promising IT-based business, with some services already being provided commercially such as Facebook and twitter. However, it is not yet clear which potential audience groups will be key social network service participants. Moreover, the process showing how an individual actually decides to start using a social network service may be somewhat different from current web-based community services. Hence, the aims of this paper are twofold. First, we empirically examine how individual characteristics affect actual user acceptance of social network services. To examine these individual characteristics, we apply a Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to construct an amended model that focuses on three individual differences: social identity and altruism, and one perceived construct: the perceived encouragement, imported from psychology-based research. Next, we examine if the users’ perception to see a target social network service as human relationship- oriented service or as a task-oriented service could be a moderator between perceived constructs and actual use. As result, we discover that the perceived encouragement and perceived orientation are significant constructs that affect actual use of social network services. Keywords: Social identity, social network, altruism, Technology Acceptance Model

Research Background Online social network services build and verify social networks for the individuals and communities who share interests and activities with one another, or who are interested in exploring the interests and activities of others. Social network services can be regarded as web-based services that allow individuals to construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, articulate a list of other users with those who share a connection, and view their list of connections and also those made by others within the system (Boyd & Ellison, 2007). Hence we define social network services as a web-based service. It is based on certain meaningful and valuable relationships including friendship, kinship, interests and activities, etc. Social network services allow individuals to network for a variety of purposes including 428


sharing information, building and exploring the relationship, etc. People have various reasons for using social network services. These services provide ways to maintain contact with friends and family, but also for meeting new people (Boyd, 2007). Regret and self-image congruity affect have been regarded as determinants of continuance intention to use social network services (Kang, Hong, & Lee, 2009). Some services can also be used for blogging or sharing content and media (Yuta, Ono, & Fujiwara, 2007). Many social network services allow users to join or create groups so that they can interact with other users who have similar interests. Moreover, using social network services may be related to social capital. For instance, self-esteem has been regarded as a moderator of the relationship between social network site use and social capital (Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007; Steinfield, Ellison, & Lampe, 2008). Affective and social factors are more important in explaining the usage of social network services other than task-oriented systems, such as office information systems. For instance, intimacy has been regarded as an indicator of interpersonal relationship which in turn affects social network use (Rau et al., 2008). However, despite the importance of affective and social factors, very few efforts have been done to date. More research is needed to identify the significant affective and social factors in a social network service context.

Theoretical Review Technology Acceptance Model TAM was originally developed by Davis (1989) to predict users’ initial adoption of a new IT. In this model, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are considered as two predecessors affecting attitude toward a technology, which affect behavioral intention to use that technology, which in turn leads to its actual use. One way of examining the uptake and usage of IT is to use models of planned behavior, one of the most well-known of which is the

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TAM (Davis, 1989). This is an established model of computer usage and has been validated through testing with a number of technologies (Davis et al., 1989, 1992; Davis, 1993; Igbaria, 1993; Igbaria et al., 1994; Lederer et al., 1998; Dishaw and Strong, 1999) and cultures (Straub et al., 1997). Many studies using the TAM (e.g. Anandarajan et al., 2000) have suggested that the theoretical basis for this model lies in the theory of reasoned action (TRA) (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) and some have noted its links to the diffusion of innovation (Rogers, 1983). The TRA is a model of human behavior that postulates that reasoning from beliefs and evaluations to the development of an attitude towards performing a behavior. Attitudes thus bring about an evaluation of intention to perform the behavior, in turn resulting in its execution. In this case, the relevant behavior is intranet usage and the beliefs and evaluations are proposed as being made on a number of specific variables. The original model (Davis, 1989) proposed these variables as being perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEU), factors that are captured through a small number of short questions.

Hypotheses and research model In this paper, I proposed using a TAM extended to social network services model. Social network services are abundant, whether the service users are performing tasks or building relationships. The research tried to avoid an intention-behavior gap by building an extended TAM to include actual use rather than just an intention to use, even though behavior intention to use is the strongest predictor of actual use (Venkatesh et al., 2003). The focus is only on testing the social network services using the TAM with some external variables, rather than the extended model with social effect variables. In this paper, two external determinants among the individual characteristics are considered: social identity and altruism and perceived encouragement, as shown in Fig. 1.

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The consideration of user experience is because the social network services are now available and heavily utilized by actual users. The consideration to use perceived orientation was to see if the purpose of the social network service may be a moderator between perceived constructs and actual use. Based on the theoretical review, an amended TAM as shown in Fig. 1 was tested.

Social identity Social identity theory has recently expanded from its origins in social psychology to areas of organizational research (Ashforth & Mael, 1989). Social identity is characterized by its solidarity to the social group, conformity to in-group norms, and discrimination against out-groups (Riedlinger, Gallois, Mckay, & Pittam, 2004). In a social network service (SNS), social identity is the perception of belonging to the SNS community where people have the motivation to arise social interaction with others. Hence, the research suggests that social identity in the social network service will positively influence perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and perceived encouragement. Items are developed according to Song and Kim’s research (Song & Kim, 2006). H1a. Social identity will have a positive effect on perceived ease of use of a social network service. H1b. Social identity will have a positive effect on perceived usefulness of a social network service.

Altruism Altruism can be classified into two types: kin altruism and reciprocal altruism. Kin altruism benefits a genetic relative’s chances of survival or reproduction at some cost to one’s own chances, and reciprocal altruism is helping others based on the belief that the benefited

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person will be expected to return such assistance in the future (Ashtona, Paunonena, Helmesa, & Jacksona, 1988). In a social network service context, it is interesting that users display both kinds of altruism. To illustrate the altruists’ action within a TAM framework, altruism should be supported by an additional perceived construct out of perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness, in order to increase the explanation power of the acceptance model. In particular, under the reciprocal altruism context, the altruistic social network service users may be more motivated to be encouraged by others than those who are not altruistic. Hence, the hypotheses on altruism, which have their origins in previous decades of psychological research (Bal-tal & Raviv, 1979), are stated as follows: H2a. Altruism will have a positive effect on perceived ease of use of a social network service. H2b. Altruism will have a positive effect on perceived usefulness of a social network service. of a social network service.

Perceived ease of use The latent variable ‘Ease of Use’ is very important to accepting an information system because it is the basis of a system use (Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw, 1989). Perceived ease of use is defined as ‘‘the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort” (Davis, 1989a, 1989b). It has been widely known that systems’ perceived ease of use, as well as perceived usefulness, have a direct influence on usage of an information system, and perceived usefulness mediates the effect of perceived ease of use on usage (Agarwal & Prasad 1999; Davis et al., 1989; Jackson et al., 1997; Venkatesh, 1999). Like many technologies and information systems, the model including perceived ease of use seems to have good predictive validity for the use of social network service. Hence, expections that perceived ease of use has positive influences on perceived usefulness and usage of social network service.

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H4. Perceived ease of use will have a positive effect on perceived usefulness of a social network service. H6. Perceived ease of use will have a positive effect on intention to reuse of a social network service.

Perceived usefulness Systems’ perceived usefulness has a direct influence on the intention to use an information system, as prior research claims (Agarwal & Prasad 1999; Davis et al., 1989; Jackson et al., 1997; Venkatesh, 1999). The ultimate goal of using a social network service is that the system increases a user’s satisfaction by facilitating the interaction between community members. Ultimately the system provides useful community activities and responses on the user’s behalf (Erickson 2002; Kwon 2004). Hence, expectation that perceived usefulness has a positive influence on behavioral intention to use social network services. H7. Perceived usefulness will have a positive effect on intention to reuse of a social network service. Research model

Altruism H1a

Perceived ease of use H4

H1b

Intention to reuse

H3

Actual use H6

H2a

Social Identity

H5

H2b

Perceived of usefullness

Figure 1. Research model

Research methods 433


Data collection A survey technique was used to collect data. This study used non probability sampling by convenience sampling. The population sample was selected from among undergraduates and graduate students at Universities in Purwokerto city who are using Facebook as one of popular commercial social network services in Indonesia. Initially, we ran a pilot study on SNS users to determine any ambiguous items that needed to be revised. We obtained a total of 105 usable survey responses out of 280 (from 12nd January to 31st February, 2010) through an direct survey. The sample consisted of 50,48% male and 49,52% female participants ranging in age from 17th to 30th , the majority of which were in their twenties (58,09 %). Moreover, most of the respondents have heavily used Facebook: 46.6% and 27.7% of the respondents have used the service from 1 to 2 years and more than 3 years, respectively. Hence, the responses seem to be qualified to analyze the factors affecting the actual use of social network services.

Data Analysis and Result Data analysis The technique of data analysis used in this research is Partial Least Square (PLS) by using the application of Smart PLS V.20 M3. The PLS technique analysis uses two steps; the step of measurement model analysis which examines the validation and reliability. The next step is structural model analysis which examines the correlation between the hypothesized variables. Measurement Model Measurement model connected to the instruments’ validity is tested by using convergent validity and discriminant validity. To test the convergent validity, Average

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Variance Extracted (AVE) and communality are considered. Convergent validity can be completed if the construct has AVE and communality above the minimal level 0.5 (Hair et al.,, 2006). Based on table 1, it can be seen that all constructs have AVE and communality ≥ 0.5. Based on the above mentioned criteria, it can be concluded that the convergent validity is completed. It means that the items used to measure the construct do measure the construct. There are two procedures to measure discriminant validity. First, each item in construct must have high loading in construct and the cross loading is lower than item loading in the construct (see table 2. Outer Loadings). Second, is by comparing the AVE square root of each construct and other inter-construct correlation. If the root square value of AVE is higher than the correlation between constructs, it means that the discriminant validity is completed (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). The items that do not have high loading in their construct but they have high loading on other constructs, cannot be used in further analysis. The result of convergent validity can be seen on table 3. To find out the discriminate validity, cross loading can be used as seen on Table 2. Table 2 shows both the loading value of item with its measured construct and item with other construct. Loading value (in bold) shows the loading item with its measured construct. Discriminant validity is fulfilled if the item loading value of the construct is higher than loading value of other construct. By referring to table 2, it can be seen that discriminant validity is fulfilled if item loading value with its measured construct (bold printed) is higher than item loading value of other construct. Another technique to measure the discriminant validity is by comparing AVE root square of each construct with the correlation of other construct. Table 3 and table 4 are the value of AVE root square and the correlation of other construct. Based on table 3 and table 4, it can be seen that the value of AVE root square (bold printed) is higher than the correlation

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between constructs. Hence, by referring to this indicator, discriminant validity is also fulfilled. The measurement model connected to the construct-reliability testing is measured by using composite reliability with its minimal limit 0.7 (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994); Ghozali, 2006). Table 4 shows that composite reliability value of each construct is higher than 0.7. This indicates that the construct of the research is valid. Based on table 5, it can be concluded that composite reliability value of all constructs are > 0.7. Hence, those constructs have fulfilled the stability and consistency which means that there is a correlation among items in one construct. Table 1. AVE and communality score AVE Altruism 0,650496 Actual use 0,539008 Int to reuse 0,505647 Ease of use 0,533436 Usefulness 0,565422 Social identity 0,567029

Communality 0,650496 0,539008 0,505647 0,533436 0,565422 0,567029

Table 2. Outer Loadings AL1 AL2 AL3 AU1 AU2 AU3 ITU2 ITU3 ITU4 ITU5 ITU6 ITU7 PEU1 PEU2 PEU3 PEU4

ALTR 0,816214 0,825327 0,777250

AU

ITU

PEOU

POU

0,750386 0,772965 0,675626 0,656189 0,772303 0,790728 0,618979 0,754136 0,655547 0,742509 0,628267 0,607222 0,687242 436


SOC_ID

PEU8 PU4 PU6 PU8 SI1 SI2 SI3

0,616537 0,774447 0,784088 0,694048 0,793675 0,683221 0,777417

Table 3. Latent Variable Correlations ALTR AU ITU PEOU POU SOC_ID

ALTR 0,423145 0,013841 0,486060 0,230085 0,379362 0,360491

AU

ITU

PEOU

POU

SOC_ID

0,290529 0,370003 0,270192 0,286846 0,482157

0,255079 0,502566 0,534053 0,617824

0,284553 0,557348 0,403854

0,319702 0,445232

0,567029

Table 4. Composite Reliability Composite Reliability Altruism 0,848021 Actual use 0,777602 Int to reuse 0,858828 Ease of use 0,791748 Usefulness 0,795584 Social identity 0,796436 Structural Model Based on analysis by using PLS software, the t-count and the relation among variables can be seen. The value of t-count can be counted from the value of p-value by using excel calculation with the formula :tdist (value t;df:tail). The output and the relation can be seen on table 5. Based on the value of p-value, it can be traced back that out of 8 hypotheses, 2 hypotheses are not supported and 6 hypotheses are supported with reliability level 95 percent or alpha <0,05. The result of analysis can be seen on picture 3 (the correlation among significant variables are shown in bold line, on the other hand; the correlation among nonsignificant variables are shown in broken line). Result 437


Based on analysis process in using PLS software t value can be known, and direction of the correlation among variables. According the t value that p value also can be known by calculating with using Ms. Excel with the formulation: tdist(score t;df:tail). The processed of output and direct of correlation can be seen in table 5. Based on the analysis process are shown that from 8 hypothesis, which were just two hypothesis was rejected and the rest are six hypothesis was approved with 95 percent confidence level or alpha < 0,05. Table 5. Path Coefficients Path ALTR -> PEOU ALTR -> POU ITU -> AU PEOU -> ITU PEOU -> POU POU -> ITU SOC_ID -> PEOU SOC_ID -> POU

Original 0,097120 0,209794 0,370003 0,297249 0,429933 0,368381 0,368843 0,195972

t-statsitics 0,689311 1,668854 3,834323 2,048458 3,089441 2,421161 2,454284 1,551069

P value 0,246096 0,049107 0,000109 0,021542 0,001292 0,008619 0,007905 0,061991

Result Not supported Supported Supported Supported Supported Supported Supported Not Supported

Discussion As indicated in the previous section, altruism significantly affect perceived usefulness but not effect perceived ease of use. The idea that higher altruism results in higher perceived usefulness: individuals with higher levels of altruism will perceive that SNS is important as media to transfer of knowledge to others. If that individual recognizes that social network services are good tools to share knowledge, then it’s more likely he or she will perceive that the services are useful. Altruism not effect on perceived ease of use, it means that individual perception about SNS is not caused by altruism. Social identity, as an important social factor, also serves as a determinant of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. The relationship between social identity and perceived usefulness, and hence social network service use, has already been hypothesized in the recent literature (Mazman & Usluel, 2009). One of the contributions of this paper is that these are examined more closely and demonstrate that the hypotheses are in fact supported. In addition, 438


we found that social identity specifically affects perceived ease of use: individuals who have a higher social identity and hence relatively more have spirit to learn about SNS, and are more optimism to use SNS (Cle´ment et al., 2001).In this paper, we regard social network services as relationship oriented information systems. This study find that perceived ease of use significantly effect on perceived usefulness. It means that higher individual perceived ease of use on SNS, higher individual perceived usefulness on SNS. SNS will be perceived usefulness by user if SNS system ease to used by user. Like with prior studies, perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness significantly effect on intention to reuse SNS. It means that SNS user will reuse SNS if this system more ease to use and useful for user. This find supported with technology acceptance model. TAM shows that people will use technology if they perceive technology ease to use and usefulness. Finaly, this study show that intention to reuse SNS significantly effect on actul use. It means that higher intention to re-use, higher likely to use SNS in the future. This finding suggests that individual behavior as consequence of intention.

Conclusion and limitation The main goal of this paper was to examine what factors would determine the user acceptance of a social network service, an emerging innovative relationship-building information system emerging in the near future. The research used Davis’ Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to evaluate social network service usage. The research also successfully show that the extended TAM has significantly provided more explanation than the conventional TAM, which invites perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness only. Second, since emerging network services such as Web 2.0 based services and user created services (UCC) are essentially the same as legacy social network services, the findings from the study could be adopted to examine determinants for

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the emerging service use. Hence our study is timely and relevant for relationship-oriented system use. Last, for the practitioners, the results of this study imply that administrators or operators of social network services should provide more realistic content so that the users may feel adequate to use this system. Moreover, strategic management to deliver encouragement from others is crucial to increase system users, especially those who have higher levels of social identity and altruism. For example, since an altruistic person could be a good adopter for social network services, the social network service managers may want to develop an event to discover altruistic persons for more effective ads. This research has limitations in its method and results interpretation; these limitations indicate avenues for further research. The main participants of the survey were aged from 18’s to 23’s and as students. Therefore, using thee findings need to be careful to explain all generations’ actual use of social network service. The participants were actual users of a limited service such as second life, Facebook, etc., so the research simply cannot say that the findings must be applied all social network services including Facebook. More rigorous surveys which cover more diverse service users will be needed in the future. Despite these concerns, the model is a good starting point to explain human-relationship services and could be a benchmark for more general studies.

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Corporate Social Responsibility: European and Asian Countries Comparison33

Ruth Alas, Peeter Lorents, Ülle Übius, Estonian Business School, Estonia Erika Matsak, Tallinn University Purpose – The purpose is to compare the corporate social responsibility (CSR) in European and Asian countries in different industries. Methodology/approach – A survey was conducted in Estonian, Chinese, Finnish, Slovakian and Japanese enterprises. Data were compared by applying Lorents’s metrics. The ordered pairs were created for each branch and country priorities separately. The distances between priorities were calculated. The total number of respondents was 4187. Findings – CSR is influenced by social and cultural environment and industry where the organisation operates. From two facets of CSR the f irm respect the interests of agents is more connected with cultural backround than with economic development. The second facet of CSR - firm performance concerning social issue – is more connected with industry than culture. Practical implications – Corporate social responsibility is key success factor and therefore it is very important to compare different countries – China, Japan, Estonia, Slovakia and Finland, especially with the country of the world’s leading economic power - China. 1. Introduction Previous studies have shown institutional impact on different processes and attitudes in organizations (Alas et al. 2006; Tafel-Viia & Alas 2009; Alas & Edwards 2011). Cultural values influence leadership style (Alas & Tuulik 2007) and corporate social performance (Übius & Alas 2009). The development of corporate social responsibility (CSR) is connected with institutional development stage (Tafel & Alas 2007). Today, enterprises integrate social entrepreneurship into their core activities. They channel their research-anddevelopment capabilities in the direction of socially innovative products and services (Schwab 2008). One of the most important challenges is acknowledging and appreciating cultural values and practices in different parts of the world. Experts agree that to succeed in global business, managers need the flexibility to respond positively and effectively to practices and values that may be drastically different from what they are accustomed to (House et al. 2004).

33

Research was supported by ETF grant 7537 443


The paper starts with theoretical framework of the study, which is followed by results of empirical study. A standardized CSR questionnaire comprising 19 items developed by the Denki Ringo research group (Ishikawa et al. 2006) was used to explore two facets of CSR. Questionnaire was administered in Estonian, Chinese, Finnish, Slovakian and Japanese electrical-electronic machine, retail and machine-building enterprises.

2. Theories about Corporate Social Responsibility There are many different definitions of corporate social responsibility (CSR) although they have considerable common ground between them. Today leaders face a challenging task in attempting to apply societal ethical standards to responsible business practice (Morimoto et al. 2005). Nowadays CSR is an integral part of the business vocabulary and is regarded as a crucially important issue in management (Cornelius et al. 2008; Humphreys & Brown 2008). Carroll (1991) four kinds of social responsibilities constitute total CSR: economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic. These four categories or components of CSR might be illustrated as a pyramid. Freeman (1994) – stakeholder language has been widely adopted in practice and is being integrated into concepts of corporate responsibility/citizenship by scholars who recognize that it is through a company’s decisions, actions and impacts on stakeholders and the natural environment that a company’s corporate responsibility/citizenship is manifested. Hillman and Keim (2001) state that it is critical to discriminate between stakeholder management CSR and social CSR. This is consistent with Baron's (2001) distinction between strategic and altruistic CSR. The authors concluded that stakeholder-oriented CSR was positively correlated with financial performance and social CSR was not. There are more investment in companies that practice and report CSR (Sleeper et al. 2006). CSR forces a repositioning of strategies from being profit-driven organizations to

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organizations that are interested in the company's influence on social and environmental aspects (Quaak et al. 2007).

The firm's performance concerning social issues Sethi (1975) stated that social responsibility is prescriptive in nature. Epstein (1987) provided a definition of CSR in his quest to relate social responsibility, responsiveness and business ethics. Frederick (1960) states that social responsibility in the final analysis implies a public posture toward society's economic and human resources and a willingness to see that those resources are used for broad social ends. According to Drucker (1984) the proper social responsibility of business is to turn a social problem into economic opportunity. The concept of a corporate social performance stream emerged in the 1990s (Wood 1991). Waddock and Graves (1997) state that there is a positive relationship between a firm's social and financial performance. Orlitzky et al. (2003) state that there is strong empirical evidence supporting the positive link between social and financial performance. Marcel van Marrewijk (2003) state that three dimensions of corporate action are covered by the concept of CSR: economic, social and environmental management. Garriga and Mele´ (2004) allocate theories of CSR into four groups: instrumental, political, integral and ethical theories. These four groups could be taken as developmental stages of CSR. Alas and Tafel (2008) proposed the 4 stage model for analyzing CSR in a country in transition: (1) economic responsibility, (2) pressured or public social responsibility, (3) social responsiveness and (4) social issues management.

The firm's respect for the interests of agents Stakeholder theory, popularized by Freeman (1984; 1994), essentially argues that a company’s relationships with stakeholders are core to understanding how it operates and

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adds value as a business. Freeman (1994) argues that stakeholder language has been widely adopted

in

practice

and

is

being

integrated

into

concepts

of

corporate

responsibility/citizenship by scholars who recognize that it is through a company’s decisions, actions and impacts on stakeholders and the natural environment that a company’s corporate responsibility/citizenship is manifested. CSR is a concept where companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations in order to fulfill accountability to their stakeholders (Tanimoto & Suzuki 2005). When companies in different countries define their CSR policies they have to take into consideration cultural differences (Bird & Smucker 2007). The main research questions are: (1) is CSR similar in electrical-electronic machine and machine-building enterprises and different in retail store enterprises; (2) are two facets of CSR similar among Asian and European countries and different between Asian and European countries? Estonia, Japan, China, Finland and Slovakia have different social, economic, political, historical and cultural environments. The authors chose these countries for the empirical research because the sample enables us to compare countries with a similar cultural background (Estonia and Finland) or (Japan and China) with countries that have different cultural background (Japan and Slovakia) or (Estonia and China) etc. Based on the relevant literature authors developed the following general propositions: P1. Two facets of CSR are similarly evaluated in electrical-electronic machine and machinebuilding enterprises and differently evaluated in retail store enterprises. P2. Two facets of CSR are similarly evaluated among Asian and European countries and differently evaluated between Asian and European countries. 3. Empirical study

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In order to investigate similarities and differences concerning the two facets of CSR the empirical study was conducted by Denki Ringo research group. The authors of this article conducted survey in Estonia. The research was conducted with 623 respondents in Estonian enterprises, 1150 respondents in Chinese enterprises, 605 respondents in Slovakian enterprises, 239 respondents in Finnish enterprises and 1570 respondents in Japanese enterprises. The companies were selected in a non-random manner, as the organization registers do not have a solid basis for random sampling because only a fraction of the registered enterprises are active in Estonia, China, Japan, Finland and Slovakia. A total of 25 enterprises were available: 6 enterprises from Estonia, 6 from China, 3 from Slovakia, 4 from Finland and 6 enterprises from Japan in the study. The total number of respondents was 4187. Methodology A standardized CSR questionnaire comprising 19 items was developed by the Denki Ringo research group (Ishikawa et al. 2006) and translated from English into Estonian, Chinese, Finnish, Slovak and Japanese. The questions in the survey addressed 2 facets of CSR – the firm's performance concerning social issues (11 items) and the firm's respect for the interests of agents (8 items). These two facets of CSR were chosen because they typify the essential character of CSR. The questionnaire was administered in Estonian, Chinese, Finnish, Slovakian and Japanese electrical-electronic machine, retail and machine-building enterprises. The data about the two facets of CSR, three different branches and five different countries – Estonia, China, Slovakia, Finland and Japan – were compared by using Lorents’s metrics. Choices and applications of metrics to intepret study results Study results of value judgments compose of the list of estimated things and their corresponding numeric estimations as a rule. It is possible to compose orders that express

447


importance, priority etc. of characteristics for different respondents (or groups of respondents) originated from the values of numeric estimations. There are often the following question among investigators: how similar or dissimilar are “pictures” formed by estimations of study results. Specification of following circumstances is needed to answer to these questions (Lorents 2006): 

How these objects are (for example aggregations composed of some elements in certain way) determined that similarity or dissimilarity should be identified?



How is determined identified similarity or on the contrary dissimilarity?



How is similarity or dissimilarity estimated (including: what is used as estimations and how are estimations attributed to estimated things)?

This article answers to first question could be following: In the first case observed as objects, which similarity or on the contrary –dissimilarity should be identified, aggregations of fixed number and located in the fixed way elements which elements are real numbers (representing some values). Thereat it is assumed, that the number and location of elements is fixed in the same way concerning all comparable aggregations (for example the third element is in all cases for the ethical values, but the fifth element is for the social values). In the second case aggregations of fixed location elements are observed. Therefore it is not assumed that the location of elements is the same concerning all comparable aggregations (for example Chinese youngsters` third element is ethical value, social values are on the contrary the seventh element; Turkish youngsters ethical values are a bit higher – namely the second element, third element for them is value related to lifestyle, social values are on the contrary the fifth element). Subsequently we explain, how could we (originated from the answers given to the first question) determine similarity or on the contrary dissimilarity:

448


Concerning these kind of aggregations, which elements` number and location is fixed and the same for all observed aggregations and which elements are real numbers, it is not reasonable to use morphisms` (for example homomorphism or isomorphism) term, which is usually used for relational systems or for the identification of algebra similarity (Grätzer 2008, Lorents 2006). Rather it is reasonable to rely on n-dimensional real space Euclidean metric when we estimate the similarity (Deza 2009). In this case we could handle comparable aggregations – for example x and y – according to n-dimensional real space points. In this case we could use expressed number d(x,y) of closeness or distance of corresponding points as the estimation of similarity or dissimilarity of the named aggregations, where d(x,y)=((x1-y1)2+(x2-y2)2+(x3-y3)2+ …+(xn- yn)2)1/2. Whereby: smaller is the number d(x,y), more similar are the comparable aggregations x and y and on the contrary – bigger is the number d(x,y), less dissimilar are x and y in this study. In case of such aggregations the number of elements is final, but the location of elements may be not similar according to comparable aggregations, we should precise more to evaluate the similarity in order to make sure what is it, what similarity we wish to estimate. At this point we agree upon that in this case we wish to estimate the similarity of the order of the location of elements in comparable aggregations. Thereat we mean elements order when we are talking about the order of elements location. Order is represented by the order connection between (binary) the elements. From the number theory (which relies on ordered aggregations or mathematical systems theory) it is known that whatever binary connection is one certain amount composed by sorted pairs. Thereafter if we wish to evaluate how similar or dissimilar are some (final) orders, then in turn we have to evaluate how similar or dissimilar are the amounts of corresponding ordered

449


pairs. Last task is again reduced to the application of differentiations metrics of final aggregations (Marczewski & Steinhaus 1958; Lorents 2002; Jents 2004; Lorents 2007). More precisely – if we mark some amounts A and B intersection or these common elements aggregation with the symbol AB, we mark amounts A, B and AB elements numbers with corresponding symbols E(A), E(B) and E(AB), then we can find the number d(A,B) that expresses relative differentiation of these amounts by means of following formula: d(A,B)=[E(A)+E(B)-2E(AB)]:[ E(A)+E(B)-E(AB)].

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4. Results Our main purpose was to evaluate the similarities and differences in Estonia, Finland, Japan, China and Slovakian industries concerning the two facets of CSR. The data about the two facets of CSR, three different branches and five different countries – Estonia, China, Slovakia, Finland and Japan – were compared. CSR in three branches Table 1 shows respondents opinions about the firm performance concerning social issues. The statements were rated highly in retail store enterprises (m=3.90, sd=0.97) and electricelectronic machine enterprises (m=3.85, sd=0.92). In machine-building enterprises statements were rated lower (m=3.60, sd=1.03). Table 2 shows respondents opinions about facet of CSR - the firm respects the interests of agents. The statements were rated highly in retail store enterprises (m=3.60, sd=1.14). Statements were rated a little bit lower in machine-building enterprises (m=3.56, sd=1.05) and electric-electronic machine enterprises (m=3.53, sd=1.03). CSR in five countries. Tables 3 and 4 show respondents’ opinions about CSR in five countries. In China the statements were rated highly in retail store enterprises - the firm performance concerning social issues (m=4.32, sd=0.81) and the firm respect the interests of agents (m=4.04, sd=0.91). Statements were rated lower in machine-building enterprises - the firm performance concerning social issues (m=4.06, sd=1.05) and the firm respect the interests of agents (m=3.96, sd=1.02) and electric-electronic machine enterprises - the firm performance concerning social issues (m=4.02, sd=1.01) and the firm respect the interests of agents (m=3.87, sd=0.95). In Estonia the statements were rated highly concerning the facet of CSR - the firm

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performance concerning social issues in retail store enterprises (m=4.37, sd=0.51) and in electric-electronic machine enterprises (m=4.10, sd=0.89) and concerning the facet of CSR the firm respect the interests of agents in electric-electronic machine enterprises (m=3.31, sd=1.08) and in machine-building enterprises (m=3.22, sd=0.99). Statements were rated lower concerning the facet of CSR - the firm performance concerning social issues in machine-building enterprises (m=3.36, sd=0.77) and concerning the facet of CSR - the firm respect the interests of agents in retail store enterprises (m=3.16, sd=0.63). In Finland the statements were rated highly concerning the facet of CSR - the firm performance concerning social issues in electric-electronic machine enterprises (m=3.62, sd=0.89) and in retail store enterprises (m=3.68, sd=0.90) and concerning the facet of CSR - the firm respect the interests of agents in retail store enterprises (m=3.52, sd=0.96). Statements were rated lower concerning the facet of CSR - the firm respect the interests of agents in electric-electronic machine enterprises (m=3.32, sd=0.99). In Japan the statements were rated highly in electric-electronic machine enterprises concerning the facets of CSR - the firm performance concerning social issues (m=3.79, sd=0.80) and the firm respect the interests of agents (m=3.60, sd=0.81). Statements were rated lower concerning the facet of CSR - the firm performance concerning social issues in machine-building enterprises (m=3.18, sd=0.88) and in retail store enterprises (m=3.28, sd=0.85) and concerning the facet of CS R - the firm respect the interests of agents in machine- building enterprises (m=3.15, sd=0.83) and in retail store enterprises (m=3.28, sd=0.91). In Slovakia t he statements were rated highly concerning the facets of CSR - the firm performance concerning social issues in machine-building enterprises (m=3.73, sd=0.86) and retail store enterprises (m=3.86, sd=1.05). Concerning the facets of CSR - the firm respect the interests of agents in machine-building enterprises (m=3.65, sd=0.88) and retail store

452


enterprises (m=3.86, sd=1.01). Distances concerning CSR The ordered pairs were created for each branch priorities separately. The distance between priorities have been calculated by using Lorents’s metrics. T he firm’s performance concerning social issues in 3 industries. We compared priorities between machine-building industry, electric-electronic machine industry and retail store. In each industry it is possible to create 55 pairs. The most similar are machine- building industry and electric-electronic machine industry, they have 51 common pairs. The firm respects the interests of agents in 3 industries. We compared priorities between machine-building industry, electric-electronic machine industry and retail store. In each industry it is possible to create 28 pairs. Equally similar is machine- building industry and electric-electronic machine industry, they have 24 common pairs and machine-building industry and retail store, they have 24 common pairs. The firm performance concerning social issues in 5 countries. We compared priorities between Estonian, Chinese, Slovakian and Japanese machinebuilding, electric-electronic machine and retail store industries concerning the facet of CSR - the firm performance concerning social issue. It is possible to create 55 pairs. The most similar are Japanese and Slovakian retail store industries with 49 common pairs, followed by Estonian and Japanese machine-building industries and Estonian and Slovakian machine-building industries, both with 46 common pairs. The firm respects the interests of agents in 5 countries We compared priorities between Estonian, Chinese, Slovakian and Japanese machinebuilding, electric-electronic machine and retail store industries concerning the facet of CSR - the firm respect the interests of agents. It is possible to create 28 pairs.

453


The most similar are Chinese and Japanese machine-building industries (they have all 28 common pairs), Chinese and Japanese electric-electronic machine industries (they have 22 common pairs) and Japanese and Chinese retail store industries (they have 25 common pairs). 5. Conclusion The institutional environment o f organizations influences how CSR i s evaluated. In different countries, CSR as concepts are understood and applied differently in organizations. The business world is becoming increasingly global. Corporations are facing increasingly global employees, customers, suppliers, competitors and creditors (House et al. 2004). Although successful management of the relationship with different stakeholders groups does not necessarily create short term profits, it may increase competitive advantage of the company in the long-term period (Jones 1995). The results of this survey in Estonian, Chinese, Japanese, Finnish and Slovakian organizations reveal that there are similarities and differences concerning the two facets of CSR. The propositions discussed at the beginning of the paper will now be re-evaluated. P1 postulated that two facets of CSR are similarly evaluated in electrical-electronic machine and machine-building enterprises and differently evaluated in retail store enterprises. This proposition was partly supported by the findings. Concerning the facet of CSR - the firm performance concerning social issue - proposition was supported. The machine-building industry and electric-electronic machine industry have highest number of common pairs. These industries have less common pairs with retail industry. Concerning the facet of CSR - the firm respect the interests of agents - proposition was not supported. The number of common pairs is equally 24 for machine-building industry and electric-electronic machine industry and also for machine-building industry and retail store. P2 postulated that two facets of CSR are similarly evaluated among Asian and European

454


countries and differently evaluated between Asian and European countries. This proposition was partly supported by the findings. The proposition was supported concerning the facet of CSR - the firm respects the interests of agents. T he most similar are Chinese and Japanese machine-building industries with 28 common pairs, Japanese and Chinese retail store industries have 25 common pairs and Chinese and Japanese electric-electronic machine industries have 22 common pairs. The proposition was not supported concerning the facet of CSR - the firm performance concerning social issue. The most similar are Japanese and Slovakian retail store industries with 49 common pairs, followed by Estonian and Japanese machine-building industries and Estonian and Slovakian machine-building industries, both with 46 common pairs. To conclude, there are more similarities between culturally similar countries concerning the facet of CSR - the firm respects the interests of agents. Concerning the facet of CSR the firm performance concerning social issue the most similar are machine-building industry and electric-electronic machine industry. Therefore from two facets of CSR the f irm respect the interests of agents are more connected with cultural background than with economic development. The second facet of CSR - firm performance concerning social issue – is more connected with industry than culture.

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Tables Table 1. Facet of CSR - the firm performance concerning social issues in machine-building, electric-electronic machine and retail store enterprises Facet of CSR - the firm performance Machineconcerning social issues building industry

1 – compliance with the laws for business activities 2 – compliance with the laws for worker protection 3 – care and service for consumers 4 – environmental protection 5 – trustful relations with customers 6 – safety and security of products and services 7 – realization of the best quality of products and services 8 – aftercare for users 9 – publicity of company information for society 10 – contribution to science and culture 11 – Public activities for local community Total

Electricelectronic machine industry

Retail store

M 3.88

SD M SD M SD 0.94 4.14 0.86 4.04 0.98

3.57

1.11 3.93 0.99 3.85 1.08

3.53 3.62 3.85 3.86

1.07 1.02 0.98 0.95

3.93

0.96 4.16 0.84 4.17 0.88

3.78 3.30

0.99 3.84 0.89 4.06 0.96 1.13 3.62 0.92 3.73 0.95

3.21 3.17 3.60

1.12 3.43 1.05 3.36 1.07 1.14 3.29 1.04 3.43 1.06 1.03 3.85 0.92 3.90 0.97

3.86 4.05 4.00 4.08

0.85 0.88 0.84 0.87

4.12 3.86 4.10 4.21

0.89 1.06 0.92 0.86

Table 2. Facet of CSR - the firm respect the interests of agents in machine-building, electricelectronic machine and retail store enterprises Facet of CSR - the firm respect the Machineinterests of agents building industry

1 – customers 2 - subsidiary, subcontract firms 3 – consumers; 4 - stock holders; 5 –employees 6 - trade union 7 - public administration 8 - local community

M 4.19 3.76 3.89 3.63 3.34 3.01 3.39 3.28

SD 0.88 0.93 1.06 1.18 1.04 1.25 1.00 1.04

Electricelectronic machine industry

Retail store

M 4.00 3.41 3.90 3.97 3.09 3.16 3.41 3.28

M 4.08 3.85 4.31 3.37 3.59 3.01 3.27 3.36

SD 1.03 1.10 1.00 0.91 1.13 1.12 0.93 1.05

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SD 0.94 0.95 0.86 1.16 1.15 1.30 1.30 1.33

Total

3.56 1.05 3.53 1.03 3.60

1.14

Tabel 3. The firm performance concerning social issues in Estonia, China, Japan, Finland, Germany, Czech and Slovakia

Estonia N=623

China N=1150

Japan N=1570

Finland N=239

Slovaki a N=605

M S D M S D M S D M S D M S D

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

4.3 7 0.8 0 4.1 1 0.9 5 3.8 2 0.9 1 3.9 9 0.9 6 3.9 1 0.9 8

4.1 1 0.9 5 3.9 6 1.0 9 3.4 3 1.0 6 4.1 8 0.9 5 3.8 0 0.9 8

3.9 8 1.1 2 4.1 5 0.9 9 3.5 1 0.8 3 3.5 8 0.8 8 4.0 5 0.8 8

4.2 0 1.0 2 4.1 1 1.0 1 3.5 0 0.8 9 3.5 9 0.9 4 3.8 3 1.0 0

4.5 4 0.6 2 4.2 0 0.9 7 3.5 6 0.8 1 4.0 2 0.9 3 4.0 7 0.9 3

4.2 2 0.8 5 4.3 6 0.8 9 3.7 1 0.8 4 4.1 4 0.9 2 4.0 7 0.8 6

4.4 0 0.7 1 4.3 8 0.8 6 3.7 0 0.8 9 4.1 6 0.8 7 4.1 2 0.8 7

4.2 9 0.7 7 4.3 0 0.9 0 3.5 1 0.8 7 3.3 4 0.8 6 3.9 0 0.9 5

3.3 3 1.1 4 4.1 1 0.9 7 3.2 4 0.8 5 3.2 2 0.9 0 3.5 6 0.9 9

3.2 1 1.0 9 3.9 9 1.0 3 2.9 8 0.9 2 2.7 5 0.8 4 3.2 8 1.0 8

2.8 8 0.9 6 4.0 6 1.0 3 2.9 7 0.9 3 2.8 9 0.8 2 3.2 1 1.0 8

SU M 3.95 0.84 4.15 1.02 3.44 0.89 3.62 0.91 3.80 0.87

Notes: The firm performance concerning social issues: 1 – compliance with the laws for business activities; 2 – compliance with the laws for worker protection; 3 – care and service for consumers; 4 – environmental protection; 5 – trustful relations with customers; 6 – safety and security of products and services; 7 – realization of the best quality of products and services; 8 – aftercare for users; 9 – publicity of company information for society; 10 – contribution to science and culture; 11 – public activities for local community. Tabel 4. The firm respects the interests of agents in Estonia, China, Japan, Finland, Germany, Czech and Slovakia

Estonia

M

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 SUM 4.26 3.51 3.83 2.91 3.54 2.42 2.76 2.64 3.23

459


N=623 China N=1150 Japan N=1570 Finland N=239 Slovakia N=605

SD M SD M SD M SD M SD

1.21 4.28 0.88 3.74 0.82 4.44 0.98 4.10 0.91

1.38 4.07 0.85 3.41 0.86 3.02 1.10 3.81 0.85

1.33 4.33 0.86 3.88 0.91 3.69 1.12 3.95 0.90

1.35 3.85 1.08 3.44 0.91 4.19 0.96 4.15 0.93

1.41 3.69 1.12 3.06 0.93 3.30 1.06

1.40 3.69 1.15 3.03 0.91 2.45 0.98 3.37 1.08

1.28 3.98 0.93 3.19 0.84 2.68 0.90 3.69 0.98

1.36 3.96 1.03 3.13 0.89 2.77 0.95 3.66 0.98

1.26 3.98 1.06 3.82 0.87 3.32 0.96 3.75 0.97

Notes: The firm respects the interests of the following agents: 1 – customers; 2 - subsidiary, subcontract firms; 3 – consumers; 4 - stock holders; 5 –employees; 6 - trade union; 7 - public administration; 8 - local community.

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Peranan New Media Dalam Memfasilitasi Kewirausahaan pada Sektor Pariwisata – Studi Kasus: Mempromosikan Pulau Komodo di Nusa Tenggara Timur

Dessy Kania Universitas Bakrie, Jakarta Abstract Tourism is an important component of the Indonesian economy as well as a significant source of the country’s foreign exchange revenues. According to the Center of Data and Information at the Ministry of Tourism and Culture, the growth of foreign visitor arrivals to Indonesia has increased rapidly by 9.61 percent from 2010 to present. One of the most potential tourism destinations is Komodo Island located in East Nusa Tenggara. With its uniqueness of having a Komodo dragon habitat, beautiful and exotic marine life, the island is likely to be one of the promising tourism destinations in Indonesia and in the world. In 1986, the island has been declared as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism continuously promoting many of the country’s natural potentials in tourism through various media: printed media, television and especially new media. However, there are challenges for Indonesian tourism industry in facilitating entrepreneurship skills among the local people in East Nusa Tenggara. According to the Statistic Center Body (2011), East Nusa Tenggara is consider as one of the poorest provinces in Indonesia whereas the economy is lower than the average, with high inflation of 15%, and unemployment of 30%. This research is needed to explore further the phenomenon behind the above facts, with the aims to examine the role of new media in facilitating entrepreneurship in the tourism industry in Komodo Island. The results of this study are expected to provide insights that can help local tourism in East Nusa Tenggara. Keywords: Tourism, Entrepreneurship, New Media I. Latar Belakang Tidak dapat dipungkiri bahwa sektor pariwisata di Indonesia merupakan sektor ekonomi yang penting di dalam menggairahkan perekonomian negara. Di tahun 2009, sektor wisata merupakan penyumbang devisa ketiga setelah komoditi miyak, gas bumi serta miyak kelapa sawit. Menurut Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS), wisatawan mancanegara (wisman) yang berkunjung ke Indonesia selama Agustus 2011 mencapai 621.084 orang, yang merupakan peningkatan 7,32% dibanding jumlah wisman pada periode yang sama pada 2010 sebanyak 4,63

juta

orang

(http://www.mediaindonesia.com/read/2011/10/03/264996/4/2/621.084461


Turis-Berkunjung-ke-Indonesia-selama-Agustus-, diakses pada 18 Oktober 2011). Untuk kedepan, menurut ekonom Faisal Basri pada saat jumpa pers dalam pemaparan Roadmap Pembangunan Ekonomi Indonesia 2009-2014, sektor pariwisata diharapkan menjadi ujung tombak perekonomian pada periode pemerintahan 2009-2014 mendatang dan mampu menyumbang sekitar 10 persen hingga 15 persen terhadap Pertumbuhan Domestik Bruto (PDB) di tahun mendatang (http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2009/10/15/1756231/, diakses pada 18 Oktober 2011). Peningkatan jumlah wisatawan ke Indonesia tentu saja meningkat dari tahun ke tahun. Hal ini ditunjang dengan kekayaan, keindahan alam dan budaya Indonesia yang merupakan unsur terpenting dalam menunjang sektor pariwisata Negara. Indonesia dikenal sebagai negara kepulauan terbesar di dunia yang memiliki garis pantai terpanjang keempat di dunia memiliki 17.480 pulau. Secara tata letak geografis, “Indonesia dilewati garis ekuator di beberapa kota yang menyebabkan Indonesia memiliki iklim tropis basah dengan hujan sepanjang tahun. Selain itu posisinya yang menjadi perantara benua Asia dan Australia serta Samudra Hindia dan Pasifik menjadikan Indonesia sangat strategis” (http://www.wisatalk.com/ diakses pada 18 Oktober 2011). Tidak hanya kekayaan dan keindahan alam saja yang dapat menunjang pariwisata di Indonesia, budaya Indonesia yang dinamis dan eksotik mempunyai daya tarik tersendiri untuk para wisman. Budaya Indonesia yang kaya merupakan hasil dari pengaruh negara-negara tetangga sendiri berbagai budaya etnis. Pengaruh India dan Cina sejak zaman kuno dan Eropa dan Timur Tengah pengaruh di abad pertengahan berada di balik budaya Indonesia yang dinamis. Selain keadaan alam yang menunjang potensi pariwisata di Indonesia, pemerintah juga mengeluarkan undang-undang dan regulasi yang mendukung warga negara untuk

462


memperoleh kesempatan dalam melakukan kegiatan pariwisata. Hal ini dapat dilihat seperti dibawah ini: “bahwa kebebasan melakukan perjalanan dan memanfaatkan waktu luang dalam wujud berwisata merupakan bagian dari hak asasi manusia.” (Undang-Undang Kepariwisataan, UU N0.10, 2009)

Setelah melihat adanya dukungan baik dari sisi alam dan pemerintah dalam menggalakkan pariwisata di Indonesia, langkah berikutnya adalah pemilihan tujuan (destinasi) wisata. Terdapat banyak pilihan tujuan wisata baik diluar maupun didalam negri. Sayangnya masyarakat Indonesia lebih berminat wisata ke luar negeri.

Seperti yang

dihimbau oleh Ketua Umum Partai Amanat Nasional Soetrisno Bachir yang disadur oleh Imam Prihandoko di koran Kompas: "Berwisatalah di dalam negeri, kita pasti mendapatkan keindahan yang tidak kalah menariknya dengan tempat wisata di luar negeri. Bantulah negeri ini, dengan tidak menghamburkan belanja barang produk luar negeri, termasuk tidak membeli keindahan alam negara lain,"

Dari semua tujuan wisata dalam negri di Indonesia, Nusa Tenggara Timur yang merupakan salah satu tujuan wisata yang sangat popular dan digemari baik wisatawan luar negri ataupun alam negri. Walaupun propinsi Nusa Tenggara Timur merupakan salah satu provinsi yang miskin di Indonesia disana terdapat keragaman wisata dan keindahan alam. Seperti yang digambarkan dalam kutipan berikut: http://www.tourismntt.com/ (diakses pada 3 Oktober 2011): “…traditional ceremonies like the Pasola of Sumba, the whip fighting of Flores and the war dances of Sabu. See the prehistoric Dragons of Komodo, the three colored crater lakes of Keli Mutu in Flores; dive in the world renowned diving destinations of Alor and Komodo; surf the waves of Rote and Sumba…”

463


Sumber: www.indonesia-tourism.com

Dari semua tujuan wisata yang terdapat di Flores, Taman Nasional Komodo dengan wilayah 1.817 km ² merupakan salah satu tujuan wisata yang sangat popular dan unik sehingga taman ini termasuk dalam finalis di jajaran “The New Seven Wonder of Nature”. Terdapat habitat Komodo Dragon (Varadus komodoensis) yang merupakan salah satu hewan purba yang hanya hidup di Taman Nasional Komodo, yang terletak di pulau Komodo, Rinca, dan Gili Motang. Pada tahun 2008, jumlah turis asing yang datang ke pulau Komodo berjumlah sampai 21 ribu orang. Tahun 2009 meningkat menjadi 36 ribu orang. Kemudian, tahun 2010 lalu juga meningkat menjadi 45 ribu orang. Wisatawan asing yang datang kebanyakan

dari

Australia,

Asia

Tenggara,

dan

Amerika

Serikat

(http://www.indonesia.travel/id/news/detail/471/promosi-mandiri-indonesia-untuk-tamannasional-komodo-the-real-wonder-of-the-world diakses pada 3 Oktober 2011). Dalam membantu mempromosikan Tmana Nasional Komodo, pemerintah Indonesia (Kementrian Budaya dan Pariwisata) juga dibantu oleh non-profit organization dunia yaitu 464


Swisscontact. Proyek Pembangunan Pariwisata Daerah (WISATA) yang dimulai sejak 20092013, mencakup pulau Flores, yang merupakan bagian dari provinsi Indonesia Nusa Tenggara Timur (NTT). Kegiatan utama akan fokus pada pengembangan organisasi manajemen tujuan lokal dengan dua entry point ke Flores, Labuan Bajo dan Maumere. (http://www.swisscontact.or.id/projects/eastern-indonesia/wisata-–-regional-tourismdevelopment-on-flores-island/ diakses pada 3 Oktober 2011) Kementrian Budaya dan Pariwisata sejak tahun 2010 telah menetapkan program baru dalam meningkatkan pawiwisata Indonesia yaitu “Destination Management” (DMO). Terdapat 15 destinasi pariwisata yang akan dikembangkan dengan menerapkan konsep DMO dalam periode 2010 sampai 2015. Destinasi wisata termasuk Kota Tua (Jakarta), Pangandaran (Jawa Barat), Borobudur (Jawa), Bromo-Tengger-Semeru (Jawa Timur), Toba (Sumatera Utara), Sabang (Aceh), Danau Batur (Bali), Rinjani (NTB ), Komodo-FloresFlores (NTT), Tanjung Puting (Kalimantan), Derawan (Kaltim), Toraja (Sulawesi Selatan), Bunaken (Sulawesi Utara), Wakatobi (Sulawesi Utara), dan Raja Ampat (Papua) (http://nttonlinenews.com/ntt/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=10697:pakar -pariwisata-dunia-akan-bahas-wisata-ri&catid=40:pariwisata&Itemid=57 diakses pada

3

Oktober 2011) Bilamana wisatawan tertarik untuk mengunjungi Taman Nasional Komodo, umumnya mereka akan mengakses internet untuk mendapatkan informasi seputar akomodasi, tempat wisata, jasa tour operator, serta restaurant yang tersedia. Jasa penerbangan serta transportasi laut yang menghubungkan Labuan Bajo sebagai pelabuhan utama untuk dapat menyeberang ke Taman Nasional Komodo juga bisa diakses secara lengkap melalui internet. Terlihat dari data salah satu website pariwisata dibawah ini banyaknya orang yang mengakses untuk informasi tentang pariwisata di Nusa Tenggara Timur.

465


Sumber: www.tourismntt.com Dari latar belakang yang telah dijelaskan diatas, maka dirasakan perlu adanya penelitian untuk menelaah lebih lanjut mengenai bagaimana peranan new media, pemerintah serta badan-badan lainnya dalam memfasilitasi pariwisata dan kewirausahaan Pulau Komodo di Nusa Tenggara Timur.

II. Tinjauan Pustaka II.1. New Media and Entrepreneurship Cara kita berkomunikasi serta mempormosikan suatu produk jasa maupun non-jasa sangat berpengaruh pada medium yang kita gunakan.

Sudah banyak usahawan yang

menggunakan berbagai macam medium seperti televise, radio, koran untuk mempromosikan produknya. Tidak kalah pentingnya, medium yang saat ini menjadi pilihan adalah “New Media”. New media merupakan bentuk komunikasi interaktif yang menggunakan internet, termasuk podcast, RSS feed, jaringan sosial, pesan teks, blog, wiki, serta dunia virtual lainnya. Terdapat banyak kegunaan dari New Media. New Media memungkinkan bagi siapa saja untuk membuat, memodifikasi, dan berbagi konten dan berbagi dengan orang lain, menggunakan alat yang relatif sederhana yang sering gratis atau murah. Media baru membutuhkan

sebuah

komputer

atau

perangkat

mobile

dengan

akses

internet

(http://aids.gov/using-new-media/basics/what-is-new-media/ diakses pada 3 Oktober 2011). Peranan new media dalam memfasilitasi kewirausahaan dapat dilihat dari artikel Jaya Akunuri yang disadur oleh Nwankwo dan Gbadamosi dalam bukunya “Entrepreneurship Marketing: Principles and Practice of SME Marketing” (2010: 177):

466


“It has been well documented in academic literature that entrepreneurs rely hugely on both personal and social networking contact. Online media further enables entrepreneurs to do what they are best at – interact with people, build relationship and talk with their customers.” Penggunaan internet untuk usahawan kecil dan menengah meningkat seiring dengan perkembangan bisnis dan pasar. Seperti yang dikatakan oleh Kuratko dan Hodgetts (2007: 14) bahwa usaha kecil menggunakan Internet untuk berbagai operasi, termasuk pelanggan berbasis identifikasi, iklan, penjualan konsumen, bisnis untuk transaksi bisnis, email dan jaringan internal pribadi untuk para karyawan. II.3. Tourism and Destination Management Ada beberapa pendekatan untuk mendefinisikan pariwisata. Reid dalam bukunya “Tourism, Globalization and Development: Responsible Tourism Planning” (2003: 111) mengatakan: “Tourism is also defined economically among entrepreneurs, according to consumption patterns, and by profit and loss. In many developing countries, the prices charged for many exhibitsmaintained by government agencies changes based on whether thevisitor is a non-national tourist or a citizen of the country. In a sense,then, there are two distinct types of visitors to such exhibits, eventhough the attraction may be the same. For these purposes, domestic tourism is seen as much as a recreation as it is a form of tourism.” Salah satu definisi tourism yang menitikberatkan kepada pentingnya pengalaman yang didapat dari wisatawan dikemukakan oleh Urry (1990) yang disadur oleh Lobo dalam artikelnya “Cultural Tourism and the Leisure Paradigm: The Australian Experience” dalam buku “The Tourism and Leisure Industry: Shaping the Future” (2005:136): “Tourism is a departure from everyday experience. He describes tourism as experience and as a free-time activity that contracts with the daily routine and which can chiefly be identified by means of “signs” bringing significance to the attention of the tourist (for example, beauty, romance, nature).” Macleod dan Carrier dalam bukunya “Tourism, Power and Culture: Anthropological Insights” (2010) mengatakan bahwa: “Tourism as an experience and an industry is infused by culture in its various dimensions, and influenced throughout by relationships of power; this is particularly apparent at the destination site.” 467


Salah satu konsep yang perlu ditelaah sehubungan dengan konsep pariwisata yang telah dijelaskan diatas adalah konsep “destination”. Menurut Steven Pike dalam bukunya Destination Marketing - An Integrated Marketing Communication Approach (2008: 24): “A destination is a geographical space in which a cluster of tourism resources exist, rather than a political boundary. Pike yang menyadur dari Rubies (2001:39) juga menjelaskan Cluster sebagai: “an accumulation of tourist resources and attractions, infrastructures, equipments, service providers, other support sectors and administrative organisms whose integrated and coordinated activities provide customers with the experiences they expected from the destination they chose to visit” Terdapat berbagai macam kategori dalam kegiatan pariwisata. Berikut adalah kategori-kategori berdasarkan Reid, Fuller, Haywood and Bryden, (1993) yang disadur oleh Reid (2003:108):

Gambar: Categories of Tourism Activities Sumber: Reid, Fuller, Haywood and Bryden, 1993 Eco-tourism merupakan salah satu kategori aktifitas pariwiwsata yang saat ini banyak digemari oleh wisatawan lokal maupun luar negri. Menurut Hammitt dan Symmonds dalam artikelnya “Wilderness” dalam bukunya Weaver “The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism” (2001: 327): “Ecotourism is travel to fragile, pristine, and unusually protected areas that strive to be low impact and (usually) small scale. It helps educate the traveller; provides funds 468


for conservation; directly benefits the economic development and political empowerment of local communities; and foster respect for different cultures for human rights”. III. Metode Dalam riset ini, pendekatan penelitian yang digunakan adalah kualitatif. Periode penelitian ini adalah dari tanggal 28 Agustus sampai dengan 22 Oktober 2011. Metode yang digunakan dalam mengumpulkan data untuk penelitian ini terdiri dari semi-terstruktur wawancara pribadi, pemeriksaan dokumen dan pengamatan pribadi. Penerapan beberapa metode atau triangulasi dalam penelitian sosial telah didukung oleh berbagai peneliti karena mereka membantu untuk mengatasi kekurangan yang melekat dalam penggunaan satu metode. Studi kasus digunakan sebagai strategi penelitian karena fokus penelitian ini adalah pulau komodo sebagai destinasi wisata. Pengambilan data menggunakan tehnik in-depth interview kepada key infoman, dan didukung oleh para informan.

Key informan dalam penelitian ini adalah Bapak Ir.

Firmansyah Rahim, MM, selaku Direktur Jenderal Pengembangan Destinasi Pariwisata (PDP) Kementrian Budaya dan Pariwisata. Serta Bapak Christian Maramis sebagai Field Office Manager Eastern Flores dari Swisscontact (Indonesian Swiss Development Cooperation) khususnya untuk program WISATA - Flores Tourism Destination Development berlokasi di Maumere.

Nara sumber lainnya adalah Ibu Nila Sari yang pernah bekerja

sebagai Communications Consultant pada PT Putri Naga Komodo dan pendiri dari Taman Bacaan Pelangi (Rainbow Reading Gardens) di Flores khususnya Labuan Bajo.

Untuk

Kementrian Budaya dan Pariwisata, Bapak Frans Tegu M.A. selaku Kepala Bagian Perencanaan dan Hukum Direktorat Jenderal Pengembangan Destinasi Pariwisata (Ditjen PDP) juga diperlukan sebagai nara sumber terutama untuk data data yang lebih detail sehubungan dengan program Destination Management. IV. Temuan dan Pembahasan

469


IV.1. Peranan New Media (Internet) dalam mempromosikan Flores dan Pulau Komodo (Komodo Island) Ketika hendak meneliti mengenai peranan new media khususnya internet, yang pertama kali harus dilakukan adalah melihat fasilitas jaringan internet yang tersedia di tempat penelitian.

Jaringan pendukung new media terutama internet di Labuan Bajo hanya

Telkomsel dan Indosat. Hal ini dapat dikatakan menjadi tantangan karena fasilitas pendukung pariwisata menjadi sangat terbatas dalam hal penyediaan jasa internet serta price competitiveness jasa internet. Keadaan ini sangat berbeda jauh dibandingkan dengan tempat wisata seperti Bali yang dapat memberikan ragam fasilitas internet kepada para wisatawan. Pada saat peneliti memasukkan kata kunci “Flores, Indonesia” ke dalam search engine Google, terdapat sekitar 6,100,000 hasil pencarian dalam kategori dari semua sumber. Sedangkan dengan kata kunci “Komodo Island” terdapat sekitar 737,000 hasil pencarian dalam kategori dari semua sumber. Semua sumber disini adalah sumber dari Images, Maps, Videos, News, Shopping, More. Hasil diatas bila peneliti bandingkan dengan memasukkan kata kunci “Bali”, terdapat hasil sekitar 67,900,000 sumber, serta kata kunci “Lombok” terdapat hasil sekitar 38,100,000 masih terlihat jauh perbedaannya dalam penyediaan informasi pada internet dengan search engine Google. Bilamana kita bandingkan dengan tujuan wisata lainnya yang mempunyai keunikan wisata Eco-Tourism seperti Raja Ampat dan Wakatobi, pulau Komodo masih tertinggal jauh. (dengan kata kunci “Raja Ampat” terdapat sekitar 1,040,000 hasil serta kata kunci “Wakatobi Island” yaitu sekitar 845,000 hasil). Fasilitas internet di Flores, khususnya Labuan Bajo sebagai pintu utama kunjungan ke Pulau Komodo dirasakan baru berjalan sekitar 2-3 tahun belakangan ini. Berikut adalah kutipan mengenai pengadaan fasilitas internet dengan Bapak Firmasyah Rahim selaku Ditjen PDP Budpar: “Nah karena waktu itu Wapres mau datang, saya minta Telkomsel suruh buka di Komodo. Sekarang Telkomsel udah hidup belum? Kayanya udah, waktu Wapres 470


datang kesana, dia nggak bisa ini, terus dia perintah ke kita. Saya telpon ke Pak Firmansyah. Firmansyah juga ya, Telkomsel? Itu diminta, saya telpon Pak siapa..itu coba di ini Pak Presiden, Wapres kemarin dari sana minta supaya cepat dipasang.”(wawancara pada 7 Oktober 2011) Ditambahkan lagi oleh Bapak Christian dari Swisscontact yang melihat pentingnya fasilitas internet sebagai perangkat pembelajaran kepada masyarakat: “Oh iya, sangat penting kan. Jangkauan luas..itu kan mempermudah mereka juga untuk capacity building, untuk belajar, ya kan? Mempermudah mereka mencari smart enough informasi. Cuma celakanya ini kalau tingkat provinsi sudah lebih enak ya, hampir semua dinas itu akses internetnya ada, lancar. Jadi Kupang ini kan memang karena ibukota provinsi ya, tapi kalau lihat kabupaten, aduh ini sangat miris juga ngelihatnya, Dinas Pariwisata tapi nggak ada koneksi internet di kantor Dinas Pariwisata di Maumere. Jadi dia Dinas Pariwisata tapi dia nggak punya koneksi internet, jadi kan sangat miris.” (wawancara pada 13 Oktober 2011) Terlihat dari penyataan di atas, baik dari Kementrian Budaya dan Pariwisata dan Swisscontact merasakan bagaimana minimnya fasilitas internet di daerah pariwisata Labuan bajo dan pulau Komodo. Hal ini tidak sejalan dengan konsep yang dikemukakan oleh Jaya Akunuri dimana media online lebih memungkinkan pengusaha untuk melakukan apa yang mereka yang terbaik yaitu: berinteraksi dengan orang, membangun hubungan dan berbicara dengan pelanggan mereka. IV.2. Pariwisata dan Destination Management Setiap tujuan wisata mempunyai keunikan dan kekhasan tersendiri dalam menyajikan objek wisata yang dimiliki.

Keunikan inilah yang membuat suatu daerah wisata lebih

menonjol dari daerah lainnya. Oleh karena itu, konsep manajemen destinasi (Destination Management) yang diajukan oleh Kementrian Budaya dan Pariwisata dapat memberikan competitive advantage untuk setiap 15 destinasi yang ada di Indonesia. Salah satu latar belakang mengapa konsep destinasi ini akan menguntungkan pariwisata di Indonesia adalah karena adanya perbedaan geografis dibandingkan dengan negara lain.

Seperti yang

dikemukakan oleh Bapak Firmasyah: “Kalau di Indonesia itu kelebaran. Tapi itu bukan jadi kendala buat saya, malah jadi asset. Bedanya. Kalau di Singapore atau di Thailand itu sedikit. Jadi satu kelebaran. Karakternya macam-macam, tapi jadi daya tarik buat saya. Uniqueness-nya justru 471


disitu. Terus, dipisahin oleh laut. Itu bisa jadi kendala, tapi itu buat saya jadi daya tarik sebetulnya (wawancara pada 7 Oktober 2011). Hal yang sama juga dikatakan oleh Bapak Frans Teguh yang menjelaskan perbedaan antara pariwisata Indonesia dengan negara lain letaknya bisa dilihat dari peta di mana Indonesia terdiri dari banyak kepulauan sedangkan Negara asia lainnya tidak mempunyai pulau sebanyak Indonesia (wawancara pada 11 Oktober 2011). Konsep pariwisata yang diajukan oleh Reid (2003) serta Urry (1990) yang menitikberatkan pada “experience” sejalan dengan apa yang dikemukakan oleh Bapak Frans seperti berikut ini: “mulai dari wisatawan datang di bandara, atau melalui pelabuhan laut transportasinya seperti apa, informasinya dia perlu guide, dia makan di restoran, dia nginap di hotel, dia beli oleh-oleh kuliner, itu kan, mungkin dia menggunakan juga, apa, beli transportation, dia bertemu bersapa dengan masyarakat, ini kan secara disain itu adalah produk pariwisata dimana itu adalah pengalaman yang diciptakan pengalaman. Pengalaman yang disusun, pengalaman yang harus direkayasa.” (wawancara pada 11 Oktober 2011). Salah satu temuan dari wawancara dengan Bapak Christian dari Swisscontact adalah perbedaan kategori aktivitas wisata yang dibuat untuk pulau Komodo yaitu Eco-tourism. Hal ini diungkapkan sebagai berikut: “Kalau di kita design project nya sih, dan input juga dari stakeholder juga, kalau untuk kita, sebisanya sih kita menghindari seperti Bali, jadi menghindari max tourism itu. Kita hindari. Kita prefer nya lebih ke ecotourism. Makanya nanti di masterplan itu juga yang akan ini lebih banyak, apa input akan ada, apa namanya, disain-disain yang lebih banyak yang menghindari max tourism. Karena kalau tadi kan saya … tanda kutip nggak terkontrol lagi, ya kan, jadi kita hindari itu. Jadi kita hindari juga yang ini, apa namanya, yang manufacture-manufacture. Makanya, kalau visinya kita kan, salah satu visinya kita kan terkenalnya Flores ini kan tantang manufacture, jadi masih natural. Nah itu yang kita sangat jaga nanti kedepannya, supaya jangan terlalu banyak barang-barang atau atraksi-atraksi atau bangunan-bangunan/building yang manufacture.” (wawancara pada 13 Oktober 2011) Terlihat dari saran yang dikemukakan oleh Bapak Christian bahwa salah satu keunikan dari pengelolaan destinasi adalah perbedaan kategori wisata seperti Eco-tourism untuk pulau Komodo. V. Kesimpulan dan Saran 472


Berikut adalah kesimpulan yang didapat dari penelitian ini: 1. Internet atau new media sebagai perangkat yang sangat penting dalam bidang pariwisata dan kewirausahaan masih dirasakan minim di Flores. 2. Destination management dapat menunjang promosi pariwisata di Indonesia dengan memberikan ‘experience’ yang dapat direkayasa melalui sinergi antara para stakeholder di masing-masing destinasi. 3. Dengan adanya destination management, diketahui bahwa eco-tourism merupakan salah satu keunikan pariwisata yang dapat ditemukan di Flores. Saran penelitian adalah: 1. Telah diketahui bahwa beberapa destinasi masih sangat minim fasilitasi internet yang dapat menungjang komunikasi dan promosi pariwisata baik untuk wisatawan dalam negri maupun laur negeri. 2.

Penelitian lebih lanjut untuk mengetahui minat kewirausahaan di setiap destinasi

diperlukan sehingga program-program yang dapat diajukan kepada non-profit organization seperti Swisscontact bisa bersinergi dengan program destination management dari Kementrian Budaya dan Pariwisata.

Daftar Pustaka Undang – Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 10. Tahun 2009 Tentang Kepariwisataan Nwankwo, Sonny; Gbadamosi, Ayantunji. (2010), Entrepreneurship marketing : principles and practice of SME marketing, New York : Routledge, 2011 Kuratko, Donald F; Hodgetts, Richard M, Entrepreneurship: Theory, Process, Practice, South-Western College Pub; 6 edition, 2003 Weiermair, Klau; Mathies, Christine,The Tourism and Leisure Industry: Shaping the Future, Routledge, 2004 Reid, Donald G., Tourism, Globalization and Development: Responsible Tourism Planning, Pluto Press, 2003 Macleod, Donald V. L; Carrier, James G. “Tourism, Power and Culture: Anthropological Insights”, Channel View Publications, Bristol, UK, 2010 http://www.indonesia.travel/id/news/detail/471/promosi-mandiri-indonesia-untuk-tamannasional-komodo-the-real-wonder-of-the-world diakses pada 18 Oktober 2011 http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2008/12/02/09454362/berwisatalah.di.dalam.negeri diakses pada 18 Oktober 2011 www.google.com diakses pada 18 October 2011 473


http://www.mediaindonesia.com/read/2011/10/03/264996/4/2/621.084-Turis-Berkunjung-keIndonesia-selama-Agustus- diakses pada 18 Oktober 2011 http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2009/10/15/1756231/, diakses pada 18 Oktober 2011 http://www.wisatalk.com/ diakses pada 18 Oktober 2011 http://www.tourismntt.com/ diakses pada 3 Oktober 2011 http://www.swisscontact.or.id/projects/eastern-indonesia/wisata-–-regional-tourismdevelopment-on-flores-island/ diakses pada 3 Oktober 2011 http://nttonlinenews.com/ntt/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=10697:pakarpariwisata-dunia-akan-bahas-wisata-ri&catid=40:pariwisata&Itemid=57 diakses pada 3 Oktober 2011 http://aids.gov/using-new-media/basics/what-is-new-media/ diakses pada 3 Oktober 2011

474


BACK COVER The entrepreneurship spirit plays a significant role in the global competition nowadays. When world becomes borderless in space and time because of the information and communication technology (ICT), everything changes and moves so fast. These changes should be faced by all business entities with their proper strategic management so they will survive and win the competition. In response to the recent situation and condition in global business and the role of the entrepreneurship spirit, a book has come out with the title “Enterpreneurship in Global Competition”. This book offers many creative thoughts on entrepreneurship spirit related with business aspects. With their strong analysis of the writers involved, the book can be a scientific or practical reference in strategic management. Associating various ideas into a red line and pursing them into a point where the entrepreneurship spirit becomes the essence of all discourses, we may pack them and make it as an umbrella of some aspects of business that can be grouped into four concentrations of ideas as follow: -

International Business in Global Competition Era

-

Management of Human Resources through Alternative Education & Entrepreneurial Spirit

-

Aspects of Marketing Management

-

The Role of Communication & Media in Winning Competition

The above groupings are served systematically with the hope that they can give comprehensive description about various business aspects that need entrepreneurship spirit to win the competition.

475


FOREWORD. competition nowadays. When world becomes borderless in space and time

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