Concepts of Prevention and Control
(I) Prevention The goals of medicine are to promote health, to preserve health, to restore health when it is impaired, and to minimize suffering and distress. These goals are embodied in the word "prevention"
Prevention; Definition and Concept Actions aimed at eradicating (mengakhiri), eliminating or minimizing the impact of disease and disability, or if none of these are feasible, retarding the progress of the disease and disability.
Pencegahan penyakit adalah •
Tindakan yang ditujukan untuk mencegah, menunda, mengurangi, membasmi, mengeliminasi penyakit dan kecacatanm dgn menerapkan sebuah atau sejumlah intervensi yg telah dibuktikan efektif. (Kleinbaum, et al., 1982; Last, 2001).
Prevention; Definition and Co nc e pt Determinants of Prevention
The concept of prevention is best defined in the context of levels, traditionally called primary, secondary and tertiary prevention. A fourth level, called primordial prevention, was later added.
Determinants of Prevention •
Successful prevention depends upon: –
a knowledge of causation,
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dynamics of transmission,
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identification of risk factors and risk groups,
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availability of prophylactic or early detection and treatment measures, an organization for applying these measures to appropriate persons or groups, and
Preventable Causes of Disease BEINGS Biological factors and Behavioral Factors Environmental factors Immunologic factors Nutritional factors Genetic factors Services, Social factors, and Spiritual factors
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Levels of prevention Primordial prevention
Primary prevention
Secondary prevention
Tertiary prevention
Tingkat pencegahan dan kelompok targetnya menurut fase penyakit Tingkat
Fase penyakit
Kelompok target
pencegahan primordial
Kondisi normal kesehatan Populasi total kelompok terpilih
dan
Primary
Keterpaparan penyebab khusus
dan dan
secondary
Fase patogenesitas awal
Tertiary
Fase lanjut (pengobatan Pasien dan rehabilitasi) Sumber : Beoglehole, WHO 1993
factor Populasi total kelompok terpilih individu sehat Pasien
Stage of disease
Leavell’s Levels of Prevention
Pre-disease
Latent Disease
Symptomatic Disease
Level of prevention
Type of response
Primary Prevention
Health promotion and Specific protection
Pre-symptomatic Diagnosis and treatment
Secondary prevention
Tertiary prevention
Disability limitation for early symptomatic disease • Rehabilitation for late Symptomatic disease •
Hubungan kedudukan riwayat perjalanan penyakit, tingkat pencegahan dan upaya pencegahan Riwayat
Tingkat pencegahan
Upaya pencegahan
penyakit Pre-patogenesis Primordial prevention Primary prevention
Underlying condition Health promotion Specific protection
patogenesis
Secondary prevention
Early diagnosis and prompt
treatment
Disability limitation
Tertiary prevention
Rehabilitation
Fase sebelum sakit •
Fase pre -pathoge ne s is dengan tingkat pencegahan yang disebut pencegahan primer (prim ary pre ve ntion). Fase ini ditandai dengan adanya keseimbangan antara age nt (kuman penyakit/ penyebab), hos t (pejamu) dan e nvirontm e nt (lingkungan).
Fase selama proses sakit •
Fase pathoge ne s is , terbagi dalam 2 tingkatan pencegahan yang disebut pencegahan sekunder (s e condary pre ve ntion) dan pencegahan tersier (te rtiary pre ve ntion). Fase ini dimulai dari pertama kali seorang terkena sakit yang pada akhirnya memiliki kemungkinan sembuh atau mati.
Primordial prevention
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Primordial prevention consists of actions and measures that inhibit the emergence of risk factors in the form of environmental, economic, social, and behavioral conditions and cultural patterns of living etc.
Primordial prevention (cont.)
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It is the prevention of the emergence or development of risk factors in countries or population groups in which they have not yet appeared For example, many adult health problems (e.g., obesity, hypertension) have their early origins in childhood, because this is the time when
Primordial prevention (cont.) •
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In primordial prevention, efforts are directed towards discouraging children from adopting harmful lifestyles The main intervention in primordial prevention is through individual and mass education
Primary prevention •
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Primary prevention can be defined as the action taken prior to the onset of disease, which removes the possibility that the disease will ever occur. It signifies intervention in the prepathogenesis phase of a disease or health problem. Primary prevention may be accomplished by measures of
Primary prevention (cont.) •
It includes the concept of "positive health", a concept that encourages achievement and maintenance of "an acceptable level of health that will enable every individual to lead a socially and economically productive life".
Primary prevention (cont.) •
Primary prevention may be accomplished by measures designed to promote general health and well-being, and quality of life of people or by specific protective measures.
Primary prevention
Achieved by
Health promotion
He alth e duc atio n Environmental modifications
Specific protection Immunization and seroprophylaxis chemoprophylaxis Use of specific nutrients or supplementations Protection against occupational hazards
Nutritional interventions
Safety of drugs and foods
Life style and behavioral changes
Control of environmental hazards, e.g. air pollution
Health promotion •
Health promotion is “ the process of enabling people to increase control over the determinants of health and thereby improve their health”.
Approaches for Primary Prevention •
The WHO has recommended the following approaches for the primary prevention of chronic diseases where the risk factors are established: –
a. Population (mass) strategy
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b. High -risk strategy
Population (mass) strategy •
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“Population strategy" is directed at the whole population irrespective of individual risk levels. For example, studies have shown that even a small reduction in the average blood pressure or serum cholesterol of a population would produce a large reduction in the incidence of cardiovascular disease The population approach is directed towards socio-economic, behavioral and lifestyle changes
High -risk strategy •
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The high -risk strategy aims to bring preventive care to individuals at special risk. This requires detection of individuals at high risk by the optimum use of clinical methods.
Secondary prevention •
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It is defined as “ action which halts the progress of a disease at its incipient stage and prevents complications.” The specific interventions are: early diagnosis (e.g. screening tests, and case finding programs….) and adequate treatment.
Secondary prevention •
Secondary prevention attempts to arrest the disease process, restore health by seeking out unrecognized disease and treating it before irreversible pathological changes take place, and reverse communicability of infectious diseases.
Secondary prevention •
It thus protects others from in the community from acquiring the infection and thus provide at once secondary prevention for the infected ones and primary prevention for their potential contacts.
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Early diagnosis and treatment WHO Expert Committee in 1973
defined early detection of health disorders as “ the detection of disturbances of homoeostatic and compensatory mechanism while biochemical, morphological and functional changes are still reversible.”
Early diagnosis and treatment •
The earlier the disease is diagnosed, and treated the better it is for prognosis of the case and in the prevention of the occurrence of other secondary cases.
Tertiary prevention •
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It is used when the disease process has advanced beyond its early stages. It is defined as “all the measures available to reduce or limit impairments and disabilities, and to promote the patients’ adjustment to irremediable conditions.”
Disability limitation disease
impairment
disability
handicap
Impairment
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Impairment is “any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological or anatomical structure or function.”
Disability •
Disability is “any restriction or lack of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for the human being.”
Handicap •
Handicap is termed as “a disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from an impairment or disability, that limits or prevents the fulfillment of a role in the community that is normal (depending on age, sex, and social and cultural factors) for that individual.”
Rehabilitation •
Rehabilitation is “ the combined and coordinated use of medical, social, educational, and vocational measures for training and retraining the individual to the highest possible level of functional ability.”
Rehabilitation
Medical rehabilitation
Vocational rehabilitation
Social rehabilitation
Psychological rehabilitation
Strategy for Prevention
Intervent ion
Intervention Programs
Evaluate Intervention Programs
Apply Population-Based Intervention Programs
(based on demography / family history, host factors..)
me sess nt As
Modify Existing
Identify Populations at High Disease Risk
Assess Exposure
Conduct Research on Mechanisms (including the study of genetic susceptibility)
Epidemiology Division
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(II) Control
Control •
Concept of control:
The term disease control describes ongoing operations aimed at reducing: –
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The incidence of disease The duration of disease and consequently the risk of transmission The effects of infection, including both the physical and psychosocial
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Control activities focus on primary prevention or secondary prevention, but most programs combine both. control
elimination
eradication
Disease Elimination •
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Between control and eradication, an intermediate goal has been described, called "regional elimination" The term "elimination" is used to describe interruption of transmission of disease, as for example, elimination of measles, polio and diphtheria from large geographic regions or areas
Disease Eradication •
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Eradication literally means to "tear out by roots". It is the process of “Termination of all transmission of infection by extermination of the infectious agent through surveillance and containment”. Eradication is an absolute process, an "all or none" phenomenon, restricted to termination of an infection from the whole world. It implies that disease will no longer occur in a population. To-date, only one disease has been eradicated,
Monitoring •
Monitoring is "the performance and analysis of routine measurements aimed at detecting changes in the environment or health status of population" (Thus we have monitoring of air pollution, water quality, growth and nutritional status, etc).
Monitoring •
It also refers to on -going measurement of performance of a health service or a health professional, or of the extent to which patients comply with or adhere to advice from health professionals.
Surveillance •
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surveillance means to watch over with great attention, authority and often with suspicion According to another, surveillance is defined as "the continuous scrutiny (inspection) of the factors that determine the occurrence and distribution of disease and other
Objectives of Surveillance •
The main objectives of surveillance are: –
(a) to provide information about new and changing trends in the health status of a population, e.g., morbidity, mortality, nutritional status or other indicators and environmental hazards, health practices and other factors that may affect health
Objectives of Surveillance
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The main objectives of surveillance are: –
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(b) to provide feed-back which may be expected to modify the policy and the system itself and lead to redefinition of objectives, and (c) provide timely warning of public health disasters so that interventions can be mobilized.
Control of infectious diseases (the 4 “C”s Control
Cases Diagnosis notification standard isolation strict disinfection protective treatment follow up release
Contacts
Carriers
Community
observation
detection
Epidemiological Investigation & containment
Evaluation of control •
Evaluation is the process by which results are compared with the intended objectives, or more simply the assessment of how well a program is performing.
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Evaluation should always be considered during the planning and implementation stages of a program or activity.
Evaluation of control •
Evaluation studies may also be carried out to generate information for other purposes, e.g., to attract attention to a problem, extension of control activities, training and patient management, etc.
Evaluation of control •
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Evaluation can be useful inidentifying performance difficulties. Evaluation studies may also be carried out to generate information for other purposes, e.g., to attract attention to a problem, extension of control activities, training and patient management, etc.
To summarize •
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The goals of medicine are to promote health, to preserve health, to restore health when it is impaired, and to minimize suffering and distress. These goals are embodied in the word "prevention"
To summarize •
Successful prevention depends upon a knowledge of causation, dynamics of transmission, identification of risk factors and risk groups, availability of prophylactic or early detection and treatment measures, an organization for applying these measures to appropriate persons or groups, and continuous evaluation of and development of procedures applied
To summarize •
The objective of preventive medicine is to intercept or oppose the "cause" and thereby the disease process. This epidemiological concept permits the inclusion of treatment as one of the modes of intervention
Thank You
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Pencegahan mengambil tindakan terlebih dahulu sebelum kejadian Peran epidemiologi dalam pencegahan:
identifikasi faktor risiko yang dapat dimodifikasi konsep dasar penyakit upaya pencegahan sesuai dengan riwayat alamiah penyakit r a p
Riwayat alamiah penyakit dan tingkat pencegahan •
Periode prepatogenesis –
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Tingkat pencegahan primer •
Promosi kesehatan
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Perlindungan khusus
Periode patogenesis –
Tingkat pencegahan sekunder •
Diagnosis dini dan pengobatan segera
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Pembatasan ketidakmampuan (disability)
Riwayat Alamiah Penyakit
58
Tahap Pencegahan •
Tingkat pencegahan disesuaikan dengan riwayat alamiah penyakit: 1.
Pencegahan primordial
2.
Pencegahan primer
3.
Pencegahan sekunder
4.
Pencegahan tersier
1. Pencegahan Primordial •
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Tujuan: menghindari terbentuknya pola hidup sosial ekonomi dan kultural yang diketahui mempunyai kontribusi untuk meningkatkan risiko penyakit Pencegahan primordial yang efektif memerlukan adanya peraturan yang ketat dari pemerintah Contoh:
Pencegahan primordial •
Fase penyakit –
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Misal: Kondisi yang mengarah penyebab penyakit jantung koroner
Target –
Populasi
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kelompok terseleksi
Riwayat Alamiah Penyakit
61
2. Pencegahan Primer •
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Adl Upaya pencegahan yg dilakukan saat proses penyakit belum mulai (pd periode pre-patogenesis) dengan tujuan agar tidak terjadi proses penyakit Tujuan: mengurangi insiden penyakit dengan cara mengendalikan penyebab penyakit dan faktor risikonya Upaya yang dilakukan adalah untuk memutus mata rantai infeksi “agent – host environment”
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Terdiri dari: 1.
Health promotion
2.
Specific protection
Dilakukan melalui 2 strategi: populasi dan individu
Tingkat pencegahan primer •
Perlindungan khusus –
Imunisasi
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Kebersihan perorangan
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Sanitasi lingkungan
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Perlindungan thdp kecelakaan akibat kerja Riwayat Alamiah Penyakit
64
Tingkat pencegahan primer •
Perlindungan khusus –
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Penggunaan gizi tertentu Perlindungan terhadap zat yang dapat menimbulkan kanker Menghindari zat-zat alergenik
Riwayat Alamiah Penyakit
65
Pencegahan primer •
Fase penyakit –
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Faktor-faktor penyebab khusus
Target –
Total populasi
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kelompok terseleksi
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Individu sehat
Riwayat Alamiah Penyakit
66
Tingkat pencegahan primer •
Promosi kesehatan –
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Pendidikan kesehatan, penyuluhan Gizi yang cukup sesuai dengan perkembangan
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Penyediaan perumahan yg sehat
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Rekreasi yg cukup
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Pekerjaan yg sesuai
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Konseling perkawinan Riwayat Alamiah Penyakit
67
3. Pencegahan Sekunder •
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Adl Upaya pencegahan yg dilakukan saat proses penyakit sudah berlangsung namun belum timbul tanda/gejala sakit (patogenesis awal) dengan tujuan proses penyakit tidak berlanjut Tujuan: menghentikan proses penyakit lebih lanjut dan mencegah komplikasi Bentuknya berupa deteksi dini dan pemberian pengobatan (yang tepat)
Pencegahan sekunder •
Fase penyakit –
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tahap dini penyakit
Target –
pasien
Riwayat Alamiah Penyakit
69
Tingkat pencegahan sekunder •
Diagnosis dini dan pengobatan segera –
Penemuan kasus (individu atau masal)
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Skrining
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Pemeriksaan khusus dengan tujuan •
Menyembuhkan dan mencegah penyakit berlanjut
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Mencegah penyebaran penyakit menular
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Mencegah komplikasi dan akibat lanjutan
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Memperpendek masa ketidakmampuan Riwayat Alamiah Penyakit
70
Tingkat pencegahan sekunder
–
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Pengobatan yang cukup untuk menghentikan proses penyakit mencegah komplikasi dan sekuele yg lebih parah Penyediaan fasilitas khusus untuk membatasi ketidakmampuan dan mencegah kematian Riwayat Alamiah Penyakit 71
Contoh •
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PMS kultur rutin bakteriologis utk infeksi asimtomatis pd kelompok risti Sifilis tes serologis utk infeksi preklinis pd kelompok risti Kanker leher rahim hapusan pap Kanker payudara skrining dgn mammografi
4. Pencegahan Tersier •
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Adl Pencegahan yg dilakukan saat proses penyakit sudah lanjut (akhir periode patogenesis) dengan tujuan untuk mencegah cacad dan mengembalikan penderita ke status sehat Tujuan: menurunkan kelemahan dan kecacatan, memperkecil penderitaan dan membantu penderita-penderita untuk melakukan penyesuaian terhadap kondisi yang tidak dapat diobati lagi Terdiri dari:
Pencegahan tersier •
Fase penyakit –
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penyakit tahap lanjut (pengobatan dan rehabilitasi)
Target –
pasien
Riwayat Alamiah Penyakit
74
Tingkat pencegahan tersier •
Rehabilitasi –
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Penyediaan fasilitas untuk pelatihan hingga fungsi tubuh dapat dimanfaatkan sebaikbaiknya Pendidikan pada masyarakat dan industriawan agar menggunakan mereka yang telah direhabilitasi
Riwayat Alamiah Penyakit
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Tingkat pencegahan tersier •
Rehabilitasi –
Penempatan secara selektif
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Mempekerjakan sepenuh mungkin
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Terapi kerja di Rumah Sakit
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Menyediakan tempat perlindungan khusus
Riwayat Alamiah Penyakit
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Contoh •
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Peny vaskuler diabetik pd kaki perawatan kaki (podiatric cure) rutin pasien diabetes Fraktura & cedera memasang rel pegangan tangan (handrails) di rumah orang yg mudah jatuh Ulserasi kulit kronis penyediaan matras khusus utk penyandang cacat berat
Latihan •
Seorang ibu membawa bayinya untuk diimunisasi Polio. –
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Tindakan imunisasi Polio tersebut termasuk pencegahan apa? Tahap yang mana dari riwayat alamiah penyakit yang akan dicegah dengan tindakan imunisasi tersebut? Mengapa? Jelaskan!
