ATMOSFIR
ATMOSFIR = L. UDARA = UDARA YANG MELIPUTI PLANET BUMI
Lapisan Atmosfir
Sumber: Cunningham, 2004
LAPISAN
SUHU (OC)
ALTITUDE (KM)
UNSUR KI UTAMA
TROPOSFIR
15 – (-)56
0 – 11
STRATOSFIR
(-)56 – (-) 2
11 – 50
O3
50 – 85
O2,NO
85 – 500
O2,O,NO
MESOSFIR THERMOSFIR
(-2) – (-92) (-92) – 1200
N2,O2,CO2,H2O
TROPOSFIR: Udara tercampur baik homogen Semakin tinggi temperatur berkurang Spesies serta zat kimia semakin bertambah Revolusi Industri peningkatan CO2, CH4, dan N2O sebesar 31%, 151% dan 17% Anthropogenic climate change Greenhouse Effect Hujan asam
KOMPOSISI ATM BAWAH, KERING, BEBAS PENGOTORAN : Mayor :
Minor :
Trace :
N2
78.08%
O2
20.95%
Ar
0.93%
CO2
0.03%
Ne, He, CH4, KR, NOx, H2, Xe, SO2 O3, NO2, CO, J
0.01%
Kelompok
Contoh
Karbon oksida
Karbon monoksida (CO), Karbon dioksida (CO2)
Sulfur Oksida
Sulfur dioksida (SO2), Sulfur trioksida (SO3)
Nitrogen oksida
Nitrit Oksida (NO), Nitrogen dioksida (NO2), Nitro oksida (N2O), NO dan NO2 dapat membentuk NOx
Senyawa Organik Volatil
Metan (CH4), Propana (C3H8), Benzena (C6H6), kloroflorokarbon (CFCs)
Partikel tersuspensi
Partikel solid (debu, jelaga, asbest, timah-Pb, garam2 nitrat dan sulfat), tetesan asam sulfat, PCBs, dioksin, pestisida)
Photochemical Oxidant
Ozon (O3), Peroxyacyl nitrates (PANs), Hidrogen peroksida (H2O2), aldehida
Senyawa-senyawa radioaktif
Radon-222, iodine-131, Strotium-90, Plutonium-239
Senyawa-senyawa toksik
Sejumlah kecil dari 600 senyawa toksik (volatil), 60 diantaranya karsinogenik pada hewan uji
Sumber: Miller 1998
Pencemar Sumber
Efek thd kesehatan
CO
Pembakaran tidak sempurna
250 ppm pingsan, 750 ppm kematian
H2S
Kebocoran industri kilang minyak, gunung berapi, dekomposisi zat organik
Melumpuhkan pusat pernafasan kematian
Hidrokarbon
Asap kendaraan bermotor
Karsinogenik
Bencana Pencemaran Udara (Soemirat, 2002) Lokasi
Sumber/jenis pencemar
Jumlah penderita/kematian
Meuse Valley, Belgia, 1930
Industri Baja, dll/ SO2, F, Oxida
6000/60
Kelainan
Respiratory pollutant Menimbulkan dampak/efek terhadap jaringan pada sistem sal. pernafasan Terbagi menjadi: 1. Pulmonary Irritans: SO2, Ozon, NOx 2. Debu 3. Agen penyebab granuloma: Berilium, 4. Agent penyebab demam: Mn, Cobalt, Zn, 5. Asphyxiants: CO2, H2S,CO, NH3, dan CH4
Systemic pollutant Menimbulkan efek pada lebih dari satu organ tubuh, krn masuk ke sistem peredaran darah organ tubuh lain: lambung, sistem susunan syaraf pusat dan sal. air seni Contoh: Pb, Hg, Cadmium, Fluorida, Organofosfat Chlorinated Hydrocarbon
Host specific pollutant Menimbulkan reaksi seperti alergi, kanker dan mutan Contoh: Formaldehyde
Selenium
Thiocyanat
Arsenik
Strontium
Methyl mercury
Nickel
Lead
Asbestos
Chlorinated Hydrocarbon
EFEK PENCEMARAN UDARA TERHADAP KESEHATAN • sulfat, SO2, NOx, dan O3 senyawa-senyawa pengoksidasi kuat menimbulkan iritasi dan merusak jaringan halus mata dan paruparu. • materi-materi halus, tersuspensi dan partikulat berpenetrasi sampai ke dalam paru2 menyebabkan iritasi, luka bahkan tumor • Pb dan CO mengikat hemoglobin dan mengganggu aliran oksigen ke otak
Perhatikan partikel dengan ukuran: •
< 2,5 μm, karena dapat mengandung Cd, Pb dan PAH (Crosby, 1998)
•
partikel dengan ukuran antara ~ 0,1 – 1 μm, hanya mewakili ~5 % dari jumlah total partikel udara tetapi 50% bagian darinya merupakan senyawa organik
Partikel medium
Partikel halus
Partikel kasar
Paint pigmen
pollen
Asap rokok Debu semen Debu batubara Asap minyak Photochemical smog Metallurgical dust and fumes Debu insektisida 0.001
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
Diameter partikel rata-rata (µm) (Miller, 1998)
100.0
SULFUR DIOKSIDA (SO2) Alamiah: Gunung berapi, pembusukan SUMBER
IDENTITAS
Buatan: Industri minyak, gas alam, batu bara (ekstraksi, produksi, proses), Pembakaran bahan bakar mengandung sulfur
- Gas tidak berwarna , tdk berbau - Precursor hujan asam - Irritan terhadap kulit, selaput lendir - Mudah diserap oleh selaput lendir; saluran pernapasan atas (tdk sampai larynx) KONSENTRASI : - Rendah spasme temporer bronchioli t-dingin spasme lebih hebat - Sedang produksi lendir di s.p.b.a - Besar Peradangan hebat pada selaput lendir paralysis cilia, kerusakan epithelium
Pemaparan yang berulang : hyperplasia/metaplasia epithel kanker ? Terhadap hewan ~ manusia Terhadap tumbuhan: kerusakan chlorofilchlorosis, nekrosis
NITROGEN OXIDA (NO, N2O, N2O5, NO2 atau NOx) SUMBER
: Industri perminyakan Pembakaran gas alam, batu bara Atmosfir
NO2 : Toksisitas tergantung: Waktu pemaparan Konsentrasi/dosis 50 – 100 ppm
bbrp menit radang paru-paru
150 – 200 ppm
bronchiolitis fibrosis obliterans kematian dalam 3-5 mg – pemaparan
> 500 ppm kematian dlm 2 – 10 hari “SILO FILLERS DISEASE” (akibat akumulasi NO2 pada gudang makanan ternak)
KARBON MONOKSIDA (CO) * SUMBER
Alamiah: - Reaksi-reaksi fotokimia dalam atmosfir - Hydrozoa di laut Buatan : Pembakaran tidak sempurna
* IDENTITAS & EFEK - Tidak berwarna - Mengikat hemoglobin O2Hb + CO COHb + O2 - > 100 ppm: Kelainan fungsi syaraf pusat, jantung & paru2 250 ppm : Pingsan 750 ppm : Kematian - Komplikasi : Penyakit paru merokok
HIDROGEN SULFIDA (H2S) * SUMBER
Alamiah : Gunung berapi, gas bumi, pembusukan zat organik Buatan : Industri (minyak, gas alam)
* IDENTITAS & EFEK - Berbau busuk, lebih berat dari udara - Korosif - Melumpuhkan susunan syaraf pusat pernafasan kematian
HIDROKARBON (Metan) Alamiah : - Tanaman * SUMBER
-
Dekomposisi zat organik
-
Sumur minyak & gas bumi
Buatan : Pembakaran BBM * IDENTITAS & EFEK Tergantung:
Jenis Konsentrasi Lamanya pemaparan
Chloracne due to Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) poisoning
Viktor Yushchenko, president candidate, Ukraina, September 6, 2004
OZON * SUMBER
Alamiah : Stratosfir, troposfir Buatan : Instrumen voltage tinggi dibuat utk desinfeksi
* IDENTITAS - Tidak stabil, warna biru - Irritan terhadap saluran pernafasan - Masuk > larynx - Bereaksi dg zat-zat organik - Mematikan makrofag - Dinding arteri paru-paru menebal * Pemaparan berulang-ulang/chronis : EMPHISEMA
Paru-paru Normal Sumber: Miller, 1996
Paru-paru Emphysema
PARTIKULAT * SUMBER
Alamiah : Debu Buatan : Pembakaran
* IDENTITAS & EFEK Tergantung jenis fi, ki, bi, bentuk, ukuran (aerdinamika)
Organik Anorganik
Hidup Tidak hidup
SMOKE FROM BURNING REFUSE
Transportasi
PM2.5 MOBIL PRIBADI - A.C. Depok – Gatot Subroto 0.5 0.45 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7:1 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6: 7: 8: 9: 10: 11: 12: 13: 14: 15: 16: 17: 18: 19: 20: 21: 22: 23: 0: 1: 2: 3: 4:
Open Fire, Rural China
Sumber dan jenis pencemar udara (Miller, 1998)
Photochemical Smog (Miller, 1998)
Greenhouse Gases Sumber: CO2, CH4, dan N2O Bersifat menahan (menjebak) panas menyebabkan perubahan iklim bumi. Era industri meningkatkan konsentrasi CO2, CH4, dan N2O telah sampai 31%, 151% dan 17%. CO2 penyebab utama perubahan iklim, akibat antropogenik, pebakaran fossil, pembuatan semen, pembakaran hutan dan grassland serta aktivitas manusia lainnya telah menghasilkan 30 juta CO2 setiap tahunnya.
Greenhouse Gasses CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) merupakan penyerap infrared terkuat Carbon management: Mengurangi limbah dari bahan bakar fosil, perhatian lebih difokuskan pada CO2 karena CO2 bertahan lebih lama dibandingkan senyawa lain, CO2 bertahan s.d. 120 th. Gas metan serta gas lainnya mempunyai kemampuan menyerab (absorbsi) infra red lebih kuat, tetapi berada di udara lebih cepat (pendek). Lifetime metan 12,23 tahun
FISIKA U. BEBAS -Gelombang elektro magnetis : UV, IM -Sinar-sinar pengion -Kebisingan -T, kelembaban, curah hujan
BIOLOGI Mikroba: Tidak dapat hidup lama di udara bebas Tidak dapat berkembang biak Kecuali virus, telur2 cacing dan spora lainnya: tidak bertahan lama dalam udara bebas
Penyakit Infeksi dari Lingkungan Udara: Agent
Penyakit
Corynebacterium diphtheriae Mycobacterium tubercolosis Bordetella pertusis Diplococcus pneumoniae Parotitis epidemica virus Virus varicella Virus Morbilli Virus Influenza Enterobius vermicularis Histoplasma capsulatum
Diphteriae Tuberculosa Pertussis Pneumonia Parotitis epidemica Varicella Morbilli Influenza Oxyuriasis Histoplasmosis
UDARA TIDAK BEBAS Udara di dalam gedung-gedung : Rumah, pabrik, sekolah, dll. Penyakit: Fibrosis (pertumbuhan jaringan ikat) Penyebab fibrosis: Silica bebas, besi, cobalt, barium, berilium, asbes, karbon
Pneumoconiosis (paru-paru berdebu) Merupakan gejala utama fibrosis Beriliumberiliosis Banyak terjadi di pertambangan batubara
Prinsip Pengelolaan Kualitas Udara Tujuan: Kualitas udara yang sehat Komponen yang diperlukan: -Ambien Baku mutu Udara : Inventarisasi Sumber Penanggulangan
- Emisi
Baku mutu udara ambien: Diberlakukan untuk udara, udara yang mengandung unsur melebihi baku mutu udara telah tercemar
Baku mutu emisi (standard emisi): Diberlakukan bagi sumber-sumber pengotor Emisi cerobong pabrik Emisi kendaraan bermotor Standar kualitas bahan bakar
Baku mutu kualitas udara ambien (KEP-2/MENKLH/I/1988) No
Parameter
Baku mutu
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SO2 CO NOx Ox Debu Pb H2S NH3 HC
0,01 ppm 20,00 ppm 0,05 ppm 0,10 ppm 0,26 mg/m3 0,06 mg/m3 0,03 ppm 2,00 ppm 0,24 ppm
Nilai Standar Catu Udara Bersih Untuk Ruangan Parkir : 6 x Volume Ruangan / jam (SNI 03-6572-2001) Karbon Monoksida : 25 ppm (SK Menaker No. SE 01/MEN/1997)
Hasil Pengukuran (Studi Kasus: BIP, 2004) Ruangan
CO (ppm) HC (ppm)
Debit Udara (m3/jam)
Basement Utama
25,15
5,4
141490
Lower Ground
-
-
314525
Basement 2
55,03
6,7
205448
Basement 3
221,71
3,3
51125
Inventarisasi Sumber: Klasifikasi: Alamiah
Sumber titik: cerobong
Buatan
Sumber bergerak: kendaraan bermotor Sumber area: pemukiman
Penanggulangan: Penyelidikan epidemiologi Teknologi Hukum
Sarana dan Prasarana yang diperlukan untuk Pengendalian Kualitas Udara Badan/jawatan khusus Tenaga ahli: Rekayasa: perubahan/pemilihan bahan di industri Pemantauan, fasilitas laboratorium Penyuluhan
Pusat Penyimpanan Data Pencatatan kondisi meteorologi, koordinasi dengan industri
Protokol Kyoto Pembatasan emisi terkait dengan perubahan iklim global membatasi emisi CO2, CH4, N2O, CFCs, SOX . Indonesia: Ratifikasi Protokol Kyoto dengan UURI No. 17 Tahun 2004 Pembatasan pada sumber: Energi: Industri, Transportasi Industri: Kimia, Logam, dll Pertanian: Pengel. pupuk, Pembakaran residu pertanian, dll Limbah: Pembuangan limbah padat, pembakaran limbah, dll
INDONESIA TELAH MERATIFIKASI KONVENSI WINA DAN MONTREAL YANG MENGHAPUSKAN BAHAN-BAHAN PERUSAK OZON DAN MENETAPKAN PROGRAM IMPLEMENTASI SEJAK 1996/1997 DG KEPPRES 23/1992.
Contoh Kasus
Airborne Pathogens Tuberculosis Influenza Avian Influenza Smallpox SARS
SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome The 2003 global SARS outbreak led to over 8,000 people becoming ill, and 774 deaths. It is estimated the panic caused by the disease cost Canada $1 billion in lost tourism and all of Asia over $28 billion. (BBC News)
What is SARS? Center for Disease Control Definition SARS is a respiratory illness of unknown etiology. It was first identified in February 2003. SARS was first noticed in Southeast Asia. To date more than 100 cases have been reported in the United States Public health experts think that SARS is spread by close contact between people
Source: SAINT BARNABAS HEALTH CARE SYSTEM
Source: SAINT BARNABAS HEALTH CARE SYSTEM
How SARS Spreads SARS is most likely spread when someone sick from the disease coughs droplets into the air and someone else breathes the virus in It is possible that SARS may spread more broadly through the air or from touching an object that is contaminated Source: SAINT BARNABAS HEALTH CARE SYSTEM
Who Is at Risk for SARS? Individuals having close contact with someone sick from the disease Those sharing a household with someone sick from the disease Healthcare providers who do not use the proper infection control techniques when providing care for patients sick from the disease Source: SAINT BARNABAS HEALTH CARE SYSTEM
Possible Causes of SARS Scientists at the CDC and other laboratories have detected a previously unrecognized coronavirus in patients with SARS. While the new coronavirus is still the leading hypothesis for the cause of SARS, other viruses are still under investigation as potential causes. Source: SAINT BARNABAS HEALTH CARE SYSTEM
What are Coronaviruses These viruses are a common cause of mild to moderate upper-respiratory illness in humans and are associated with respiratory, gastrointestinal, liver and neurologic disease in animals. Coronaviruses can survive in the environment for as long as three hours. Source: SAINT BARNABAS HEALTH CARE SYSTEM
Source: SAINT BARNABAS HEALTH CARE SYSTEM
Tuberculosis Famous people who have had TB Fredric Chopin* Eleanor Roosevelt* Nelson Mandela Ringo Starr Tom Jones Tina Turner *Died of TB
What is tuberculosis (TB)? Disease caused by bacteria called
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Chronic bacterial infection Was once the leading cause of death in US The number of cases declined in the 1940’s when drugs were developed to treat TB TB is still a problem worldwide (NIAID) 8 million people develop TB yearly 3 million die SAINT BARNABAS HEALTH CARE SYSTEM
How is TB spread? Through the air from person to person by coughing Usually attacks lungs Two stages Latent TB
• asymptomatic and not contagious • can take medication to prevent development of disease
Active TB Disease
• May spread to others • May have abnormal chest x-ray • Usually have positive skin test SAINT BARNABAS HEALTH CARE SYSTEM
Symptoms of TB Chills Fever Weakness or fatigue Sweating while sleeping, Night sweats Cough that lasts longer than 2 weeks Pain in chest Coughing up blood or sputum SAINT BARNABAS HEALTH CARE SYSTEM
SAINT BARNABAS HEALTH CARE SYSTEM
Risk Factors Close contact with someone who is infected with TB Traveling to a country where TB is common Immune compromised Foreign-born individuals and minorities have a higher incidence of developing TB 2002: 50% of US cases were in foreign-born individuals (CDC) 2002: 80% of all US TB cases were in ethnic and racial minorities (CDC) SAINT BARNABAS HEALTH CARE SYSTEM
Multi-drug resistant TB (MDR TB) Bacteria become resistant to antibiotics
Arose from improper use of antibiotics in the treatment of TB
Treatment of one case can cost up to $1.3 million (CDC) 45 states and Washington, DC have confirmed cases of MDR TB (CDC) SAINT BARNABAS HEALTH CARE SYSTEM
MDR TB continued Treatment is difficult and costly Can develop from not taking proper course of antibiotics for TB MDR TB can be spread by an infected person
SAINT BARNABAS HEALTH CARE SYSTEM
The Chain Model of Communicable Diseases • Modes of transmission – Direct contact – Indirect contact
• Portals of entry • Susceptible hosts
Modes of Transmission • Direct Transmission Direct Contact Droplet
• Indirect Transmission Vehicle-borne Vector-borne Airborne
• Vertical transmission (mother to infant)
Infectious Aerosols
Department of Medical Microbiology, Edinburgh University
Transmission of Infections by Respiratory Aerosols •
Droplets: land directly on mucosal lining of nose, mouth, eyes of nearby persons or can be inhaled. • Highest exposures within 3-6 feet.
•
Airborne: aerosols become smaller by evaporation; small aerosols (≤ 10 microns) remain suspended for longer periods, if inhaled travel deep into the lungs.
•
Contact: Aerosols/ secretions contaminate nearby surface. Touch surfaces can infect self or others.
Relative contribution of three routes varies with agent.
Modes of Transmission via Infectious Respiratory Secretions • Airborne: tuberculosis, measles, varicella, smallpox, SARS, avian influenza • Droplet: meningococcal meningitis, rubella, pertussis, common cold, SARS, influenza* • Indirect contact: RSV, SARS *Influenza traditionally droplet, increasing evidence for airborne component