UNIT 11 – DISCHARGE OF CONTRACTS Parties may be released from their contractual obligations, that is, may be discharged, by performance, by breach, by agreement or by frustration.
DISCHARGE BY PERFORM ANCE – if a contract is substantially performed, the terms are entirely carried out and there is no right to repudiate the contract, that is, to reject it. Performance is the type of discharge anticipated when the parties make their agreement. A contract is at an end when the parties have performed their respective obligations satisfactorily. For a discharge to be effected, performance must have been completed by both parties and not merely by one of them.
DISCHARGE BY BREACH – when one party breaches the contract, the other is relieved from performing further and is entitled to a remedy. The most common remedy is the awarding of monetary damages to compensate the innocent party. The innocent (non-breaching) party is required to mitigate damages by seeking performance elsewhere. In the rare circumstances where money damages will not be sufficient to compensate the innocent party, several equitable remedies are available. These include rescission and restitution, reformation, specific performance.
DISCHARGE BY AGREEME NT - a contract may not run its course through performance but may be discharged prematurely because the parties agree between themselves not to perform it. A WAIVER is an agreement not to proceed with the performance of a contract already in existence.
ACCORD AND SATISFACTION – sometimes a party finds it cannot perform its obligation according to the terms of the contract. It may offer the promisee a money payment or some other substitute if the promisee will discharge it from its original obligation. For example, a seller may find it cannot obtain certain imported goods to fill an order and may offer other goods of equal quality, perhaps at a lower price, if the buyer will release it from its original promise.
NOVATION - another method of discharge; a replacement of one of the parties discharges the original contract and substitutes a new one. A common example of novation arises when a going business is purchased and its outstanding liabilities are assumed as a part of the purchase price for the assets required. If the creditors accept the new owner as their debtor, either by express agreement with it or by applying to the new owner for payment of their claims against the former owner, the liability of the former owner will be discharged and replaced by that of the purchaser.
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DISCHARGE BY FRUSTR ATION – it becomes impossible to perform, for example due to the non-occurrence of a particular event which forms the basis of the contract, or the death of a party.
VOCABULARY
Accord and satisfaction
Narovnání dluhu
Assets
Jmění, aktiva, majetek
Assume
Přijmout, převzít, předpokládat
Carry out the terms
Splnit podmínky
Creditor
Věřitel
Debtor
Dlužník Skončení smlouvy dohodou
Discharge by agreement Discharge by breach
Zánik smlouvy z důvodu jejího porušení
Discharge by frustration
Zánik z důvodu nemožnosti plnění
Discharge by performance
Skončení smlouvy jejím splněním
Discharge of contracts
Zánik smluv v důsledku jejich splnění, odstoupení od smlouvy
Fill an order
Splnit objednávku, zakázku
Innocent/non-breaching party
Strana, která neporušila smluvní podmínky
Mitigate damages
Zmírnit škody
Novation
Změna v osobě věřitele nebo dlužníka
Outstanding liabilities
Nevyřízené závazky
Prematurely
Předčasně
Proceed with
Pokračovat v
Promisee
Osoba, jíž je učiněn slib, oprávněný Osoba, která učinila slib, zavázaný
Promisor Kupní cena Purchase price Purchaser
Kupující
Reformation
Přepracování smlouvy s ohledem na nové okolnosti, 2
soudní oprava Release from obligation
Prominutí závazku
Relieve from performance
Zprostit plnění
Repudiate the contract
Odmítnout plnit smluvní závazky
Rescission
Zrušení od samého počátku, anulování
Restitution
Náhrada, odškodnění
Specific performance
Konkrétní plnění smlouvy nařízené soudem
Waiver
Zpětvzetí, vzdání se práva
1. REVISION OF THE TEXT 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Does the term “novation“ mean the same as “novace“ in Czech law? Explain the term “discharge by agreement“. What do you call the type of discharge of a contract when all parties have performed their respective obligations? What do you call the type of discharge of a contract where a party offers a substitute for the original obligation? What is a waiver? What is the most common type of remedy when a contract is discharged by its breach? What kinds of equitable remedies are available in the case of discharge of a contract by its breach? What may be the causes of a discharge by frustration?
2. MATCH THE TERMS BELOW WITH THEIR DEFINITIONS 1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
an unforeseen uncontrollable event which occurs after a written or oral contract is entered into between parties, and makes it impossible for one of the parties to fulfill his/her duties under the contract failing to perform any term of a contract, written or oral, without a legitimate legal excuse fulfillment of one's obligations required by contract the cancellation of a contract by mutual agreement of the parties an agreement between the parties to accept different performance than originally promised replacing one or more of the original parties the correction or change of an existing document by court order if there is proof that the parties did not intend the language as written or there was an omission due to mistake or misunderstanding the intentional and voluntary giving up of something, such as a right, either by an express statement or by conduct (such as not enforcing a right)
reformation, rescission, frustration, novation, waiver, breach of a contract, performance, accord and satisfaction
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3. TRANSLATE THE TEXT BELOW 1. 2.
3. 4.
Nejčastějším právním důvodem zániku závazku je jeho splnění, tedy úkon dlužníka nebo jiné osoby oprávněné za něj plnit, kterým poskytuje věřiteli to, co je předmětem závazku. Věřitel se může s dlužníkem dohodnout, že se vzdává svého práva nebo že mu promíjí dluh. Zánik závazku nastává smlouvou věřitele a dlužníka; jednostranné prominutí dluhu či vzdání se práva věřitelem tu nemá žádné právní účinky. Závazek může zaniknout i dohodou o jiném závazku. Zde se dlužník s věřitelem dohodne, že mu místo toho, co byl povinnen plnit, poskytne plnění jiné. Stane-li se plnění nemožným, povinnost dlužníka plnit zanikne. Podmínkou je, že k nemožnosti plnění došlo až po vzniku závazku.
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Sources Brown, Gillian D., Rice, Sally, Professional English in Use – Law, CUP 2007 Chromá, Marta, New Introduction to Legal English I, Karolinum, 2003 Šíma, A., Suk, M., Základy práva pro střední a vyšší odborné školy. 6. vydání. Praha: C. H. Beck, 2004 http://dictionary.law.com
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UNIT 12 – FAMILY LAW FAMILY LAW governs the legal relations of the basic social unit, the family. Family law may be defined as that body of law which attempts to regulate the internal relationship within the family and the relationship of the family to the outside world. Family law deals with marriage, divorce, adoption, child custody and support and other domestic-relations issues.
FAMILY is a group of people connected by a close relationship. For legal purposes a family is usually limited to relationships by blood, marriage, or adoption, although sometimes (e.g. for social security purposes) statute expressly includes other people, such as common-law wives. A person´s parents, spouse, children and siblings create his or her IMMEDIATE FAMILY.
TO ENTER INTO A VALID MARRIAGE, CERTAIN FORMALITIES MUST BE OBSERVED: The parties to a marriage must have the capacity to marry, they must give consent to the marriage and there mustn´t be any lawful impediments (e.g. the parties are already married or under age). TO GET MARRIED IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC you will need birth certificate, certificate of naturalization, a document proving that you have temporary or permanent residence in the Czech Republic, a document proving marital status (e.g. unmarried, single, divorced, widow/er), eventually death certificate of spouse or divorce certificate, passport or relevant document proving your identity, attestation of legal capacity. IN ALMOST ALL STATES OF THE UNITED STATES, a woman of eighteen may marry without parental consent, for men, the minimum age is usually twenty-one. In California, as in Michigan and in North and South Carolina, any person eighteen years of age and of sound mind is legally capable of marriage. In most states, with parental consent, a woman may become a bride at sixteen, a man may become a bridegroom at eighteen. In five states blood tests are required, usually thirty days or less before the marriage, to provide assurance of freedom from sexually transmitted diseases, which could be dangerous to the other spouse as well as to any children conceived. The ceremony of marriage must be performed by an adult who is a judge, priest, or minister of any denomination.
VOID AND VOIDABLE MARRIAGE A defective or VOIDABLE MARRIAGE may be legally nulified by the innocent party through court action, thereby restoring both parties to the legal status of unmarried persons. A marriage may be defective (thereby voidable) for many reasons. Either person may have been tricked by some fraudulent representation of the other, such as concerning impotency or sterility. A marriage is also defective and voidable if contracted by force, or if either party lacks mental capacity. A person under the influence of drugs or intoxicating liquor may
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lack sufficient mental capacity to enter the marriage relationship. A marriage that is either incestuous or bigamous is VOID.
COMMON LAW MARRIAGE AND COHABITATION In the U.S., 9 states and the District of Columbia allow COMMON LAW MARRIAGE. To be defined as a common law marriage, the two parties must: agree that they are married, live together, and hold themselves out as husband and wife. Common-law marriage is generally a non-ceremonial relationship that requires "a positive mutual agreement, permanent and exclusive of all others, to enter into a marriage relationship, cohabitation sufficient to warrant a fulfillment of necessary relationship of man and wife, and an assumption of marital duties and obligations". The partners to a common law marriage are called COMMON LAW WIFE and COMMON LAW HUSBAND.
A more common concept of living together is called COHABITATION. Although many couples live together as COHABITEES (i.e. as husbands and wives in the same household but without going through a ceremony of marriage), English law does not give them the same rights and responsibilities as spouses (e.g. no mutual duty of maintenance, no automatical parental responsibility, problems concerning succession and property division etc.).
COMMUNITY AND SEPARATE PROPERTY COMMUNITY PROPERTY is all property acquired by the husband or the wife during marriage other than by gift or inheritance. SEPARATE PROPERTY is property, real or personal, either brought into the marriage by one spouse or acquired by one spouse during marriage by gift or inheritance.
THE CONCEPT OF LEGITIMATE CHILDREN A child conceived or born in wedlock is presumed to be the LEGITIMATE CHILD of the spouses. Such a presumption can only be rebutted by proof beyond reasonable doubt, which establishes that the husband could not be the father of the child. The status of the child has important consequences in the area of custody, maintenance and succession rights.
THE CONCEPT OF SURROGATE MOTHER Because many couples are not able to conceive a child, in some jurisdictions it is possible to make a contract with a so-called surrogate mother. A SURROGATE MOTHER is a woman who agrees, usually by contract and for a fee, to bear a child for a couple who are childless because the wife is infertile or physically incapable of carrying a developing fetus. Often the surrogate mother is the biological mother of the child, conceiving it by means of artificial insemination with sperm from the husband. In gestational surrogacy, the wife is fertile but incapable of carrying a growing fetus; the child is conceived by in vitro fertilization using the wife´s eggs and her husband´s sperm, and the resulting embryo is implanted in the surrogate mother´s uterus.
FOSTER CARE AND ADOPTION FOSTER PARENTS are people who, at the direction of a court or government agency, care for minors who are not their birth children. Full legal guardianship and custody rights are still held by the birth parents or by a
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government agency. Foster parents are usually paid for child care, and children can be removed from foster homes at any time by the agency. ADOPTION is the act of legally placing a child with a parent or parents other than those to whom they were born. An adoption order has the effect of severing parental responsibilities and rights of the original parent(s) and transferring those responsibilities and rights to the adoptive parent(s).
DISSOLUTION OF MARRIAGE Marriage is dissolved BY DEATH, divorce or judgement of nullity. A DIVORCE is a court order that legally ends a valid marriage. Once a divorce is final, the partners may legally remarry. A JUDGEMENT OF NULLITY will be granted a petitioner when the marriage is either void or voidable, because of fraud, duress or minority.
CHILD CUSTODY If a couple with children separeate or divorce, important questions arise: Who will take care of the children? With whom will the children live? In legal terms, the question is: Who will have custody of the children? Custody decisions are important because the parent with custody decides most aspects of the child´s life, such as where the child will live and go to school. Custody may be temporary, or it may be permanently awarded to one parent. The noncustodial parent is usually given VISITATION RIGHTS. This means that he or she can visit the child on certain days and at certain times of the year. Sometimes courts award custody to both parents. This is known as JOINT CUSTODY. Both parents have full responsibility for the child´s supervision, and both have an equal say in important issues, such as schooling and religion. The child may live with both parents, part-time with the mother and part-time with the father.
VOCABULARY
Adoption
Adopce
Artificial insemination
Umělé oplodnění
Bear a child
Porodit dítě
Bigamous
Bigamický
Birth certificate
Rodný list
Bride, bridegroom
Nevěsta, ženich
Capacity to marry
Právní způsobilost uzavřít manželství
Cohabitation
Manželské soužití, soužití dvou sexuálních partnerů
Cohabitee
Druh, družka
Common-law husband
Druh
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Common-law marriage
Společná domácnost druha a družky
Common-law wife
Družka
Community property
Bezpodílové spoluvlastnictví manželů
Conceive
Počít (dítě)
Contract a marriage
Uzavřít manželství
Custody
Opatrovnictví, péče o děti
Death certificate
Úmrtní list
Divorce
Rozvod
Duty of maintenance
Vyživovací povinnost
Family law
Rodinné právo
Fetus
Plod
Foster care
Pěstounská péče
Foster parent
Pěstoun, pěstounka
Fraudulent
Lstivý, podvodný
Guardianship
Poručnictví
Have temporary or permanent residence
Mít přechodné či trvalé bydliště
Household
Domácnost
Immediate family
Nejbližší rodinný kruh
Incestuous
Incestní
Joint custody
Společná /střídavá péče obou rodičů
Lawful impediment
Právní překážka
Legitimate child
Manželské dítě
Marital duties
Manželské povinnosti
Marital status
Rodinný stav
Marriage
Manželství, sňatek
Mental capacity
Duševní schopnost, způsobilost
Minister of a denomination
Církevní pastor
Minor
Nezletilý
Parental responsibility
Rodičovská zodpovědnost 8
Petitioner
Navrhovatel
Priest
Kněz
Rebut a presumption
Vyvrátit předpoklad
Respondent
Odpůrce
Sibling
Sourozenec
Social security
Sociální zabezpečení
Sound mind
Mentální zdraví
Spouse
Choť
Surrogate mother
Náhradní matka
Uterus
Děloha
Visitation rights
Právo navštěvovat dítě
Wedlock
Manželství, svazek manželský
Widow, widower
Vdova, vdovec
1. REVISION OF THE TEXT 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Do foster parents have the same rights as birth parents? Do the cohabitees have the same rights and duties as spouses? How may a marriage be dissolved? What does family law deal with? What is a family? What is adoption? What is the difference between void and voidable marriage? What requirements must be fulfilled to enter into a valid marriage? When does a couple contact a surrogate mother? When is a child considered legitimate and what consequences does it imply?
2. MATCH THE DEFINITIONS WITH THE TERMS BELOW 1. 2. 3.
4.
living together in the same residence, generally either as husband and wife or for an extended period of time as if the parties were married a court's determination of which parent, relative or other adult should have physical and/or legal control and responsibility for a minor (child) under 18 They do not have custody, nor is there an adoption, but they are expected to treat the child as they would their own in regard to food, housing, clothing and education. They are mostly paid by the local government or a state agency. in divorce actions, a decision by the court (often upon agreement of the parents) that the parents will share custody of a child
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5.
It involves the creation of the parent-child relationship between individuals who are not naturally so related. The child is given the rights, privileges, and duties of a child and heir by the new family. 6. A woman bears and gives birth to a child for a person or a couple who then adopts or takes legal custody of the child. 7. brother or sister 8. the dissolution of a valid marriage granted esp. on specified statutory grounds (as adultery) arising after the marriage 9. husband or wife 10. property acquired by a spouse before marriage or individually during marriage (as by gift or often by inheritance)
sibling, foster parents, separate property, joint custody, cohabitation, divorce, spouse, adoption, custody, surrogate mother
3. FORM ADJECTIVES FROM THESE NOUNS visit parent incest bigamy
mind marriage fraud defect
4. TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING TEXT 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Rodinné právo je tvořeno normami, které upravují otázky manželství, vztahy mezi rodiči a dětmi a vztahy vznikající při náhradní rodinné péči. Předpokladem uzavření manželství je svobodné a dobrovolné rozhodnutí muže a ženy vytvořit harmonické, pevné a trvalé životní společenství. Mezi okolnosti vylučující uzavření manželství patří překážka bigamie, příbuzenství, nezletilost a duševní porucha. Manželství zaniká smrtí manžela nebo prohlášením jednoho z manželů za mrtvého a rozvodem. Jsou-li splněny zákonné podmínky, může soud dítě svěřit do společné péče obou rodičů.
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CHAPTER 13 – LAW OF TORT I Go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y4F_XDzeMmQ (What is a Tort? – Law Web TV) and answer the following questions: 1.
What is a tort?
2.
Are torts related to contracts?
3.
Are torts always intentional?
4.
Which cases refer to torts?
TORT – a civil (as opposed to criminal) wrong, it must be distinguished from a breach of contract. In the case of contract, the parties determine the nature of their respective liability. In the case of tort, however, the liability is imposed by the state. Contractual liability is derived from the agreement between the parties, while liability in tort arises independently of any agreement. The word “tort” has a long history. It originates in Latin as “tortus” which means twisted, wrung. In Mediaeval English it meant injury, wrong, or false or wrong statement. Today tort is understood as an infringement of personal or property rights.
TORT LAW – remains uncodified and largely unaffected by statute. It evolved a posteriori (from particular cases), not a priori (from legislation).
České přestupky (administrative wrongs)
ASSAULT BATTERY FALSE IMPRISONMENT DEFAMATION
Torts České civilní delikty
AngloAmerican crimes
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THE FUNCTION OF THE LAW OF TORTS – to compensate a plaintiff for the civil wrong committed against him by a defendant. If the defendant is found liable, usually his duty will be to restore the plaintiff (as far as money can achieve this) to the position he would have been in had the wrong not been committed. In some situations the plaintiff may obtain an injunction to protect him from further damage by the defendant.
THE BASIC ELEMENTS WHICH MUST BE PROVED IN ORDER TO WIN A CASE: the existence of a duty owed to the plaintiff by the defendant violation of the duty a showing that the violation was the cause of the plaintiff´s injuries damages
DAMAGE VERSUS DAMAGES Damage is used to signify that loss or injury, of a personal or a financial kind, for which a remedy is available. Damages is the amount of compensation awarded by the court. Damnum sine injuria is a Latin phrase meaning those injuries which do not amount to damage and for which no action will lie.
GENERAL DEFENCES IN TORT – inevitable accident, voluntary assumption of risk, self-defence, consent, statutory authority ad inevitable accident – as liability in tort is based on fault, injury which is the result of an incident or event which could not be avoided by taking ordinary and reasonable precautions, is not actionable. The defendant must show that no reasonable precautions would have prevented its occurence. Ad voluntary assumption of risk – the person who undertakes to run the risk created by the defendant cannot subsequently complain if, while doing so, he is injured. The consent of the plaintiff to the actions of the defendant provides the latter (the defendant) with a good defence. The defendant must show that the plaintiff understood the physical risk and acquiesced in it to the extent of surrendering his legal rights.
IMMUNITY/EXEMPTION FROM LIABILITY Certain persons and entities are not subject to tort liability, which is called immunity from liability. The rule applies to government, minors and family members.
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BASIS FOR LIABILITY – voluntary act, intent, motive, causal relationship A person can´t sue and recover damages from the person causing the harm without these basis: voluntary act – the defendant must be guilty of a voluntary act or omission intent – whether intent to do an unlawful act or intent to cause harm is required as a basis for tort liability depends upon the nature of the tort involved. Liability is imposed for some torts even though the person committing the tort acted without any intent to do wrong (e.g. trespass to land). In other torts, the intent of the actor is an essential element (e.g. slander or interference with contract). motive – motive is immaterial (not important) except as it may be evidence to show the existence of intent causal relationship – it is necessary to show that there was a relationship of cause and effect between the wrongful act and the harm sustained by the plaintiff
Go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lz4g2YAFa4k (Richard Owen – Law of Tort) and answer the following questions: 1.
What rights are protected by the law of tort?
2.
What is the difference between criminal acts and torts?
3.
What is the similarity and the difference between torts and contracts?
4.
What are the aims/objectives of the law of tort?
VOCABULARY
Acquiesce
Mlčky souhlasit
Actionable
Žalovatelný
Assault
Vyhrožování násilím či násilný útok, přepadení, napadení (podle závažnosti následků se může jednat jak o trestný čin, tak o občanský delikt) Přiznat náhradu škody
Award compensation Battery Causal relationship
Použití násilí proti osobě, ublížení na zdraví, vztažení ruky na člověka Příčinná souvislost 13
Cause and effect
Příčina a následek
Consent
Svolení, konsens, souhlasný projev vůle
Damage
Škoda, újma, ztráta
Damages
Náhrada škody, odškodnění
Defamation
Pomluva, urážka na cti
Exemption
Vynětí z obecných povinností
False imprisonment
Nezákonné uvěznění, protiprávní odnětí svobody
Immaterial
Nepodstatný, nedůležitý
Immunity from liability
Vynětí z odpovědnosti
Impose the liability
Ukládat odpovědnost
Inevitable accident
Vyšší moc, neodvratitelná nehoda
Infringement of personal or property rights
Zásah do osobnostních či věcných práv
Injunction
Soudní zákaz, soudní příkaz
Intent
Úmysl, záměr
Interference with contract
Zasahování do smluvních vztahů
Loss
Ztráta, újma, škoda
Occurrence
Výskyt, vznik, událost
Restore
Navrátit, obnovit
Run the risk
Podstoupit riziko
Self-defence
Sebeobrana, nutná obrana
Signify
Znamenat, značit, naznačovat
Slander
Ústní pomluva, urážka na cti, nactiutrhání
Statutory authority
Zákonná pravomoc, úřední pravomoc
Subsequently
Následně
Surrender the rights
Vzdát se práv
Sustain harm
Utrpět škodu
Take precautions
Učinit preventivní opatření
Tort
Občanskoprávní delikt, porušení práva
Trespass to land
Neoprávněný vstup na cizí pozemek
Unaffected
Nedotčen, neovlivněn
Uncodified
Nepsaný, nekodifikovaný
Voluntary act
Úmyslný čin
Voluntary assumption of risk
Dobrovolné převzetí rizika
Wrongful act
Protiprávní čin
EXERCISES 1. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS: 1. 2. 3. 4.
What kind of a wrong is tort? Are there many written statutes considering tort law? Who imposes liability in the case of a tort and a contract? What is the function of the law of tort? 14
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
What is an injunction? What do we call the person who commits a tort? What are the basic elements of a tort case? What is the difference between damage and damages? Who is immune from liability? Is the motive important when the court needs to decide if a person is liable in a tort case?
2. MATCH THE WORDS TO MAKE EXPRESSIONS RELATED TO TORT LAW AND TRANSLATE THEM:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
tort civil breach of compensate a punish a violation of a inevitable voluntary assumption selfstatutory immunity from voluntary causal
a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)
wrong relationship plaintiff of risk liability law duty defendant
i) j) k) l) m)
contract authority defence act accident
3. FILL IN SUITABLE PREPOSITIONS: An injunction protects plaintiff _____________ further damage. Contractual liability is derived _______ the agreement of the parties. Immunity ____________ liability means that somebody is not subject ______liability. It depends _________ you. The defendant has to compensate the plaintiff _______ the civil wrong he or she committed. The word “tort” originates __________Latin. Tort must be distinguished ___________a breach of contract.
SOURCES: Chromá, Marta, New Introduction to Legal English, Volume II, Univerzita Karlova v Praze, Nakladatelství Karolinum, Praha 2007 Debra S. Lee, J.D., Charles Hall, Marsha Hurley, J.D., American Legal English, The University of Michigan Press, 1999 Chromá, Marta, Anglicko-český právnický slovník, Leda, 1995 15
CHAPTER 14 – LAW OF TORT II A NUISANCE A PRIVATE NUISANCE – an unlawful interference with the use or enjoyment of another person´s land. It will not usually be an unlawful activity. The interference may consist of actual injury to property (fumes killing bushes, roots undermining a wall), interference with health or comfort (noise, smoke, smell), interference with easements or natural rights. It must be considered whether the act complained of is unusual or excessive.
Go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eoe1uncthyk (Private Nuisance) and notice which things are presented as private nuisance.
A PUBLIC NUISANCE – an unlawful act or omission which endangers the health, safety, or comfort of the public or obstructs the exercise of a common right (selling contaminated food, obstructing a highway, keeping a vicious dog). It differs from private nuisance in that it is a crime as well as a tort; an isolated act may be a public nuisance; it need not involve an interference with the use or enjoyment of land; and several people at least must be affected.
Go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=za0sZewL4Fw&feature=fvsr (Grandma in Trouble For Feeding Squirrels) and answer the questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
What is Claire´s surname? How old is she? What town does she live in? Which animals does she feed? Why is she accused of public nuisance? Do the two neighbours agree or disagree with Claire? What does Claire say about her relationship with animals? What does she mean by saying “Silence is golden.”?
1.
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A TRESPASS TO THE PERS ON – an intentional interference with the person or liberty of another. Trespass to the person is actionable per se (without the proof of loss) unless the defendant establishes that his act was justified. It may take three forms – assault, battery and false imprisonment. AN ASSAULT – an act of the defendant which causes the plaintiff reasonable fear of an immediate battery on him by the defendant. A BATTERY – the intentional application of force to another person. The amount of harm inflicted is relevant to the amount of damages awarded. It is a battery to throw something at the plaintiff so that it hits him, or to remove a chair from under him, or to set a dog on him, or to drag him away from something for his own good. FALSE IMPRISONMENT - the infliction of bodily restraint not authorized by law under condition that the restraint is total. THE TYPES OF JUSTIFICATION OF TRESPASS TO THE PERSON include defence of person or property (reasonable force may be used to remove a trespasser), parental authority (reasonable and moderate punishment may be administered), lawful arrest, judicial authority and necessity.
Go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rLqnneBhn70 (Have you been charged with assault and battery?) and fill in the excerpts: The crime of assault and battery relates to _________________ or threatening to ____________ another person. Battery is harmful or _______________ contact causing physical or psychological _____________. Assault is ____________________ someone with such harm. Words alone are usually not sufficient for an _____________ but if offensive words are coupled with some other circumstance making the ___________ reasonably apprehensive of being ______________, then it may constitute assault. The victim is able to sue the aggressor for _______________ such as ___________ expenses, ____________ earnings, psychological ______________, pain and _______________. Aggressors may face both _______ and ______________ charges.
TRESPASS TO LAND – the direct interference with the possession of another person´s land without lawful authority. It is a tort actionable per se, without proof of loss. Interference must be direct, either by entering on land, or remaining on land after permission to stay has ended. Placing objects on land also constitutes interference. Trespass to land is not usually a crime but there have been many problems with people who take up residence on other people´s property – e.g. squatters, travellers (gypsies).
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Go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SrPcroQLLRA (Trespass to land), be ready to describe what happened and correct the following explanation of trespass to land: A civil law tort that is committed when a group of people voluntarily enters the land of another without legal excuse.
DEFAMATION – a false statement that tends to injure the plaintiff´s reputation, or causes him to be shunned by ordinary members of society. There are two forms of defamation – libel and slander. LIBEL is a defamatory statement in permanent form or for general reception (writing, pictures, films, radio, TV...). If the statement lacks permanence it will be SLANDER (spoken form or gestures). Libel is a crime and a tort, slander is only a tort. Libel is actionable per se, slander is only if it imputes a crime or veneral diseases, or adultery, lesbianism,.. and if it is calculated to damage the plaintiff in his profession. If the plaintiff is to succeed in a defamation action he must show that the statement is defamatory, that it refers to the plaintiff, and that it has been published by the defendant. In case of slander the plaintiff must prove damage capable of monetary evaluation (e.g. loss of employment). With new technology, the scope of defamation has expanded. A person´s credit or reputation may be damaged because a computer contains erroneous information and it is supplied to third persons. If negligence or an intent to harm is shown, the wrongdoer could be held liable for what may be called DEFAMATION BY COMPUTER.
MENTAL DISTRESS – when the defendant commits an act which by itself is a tort, there is usually recovery for the mental distress which is caused thereby. Examples of causing mental distress – outrageous practical joke, the corpse of a close relative was concealed or mistreated, humiliation of the plaintiff because of race, creed or national origin.
INVASION OF PRIVACY – the law has come to recognize a right of privacy, which is most commonly invaded in the following ways: invasion of physical privacy (planting a microphone in a person´s home, reading somebody´s mail), giving publicity to personal matters of the plaintiff (financial status, past careers), false
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public association of the plaintiff with some product or principle, commercially exploiting the plaintiff´s name or picture as in using them in advertising without permission. FRAUD – deliberate trickery intended to gain an advantage. A person is entitled to be protected from fraud and may recover damages for harm caused by fraud. This protects the plaintiff from false statements made with knowledge of their falsity or with reckless indifference as to whether they were true or not. Fraud may be found in any commercial setting (e.g. selling a house, goods, a business, or services).
UNFAIR COMPETITION – unlawful and the person injured thereby may sue for damages and an injunction to stop the practice, or may report the matter to the Federal Trade Commission or to an appropriate state agency. It is unfair competition to imitate signs, storefronts, advertisements, and the packaging of goods of a competitor. The goodwill that is related to a trade name is an important business asset, and there is a judicial trend in favor of protecting a trade name from a competitor´s use of a similar name.
STATUTES OF LIMITATION – statutes of federal government and various states setting maximum time periods during which certain actions can be brought or rights enforced. After the time period set out in the applicable statute of limitations has run, no legal action can be brought regardless of whether any cause of action ever existed. The Limitation Act 1980 provides that actions founded on simple conctracts and tort should not be brought after the expiration of six years from the date on which the cause of action accrued. There are exceptions to this period – 12 years are allowed for the recovery of land, whereas an action which includes a claim for damages for personal injuries or which arises from a fatal accident must be brought within 3 years. Sometimes the plaintiff did not realize that he had a cause of action and so there are exceptions to limitation periods.
VOCABULARY
Administer a punishment Adultery Bodily restraint Credit Defamatory Easement Enjoyment Erroneous Establish
Uložit trest Cizoložství Omezování svobody Dobré jméno Pomlouvačný, urážlivý Břemeno Výkon práva, užívání práva Vadný, chybný Založit, zřídit 19
Exercise of a right Exploit False statement Fraud Gain an advantage Impute a crime Inflict harm Interference Invasion of privacy Libel Mental distress Natural right Necessity Obstruct Per se Private nuisance Public nuisance Reasonable care Reckless indiference Recover Scope Slander Statutes of limitation Trespass to the person Trespasser Unfair competition Veneral disease
Uplatňovat, vykonávat právo Využít, vykořisťovat Falešné prohlášení Podvod, lest Získat výhodu Obviňovat z trestného činu Způsobit škodu Zasahování, vměšování Porušení soukromí Písemná pomluva, nactiutrhání Duševní újma Přirozené právo Nutnost, nezbytnost Bránit, stát v cestě Samo o sobě Narušení práv jedné osoby či několika osob, porušení sousedských práv Narušení veřejného pořádku, výtržnost Náležitá péče Naprostý nezájem, bezohlednost Dostat zpět, dostat náhradu za co Rozsah Ústní pomluva, urážka na cti Zákon o promlčení Přestupek/přečin proti svobodě člověka Osoba zasahující do cizího práva, provinilec Nekalá soutěž Pohlavní choroba
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EXERCISES 1. FILL THESE EXPRESSIONS IN THE CHART:
libel, battery, public, defamation, assault, private, false imprisonment
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nuisance
trespass to the person
TORTS
trespass to land slander
invasion of privacy fraud unfair competition 2. MATCH THE DEFINITIONS WITH THE TERMS FROM THE BOX BELOW 1. 2.
3. 4. 5.
any statement that hurts someone's reputation an injury to one person for which the person who caused the injury is legally responsible. It can be intentional - for example, an angry punch in the nose - but is far more likely to result from carelessness (called "negligence"), such as riding your bicycle on the sidewalk and colliding with a pedestrian. protection of sb´s life, health or property with reasonable measures (methods) money awarded to one party based on injury or loss caused by the other party something that interferes with the use of property by being irritating, offensive, obstructive or dangerous. It includes a wide range of conditions, everything from a chemical plant's bad odors to a neighbor's dog barking. The former would be a "public ____________," one affecting many people,
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while the other would be a "private _______," limited to making your life difficult, unless the dog was bothering others 6. an individual intentionally (or in Australia negligently) enters the land of another without lawful excuse 7. the threat of violence caused by an immediate show of force 8. symptoms and experiences of a person's internal life that are commonly held to be troubling, confusing or out of the ordinary (stress, lack of sleep, anxiety, hallucinations, depression) 9. deceiving another in order to damage them – usually, to obtain property or services unjustly 10. a violation of the right to be left alone (control of property, information) 11. the maximum period of time after certain events, that legal proceedings based on those events may be initiated 12. a person is intentionally confined without legal authority
assault, damages, defamation, fraud, tort, invasion of privacy, self-defence, nuisance, trespass to land, mental distress, false imprisonment, statute of limitation
3. FORM ADJECTIVES FROM THE GIVEN NOUNS AND VERBS
liability ________________, volunteer__________________, statute _________________, reason __________________, action ___________________, cause _________________, law ______________, danger __________________, intent ________, judge _________________, fault ________________, defamation ________________, mind ______________, privacy ________________
4. MATCH THE SYNONYMS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
BREACH IMMUNITY ACT DAMAGE SLANDER
TORT ASSAULT LIBEL
a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)
EXEMPTION
NOT DOING ST WHICH IS PRESCRIBED CIVIL WRONG WRITTEN OR PUBLIC FORM OF DEFAMATION THREATENING TO CAUSE HARM APPLYING PHYSICAL FORCE AND HURTING SB SPOKEN FALSE STATEMENT LOSS, INJURY 23
9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
i) j) k) l) m)
OMISSION DAMAGES BATTERY
IMMUNITY FROM LIABILITY UNFAIR COMPETITION
VIOLATION
DOING, COMMITTING WHAT IS PROHIBITED COMPENSATION, REMEDY DAMAGING THE GOOD NAME OF A COMPETITOR THE RIGHT NOT TO BE PUNISHED FOR A TORT OR CRIME
5. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
Are there any justifications of trespass to the person? Can you explain the term "mental distress"? Is trespass to land a crime? What are the differences between public and private nuisance? What do you call interference with the person or liberty of another person? What do you call the false statement which hurts the reputation of somebody? What do you call the tort when some storekeeper imitates signs or advertisement? What do you call the tort when somebody tricks you on purpose to gain an advantage? What do you call the unlawful interference with the use of another person´s land? What is an assault? What is battery? What is the difference between libel and slander? What is the typical period of statutes of limitation in the case of a tort action? What tort is it when you falsely associate a person with a certain product? What types of trespass to the person do you know?
6. FIND EXAMPLES AND DEFINITIONS FOR THE 11 TORTS PROVIDED BELOW
Torts 1) private nuisance
2) public nuisance
3) assault
4) battery
5) false imprisonment
6) trespass to land
7) invasion of privacy
8) unfair com.
9) libel
10) slander
11) fraud
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a) Honza throws a rotten tomato at Jirka´s head, Jirka moves his head at the last moment and doesn´t get hit b) spying for the secrets in production, imitating advertisements, logo, slogan, lying about your competitor c) Adrian mows his lawn at 6 a.m. every Sunday and his neighbour Sandra can´t sleep d) Jana was angry with Petr and pushed him toward the window. Petr fell back through the window and suffered serious injuries. e) a patient shouts in the hospital hall that the doctor is a drunken butcher f) marriage fraud to obtain immigration benefits, false advertising, identity theft, forgery of documents, embezzlement, false insurance claims g) Martin wanted to go shopping and he shortened his way by walking along his neighbour´s garden path h) A restaurant manager tells an employee to get out of the walk-in refrigerator so she can lock up and go home. When the employee takes too long, she shuts the refrigerator door and leaves. i) An MP says about the president on TV that he has an illegitimate child, which is not true. j) operation of a sex shop in a residential street, emission of unhealthy substances from a factory, obstruction of roads and waterways, keeping ill animals, shooting fireworks in the streets k) the photo of an innocent man posted at the wanted website, spying on the person at home, listening to phone calls, opening somebody´s mail
Definitions 1) oral statement which is not true and harms somebody´s reputation 2) violation of the right to be left alone and the right to control property against search and seizure and control information about yourself 3) someone intentionally confines another person against their will 4) damaging the competitors in business by illegal or dishonest ways 5) unreasonable interference with the use and enjoyment of somebody´s property or land, eventhough nobody physically entered it 6) a person intentionally causes a harmful or offensive contact with another person 7) deception made for personal profit, to obtain property or services injustly 8)false statement which harms somebody´s reputation and it is written or made public 9) a person intentionally puts someone in fear of an immediate harmful or offensive contact 10) an illegal act which can put your life or health to danger, it is uncomfortable or it prevents you from exercising your common right, it affects more people and can be even a crime 11) a person walks onto another person´s property or land without the owner´s permission
Sources Chromá, Marta, New Introduction to Legal English I, Karolinum, 2003 Šíma, A., Suk, M., Základy práva pro střední a vyšší odborné školy. 6. vydání. Praha: C. H. Beck, 2004 http://dictionary.law.com http://www.ncsl.org/programs/cyf/commonlaw.htm
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