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185
186
Dutch Summary Nederlandse Samenvatting
187
Dutch Summary De afgelopen jaren zijn in de media vele voorbeelden van onethisch gedrag binnen organisaties de revue gepasseerd. Denk bijvoorbeeld aan het Libor-schandaal, waarbij ook een Nederlandse bank betrokken was. Of aan de onethische praktijken die uiteindelijk Enron, WorldCom en Parmalat ten val brachten. Dergelijke schandalen maken duidelijk dat personen in leiderschapsposities
zich
soms
op
een
onethische
of
anderszins
twijfelachtige wijze gedragen en dat dit verstrekkende maatschappelijke gevolgen kan hebben. Daarnaast hebben zulke schandalen ook bijgedragen aan een groeiende (wetenschappelijke) belangstelling voor de oorzaken en gevolgen van dergelijk gedrag. Uit onderzoek onder de Amerikaanse bevolking komt naar voren dat 13.6% van de werknemers te maken heeft met een leidinggevende die zich op een onbehoorlijke wijze opstelt jegens medewerkers (i.e., een leidinggevende die medewerkers uitscheldt, in het openbaar bekritiseert, kleineert, et cetera). In Nederland ligt dit percentage rond de 11% (Hubert & van Veldhoven, 2001). De financiële kosten die hieruit voortvloeien, bijvoorbeeld ten gevolge van ziekteverzuim en deviant gedrag van werknemers, worden – alleen al voor de bedrijven die zijn gevestigd in de Verenigde Staten – geschat op 23.8 (US) biljoen dollar (Tepper, 2007). Afgezien van het feit dat onbehoorlijk of onethisch gedrag van leidinggevenden gepaard gaat met substantiële financiële kosten, is het ook gerelateerd aan negatieve consequenties voor medewerkers. Medewerkers die met dit soort leidinggevenden worden geconfronteerd hebben een lagere werktevredenheid en een hogere mate van emotionele uitputting (Tepper, 2000). Ethisch of fatsoenlijk gedrag van leidinggevenden houdt juist verband met positieve uitkomsten, zoals een hogere werktevredenheid en betrokkenheid van medewerkers (Mayer, Kuenzi, Greenbaum, Bardes, & Salvador, 2009; Schminke, Ambrose, & Neubaum, 2005). Daarnaast zijn leidinggevenden vaak bepalend voor de (ethische) cultuur binnen een organisatie en hebben zij een voorbeeldfunctie: de manier waarop leidinggevenden zich gedragen kan zich dus als een olievlek binnen de 188
Nederlandse Samenvatting organisatie uitbreiden. Gegeven de verstrekkende consequenties van het onethische gedrag van leidinggevenden, is het van essentieel belang om te weten welke factoren (on)ethisch gedrag in de hand werken of juist in toom houden. Dit betekent dat het belangrijk is om de antecedenten van (on)ethisch leiderschap in kaart te brengen en te achterhalen wanneer deze antecedenten het meeste effect sorteren. Het proefschrift dat voor u ligt beoogt
dan
ook
te
inventariseren
welke
factoren
en
condities
leidinggevenden kunnen aanzetten tot (on)ethisch gedrag. Daarnaast gaat het in op nog niet nader onderzochte consequenties van (on)ethisch leiderschap voor het gedrag van medewerkers. Om ethische leiderschapsgedragingen (zoals het luisteren naar medewerkers) dan wel onethische leiderschapsgedragingen (zoals het liegen tegen
medewerkers)
te
verklaren,
werd
aanvankelijk
een
cognitieve/rationele benadering toegepast. De rol van emoties werd hierbij genegeerd vanwege zijn geanticipeerde, verstorende invloed op het morele denkproces. Echter, deze cognitieve factoren bleken niet altijd even consistent (on)ethisch gedrag te voorspellen (Kish-Gephart, Harrison, & Treviño, 2010). Dit leidde er toe dat sommige onderzoekers gingen suggereren dat emoties weleens een belangrijkere rol zouden kunnen innemen als voorspellers van (on)ethisch gedrag dan voorheen werd aangenomen en dat emoties zelfs wel eens noodzakelijk zouden kunnen zijn bij het nemen van morele beslissingen (Damasio, 1994). Hoewel er sindsdien meer aandacht is gekomen voor de rol van emoties
in
het
verklaren
van
(on)ethisch
gedrag,
is
er
in
de
leiderschapsliteratuur nog maar weinig empirisch onderzoek naar hoe verschillende emoties invloed uitoefenen op (on)ethisch leiderschap. Dit proefschrift heeft dan ook als doel om te onderzoeken welke emoties (on)ethisch gedrag kunnen voorspellen. Specifiek kijken we daarbij naar zogenaamde morele emoties; emoties die goed gedrag motiveren en onethisch gedrag demotiveren (zoals schuldgevoelens en gevoelens van 189
Dutch Summary authentieke trots). Behalve deze morele emoties wordt er in dit proefschrift ook gekeken naar welke emoties onethisch gedrag stimuleren (zoals gevoelens van minachting jegens anderen). De rol die emotionele factoren spelen in het voorspelen van (on)ethisch gedrag op de werkvloer vormt de kern van de vier empirische hoofdstukken in deze dissertatie. In het eerste deel (Hoofdstukken 2, 3 en 4) wordt vooral ingegaan op emoties als antecedenten van (on)ethisch leiderschap, terwijl in het tweede deel (Hoofdstuk 5) wordt ingegaan op de gevolgen van (on)ethisch leiderschap voor het gedrag dat wordt tentoongespreid door de medewerkers van de leidinggevende. In hoofdstuk 2 wordt besproken hoe gevoelens van authentieke trots (authentic pride) en hoogmoedige trots (hubristic pride) gerelateerd zijn aan ethisch leiderschapsgedrag. Authentieke trots wordt teweeggebracht door oprecht, met hard werken behaalde prestaties, terwijl hoogmoedige trots wordt aangewakkerd door het overmatig roemen van verantwoordelijkheid voor positieve verdiensten. Uit de wetenschapsliteratuur komt naar voren dat hoogmoedige trots gerelateerd is aan onethisch gedrag, terwijl authentieke trots juist gerelateerd is aan pro-sociaal gedrag (e.g., Michie, 2009; Mishina, Dykes, Block, & Pollock, 2010). In hoofdstuk 2 voorspellen we dat leidinggevenden die authentieke trots ervaren meer gemotiveerd zijn om ethisch leiderschap te tonen dan leidinggevenden die hoogmoedige trots ervaren, maar dat dit met name het geval is wanneer ethisch handelen een belangrijk deel uitmaakt van het zelfbeeld (i.e., de morele identiteit hoog is). Conform onze verwachtingen blijkt uit twee experimentele studies en één veldstudie dat authentiek trotse leiders zich ethischer opstellen jegens hun medewerkers dan hoogmoedig trotse leiders, met name wanneer hun identiteit als moreel persoon (moral identity) sterk is. In hoofdstuk 3 is verder ingegaan op de rol die morele identiteit speelt in het reguleren van (on)ethisch leiderschapsgedrag. De invloed van een bepaald zelfbeeld varieert in overeenstemming met de activatie ervan. 190
Nederlandse Samenvatting Anders gezegd, men kan zich anders gedragen afhankelijk van de activatie van een bepaald zelfbeeld. Bijvoorbeeld, wanneer de identiteit als ouder is geactiveerd, vertoont een persoon ander gedrag dan wanneer deze identiteit niet is geactiveerd en in plaats daarvan bijvoorbeeld de identiteit als competitieve sporter is geactiveerd. Evenzo dient het zelfbeeld als moreel persoon geactiveerd te zijn alvorens dit onethisch gedrag kan reduceren en ethisch gedrag kan induceren. Factoren die de activatie van een morele identiteit deactiveren kunnen derhalve de van de identiteit uitgaande invloed op onethisch gedrag teniet doen. Daar gevoelens van minachting gepaard gaan met gedragingen die tegenstrijdig zijn met hetgeen door een geactiveerde morele identiteit wordt gedicteerd, beargumenteren wij dat minachting
de
invloed
van
een
morele
identiteit
deactiveert
en
dientengevolge haar invloed op onethisch gedrag reduceert. Specifiek wordt verwacht dat minachting de relatie tussen de morele identiteit van de leidinggevende en het onethische gedrag van de leidinggevende modereert, zodat het negatieve verband tussen morele identiteit en onethisch gedrag zwakker wordt naarmate gevoelens van minachting sterker zijn. Alvorens de bovengenoemde verwachting in drie verschillende studies te toetsen, worden in hoofdstuk 3 eerst de convergente, de nomologische en de discriminante
validiteit
van
een
zelfontwikkelde
minachtingsschaal
gerapporteerd. Hoofdstuk 4 borduurt voort op de negatieve gevolgen van gevoelens van minachting. De inzichten van hoofdstuk 3, met betrekking tot de positieve samenhang tussen minachting en onethisch leiderschapsgedrag, worden in hoofdstuk 4 geïntegreerd met de literatuur over macht. Het beschikken over een bepaalde mate van macht is inherent gebonden aan de positie als leidinggevende. Leidinggevenden hebben meestal meer macht dan hun medewerkers. Desalniettemin beschikt niet iedere leidinggevende over evenveel macht; sommigen hebben veel macht, anderen weinig. Uit de bestaande literatuur komt naar voren dat macht invloed heeft op hoe mensen informatie verwerken, hoe zij zich voelen en hoe zij zich gedragen 191
Dutch Summary (Anderson & Berdahl, 2002). Daarnaast verhoogt het de aansluiting tussen persoonlijkheid of andere predisposities en gedrag (e.g., DeCelles, DeRue, Margolis, & Ceranic, 2012). Met andere woorden, macht kan ervoor zorgen dat mensen zich meer conform hun predisposities en gedragstendenties gedragen. Op grond hiervan verwachten wij dat leidinggevenden met een tendens om anderen te minachten er met name in zouden falen om onbaatzuchtig of ethisch gedrag jegens medewerkers te tonen wanneer zij veel macht hebben. In hoofdstuk 4 demonstreren de resultaten van twee studies inderdaad dat de gevoelens van minachting van leidinggevenden negatief gerelateerd zijn aan hun mensgerichtheid en onbaatzuchtig gedrag jegens medewerkers wanneer zij in grotere mate macht hebben. In hoofdstuk 5 wordt de focus verlegd van antecedenten van (on)ethisch leiderschap naar de rol van emoties in het verband tussen (on)ethisch leiderschap en het gedrag van medewerkers. Leiderschap is een dynamisch proces waarbij zowel leidinggevenden als medewerkers elkaar wederzijds beïnvloeden. De manier waarop medewerkers leiding ontvangen van hun leidinggevende is van invloed op hun eigen gedrag. Uit de bestaande literatuur komt naar voren dat medewerkers deviant gedrag vertonen in reactie op onethisch of onbehoorlijk gedrag dat door een leidinggevende wordt getoond, terwijl medewerkers zich veelal onthouden van deviant gedrag wanneer zij geleid worden door een ethische leidinggevende (e.g., Mitchell & Ambrose, 2007). Hoofdstuk 5 rapporteert de resultaten van drie studies die laten zien dat de ontvangen leiding (ethisch vs. onbehoorlijk) causaal geplaatst kan worden als voorloper van deviant gedrag van medewerkers (e.g., roddelen over de leidinggevende) en dat de geanticipeerde schuldgevoelens van medewerkers een mediërende rol uitoefenen in de relatie tussen leiderschapsstijl en deviant gedrag van medewerkers. Specifiek blijkt dat medewerkers meer deviant gedrag vertonen jegens een onbehoorlijke baas in vergelijking tot een ethische baas, doordat medewerkers op basis van een lik-op-stuk-gedachte in mindere mate anticiperen zich schuldig te voelen over hun deviante gedrag. 192
Nederlandse Samenvatting Tezamen laten de resultaten van de verschillende empirische hoofdstukken zien dat verscheidene discrete emoties invloed uitoefenen op (on)ethisch leiderschap dan wel deviant gedrag van medewerkers. Zo hebben gevoelens van authentieke trots een gunstig effect op ethisch leiderschap (met name wanneer zij gepaard gaan met een sterke morele identiteit), terwijl gevoelens van minachting (met name wanneer zij gepaard gaan met veel macht) ethisch leiderschap in de weg staan en zelfs onbehoorlijk gedrag aan de kant van leidinggevenden kunnen induceren. In tegenstelling tot de lang gekoesterde overtuiging dat emoties een verstorend effect hebben op moreel denken en handelen, laten de resultaten in dit proefschrift zien dat sommige emoties ethisch handelen juist kunnen stimuleren, terwijl andere emoties ethisch leiderschap inderdaad lijken tegen te werken. Het huidige proefschrift draagt zodoende bij aan een meer genuanceerde blik en een verdieping van ons begrip van de invloed van discrete emoties op (on)ethisch leiderschap en laat tevens zien dat emoties een rol spelen in de relatie tussen het gedrag van de leidinggevende en dat van de medewerkers. We hopen dan ook dat dit proefschrift de weg baant voor verder onderzoek naar de rol van emoties in het voorspellen van (on)ethisch leiderschapsgedrag en onderzoek zal stimuleren naar de randvoorwaarden waaronder de invloed van zogenaamde (im)morele emoties tot uiting komt.
193
194
Acknowledgments Dankwoord
195
Acknowledgments Emoties spelen niet alleen een belangrijke rol op de werkvloer en in het leiderschapsproces, ook bij het werken aan dit proefschrift waren deze onmiskenbaar aanwezig. Een verscheidenheid aan positieve en negatieve emoties is de revue gepasseerd tijdens het vier jaren durende proces om gestalte te geven aan dit proefschrift. Ik prijs mijzelf gelukkig met het gegeven dat ik deze emoties – zowel de positieve als de negatieve – heb kunnen delen met mijn vrienden, mijn collega’s en niet in de laatste plaats mijn begeleiders. Barbara, je bent voor mij hét toonbeeld van een mensgerichte, ethische leidinggevende. Altijd stond jouw deur voor mij open. Op moeilijkere momenten hielp je mij opnieuw moed en vertrouwen te geven, wat mij motiveerde om door te gaan. Altijd wist jij iets negatiefs om te toveren in iets positiefs. Naast je sterke inhoudelijke toevoegingen en feedback heb je het schrijven van dit proefschrift ook vooral leuker gemaakt. Nico, zonder jou was dit proefschrift nooit tot stand gekomen. Jij hebt mij destijds bij de afronding van mijn eerste masterthese, die ik onder jouw begeleiding schreef, geadviseerd en gemotiveerd om in te stromen in de Research Master van waaruit ik vervolgens ben doorgestroomd naar mijn PhD-plek. Je kritische noten en feedback hebben dit onderzoek aangescherpt en op een hoger plan getild. Diana, I wish you could have stayed longer here in Groningen. Your brilliant insights have greatly helped to give my PhD project a clear direction right from the start. I have learned a lot from you and you will always be an influential role model to me. De leden van de leescommissie, Prof. Dr. H. B. M. Molleman, Prof. Dr. E. van Dijk en Prof. Dr. S. Otten, wil ik bedanken voor de beoordeling van dit proefschrift.
196
Dankwoord Throughout the years, many colleagues in the Social and Organizational Psychology Department have helped me, consciously or unconsciously, to learn and to grow. First of all, I want to express my gratefulness to each and every one of you. In one way or another, you have contributed not only to my work but also to my personal development as an independent researcher. Special thanks – these are just some nonexhaustive highlights in no particular order – go to Pontus, for teaching me new approaches to designing studies and letting me play with MediaLab and DirectRT. I truly enjoyed collaborating with you. Jana, Bibiana, and more recently Darya, thank you for being great roommates. Jana, also thanks for being a cheerful roommate during conferences. We had a lot of fun together. Eric, you are always in for a joke and you are a great photographer. I could not have won the Heymans poster prize without your determination for making the right pictures of Barbara and me. Susanne, thank you for sending useful papers and providing valuable feedback during lab meetings. Hannes, thanks for showing how Mplus works, it sure helps a great deal to understand this program. Kira, many thanks for demonstrating how MTurk works. Melvyn, thank you for answering all kinds of short questions, and providing feedback on one of my papers. Dick, thank you for your feedback during lab meetings. José, thank you for all the wise words. Monica, Ruud, Silke, Xavier, Ed, Nicole, and Judith thank you for being such nice and supportive colleagues. Dankwoorden zijn er niet alleen voor de personen die op enig moment directe collega’s waren. Ook die personen die van conferenties altijd een gezellig werkuitje wisten te maken, wil ik bedanken voor de leuke en aangename tijd: Dennis, Tim, Ramzi, Thom, Sanne, Bart, Marieke, Nicoletta, Tim, Roy en Jessie, de Academy belevenis is niet hetzelfde zonder jullie. I am also truly indebted to the many voluntary research assistants and students who have helped me with data entry, data collection, coding, 197
Acknowledgments proofreading, etcetera. All of you have helped me a great deal to be more productive and to pull off research designs that require a lot of work. Enric, Moritz, Domokos, Joke, Daouia, Francesca, Philip, Miriam, Jorim, Sandra, Mareike, Bodil, Jonas, Christiane, Marijn, Jule, Mina, and all the other people who I might have forgotten to mention, I extend my gratitude to all of you. Veel dank ben ik verschuldigd aan mijn vrienden en familie, die mij in mijn persoonlijk leven hebben bijgestaan. Allereerst wil ik mijn paranimfen – Maxim en mijn zus, Chantal – bedanken voor de uitzonderlijke inzet en hulp, zonder wie dit alles nooit tot stand had kunnen komen. Pap, je leerde mij van jongs af aan om ‘hard te werken en niet te mauwen’. Door jou heb ik een mooie dosis doorzettingsvermogen ontwikkeld die van pas is gekomen in deze baan, waar een 9-tot-5-mentaliteit niet aan de orde is. Mam, bedankt voor alle goede zorgen en het samen met pap zorgdragen voor Rianne. Oma, geen hotel kan tippen aan het verblijf bij jou. Opa, samen met jou zijn is altijd fijn; van zo hard mogelijk door het bos crossen tot een potje schaken onder het genot van een kop warme chocolademelk en een punt zelfgemaakte appeltaart. Mijn innige dank.
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About the Author
199
About the Author Stacey
Sanders
(1986,
Hoofddorp) grew up in a small village
in
Drenthe,
The
Netherlands. After finishing her secondary education, she started her
bachelor
studies
in
Psychology at the University of Groningen. In 2009, she received her Master of Science degree in Work,
Organizational,
and
Personnel Psychology. In 2010, she successfully completed the Research Master Behavioral and Social Sciences and started her PhD-project at the department of Psychology under the supervision of Barbara Wisse, Nico Van Yperen, and Diana Rus. Her dissertation focuses on the role of ‘moral emotions in predicting (un)ethical leader behavior, as well as in predicting employee reactions to (un)ethical leader behavior. Not surprisingly therefore, Stacey’s research interests revolve predominantly around emotions, emotional rewards, leadership, power, moral identity, and ‘dark side’ traits. She has presented her work at various international conferences, and her work has been honored with an Academy of Management Best Paper Proceeding, a spot as a finalist in the Excellence in Ethics Dissertation Proposal Competition, and an Academy of Management Conference Outstanding Reviewer OB Division Award and MOC Division Award. Furthermore, she was a member of the Committee that organized the 2012 WAOP Conference.
200
KLI Dissertation Series
201
KLI Dissertation Series The “Kurt Lewin Institute Dissertation Series” started in 1997. Since 2013 the following dissertations have been published in this series: 2013-1
Annemarie Hiemstra: Fairness in Paper and Video Resume Screening.
2013-2
Gert-Jan Lelieveld: Emotions in Negotiations: The Role of Communicated Anger and Disappointment.
2013-3
Saar Mollen: Fitting in or Breaking Free? On Health Behavior, Social Norms and Conformity.
2013-4
Karin Menninga: Exploring Learning Abstinence Theory: A new Theoretical Perspective on Continued Abstinence in Smoking Cessation.
2013-5
Jessie Koen: Prepare and Pursue: Routes to Suitable (Re-) Employment.
2013-6
Marieke Roskes: Motivated Creativity: A Conservation of Energy Approach.
2013-7
Claire Marie Zedelius: Investigating Consciousness in Reward Pursuit.
2013-8
Anouk van der Weiden: When You Think You Know What You're Doing: Experiencing Self-Agency Over Intended and Unintended Outcomes.
2013-9
Gert Stulp: Sex, Stature and Status: Natural Selection on Height in Contemporary Human Populations.
2013-10
Evert-Jan van Doorn: Emotion Affords Social Influence: Responding to Others' Emotions in Context.
2013-11
Frank de Wit: The Paradox of Intragroup Conflict.
2013-12
Iris Schneider: The dynamics of Ambivalence: Cognitive,Affective and Physical Consequences of Evaluative Conflict.
202
KLI Dissertation Series 2013-13
Jana Niemann: Feedback Is the Breakfast of Champions, but It Can Be Hard to Digest: A Psychological Perspective on Feedback Seeking and Receiving.
2013-14
Serena Does: At the Heart of Egalitarianism: How Morality Framing Shapes Whites' Responses to Social Inequality.
2013-15
Romy van der Lee: Moral Motivation Within Groups.
2013-16
Melvyn Hamstra: Self-Regulation in a Social Environment.
2013-17
Chantal den Daas: In the Heat of the Moment: The effect of Impulsive and Reflective States on Sexual Risk Decisions.
2013-18
Kelly Cobey: Female Physiology Meets Psychology: Menstrual Cycle and Contraceptive Pill Effects.
2013-19
Ellen van der Werff: Growing Environmental Self-Identity
2013-20
Lise Jans: Reconciling Individuality with Social Solidarity: Forming Social Identity from the Bottom Up.
2013-21
Ruth van Veelen: Integrating I and We: Cognitive Routes to Social Identification.
2013-22
Lottie Bullens: Having Second Thoughts: Consequences of Decision Reversibility.
2013-23
Daniel Sligte: The Functionality of Creativity.
2014-01
Marijn Stok: Eating by the Norm: The Influence of Social Norms on Young People's Eating Behavior.
2014-02
Michèlle Bal: Making Sense of Injustice: Benign and Derogatory Reactions to Innocent Victims.
2014-03
Nicoletta Dimitrova: Rethinking Errors: How Error-Handling Strategy Affects our Thoughts and Others' Thoughts About Us.
2014-04
Namkje Koudenburg: Conversational Flow: The Emergence and Regulation of Solidarity through Social Interaction.
2014-05
Thomas Sitser: Predicting Sales Performance: Strengthening the Personality – Job Performance Linkage.
203
KLI Dissertation Series 2014-06
Goda Perlaviciute: Goal-driven Evaluations of Sustainable Products.
2014-07
Said Shafa: In the Eyes of Others: The Role of Honor Concerns in Explaining and Preventing Insult-Elicited Aggression.
2014-08
Felice van Nunspeet: Neural Correlates of the Motivation to be Moral.
2014-09
Anne Fetsje Sluis: Towards a Virtuous Society: Virtues as Potential Instruments to Enhance.
2014-10
Gerdien de Vries: Pitfalls in the Communication about CO2 Capture and Storage.
2014-11
Thecla Brakel: The Effects of Social Comparison Information on Cancer Survivors’ Quality
of Life: A Field-Experimental
Intervention Approach. 2014-12
Hans Marien: Understanding and Motivating Human Control: Outcome and Reward Information in Action.
2014-13
Daniel Alink: Public Trust: Expectancies, Beliefs, and Behavior.
2014-14
Linda Daphne Muusses: How Internet Use May Affect our Relationships: Characteristics of Internet Use and Personal and Relational Wellbeing.
2014-15
Hillie Aaldering: Parochial and Universal Cooperation in Intergroup Conflicts.
2014-16
Martijn Keizer: Do Norms Matter? The Role of Normative Considerations as Predictors of Pro-Environmental Behavior.
2015-01
Maartje Elshout: Vengeance.
2015-02
Seval Gündemir: The Minority Glass Ceiling Hypothesis: Exploring Reasons and Remedies for the Underrepresentation of Racial-ethnic Minorities in Leadership Positions.
2015-03
Dagmar Beudeker: On Regulatory Focus and Performance in Organizational Environments.
204
KLI Dissertation Series 2015-04
Charlotte Koot: Making Up Your Mind About a Complex Technology: An Investigation into Factors that Help or Hinder the Achievement of Cognitive Closure about CCS.
2015-05
Marco van Bommel: The Reputable Bystander: The Role of Reputation in Activating or Deactivating Bystanders.
2015-06
Kira O. McCabe: The Role of Personality in the Pursuit of Context-Specific Goals.
2015-07
Wiebren Jansen: Social Inclusion in Diverse Work Settings.
2015-08
Xiaoqian Li: As Time Goes By: Studies on the Subjective Perception of the Speed by which Time Passes.
2015-09
Aukje Verhoeven: Facilitating Food-Related Planning. Applying Metacognition, Cue-Monitoring, and Implementation Intentions.
2015-10
Jasper de Groot: Chemosignaling Emotions: What a Smell can Tell.
2015-11
Hedy Greijdanus: Intragroup Communication in Intergroup Conflict: Influences on Social Perception and Cognition.
2015-12
Bart de Vos: Communicating Anger and Contempt in Intergroup Conflict: Exploring their Relational Functions.
2015-13
Gerdientje Danner: Psychological Availability. How work Experiences Spill Over into Daily Family Interactions.
2015-14
Hannah
Nohlen:
Solving
Ambivalence
in
Context.
The
Experience and Resolution of Attitudinal Ambivalence. 2015-15
Stacey Sanders: Unearthing the Moral Emotive Compass: Exploring the Paths to (Un)Ethical Leadership.
205
