Vokatif Bahasa Prancis dalam Percakapan Facebook

Vokatif Bahasa Prancis dalam Percakapan Facebook Fierenziana Getruida Junus Universitas Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract In communicating, the way and the content of the conversation are two things inseparable. The speakers should be good to package the message with considering the relationship with their interlocutor. Wardaugh (2010: 274) states that the things should be considered in maintaining the communication are: pronominal choice, the use of naming and address terms and the employment of politeness markers. This article based on a research about vocative in French Facebook conversation (FFC). According to Biber et al (1999: 1108), vocative is an expression used as the address by the participant in the conversation. They are important in defining and maintaining sosial relationships between participants. There are several theories of some scholars, such as Arnold Zwicky (1974), Friederike Braun (1988) and Douglas Biber et al (1999), that are used to analyze the data, The objective of this article is to categorize vocatives used in FFC. There are about 555 files of FFC used as corpus. The result shows that almost all the vocative categories have been found in FFC, with several variations of form, formation and meaning. The use of vocative in spoken conversations and FB conversations are the same, but in FB conversation, there is another category namely “full account name”, which also has a different function with vocative function in spoken conversations. This category become a typical vocative category of Facebook conversation. Key words : address, French vocative, Facebook, full account name, hypocorism.

1.

Pendahuluan

Dalam berkomunikasi baik cara penyampaian maupun isi percakapan menjadi dua hal yang sulit dipisahkan. Setiap penutur harus mampu mengemas pesan yang disampaikan dengan mempertimbangkan hubungannya dengan lawan tuturnya. Wardaugh (2010, hal. 274) mengatakan bahwa yang harus dipertimbangkan dalam membangun komunikasi ada 3 hal yaitu : pemilihan pronominal, penggunaan nama dan sapaan, dan penggunaan penanda kesopanan. Vokatif yang merupakan bagian dari sapaan menjadi hal yang penting dalam membangun percakapan dan menjaga komunikasi dengan penutur lain (Zago, 2015). Perkembangan teknologi selama lebih dari satu dasa warsa ini, memengaruhi perkembangan komunikasi manusia. Model komunikasi manusia berubah, dari yang sifatnya tatap muka menjadi kegiatan yang berhadapan dengan perangkat teknologi, dari yang bersifat lisan menjadi tulisan. Percakapan tulisan pun dikemas sedemikian rupa sehingga menghidupkan suasana bercakap secara lisan oleh para penutur (Junus & Laksman-Huntley, 2016). Perkembangan teknologi ini menurut Watt (2010) berdampak pada perubahan bahasa. Sebagai salah satu media sosial yang sangat popular belakangan ini, Facebook (FB) menjadi media komunikasi yang digunakan oleh banyak masyarakat dunia. Menurut data statistik 103

(http://expandedramblings.com/index.php/by-the-numbers-17-amazing-facebook-stats/) hingga April 2016 pengguna FB mencapai 1,65 milyar pengguna aktif per bulan (Monthly Active User). Jauh melampaui media sosial lainnya. Bahkan tercatat bahwa tersedia lebih dari 70 bahasa pada situs tersebut (http://www.statisticbrain.com/). FB menjadi ladang penelitian bahasa yang menarik mengingat belum banyak yang menjadikannya sebagai objek penelitian penggunaan bahasa. Salah satu yang menarik untuk diteliti menurut penulis adalah vokatif yang sering digunakan oleh pengguna FB dalam percakapan mereka. Penelitian yang penulis lakukan adalah terutama mengenai bentuk dan proses pembentukan vokatif serta makna dan fungsinya. Sumber data penelitian ini diambil dari laman FB (http: //www.facebook.com/). Analisis dilakukan dengan menggunakan korpus data berupa 555 fail yang berisi percakapan para pengguna FB. 2. Apakah Vokatif itu? Vokatif menurut Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia adalah panggilan, ajakan atau seruan. Vokatif menurut Karl Bühler merupakan salah satu fungsi bahasa dari tiga fungsi bahasa yang dikemukakannya dalam organon model yaitu appelfunktion, selain fungsi bahasa ekspresif dan fungsi bahasa referensial. Fungsi bahasa vokatif atau biasa juga disebut fungsi konatif merupakan fungsi bahasa untuk menarik perhatian lawan tutur dan menentukan perilakunya (Parpalea, 2011). Pembahasan mengenai vokatif sebagai salah satu fungsi bahasa merupakan pembahasan yang sangat luas. Namun penulis mendasarkan penelitian ini pada pendapat Schaden (2010) yang mengatakan bahwa vokatif dalam arti sempit merupakan frasa nomina yang mengidentifkasi atau menggambarkan lawan tutur kepada siapa ujaran ditujukan. Pada bagian berikut akan dipaparkan penelitian vokatif yang dilakukan beberapa ahli bahasa yaitu Arnold Zwicky (1974), Friederike Braun (1988), Douglas Biber, Stig Johanson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad dan Edward Finnegan (1999). 2.1 Menurut Arnold Zwicky Dalam artikelnya Hey What’syourname! (Zwicky, 1974), Zwicky mengatakan bahwa vokatif adalah sebuah unsur yang terpisah dalam sebuah kalimat, biasanya dipisahkan oleh intonasi dan bukan merupakan penjelasan dari kata kerja dalam kalimat tersebut. Dalam artikelnya Zwicky membedakan frasa nomina yang merupakan vokatif dan frasa nomina yang merupakan referensi. Menurut Zwicky vokatif merujuk langsung pada lawan tutur. Misalnya dalam kalimat “Jacquie, your grammar leaks”. Jacquie merupakan vokatif berbeda dengan kalimat “I’m going to tell Jacquie that her grammar leaks” di mana Jacquie hanya berupa referensi dan merupakan penjelasan dari verba tell. Vokatif menurut Zwicky memiliki 2 fungsi yaitu dapat berupa panggilan ataupun sapaan. Panggilan ditujukan untuk menarik perhatian lawan tutur, sapaan untuk membangun atau menekankan kontak antara penutur dan lawan tutur. Keduanya dapat ditemukan dalam bentuk selain frasa nominal dan juga dengan cara yang non-linguistik. Kita dapat menarik perhatian seseorang dengan menggunakan kata ‘hey’ misalnya atau dengan sentuhan di bahu atau dengan sebuah lambaian. Zwicky membuat beberapa kategori mengenai vokatif yaitu: 104

1) Vokatif yang menggunakan nama diri dan kata benda yang digunakan untuk memanggil atau yang disebutnya dengan pseudo proper name atau nama diri semu seperti Blondie (untuk yang berambut pirang) atau Joe (untuk tentara), dll. Ada 9 kategori vokatif yang menggunakan nama diri menurut Zwicky yaitu : (a) Gelar + nama belakang, misalnya Prof Llewellyn; (b) Prefiks + Nama belakang misalnya Mr./Ms./Mrs/ Miss Pandit; (c) Gelar kekeluargaan (Kintitle) + Nama depan, seperti Uncle Robert, Uncle Bob; (d) Nama depan, seperti Margaret, Peggy ; (e) Gelar kekeluargaan + Nama belakang, misalnya Grandmother Rice, Grandma Myshkin (f) Gelar + Nama depan seperti Lady Jane, Reverend Bob; (g) Prefiks + nama depan, misalnya Mr. Albert, Miss Susan; (h) Nama depan + nama belakang, misalnya Herbert Hanson, Herbie Hanson; (i) Nama belakang, misalnya Abercrombie. 2) Kintitle atau gelar yang menjelaskan hubungan kekeluargaan, seperti grandma, brother, dll 3) Vokatif dapat saja berupa kalimat lengkap dengan menggunakan pronominal you seperti “You with the sweater on, move about a foot to the left!” 4) Vokatif dapat berupa ciri yang bersifat rasial atau kelompok bangsa tertentu seperti Jap (Jepang), Niger (Nigeria), dll. 5) Vokatif dapat berupa kata sifat yang menunjukkan ciri seseorang seperti slim, skinny, dll. 6) Vokatif yang menjelaskan pekerjaan seperti waiter, driver, cabie, dll. 7) Vokatif juga dapat dibedakan dalam penggunaan kata-kata sosial tertentu yang menunjukkan interaksi yang terjadi dalam percakapan misalnya, - nilai positif atau negatif - sopan atau tidak sopan - tingkat keformalan, dari yang cukup formal hingga yang bersifat casual - menyangkut penilaian diri terhadap lawan tutur : superior atau inferior ataupun setara - tingkat keintiman dari yang sangat dekat hingga yang sangat berjarak 8) Berdasarkan ciri atau identitas lawan tutur : - Jenis kelamin, seperti son, daughter, dll. - Usia, seperti grandma,young man, dll - Pekerjaan seperti, doc, cabbie, dll - Karakter fisik seperti skinny, carot-top, dll - Karakter pribadi, seperti creep, dope, dll - Hubungan keluarga father, uncle, dll - Status pernikahan Miss Fonda, Mrs Hayden. 9) Berdasarkan kelompok dari lawan tutur (klas sosial, sub kultur dan dialek), misalnya Mary, Grace, Ella yang digunakan dalam komunitas gay. Menurut Zwicky vokatif dalam bahasa Inggris hampir tidak pernah netral, vokatif mengekspresikan atau menunjukkan kesopanan, formalitas, status, keintiman atau peran hubungan dan juga menjelaskan siapa pembicara.

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2.2 Friederike Braun Dalam bukunya yang berjudul Terms of Address Braun (1988) tidak menyebut secara eksplisit tentang vokatif. Ia lebih banyak membahas mengenai address atau kata sapaan dan berbagai hal mengenai sapaan tersebut. Dalam bukunya Braun membagi bentuk sapaan dalam tiga kategori gramatikal yaitu pronomina, verba dan nomina. Kata sapaan berupa pronomina terbagi menjadi sapaan yang sopan bentuk V (V form) dan yang familiar atau akrab yaitu bentuk T (T form). Sementara untuk verba adalah semua bentuk sapaan yang sudah ada dalam verba sebuah kalimat. Kasus ini hanya dapat terjadi pada bahasa tertentu seperti bahasa Prancis. Ketika seseorang mengucapkan “Vas y” ‘pergilah’ maka akan diketahui bahwa penutur menggunakan sapaan tu kepada lawan tuturnya dengan adanya konjugasi verba aller untuk orang kedua tunggal tu yaitu vas. Sedangkan untuk nomina, Braun mengklasifikasikannya dalam beberapa kategori, dari pembagian inilah penulis mengambil kategori nominal ini sebagai vokatif merujuk kepada berbagai teori yang sudah penulis bahas di atas ataupun yang akan penulis bahas berikutnya. Pembagian kategori yang penulis masukan dalam kategori vokatif adalah : 1) Nama yang berupa sapaan dalam bentuk nomina yang ada dalam semua jenis bahasa. Dapat berupa nama diri, bergantung budaya masing-masing; 2) Kinship term atau sapaan berupa hubungan kekerabatan yang digunakan oleh dan untuk mereka yang memiliki hubungan darah. Ketika sapaan ini digunakan untuk menyapa seseorang yang tidak mempunyai hubungan darah dengan penutur ini disebut dengan hubungan kekerabatan fiktif. 3) Dalam banyak bahasa ada bentuk-bentuk sapaan yang sama dengan dalam bahasa Inggris seperti Mr/Mrs, atau bahasa Jerman Herr/Frau, Polandia pan/pani, etc. Semua ini merupakan bentuk umum yang tidak harus dilihat sebagai gelar khusus. 4) Gelar merupakan sesuatu yang diberikan atau dicapai dengan prestasi (dokter, mayor) atau yang diwariskan (seperti duke, count). 5) Nomina abstrak yaitu bentuk sapaan yang merujuk pada kualitas abstrak dari lawan tutur seperti (Your Excelency, Your Grace, etc.) 6) Sapaan dengan menggunakan jenis pekerjaan misalnya pelayan, supir, dsb. Terkadang dikombinasikan dengan Mr/Mrs bergantung aturan sapaan penghormatan yang berlaku. 7) Kata-kata khusus untuk hubungan tertentu digunakan sebagai bentuk sapaan dalam berbagai bahasa. Seperti bahasa Turki arkadas ‘teman’, Jerman college ‘kolega’, Arab dჳa:ri ‘tetangga’. 8) Ungkapan kasih sayang digunakan untuk menyapa anak kecil atau orang kepada siapa seseorang merasa dekat, hampir sering yang digunakan merupakan nomina yang dapat digunakan sebagai bentuk sapaan.. 9) Beberapa bentuk sapaan menentukan lawan bicara sebagai ayah, saudara laki-laki, istri, atau saudara perempuan dari seseorang yang lain lewat ungkapan hubugan lawan bicara kepada orang lain. Misalnya dalam bahasa Arab abu Ali ‘ayahnya Ali’, bint Ahmed ‘anak perempuan 106

Ahmed’, dsb. Atau menggunakan bentuk seperti ‘Ayah Ali’ untuk menghindari penggunaan nama diri lawan bicara. Perbedaan antara Zwicky dan Braun adalah dalam hal gelar. Bagi Braun gelar adalah sesuatu yang diberikan atas pencapaian ataupun warisan. Namun Zwicky bahkan menganggap panggilan yang berhubungan dengan hubungan kekerabatan sebai gelar (kintitle). Selain itu Braun menambahkan beberapa kategori yang tidak disebutkan oleh Zwicky karena kasus yang dibahas oleh Zwicky hanya kasus bahasa Inggris sementara kasus yang diteliti oleh Braun mencakup bahasa lain selain bahasa Inggris sehingga banyak fenomena lain yang muncul. 2.3 Menurut Douglas Biber dkk Vokatif, menurut Biber dkk, merupakan bagian dari bentuk sapaan. Vokatif penting dalam menentukan dan membangun hunbungan antara partisipan dalam percakapan. Ada tiga fungsi vokatif menurut Biber dkk (1999) yaitu : (a) menarik perhatian orang; (b) mengidentifikasikan seseorang sebagai lawan tutur; (c) membangun dan memertahankan hubungan sosial. Posisi vokatif dalam ujaran menentukan fungsi apa yang dijalankan oleh vokatif tersebut. Jika vokatif berada pada awal ujaran maka fungsi (a) dan (b) yang sedang dijalankannya. Sementara jika vokatif terletak pada akhir ujaran maka fungsi yang dijalankannya adalah fungsi (b) dan (c). Biber dkk membuat kategori vokatif yang merepresentasikan hubungan para partisipan dalam percakapan dari yang sangat familiar atau intim sampai pada yang paling berjarak dan respektif, sebagai berikut : 1) Endearment atau ungkapan kasih sayang seperti baby, (my) darling, (my) dear, dll 2) Family terms atau penggunaan istilah hubungan kekeluargaan. Seperti mummy, mum, mom, ma, dad,dll 3) Familiarizers atau panggilan untuk membangun hubungan yang akrab, seperti guy, bud, man, dll. 4) Familiarized first name atau proses mengakrabkan nama depan seperti Marj, Paulie, Jackie, dll. 5) First name in full atau dengan menggunakan nama depan secara lengkap, seperti Marjorie, Paul, Jason, dll 6) Title and surname atau gelar dan nama belakang, misalnya Mrs. John dan Mr Graham. 7) Honorifics atau panggilan hormat seperti, sir dan madam 8) Others, lainnya termasuk julukan atau nickname seprti, boy, red dog, lazy, dll Dibandingkan dengan pemaparan yang dilakukan Zwicky dan Braun, vokatif yang dirumuskan Biber dkk sedikit lebih sederhana namun hampir mencakup semua yang diungkapkan kedua ahli sebelumnya. Tiga karya mereka membuat pengategorian yang kurang lebih saling beririsan, meskipun dalam penyebutan ada perbedaan. Perbedaan yang paling mencolok dari ketiganya adalah penyebutan gelar. Biber menyebut Mr/Mrs sebagai gelar, sedangkan Braun tidak menganggapnya sebagai gelar melainkan sebagai sebutan yang umum, sementara Zwicky menyebutnya sebagai prefiks. Dalam hal ini penulis lebih setuju dengan Braun yang mengatakan 107

bahwa gelar adalah sesuatu yang diperoleh lewat prestasi ataupun diwariskan, sementara untuk Mr/Mrs atau yang sejenis dengan itu penulis sepakat dengan Zwicky yang menyebutnya sebagai prefiks. 3. Vokatif dalam Facebook Dalam mengidentifikasi vokatif yang ada dalam percakapan Facebook berbahasa Prancis, penulis menggunakan istilah yang dikemukakan oleh ketiga literatur di atas. Penetapan istilah yang digunakan berikut didasarkan pada kesesuaian atau ketepatan penjelasannya dengan data yang ditemukan dalam penelitian. Nama pemilik akun FB dalam data akan disingkat menjadi inisial untuk menjaga kerahasiaan identitas pemilik akun, kecuali dalam kasus dimana penyebutan nama tersebut sulit dihindari untuk kepentingan analisis. 3.1 Terms of endearment Terms of endearment atau sapaan yang memperlihatkan rasa kasih sayang biasanya digunakan untuk orang yang sudah sangat akrab. Biasanya menandai ikatan kedekatan dan perasaan antara anggota keluarga yang dekat, pasangan seksual ataupun orang yang disukai (Biber, 1999). Dalam korpus ditemukan ada 14 vokatif yang dikategorikan lagi menjadi 1) Menggunakan nama hewan. Panggilan dengan menggunakan kata yang merujuk pada nama hewan ini dilakukan untuk menyatakan rasa sayang penutur kepada lawan tutur. Misalnya poule ‘ayam betina’ atau biche ‘rusa betina’ yang juga ditambahkan sufiks -ette yang memberi makna diminutif menjadi poulette ‘ayam betina kecil’ atau bichette ‘rusa betina kecil’. Bahkan untuk biche silaba awal direduplikasi menjadi bibiche. Vokatif lain yang digunakan adalah loup ‘serigala’dan loulou. Menurut kamus daring NRTL secara etimologis loulou berasal dari reduplikasi kata loup yang kemudian menjadi sebutan untuk sejenis anjing kecil. Vokatif ini digunakan juga bersama dengan posesif untuk orang pertama tunggal, yaitu ma poule, ma poulette, ma biche, ma bichette, ma bibiche, mon loup, mon loulou, dan ma puce. Ma poule, ma poulette (1) digunakan hanya untuk lawan tutur perempuan dan lebih sering dilakukan oleh penutur perempuan. Sedangkan mon loup dan mon loulou (2), ma biche (3), dan ma puce (4) ditujukan baik kepada laki-laki maupun perempuan dan digunakan oleh baik penutur laki-laki maupun perempuan. (1) VQ (pr) : a toi ossi poulette.... ‘Kau juga, sayang’ PS (pr) : merci ma poule.... ‘Terimakasih, sayangku’ (2) PAM (lk) : Une porte de plus qui se ferme...[…] ‘Satu pintu lagi tertutup ‘ EC (pr) : courage mon loulou[...] ‘Semangat, sayangku’ (3) OC (lk) : Bh moi j'ai pas retrouvé .. ‘Saya tidak menemukannya’ CB (pr) : Ça viendra ma biche, […] ‘Segera datang, sayangku’ (4) AT (lk) : je vais le defenser lol ‘Saya akan membelanya lol et vous me manquer saya merindukan kalian’ SFA (pr) : tu viens quand tu veux ma puce ‘datanglah kapan kau mau sayangku’ 108

2) Menggunakan kata benda abstrak seperti amour ‘cinta’, amoureux ‘pencinta’, dan cheri/e ’sayang’. Lebih sering ditambahkan dengan posesif orang pertama tunggal. Vokatif ini digunakan baik oleh penutur perempuan maupun laki-laki kepada lawan tutur laki-laki dan perempuan.Biasanya digunakan bersama posesif untuk orang pertama. Seperti berikut : (5) TD (lk) : Mon amour je t' ! ‘Sayangku, aku mencintaimu’ LTTD (pr) : Je t'aime aussi mon amour ‘Aku mencintaimu juga, sayangku’ (6) CR : trop belle ma Cherie ‘Cantik sekali, sayangku’ (7) AE : Au top mon amoureux ‘Keren, sayangku’ 3) Kata benda lain yang digunakan adalah coeur ‘jantung’ dan bébé ‘bayi’ beserta variannya berupa abreviasi yaitu bb ataupun penambahan posesif untuk orang pertama tunggal. Digunakan oleh penutur baik laki-laki maupun perempuan kepada lawan tutur baik laki-laki maupun perempuan (8) DP : Moi aussi je t'aime pour toujour ‘Saya juga mencintaimu selamanya, mon coeur sayangku (9) LP : Pv bébé ‘Jalur pribadi, sayang’ CD : Ok bébé ‘ok, sayang’ 4) Menggunakan kata yang merujuk hubungan keluarga seperti nenette dan pepette. Menurut kamus daring Reverso, nenette dalam bahasa yang familiar berarti fille ’anak perempuan’ atau femme ‘perempuan dewasa’. Menurut kamus daring CNRTL(Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales) kata nenette merujuk pada dua kemungkinan. Yang pertama berasal dari kata comprenette, yang merujuk pada ‘kepala’, sementara kemungkinan kedua adalah berasal dari kata nene yang merupakan bahasa kanak-kanak untuk memanggil ibu ataupun pengasuh mereka. Jika dilihat kedua kemungkinan tersebut, maka menurut penulis kemungkinan kedualah yang paling mendekati. Kata tersebut berasal dari kata nene yang kemudian diberi sufiks –ette yang memberi makna diminutif. Sementara untuk kata pepette, menurut kamus daring Reverso berasal dari pépée yang berasal dari reduplikasi hasil penggalan silaba akhir (apokop) kata poupée ‘boneka’. Kata tersebut kemudian mendapatkan sufiks –ette menjadi pepette yang memberikan makna diminutif. Vokatif nenette dan pepette ini ditujukan kepada anak perempuan atau perempuan yang lebih muda dari penutur. Keduanya juga digunakan dengan posesif untuk orang pertama tunggal, seperti dalam kalimat berikut : (10) ST (pr) : Trop belle ma nenette ‘cantik sekali, sayang ‘ JA (pr) : Merci moi aussi ‘terima kasih, saya juga’ (11) CT (pr) : trop belle aussi ma pepette ‘cantik sekali, sayang’ LTTD(pr) : Merci tata ‘terima kasih, tante’ Dalam pembentukan vokatif untuk menunjukkan rasa sayang, yang sering terjadi adalah hypocorism atau pembentukan panggilan dengan mengikuti cara anak-anak mengucapkan. Seperti yang terjadi pada beberapa contoh di atas misalnya nenette, pepette, bibiche, dst. 109

3.2 Istilah kekerabatan Vokatif ini digunakan oleh penutur yang memiliki hubungan keluarga atau kekerabatan dengan lawan tutur. Dalam data ditemukan 21 jenis vokatif untuk kategori ini. Yaitu mama ‘ibu’, papa ‘ayah’, fille ‘anak perempuan, fils ‘anak laki-laki’, frère ‘saudara laki-laki’, sœur ‘saudara perempuan’, gars ‘anak laki-laki’, mamie ‘nenek’, tonton ‘paman’, tata ‘bibik’, cousin ‘sepupu laki-laki’, cousine ‘sepupu perempuan’, mari ‘suami’, neveu ‘keponakan laki-laki’, dan nice ‘keponakan perempuan’. Dengan varian lain seperti untuk frère terdapat varian seperti petit frère, frero, dan frr atau soso sebagai varian dari sœur. Varian lain yaitu dengan menggunakan posesif untuk orang pertama tunggal seperti mon frère, mon petit frère, mon frero, mon frr, mon neveu, mon gars, dan mon mari ‘suamiku’. Yang menarik dari data ini adalah bahwa vokatif untuk mamie ‘nenek’ ditemukan sementara untuk papie ‘kakek’ tidak ditemukan, hal ini mungkin disebabkan kurangnya lelaki usia lanjut yang menggunakan facebook atau mereka tidak berinteraksi dengan cucu mereka di media sosial seperti FB. 1) Familiarizer atau istilah pergaulan yaitu vokatif yang digunakan untuk mengakrabkan hubungan antara penutur dan lawan tutur. Kata yang digunakan ada yang merupakan katakata yang digunakan dalam hubungan keluarga atau kekerabatan. Seperti frère ‘saudara lakilaki’, sœur ‘saudara perempuan’ atau dengan varian masing-masing seperti fréro, frr, atau soso. Kata lain yang digunakan adalah kata yang menunjukkan hubungan antara penutur dan lawanan tutur seperti ami/e, amie, copain,, copine dan variannya coco, camarade yang semuanya bermakna ‘teman’. Kata lain yang bermakna kurang lebih sama adalah pote ‘sobat’ yang merupakan penggalan dari kata poteau ‘tiang’atau bisa juga merujuk pada betis. Kata ini merupakan argot yang digunakan sebagai panggilan pada pergaulan anak muda. Coco, camarade dan pote digunakan oleh penutur baik laki-laki maupun perempuan kepada lawan tutur baik laki-laki maupun perempuan. Selain itu digunakan berdasarkan jenis kelamin dari setiap lawan tutur. Kesemua vokatif ini juga mendapatkan posesif seperti dalam kalimat di bawah ini : (12) AP : C bien min copain ‘Bagus, teman’ ` (13) CBR : Je suis là en paix mon amie ‘Saya dalam kedamaian, teman’ (14) EC : Bonne anniversaire mon pote ‘selamat ulang tahun, sobat’ (15) RB : Oui Soso [,,,] après on nous ‘oke, mbak […] setelah itu kita parle de croyance pfff bisous ngobrol tentang keyakinan mmmuah (16) MP : Felicitations coco ‘selamat, teman’ (17) AL : Wesh ya quoi frere ? ‘Wasalam ada apa, teman?’ 2) First name in full atau nama depan lengkap yang digunakan sebagai vokatif. Dalam korpus ditemukan data seperti Benoit, Arnaud, Mathilde, Melinda, Julie, Sylvain, dll. Ada juga vokatif yang menggunakan posesif seperti mon Jordan. 3) Familiarized first name atau perubahan nama depan. Untuk vokatif ini nama lawan tutur diubah oleh penutur dengan tujuan untuk mengakrabkan diri dengan lawan tutur. Dalam korpus data, nama depan mengalami pemenggalan silaba akhir atau apokop seperti pada Valerie yang menjadi Val, Florentin menjadi Flo, Kevin menjadi Kev, Nicolas menjadi Nico 110

dll. Selain itu ada juga yang mengalami proses reduplikasi setelah apokop, seperti Coralie atau Corentin menjadi Coco; Jerôme atau Geoffrey menjadi Jeje; Julien atau Julie menjadi Juju, Yohan menjadi Yoyo; Laurence menjadi Lolo, dst. Atau setelah mengalami apokop diberi tambahan –ie, seperti Charles menjadi Charlie atau –ette yang memberi makna diminutif untuk mengungkapkan rasa sayang seperti Claire menjadi Clairette; Ada pula yang mengalami proses pemenggalan pada silaba awal atau aferesis kemudian direduplikasi misalnya Lio menjadi Yoyo dan Arnaud menjadi Nono. 4) Penggunaan Monsieur/Madame/Mademoiselle. Dalam bahasa Prancis panggilan penghormatan yang digunakan adalah Monsieur (M.) untuk laki-laki, Madame (Mme) untuk perempuan. Penggunaan Monsieur maupun Madame ini biasanya juga diikuti oleh nama belakang. Dalam beberapa kasus panggilan ini digunakan untuk merujuk pada status pernikahan lawan tutur. Terutama untuk perempuan, dikenal dengan panggilan Madame untuk yang menikah dan Mademoiselle (Mlle) untuk yang belum menikah. Misalnya Mme + nama belakang merujuk pada perempuan yang menikah dengan lelaki pemilik nama belakang tersebut. Seperti misalnya Madame Dubois, merujuk pada perempuan yang menikah dengan Monsieur Dubois. Sedangkan Mlle + nama belakang merujuk pada perempuan yang belum menikah yang merupakan anak dari lelaki pemilik nama belakang tersebut. Misalnya, Mademoiselle Dubois berarti anak perempuan dari M. Dubois. Uniknya dalam korpus yang penulis teliti tidak ditemukan penggunaan Monsieur, madame maupun mademoiselle yang diikuti oleh nama belakang melainkan Monsieur + nama depan (18) atau Madame + julukan (19), atau tidak diikuti oleh nama (20), (21), seperti pada contoh berikut : (18) AG : Waa!! Effectivement très beau ‘Komentar yang bagus, […] commentaire, […] MONSIEUR Vincent! Tuan Vincent’ (19) MC : Ça manque de ponctuations, vraiment... ‘Kurang tanda baca, serius. Mais sinon j'adore. Kalau tidak, saya pasti suka CBR : Madame pertinence ‘Nyonya EYD’ (20) AP : Ok madame calma por favor ‘Oke, Nyonya… sabarlah’ (21) LS : Oo non oO comment oser vous ‘tidak .. beraninya Anda dire cela mademoiselle ! mengatakan hal itu Nona! LC : Mais monsieur je dis la simple ‘Tapi tuan, saya hanya veriter :p […] mengatakan kenyataan‘ Penggunaan vokatif kategori ini hanya digunakan untuk bercanda, cenderung untuk saling mengolok-olok satu sama lain di kalangan penutur muda FB. 5) Nickname atau dengan menggunakan julukan. Pemberian julukan yang penulis temukan dalam korpus yaitu : 1. Berdasarkan kategori gramatikal pembentuknya terdiri dari kata benda dan kata sifat. Biasanya diawali dengan posesif untuk orang pertama tunggal. Untuk kata benda misalnya (mon) prince, (mon) ange, (mon) con, (mon) salop, dan (mon) salaud. Sedangkan untuk kata sifat (ma) belle, (mon) gros dan (mon) grand. 111

2. Berdasarkan cirri dan identitas lawan tutur ditemukan karakter fisik yaitu (ma) belle, (mon) gros.(mon) grand, (mon) petit, (ma) petite, dll. 3. Menurut karakter pribadi atau yang bersfat non-fisik lawan tutur seperti, genius, (mon) salop, (mon) salaud, (mon) con, (mon) gland, dll 4. Kategori penggunaan kata yang bersifat sosial, seperti belle ‘cantik’, genius ‘jenius’, prince ‘pangeran’, angel ‘malaikat’ yang bernilai sosial positif dan salop, gland, salaud, con, dll yang bersifat negatif karena rujukannya kepada ‘pelacur’. Walau demikian dalam penggunaannya penutur tidak bermaksud untuk merendahkan lawan tutur, melainkan vokatif tersebut digunakan untuk memperlihatkan keakraban antara penutur dan lawan tutur, terutama ketika ditambahkan dengan posesif orang pertama tunggal. 5. Berdasarkan kelompok sosial seperti pada vokatif (Ma) petite parisienne ‘orang Parisku yang kecil’ 6) Full account name atau penggunaan akun FB secara lengkap. Dalam FB pemilik sebuah akun bisa saja tidak menggunakan nama sebenarnya. Mereka biasanya membuat nama akun yang berbeda dengan nama mereka sebenarnya meski banyak juga yang tetap menggunakan nama mereka yang sebenarnya. Dalam percakapan FB, jarang terjadi komunikasi diadik. Biasanya terjadi percakapan yang saling silang oleh lebih dari dua orang, karena begitu banyaknya partisipan dalam percakapan. Untuk menandai lawan tutur biasanya digunakan fitur tag (menandai) yang disediakan oleh FB. Penggunaan tag dalam FB dimaksudkan untuk memberi label kepada akun tertentu. Awalnya proses tagging pada FB hanya disediakan untuk gambar yang diunggah, namun belakangan ini FB menambahkan fungsi fitur tersebut untuk menandai akun lain dalam percakapan. Fungsi menandai dari fitur tag ini kini menjadi fungsi vokatif, yaitu menentukan kepada siapa komentar atau ujaran ditujukan oleh penutur. Dalam percakapan FB letak vokatif dapat saja di awal ujaran (22) atau di akhir ujaran (23). (22) AP : Celia Paolini pas trop déçut? ‘Celia Paolini, tidak terlalu kecewa?’ (23) LM : Par contre je suis dégoûtée qu'il le ‘Sebaliknya saya jijik dia fasse pas Helene Marcaggi melakukan hal itu, Helene Marcaggi’ Berbeda dengan kategori sebelumnya, vokatif yang terakhir ini merupakan vokatif yang khas FB, vokatif ini baik letaknya pada awal maupun pada akhir ujaran memiliki fungsi yang sama seperti (a) menarik perhatian orang; (b) mengidentifikasikan seseorang sebagai lawan tutur; (c) membangun dan memertahankan hubungan sosial (Biber dkk, 1999); bahkan vokatif ini juga sering berfungsi (d) mengajak pengguna FB yang belum berkomentar untuk berpartisipasi dalam percakapan tersebut. Simpulan Vokatif dalam percakapan FB tidak berbeda dengan vokatif dalam percakapan lisan. Dalam korpus data ditemukan sekitar 9 kateogri vokatif yaitu ungkapan sayang, istilah kekerabatan, istilah pergaulan, penggunaan nama depan secara lengkap, perubahan nama depan, panggilan penghormatan, nama julukan, dan nama akun lengkap. Kategori yang terakhir merupakan kategori 112

khas yang hanya ada dalam percakapan FB. Selain sebagai kategori yang khas, vokatif ini juga memiliki fungsi yang berbeda dengan vokatif lain yaitu mengajak pengguna akun lain yang belum berkomentar dalam percakapan untuk ikut berpartisipasi, baik dengan memberi komentar maupun menunjukkan reaksi seperti suka, tertawa, sedih, dll. Kategori yang tidak ditemukan dalam korpus data adalah vokatif yang menunjukan penghormatan (honorific), merujuk pekerjaan dan penggunaan gelar. Hal ini mungkin disebabkan adanya kesetaraan hubungan antara para pengguna FB dalam korpus data yang diteliti. Sementara alasan untuk tidak menggunakan istilah yang berhubungan dengan pekerjaan mungkin disebabkan konteks yang ada dalam percakapan tersebut bukanlah konteks suasana yang mengharuskan pengguna FB dalam korpus data menggunakan vokatif tersebut. Untuk lebih memastikan hal tersebut diperlukan penelitian lain dengan korpus yang berbeda. Daftar Pustaka Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., & Finnegan, E. (1999). Longman Grammar of spoken and written English. Harlow: Pearson Education. Braun, F. (1988). Terms of address: problems of patterns ussage in various languages and cultures. Berlin, New York, Amsterdam: Mouton de Gruyter. Junus, F. G., & Laksman-Huntley, M. (2016). Typical French Linguistic Process in Facebook. The Asia-Pacific Research in Social Sciences and Humanities. Depok. Parpalea, M. (2011). The Functional Approach In German Linguistics. Transilvania , Vol. 4 (53) No.2., 115-122. Schaden, G. (2010). Vocatives: A Note on Addressee-Management. 33rd Annual Penn Linguistic Colloquium (hal. 176-185). Pensnsylvania: Penn Libraries. Wardaugh, R. (2010). An introduction to sociolinguistic. UK: Wiley-Blackwell. Watt, H. J. (2010). How does the use of Modern Communication Technology Influence Language". Contemporary Issues in Science Communication and Disorders, hal. 144-148. Zago, R. (2015). "That's none of your business, Shy" The pragmatics of vocatives in film dialogue. Dalam M. Dynel, & J. Chovanec, Participatiom in Public and Social Media Interactions (hal. 183 - 207). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Zwicky, A. (1974). Hey, What'syourname! Dalam M. La Galy, R. A. Fox, & A. Bruck, Papers from the Tenth Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society (hal. 787-801). Chicago: Chicago Linguistics Society.

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Ideology in Tourism Discourse: A CDA Study I Nengah Laba Sekolah Tinggi Pariwisata Bali Internasional [email protected]

I Wayan Pastika Fakultas Ilmu Budaya Universitas Udayana [email protected]

Abstract This study examines tourism discourse in the national print media to answer a research question of what ideology is found in tourism discourse. This study uses is a method of qualitative research methodology. The approach in this study is a phenomenological approach using the phenomenon of the use of language in national print media. The grand theories used in this research is the theory of critical discourse analysis model proposed van Leeuwen (2005 ; 2008), and the conception of ideology enumerated by Thompson (2004) with a supporting theory of Critical Discourse Analysis proposed by Fairclough (1989; 1995). The research result of this found that there is no symmetrical relationship among investors and local people who are dominated by the capitalist character. This fact shows the ideology that developed in tourism discourse is the ideology of capitalism. The conception and empirical findings show that the distribution of tourism discourse is very dynamic. Key words: critical discourse, ideology, and tourism

1. Introduction The tourism development affects the language dynamically. This can be seen from the intersection between languages in tourism which has become a central phenomenon in post-modern society (cf., Fox, 2008: 13-15). It proves that the growth of tourism does not only affect the economic, socio-cultural and natural environment, but also the use of language. As an integrated system of representation, language is also a core medium for the tourism community and media institutions 114

for producing the text and discourses. In relation to this, mass media are likely a struggle area of any interest which can be implemented in the use of various discourse strategies. According to van Leeuwen and Machin (2007: 60-61), the discourse can also transform social praxis through various elements and contexts of interest. It means, the discourse in media will be able to affect the construction and social reality in the middle of society. Texts in printed media are the result of a discourse process that contains the values of representation, domination and ideology. The media will include perspectives from their point of views in explaining social reality. To find out how the printed media involves its views, the use of language as an important element is to be observed. With regard to this, lingual constructions in the form of words, phrases, sentences or specific expressions on tourism discourse have to be analysed. It is assumed that the choice has been made to have a certain perspective, a certain agenda and ideology, for example, in the sentence: "alih fungsi lahan produktif untuk pariwisata sudah pada tingkat mengkhawatirkan". This sentence shows that there is a land conversion by displaying the objects of tourism without indicating who is responsible for the land conversion. Ideology behind the text will affect the forms of various discourses. Discourse with capitalism or socialism ideology will produce a discourse with their characters. From this explanation, we can understand that critical discourse analysis will put the language in opening system based on their contexts. The analysis will always reveal on how the text is produced and reproduced. The relationship among media, discourse and ideology can be described as follows.

Media Institution

Media Texts

Audience (society)

Dominant Entity

Dominating Expressions

Domination Target

LINGUAL CONSTRUCTION

Representation

Social Reality

115

Social Contruction

Figure 1. Relationship between media, discourse and ideology (Source: Burton, 2012:75 modified by researcher)

The figure above describes that the representation of the interests of a person or group requires media institutions and all instrument operations in order to open up the space in the discourse. Ideology will show the effects related to the attitudes and behavior of the audience as the cause of social construction that will affect social reality and need a space to represent itself. In this context, critical discourse analysis can be used as a framework to explore the representations and forms of domination in social life and the meaning can be seen through the lingual construction which has appeared in various discourse strategies used (van Leeuwen, 2005: 95). In connection with these issues, further study is conducted to explore discourse strategy and ideology in tourism discourse on the national printed media.

2. Literature Review, Concept, and Theoretical Framework 2.1 Literature review The main focus in conducting literature review is on how the researcher acquired the information in the form of theories used in this research, data, methodology and findings, with their strengths and weaknesses based on the concepts and approaches to get the relevance of this research. The literature review which is described in this study consists of three parts, namely: (1) textbooks that contribute to the framework in this study; (2) similar previous research, with relevant methodology and theoretical frameworks that support this study; and (3) The object of the research, that is tourism discourse.

A work of Ling Ip (2008) entitled Analyzing Tourism Discourse: A Case

Study of Hongkong Travel Brochure. This study reviewed about parts of tourism discourse in

destination brochures in Hongkong. He reviewed the language used from micro to macro linguistics and the visual elements in those brochures and also the factors effecting interpretation of tourism discourse; A study by Thurlow and Jworski (2011) entitled Tourism Discourse: Language and Banal Globalization. This study explained about 1) tourism discourse in globalization, 2) the role of language and communication in tourism, 3) an understanding of the 116

language in globalization or a post industrial era (especially in tourism), 4) the circulation of linguistics material such as genre and language style and 5) how the local language are commodificated in tourism communication as stated by Bourdieu (1991) and Irvine (1989). Rahimi and Riasati (2011) explained the combination of Critical Discourse Analysis in synchronizing critical discourse analysis as the effects of certain ideology. The title of their study is “Critical Discourse Analysis: Scrutinizing Ideologically-Driven Discourses” which was published in the International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences. This study combined critical discourse analysis approach by van Leeuwen, van Dijk, Hodge and Kress and Fairclough models and concluded that critical discourse analysis is a multidiscipline approach to analyze texts or conversations to get an intrinsic agenda behind domination in social life. Kheirabadi and Moghaddam (2012) did a research of linguistics on international mass media using discourse analysis approach entitled “The Linguistic Representation of Iranian and Western Actors of Iran’s Nuclear Program in International Media: A CDA Study. This research used discourse analysis approach of Fairclough (2001) and van Leeuwen (2008) models about social actors to review news and international articles that tell about the Iranian nuclear program. The source of data in this research taken from 50 news and articles of the international media including Agance France Press, Bloomberd, The Wall Street Journal, The Associated Press, The New York Times, The Washington Post, Reuters, and BBC News published in November – December 2010. In this study, Khierabadi and Moghhadam review the neutralization of printed media in giving information about the Iranian nuclear program from a linguistics point of view with discourse analysis approach of van Leeuwen model.

2.2 Theoretical Framework To analyze the phenomena in this study explicitly, the researcher used some relevant theories. Those theories are 1) critical discourse analysis theory; 2) critical discourse analysis theory of van Leeuwen model with exclusion and inclusion strategy approach; 2) lingual representation theory by Burton (2012) who stated that lingual representation on mass media works with two ways through determination and functionalism; 3) lingual domination theory by Burton (2008) who said mass media through lingual displayed has power to do construction and reconstruction of social reality; 4) ideology theory by Thompson (2003) who stated that ideology refers to description and process of asymmetrical power relation. According to Mayr (2008), a discourse is started from 117

social analysis by Foucault (1977), lead to critical linguistics by Fowler, et al (1979), and critical discourse analysis pioneered by Van Dijk (1990). Mayr explained the definition of discourse can be seen from two different perspectives, which are structuralism and functionalism. The structuralism views the discourse as the use of language especially of clauses and sentences that focus on how the structure of a text is framed as a whole and reflected in cohesion and coherence (cf. Halliday and Hasan, 1987:21-23; Halliday, 1994:129). Structuralism does not focus on social aspects which provide information about how people use and interpret the language. Meanwhile, the functionalist views discourse as a form of "language in use" which cannot be separated from the purpose and function of language as a means of communication in social praxis. Discourse, for the functionalist, is seen as a way of how language is used in social practices. In other words, language is able to represent the social realities while contributing to the construction of reality. Critical discourse analysis uses textual language to be analyzed. It means that the language is used for the purpose and specific practices, including the practice of social construction. Undersatnding the works of van Dijk, Fairclough, Sara Mills, Wodak, and van Leuween (cf. Eriyanto, 2001: 8-13), there are a number of critical discourse analysis characteristics can be formulated. For example, the discourse is seen as an act in form of interaction. That is, the discourse is placed in an open space, instead not only for the internal and the underlying assumption. This statement provides two implications, namely a) the discourse is seen as something that has a specific purpose. For example, the aims are to influence, persuade, or contradict someone and/or something. Someone who speaks or writes always has a goal and something that is revealed surely also has its own objectives; b) discourse is understood as something that is expressed consciously controlled, not something that is out of control or expressed outside of awareness. Van Leeuwen introduced a model in discourse analysis. Regarding the discourse, van Leeuwen (2005:94) said that: "The term" discourse "is often used to denote an extended stretch of connected speech or writing, a" text "."Discourse analysis" then means "the analysis of an extended text, or type of text". " Critical discourse analysis model of van Leeuwen shows how the parties and actors are displayed in a discourse. In his opinion, there are two points of focus. First, the process of exclusion in a text whether there is a group or actor issued in the discourse. The second is a process of inclusion. This process is the opposite of the process of exclusion. This process relates to the question of how a person or group of actors in an event is included or represented in a discourse. 118

By using the word, phrase, sentence information or the composition of certain linguistic forms, each party and group are represented using texts in a discourse.

3. Research Method The method used in this study was descriptive qualitative research using systematic writing of theory and then data observation continued with triangulation (Bungin, 2008: 23-24). Descriptive is used to present information accurately. This study contains excerpts such data to illustrate the presentation of the report. Because it is related to lexical use and linguistic aspects in tourism discourse, the description is very important. To reveal the context of language used in tourism discourse, this study has two main approaches. First, according to qualitative research paradigm, the researcher is a planner, data collector, analysts, interpreter and reporter of research findings (Moleong, 2011: 168). Second, this research focuses on research object of language used in national printed media. Corpus linguistic datain this study is in form of lexical, phrase, and clauses existing in Bali Post, Kompas and Nusa Bali (cf. Baker, 2010: 93 -95; Bednarek, 2006: 5-6). According to the critical paradigm, the task of the researchers is to interpret, explore, discover and explain the reality captured in the production and reproduction of a text in tourism discourse.

4. Discussion 4.1 Discourse Strategy The objective analysis of the implementation of discourse strategy is to find the hidden perspective in the text. The implementation of discourse strategy proposed by van Leeuwen (2005; 2008) showed how the parties and actors (individual or group) are displayed in a discourse. The model of critical discourse analysis developed by van Leeuwen focused on two main points, namely the process of exclusion and inclusion. Passivation strategy is a strategy that is used to hide social actors from the text. The analysis process on the part of this strategy will be used as elaboration of van Leeuwen approach (2008) with the structure of the text raised by van Dijk with three text structures which covers the macro structure, superstructure and microstructure. This discussion only focused on the microstructure, namely (1) the level of semantics, the search for meaning is behind the passivation strategy; (2) the level of syntax, how the structure of clauses and sentences used in discourse strategy; (3) the level of stylistic or lexicon described the actors involved; and (4) the level of rhetoric, how the rhetoric performed using discourse strategy to hide the actor who should be responsible in an event. Passivation strategy is one of the strategies taken to hide the 119

social actors in the text. The discourse strategy in the form of passivation strategy is shown in the sentence structure in the data 1. It is, “Kawasan elite pariwisata dibayangi kemiskinan”. Data (1) can be analyzed syntactically. At the level of syntax, the formation of sentence structure, “Kawasan elite pariwisata dibayangi kemiskinan” consists of a passive verb phrase, namely "dibayangi kemiskinan" combined with noun phrase, “kawasan elite” linguistically it acts as an agent. When it is examined closely at the level of Indonesian verbs which recognize the existence of two suffixes of verbs, {-i} and {-kan} attached to adjectives and nouns (base form). Associated with the data (1), "bayang" is categorized as base form. It is a bound morpheme. Having clung by suffix {-i}, it is then formed a transitive verb. The verb, “bayang” can be changed into active or passive diathesis such as “membayangi” and “dibayangi”. Analyzing the meaning of suffix {-i} for the above data, it has the meaning of ‘mendapat’. In this context, the verb argument, kawasan elite pariwisata gets shadow of bayang kemiskinan. In terms of thematic roles, verb overshadow specifies two arguments, namely the elite area of tourism and poverty. Referring to the conception of semantic macro role and syntactic criteria, the data is classified into passive voice which indicated by a passive marker {di-} on the verb. In this particular sense, passive voice is categorized as fixed in time or noneventive. The use of a passive voice affects the negligence of the actor as oblique in reference to van Leeuwen theory (2005; 2008), the social actor is excluded from the discourse. Referring to the theoretical discourse strategy proposed by van Leeuwen, the data (1) above contains a passivation strategy elements indicated by clause, “dibayangi kemiskinan”. Through this passivation strategy, the audience was led to see the other side of the the tourism elite area management. It is “kemiskinan”. Based on the characteristics of “kawasan elite”, every individual who live in the area should get splattered prosperity. However, there are some groups of people who are neglected from luxury tourism practice in the area. According to van Leeuwen (2008), passivation strategy is used to hide the actors who are supposed to be responsible for the shadows of poverty in the elite area of tourism. In this strategy the actor can be hidden or deliberately hidden through a strategy of exclusion in the form of a passivation strategy. Selection of such passive sentence is caused by the target of an attempt to hide the actors and media includes a lexicon of 'kemiskinan' as opposed to the proposition shaped phrase “kawasan elite” so the audiences are more interested in reading the news. The media has also economic targets to increase newspaper circulation sales. Both of these targets are the steps in selecting an argument with a passive verb 120

category. Lexical items, “dibayangi’ characterized the first and foremost step in view of exclusion discourse strategy. Through the passive voice, the actor can be eliminated in the discourse which is not that possible in the active sentence structure.

4.2 Ideology in Tourism Discourse In the discourse practice, Thompson (2003) stated that ideology as a practice works in the daily life and the meaning could be disseminated to retain the power. In line with this, Fairclough (1995b) found in cultural studies and communication, a text is created in the process of interpretation. This means that the text that appears in the media can have a potential consensus of meaning that is open to several different interpretations. The basic principle used in critical discourse analysis to examine how the ideology behind the discourse is how discourse practice reflects and contributes to the social and cultural changes. Local ideology which is put implicitly in a cultural tourism concept stipulated in ‘Bali Regional Regulation1 is an ideal form of how tourism in Bali is expected to rely on local ideology and spirit. In this context, ideology is seen as a social contract between Balinese people through the cultural domain with investors who invest in the tourism industry. It shows the ideology assumed as a form of a convention between the people of Bali with investors so that the people of Bali received the false consciousness that the movement of tourism in Bali is already referring to the local culture. Consciousness is in line with Karl Marx’s view (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) in Sobur (2009: 64-65) about the veil of consciousness or thoughts that cover the face authenticity. The legitimacy of the class role has the power to implement the ideas and ideology through control of the transfer of the forces of production, distribution, and information through the means of language. Control of ideas and information is done through the text used in the tourism discourse. In the discourse practice, Thompson (2003) states that ideology as a practice operates in the production of meaning in everyday life and the meaning can be disseminated to retain power. In line with this, Fairclough (1995b) states that in cultural studies and communication, text created in the process of interpretation. The basic principle used in critical discourse analysis is to examine the ideology behind the discourse and how the discourse practice reflects and contributes to the social and cultural changes. Local ideology implied in the concept of cultural tourism as stipulated in the Bali provincial regulations is an ideal form of tourism in Bali is expected to rely on the ideology and the local spirit. The phrase in data (2) “Pariwisata yang digerakkan oleh investor yang kental 121

dengan watak kapitalismenya dan didukung kebijakan yang pragmatis, menjadikan penduduk lokal semakin termarginalkan.” describes the reflections of tourism in Bali as a reflection of national tourism in Indonesia. The construction and development of tourism in Bali are standardized to the needs of capitalism which emphasizes on pragmatic needs and siding to the investors. The ideology of capitalism in tourism discourse represented into social reality which in this case is represented by elements such lingual “watak kapitalisme and kebijakan pragmatis”, and the local community are constantly marginalized depicted in the discourse of; “....oleh investor yang kental dengan watak kapitalismenya dan didukung kebijakan yang pragmatis, menjadikan penduduk lokal semakin termarginalkan.” in which in accordance to the ideology theory proposed by Thomson (2003), this is so called unsymmetrical relationship in the society.

5. Conclusion and Suggestion From the discussion in the previous chapter, it can be concluded that the various strategies of exclusion and inclusion used in the news or popular scientific articles related to tourism discourse. The choice of various discourse strategies above were influenced by meaning given of something which was highlighted or otherwise whether there was someone or something to be marginalized and excluded from the discourse. The research result of this found that there is no symmetrical relationship among investors and local people who are dominated by the capitalist character. This fact shows the ideology that developed in tourism discourse is the ideology of capitalism. The conception and empirical findings show that the distribution of tourism discourse is dynamic and is distributed top-down. A study of linguistics combined with a tourism theme in the perspective of critical discourse analysis approach is also associated with other social sciences, including ideological conception. In connection with this, this study still need further study with different approaches and the application theory to have the research result more comprehensive.

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Daftar Pustaka Baker, P. (2010). Corpus Methods in Linguistics. Dalam Litosseliti, L (ed). Research Methods in Linguistics. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. Barker, C. and Galasinski, D. (2001). Cultural Studies and Discourse Analysis: A Dialogue on Language and Identity. London : SAGE Publications Ltd. Benarek, D. (2006). Evaluation in Media discourse: Analysis of a Newspaper Corpus. London: Continuum. Bestari, T.R., Artawan, G., Yasa, I N. (2014). “Pemberitaan Gubernur Bali, Mangku Pastika, dalam Surat Kabar Bali Post: Analisis Strategi Eksklusi-Inklusi Theo van Leeuwen. eJournal Universitas Pendidikan Ganesha, JPBSI, Vol: 2 No. 1 Tahun 2014. Bungin, H.M.B. (2008). Penelitian Kualitatif. Jakarta: Prenada Media Group. Burton, G. (2002). More Than Meets the Eye. An Introduction to Media Studies. Third Edition. London: Oxford Univeristy Press, Inc. Burton, G. (2008). Yang Tersembunyi di Balik Media. Pengantar kepada Kajian Media. (Alfathri Adlin, Pentj.) Yogyakarta: Jalasutra. Burton, G. (2010). Media & Society. 2nd Edition. New York: Open University Press. Burton, G. (2012). Media dan Budaya Populer. (Hodder Arnold, Pentj.) Yogyakarta: Jalasutra. Bustam, M.R., Heriyanto, Citraresmana, E. (2013). “The Exclusion Strategies of the Representation of Social Actors in the Case of FPI’s Rejection to Lady Gaga’s Performance in Indonesia on the Jakarta Post Newspaper Headlines (A CDA Approach)”. International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World. Vol. 4 No. 3 November 2013, pp 33-49. Eriyanto. (2001). Analisis Wacana: Pengantar Analisis Teks Media. Yogyakarta: LKiS. Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and Power. Harlow-Essex: Longman Group Limited. Fairclough, N. (1995). Critical Discourse Analysis. The Critical Study of Language. HarlowEssex: Longman Group Limited. Fox, R. (2008). “English in Tourism: A Sociolinguistic Perspective”, Tourism and Hospitality Management, An International Journal of Multidisiplinary Research for South-Eastern Europe, Vol. 12, No. 1, 2008. Hallet, Richard W. and Weinger, J.K. (2009). Official Tourism Websites: A Discourse Analytic Perspective. Chicago: IL. Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. (1987). Cohesion in English. New York : Longman, Inc. Halliday, M.A.K. (1994). Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning. New York: Routledge. Kheirabadi, R. dan Moghaddam, S.B.A. (2012). “The Linguistic Representation of Iranian and Westren Actors of Iran’s Nuclear Program in International Media: A CDA Study. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 10, pp 2183-2188, October 2012. Finland: Academy Publisher. Ling Ip, J.Y. (2008). Analyzing Tourism Discourse: A Case Study of Hong Kong Travel Brochure. LCOM Papers Vol. 1 p. 1 – 19. Hongkong : the University of Hongkong. 123

Littosselti, L. (2010). Research Methods in Linguistics. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. Mayr, A. (2008). Language and Power: An Introduction to Institutional Discourse. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. Moleong, Lexy J. (2011). Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif. Bandung: PT. Remaja Rosdakarya. Rahimi, F. and Riasati, M.J. (2011). “Critical Discourse Analysis: Scrutinizing IdeologicallyDriven Discources”. International Journal of Humanities nad Social Science. Vol. 1 No. 16 November 2011. Sobur, A. (2009). Analisis Teks Media. Suatu Pengantar untuk Analisis Wacana, Analisis Semiotik, dan Analisis Framing. Bandung: PT. Remaja Rosdakarya. Takwin, B. (2009). Akar-akar Ideologi. Pengantar Konsep Kajian Ideologi dari Plato hingga Bourdieu. Yogyakarta : Jalasutra. Thompson, J.B. (2003). Analisis Ideologi: Kritik Wacana Ideologi-ideologi Dunia. (Haqqul Yaqin, Pentj.) Yogyakarta: IRCiSod. Thurlow, C. and Jaworski, A. (2011). Tourism Discourse: Languages and Banal Globalization. Applied Linguistic Review. Van Leeuwen, T. (2005). Introducing Social Semiotics. New York: Routledge. Van Leeuwen, T. dan Machin, D. (2007). Global Media Discourse: A Critical Introduction. New York: Routledge. Van Leeuwen, T. (2008). Discourse and Practice. New Tools for Critical Discourse Analysis. Oxford-New York: Oxford University Press. Wodak, R. and Meyer, M. (2009). Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis. London: Sage Publication.

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Inappropriate Translation of English Cursing on Box Office Films On Movie Theatre and Tv and Its Relationship with KPI’s Broadcasting Standard Program along with Viewers’ Understanding towards Cursing Indra Nugraha Universitas Wiralodra [email protected]

Abstract This research studies the translation method used to translate English cursing on box office films broadcasted on movie theatre and television in Indonesia. Generally, the translation method often used is communicative method. This method is used in order for the message in the source language to be acceptable in the context of target language. However, such a matter does not apply for a cultural concept such as cursing. The research is a sociopragmatic study aiming at describing the inappropriate translation of English cursing on box office films on movie theatre and television and its relationship with KPI’s broadcasting standard program along with viewers understanding toward cursing. Regarding the censorship policy, many English curse words are translated ‘less’ to make those words acceptable in Indonesian context. Yet. Such a translation is inappropriate because it may cause misunderstanding in viewers’ opinion toward English cursing. The method used in the research is descriptive method. The technique of data collection is observation by watching the films and writing the inappropriate translation of English cursing. The result of data analysis shows that many English curse words are translated inappropriately to make those words acceptable in Indonesian context. This is due to the censorship policy in Indonesia. Furthermore these inappropriate translations cause misunderstanding in viewers’ understanding regarding the concept of English cursing. Keywords: Translation Method, English Cursing, Censorship Policy, Sociopragmatics

1. Introduction A conversation may involve two people or more. The people involved in the conversation may use language variations. One of the language variations often used in a conversation is the use of cursing. The use of cursing is considered as a negative phenomenon. According to Jay (2000, p. 9): cursing is the utterance of emotionally powerful. Offensive words (e.g. fuck, shit) or emotionally harmful expressions (e.g., kiss my ass, piss off, up yours) that are understood as insults. Of this explanation, it is confirmed that cursing is harmful expressions often used in a conversation. Even though it is harmful, cursing might serve as a mean to relieve emotional state as Jay (2000, p. 10) explains that cursing serves the emotional needs of the speaker and cursing 125

affects listeners emotionally. Cursing permits a speaker to express strong emotions and/or produce an emotional impact on a listener. In addition to the use as an emotional relief, cursing is also used to express a speaker’s emotion. In general, cursing is considered as negative expressions regardless the language or where it is used. However, we must not forget that it is also affected by contexts both situation and culture. Thus it is safe to conclude that cursing falls into the concept of culture that it is a cultural concept which can only be fully understood by the native speakers where the cursing is used. As McMannis (1987) states: Another observable difference between native speakers and non-native but reasonably fluent speakers involves their treatment of taboo words. Words like shit, piss, and fuck elicit strong reactions from native speakers of English, reflecting years of experiences with people in their culture who were shocked and offended by the use of these words on inappropriate occasions. But non-native speakers, lacking extensive firsthand experience with the culture whose language they command to some extent, often do not have the same strong reaction to foreign taboo words. Thus, they may feel considerably less inhibited in using them. (p. 325) This explanation points out that other than by the native speakers, cursing cannot be understood completely by those who are non-native because they are lack of experiences. Therefore, regarding such a matter, it is quite necessary to treat cursing carefully especially in the matter of translation due to the fact that it is a cultural concept. As explained, cursing is a cultural concept. This points out that the culture itself may define cursing differently depending on where it is upheld. One of the most distinctive features relating culture to cursing is that the hierarchy of the curse words. The hierarchy refers to the level of offensiveness of cursing. This level of offensiveness may be varied even among the English speaking countries. For example the word ‘Fuck”, in the United States this curse word is considered as the 4th most offensive cursing (Sapolsky et al, 2008), while in the United Kingdom, the curse word belongs to the 3rd most offensive cursing (Leigh and Lepine, 2005). This difference is affected by the speakers’ understanding and their cultures. This difference, even among the native English countries, is one of the many proofs that culture may define cursing. Another problem appears when English cursing is translated into other languages that are not non-native English. The general notion of a translation process is that it is the process of transferring the messages or intentions of the texts (Newmark, 1988). This process involves many related factors and one of the most important factors is culture. Newmark (1988) proposes eight methods of translation:

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(1) Word-for-word translation: this method emphasizes on the source language. It maintains the original structure of the words’ order of the source language when the text is translated into the target language. (2) Literal translation: this type of translation method focuses on the grammatical structure. The result of the translation follows the grammatical structure of the target language. (3) Faithful translation: this method focuses on the contextual meaning. This type of translation replicates or adjusts the contextual meaning of the source language into the contextual meaning of the target language. (4) Semantic translation: this method may perceive the same concept as the faithful translation. This method of translation focuses on the meaning that it may have the same point of view regarding the meaning especially the contextual meaning related to culture. (5) Adaptation: this method emphasizes on the target language. This method is usually used to translate matters related to cultural aspects. (6) Idiomatic translation: this method transfers the intention or message of the source language into the target language by adjusting it through colloquial expressions or idioms of the target language. (7) Communicative translation: this method tries to adjust the intention or message contained in the source language into acceptable expressions in the target language. (8) Free translation: this method of translation focuses of the message and intention of the source language rather than the grammatical structure. This method tries to paraphrase the message of the source language into the target language. Of the explanation above, it is safe to conclude that the most suitable method to translate cursing is the adaptation method because cursing is tied to culture. However, this method to translate cursing is often ignored particularly in translating dialogue on movies since it relates to the censorship policy that is commonly misunderstood for the purpose of the acceptable expressions in the target language. This common mistake, unfortunately, is often found on western movies broadcasted both on television and movie theater in Indonesia. As other countries, Indonesia has as well regulations that control whatever appears on a movie. The agencies responsible for such a thing are Komisi Penyiaran Indonesia and Lembaga Sensor Film. These agencies are codependent. One of the main authorities of the Komisi Penyiaran Indonesia (KPI) and the most important one is to regulate broadcasting program standard. Komisi Penyiaran Indonesia (KPI) has issued a guideline “Pedoman Perilaku Penyiaran (P3) dan Standar Progran Siaran (SPS) 2012”. This guideline regulates broadcasting standard including language-related matters on a movie and one of the language-related matters refers to the use of cursing. The KPI’s guideline even has a whole section to regulate such a matter:

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Bagian Kedua Ungkapan Kasar dan Makian Pasal 24 (1) Program siaran dilarang menampilkan ungkapan kasar dan makian, baik secara verbal maupun nonverbal, yang mempunyai kecenderungan menghina atau merendahkan martabat manusia, memiliki makna jorok/mesum/cabul/vulgar, dan/atau menghina agama dan Tuhan. (2) Kata-kata kasar dan makian sebagaimana yang dimaksud pada ayat (1) di atas mencakup kata-kata dalam bahasa Indonesia, bahasa daerah, dan bahasa asing. Of the regulation above, it is clear that the use of cursing is forbidden on movies because the basic concept of cursing is a derogative term. Furthermore, in addition to the KPI’s guideline on broadcasting, there is also an independent agency coexisting with the KPI and the agency is called Lembaga Sensor Fillm (LSF)/ (Film Censor Agency). The agency’s authorities are based on the Law No. 33 of 2009 on Film (Undang-Undang No. 33 Tahun 2009 tentang Perflman). One of the main functions of this agency is that to protect people from negative impacts possibly caused by films or advertising. Regarding such a matter, the LSF has an authority to cut/delete pictures, scenes, voices and translated texts of a movie or advertising which are inappropriate to be shown and/or watched by public. We may assume that one of the inappropriate matters is cursing as explained in the Law: Pasal 18 (4b) Unsur-unsur yang dinilai dari segi Sosial Budaya, adalah yang mengandung ejekan dan/atau yang dapat menimbulkan tanggapan keliru terhadap adat istiadat yang berlaku di Indonesia. This article states that something that may contains pejorative terms which can cause misunderstanding must be censored. However, this very law may be defined differently by those involved in the film industry especially the translator regarding the cursing translation because it seems that many offensive English curse words on movies are translated less offensive into Indonesian cursing so that those words might be acceptable in the Indonesian context. 2. Method This research is a sociapragmatic study. Based on Kasper and Rose (2001) cited in Mirzaei et al (2021, p. 82), sociopragmatics is the interface of sociology and pragmatics and refers to the social perceptions underlying participants’ interpretation and performance of communicative action. This definition suggests that the sociopragmatics concerns with the relationship between the participants involved in social activities and social factors including the consequences of the social actions in society. The data collection is conducted through observation technique. The present writer watches the movies that are the objects of the research and writes down the English curse words along with 128

the Indonesian translations appearing on the movies. The data collected are compared to the data of offensiveness level of English cursing by Sapolsky et al (2008) and the data of offensiveness level of Indonesian cursing by the present writer (Nugraha, 2013). 3. Discussion As explained above, this research focuses on the inappropriate translation of English cursing on movies broadcasted by both television and movie theater. To reveal whether they are inappropriate or not, the present writer compares the data of English cursing to the viewers’ perspective towards the English cursing. This perspective comes from the previous research of the present writer along with the data of the offensiveness level of Indonesian cursing as the comparison. The research focuses on the offensiveness level of English cursing. To translate them properly must consider this level of offensiveness. This level is a cultural aspect existing only in the native culture. Because the most suitable method of translation is adaptation, the cursing must be adapted into the same level of offensiveness when translated from English to Indonesian. The following table is the level of offensiveness of English cursing according to Indonesian young adults taken by the present writer by questionnaire in the previous research (Nugraha, 2013).

No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Table 1. Attitude towards the level of offensiveness of English cursing Very Not English Curse Words Offensive Average Offensive Offensive Fuck/Fuck You 33 (66%) 8 (16%) 4 (8%) 1 (2%) Damn 6 (12 %) 11 (22%) 25 (50%) 2 (4%) Bitch 26 (52%) 11 (22%) 8 (16%) 1 (2%) Shit 6 (12%) 25 (50%) 13 (26%) 2 (4%) Asshole 25 (50%) 12 (24%) 8 (16%) 1 (2%) Son of A Bitch 31(62%) 8 (16%) 6 (12%) 1 (2%) Motherfucker 33 (33%) 8 (16%) 4 (8%) 1 (2%) 2 4%) Hell 8 (16%) 24 (48%) 12 (24%)

From the Table 1 above, it is revealed, according to the Indonesian young adults, that ‘Fuck/Fuck You’, ‘Bitch’, ‘Asshole’, ‘Son of A Bitch’, and ‘Motherfucker’ are considered very offensive. Meanwhile ‘Shit’ and ‘Hell’ are considered offensive and only ‘Damn’ is considered average. To make comparison, the same data of offensiveness level of Indonesian cursing is necessary. Therefore, in the previous research, the present writer also conducts survey to the Indonesian young adults by questionnaire. Below is the offensiveness level of Indonesian cursing based on the Indonesian young adults (Nugraha, 2013).

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No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Table 2. Attitude towards the level of offensiveness of Indonesian cursing Indonesian Curse Very Not Offensive Average Words Offensive Offensive Anjing 34 (68%) 8 (16%) 5 (10%) 1 (2%) Sial 3 (6%) 9 (18%) 32 (64%) 4 (8%) Brengsek 9 (18%) 30 (60%) 8 (16%) 1 (2%) Bajingan 30 (60%) 12 (24%) 5 (10%) 1 (2%) Binal 31 (62%) 8 (16%) 7 (14%) 2 (4%) Keparat 29 (58%) 14 (28%) 4 (8%) 1 (2%) Goblok 14 (28%) 27 (54%) 6 (12%) 1 (2%) 1 (2%) Setan 25 (50%) 14 (28%) 8 (16%) 1 (2%) Tolol 23 (46%) 12 (24%) 12 (24%) 1 (2%) Bego 11 (22%) 13 (26%) 25 (50%) 3 (6%) Kurang Ajar 6 (12%) 8 (16%) 31 (62%) 1 (2%) Bedebah 13 (26%) 26 (52%) 8 (16%) 1 (2%) Babi 29 (58%) 12 (24%) 6 (12%) 3 (6%) Kampret 8 (16%) 25 (50%) 12 (24%) 1 (2%) Bangsat 26 (52%) 14 (28%) 7 (14%) 1 (2%) Monyet 23 (46%) 10 (20%) 14 (28%) 1 (2%) Tai 31 (62%) 10 (20%) 6 (12%) 3 (6%) Anjrit 10 (20%) 9 (18%) 26 (52%) 1 (2%) Bangke 12 (24%) 12 (24%) 23 (46%) 2 (4%) Koplok 23 (46%) 12 (24%) 11(22%) 1 (2%) Edan 11 (22%) 5 (10%) 31 (62%) 2 (4%) Kunyuk 7 (14%) 13 (26%) 26 (52%)

Table 2 shows the offensiveness level of Indonesian cursing based on the Indonesian young adults’ perception. It is revealed that ‘Anjing’, ‘Binal’, ‘Bajingan’, ‘Keparat’, ‘Setan’, ‘Tolol’, ‘Babi’, ‘Bangsat’, ‘Monyet’, ‘Tai’, and ‘Koplok’ are considered very offensive. Further, ‘Brengsek’, ‘Goblok’, ‘Bedebah’, and ‘Kampret’ are considered offensive. Meanwhile the rest, ‘Sial’, ‘Bego’, ‘Kurang Ajar’, ‘Anjrit’, ‘Bangke’, Edan, and ‘Kunyuk’ are considered average. The two tables above are required to make the comparison. The proper translation method to translate cursing is adaptation. The adaptation refers to the offensiveness level of the cursing. This suggests that should an English curse word is considered very offensive, then when translated into Indonesian, the curse word must belong to the same level of offensiveness. This is the main principle in translating cursing. However, this principle is often ignored simply for the purpose of the acceptance concept in the target language which in this case is Indonesian. This inappropriate translation of cursing is often found on movies broadcasted on both television and movie theater. The following are the data collected by the present writer regarding the inappropriate translation of English cursing on movies. 130

Table 3. Data of Inappropriate Translation of English Cursing on Movies Broadcasted Both on Television and Movie Theater in Indonesia Movie Dialogue No Movie Title Date Taken Source Contained Cursing Sunday, You think you’re tough, Fox Movies White House September Data 1 Bitch! Premium Down 9, 2016; (Kau pikir kau jagoan) (Orange TV) 06.00 pm Sunday, No jail for you, Bitch! Fox Movies White House September Data 2 (Tak ada penjara Premium Down 9, 2016; untukmu, Brengsek) (Orange TV) 06.00 pm Wednesday, Up yours! Independence August 17, Data 3 (Rasakan ini) Trans TV Day 2016; 09.30 pm We`ve got shitload, cut, Monday, Fox Movies and bruise. Die Hard With October 3, Data 4 Premium (Ada yang memar dan A Vengeance 2016; 06.00 (Orange TV) terluka) pm Monday, Fox Movies Asshole Die Hard With October 3, Data 5 Premium (Sialan) A Vengeance 2016; 06.00 (Orange TV) pm Thursday, Fuck you! Terminator June 25 Data 6 Movie Theater (Sialan) Genisys 2015; 01.00 pm Tuesday, This cross puzzle is Fox Movies All About October 4 Data 7 bullshit! Premium Steve 2016; 05.00 (TTS ini buruk) (Orange TV) pm Then reboot it, Tuesday, Captain Goddamnit! October 4 Data 8 America: The Global TV (Kalau begitu nyalakan 2016; 07.30 Winter Soldier ulang) pm That guy was such an Fox Movies All About Tuesday, Data 9 asshole Premium Steve October 4 (Orang itu jahat sekali) (Orange TV) 131

Data 10

She’s a bitch! (Dia itu menyebalkan)

Think Like A Man Too

2016; 05.00 pm Sunday, October 16 2016; 12.45 pm

Cinemax (Orange TV)

The data above are collected by the present writer from various television channels and movie theater. As described, the curse words in all data are translated inappropriately. This appropriateness refers to the fact that the English curse words which are considered very offensive such as Bitch, Fuck You, Asshole, Up Yours and shit and Goddamnit that are considered offensive are translated less offensive into Indonesian, some even are eliminated when translated. This method of translation ignores the principle method of translating cultural aspects that is adaptation. In order to transfer the message or intention of the source language properly, these curse words must be translated into the target language curse words that belong to the same level of offensiveness. However, this method of translation might be a possibility to adjust the offensive English curse words into Indonesian context since these are broadcasted on national television movie theater. This possibility might be the result of the KPI’s regulation that all translated text and language on movies must be using ‘good’ language as described in the following regulation: BAB XX BAHASA, BENDERA, LAMBANG NEGARA DAN LAGU KEBANGSAAN Pasal 36 (1) Lembaga penyiaran wajib menggunakan Bahasa Indonesia yang baik dan benar sebagai bahasa pengantar utama, baik tulisan dan lisan, kecuali bagi program siaran yang disajikan dalam bahasa daerah atau bahasa asing.

Bagian Kedua Bahasa Siaran Lembaga penyiaran berlangganan yang menyiarkan program-program asing melalui saluran asing yang ada dalam paket siaran wajib berusaha semaksimal mungkin menerjemahkan ke dalam Bahasa Indonesia dalam bentuk teks atau sulih suara. In the regulation, as described, the broadcasting agency only needs to translate the original dialogue as possible as it can into Indonesian through text or voiceover. Even though there are regulations that forbid the use of cursing, but in the translation process of it might be compromised 132

by not using proper method and this might be related to the regulation itself which may not specify the translated cursing. Many involved parties in broadcasting field may not be concerned with such a matter but unfortunately this phenomenon leads to the misunderstanding of the English cursing concept especially in young viewers. Of the previous research by the present writer, it is confirmed that 76.67% of the young viewers know English cursing from western movies and 56.67% of them ‘reuse’ it for prestige reason in daily conversations even without understanding fully the concept and meaning of the used English cursing (Nugraha, 2014). 4. Conclusion The result of this research shows that many English curse words appearing on movies both broadcasted on television and movie theater are translated inappropriately. Most of them are translated less offensive in the target language which is not proper because cursing is a cultural aspect. This might be the result of the broadcasting regulations stating that all translated texts and voiceover must be using ‘good’ language which further may lead to improper translation method of cursing. Most of the translation method used may be just simply to adjust English cursing into Indonesian so it might be acceptable without even considering the negative impact of the viewers that is the misunderstanding of the concept and meaning of the English cursing among the young viewers. Considering such an impact, the present writer suggests that should the proper translation method of English cursing takes place and results in offensive Indonesia cursing, then perhaps it is better just simply to cut/delete the dialogue containing cursing. It is better than just translating the cursing inappropriately. Therefore supervising such a matter is quite necessary by all parties involved including the broadcasting agencies, KPI, LSF and even the viewers themselves. References Jay, Timothy. 2000. Why We Curse: A Neuro-Psycho-Social Theory of Speech. Philadephia: John Benjamin Publishing Company. Leigh, M. & L. Mike. 2005. Advanced Swearing Handbook. Great Britain: Summersdale Publishers Ltd. McMannis, Carolyn. 1987. Language Files. Ohio: the Ohio States University Advocate Publishing Groups. Mirzaei et al. 2012. Exploring Pragmalinguistics and Sociopragmatic Variability in Speech Act Production of L2 Learners and Native Speakers. The Journal of Teaching Language Skills (JTLS), 4(3), Falls 2012, Ser. 68/4. Newmark, P. 1988. A Text Book of Translation. UK: Prentice Hall. Nugraha, Indra. 2013. Indonesian Young Adults’ Interference in Translating English Cursing. International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 2(5):167-172, 2013. Australia: Australian International Academic Centre. http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.2n.5p.167. 133

Nugraha, Indra. 2014. Code-Switching To English Curse Words In Indonesian Young Adult Conversations: A Sociopragmatic Study. Unpublished. Jatinangor: Universitas Padjadjaran. Nugraha, Indra. 2012. Pedoman Perilaku Penyiaran (P3) dan Standar Program Siaran (SPS). Komisi Penyiaran Indonesia. Sapolsky, Barry S. et al. 2008. Rating Offensive Words in Three Television Program Contexts. BEA 2008 Research Division. Sapolsky, Barry S. 2009. Undang-Undang Nomor 33 Tahun 2009 tentang Perfilman. Indonesia.

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Metalinguistic Awareness in Parenting Styles and Child’s Language Development Irma Wahyuni STKIP Muhammadiyah Bogor [email protected]

Abstract This paper is a special study on linguistic of parenting. It investigates whether parents need metalinguistic awareness in their parenting styles and communication with children and how parents’ metalinguistic awareness during interaction gives the implication on the child’s language development process. The researcher follows the language development progress of four children at the same age (2-4 years old). Two of them are under-two year old and have a working mother whose limited daily interaction. The other two are over-two year with a full time mother who interacts with them more frequently. The result shows that a child whose mother is working is more active in producing language with apparent mispronounciations than those whose mothers are full time at home. In the other hand, a child with full time mother semantically more developed than those are with working mother. This study provides language researchers and teachers useful insights of possible factors that influence child’s language development as well as strategies to raise metalinguistic awareness in parenting and its implication on children’s language development. Keywords: child, communication, language development, metalinguistic, parenting

1. Introduction Child’s language development is still becoming an interesting topic for language researchers to investigate. It describes an amazing journey of human’s cognitive development and behavior, in which the structure begins, the language begins. These development phenomenon and stages are not the same in children’s language acquisition process, although linguists agreed that children have certain stages of language development. But since children’s languages are novel, and sometimes unpredictable, which are probably influenced by some factors inside and outside the children, therefore it is still important to be analyzed and studied. Two processes happened when a child acquire his first language; competence and performance process. This language acquisition in children, usually distinguished by language learning. The language learning is related to the process when a child learns his second language, after acquiring the first language. In other words, we can say that language acquisition is mostly related to the first language, meanwhile language learning is related to the second language. In the matter of fact, there are also some linguists who use the term of language acquisition for second language. In terms of language learning, which is related to the study of human behavior, behaviorist believed that language development in children is nurture, by means that it is given, taught and 135

learned. This thought is well-known to linguistic researchers as “behavioristic theories” (Skinner, 1957). As we know that first institution for children to learn their first language is not at school, there are some crucial factors may influence their language development, especially the role of parenting styles, communication and interaction used by their parents. These what will be discussed in this paper. Further implication is discussed to give useful insight and knowledge about metalinguiatic awareness in parenting styles and how it can be implemented to improve language development in children. 2. Theoretical Framework Many linguists, especially nativists said that language development in children is a miracle that perceived without direct teaching and intensive practice from their parents. The term “nativist” itself derived from the fundamental assertion that language acquisition is innately determined, that we are born with a built-in device of some kind that predisposes us to language acquisition to a systematic perception of language around us, resulting in the construction of an internalized system of language. This nativists’ thought were popular to linguists as innateness hypotheses, which are supported by several sides such as Eric Lenneberg (1967) who proposed that language is a “species-specific” behavior and that certain modes of perception, categorizing abilities, and other language-related mechanism are biologically determined. In the other hand, Chomsky (1965) also claimed the existence of innate properties of language to explain the child’s mastery of his native language in such a short time despite the highly abstract nature of the rules of language. According to Chomsky, this innate knowledge is embodied in a “little black box” of sorts, a language acquisition device (LAD). In relation to it, Mc.Neill (1966) described LAD as consisting of four innate linguistic properties: (a) the ability to distinguish speech sounds from other sounds in the environment, (b) the ability to organize linguistic events into various classes which can later be refined, (c) knowledge that only a certain kind of linguistic system is possible and that other kinds are not, (d) the ability to engage in a constant evaluation of the developing linguistic system so as to construct the simplest possible system out of the linguistic data that are encountered. In supporting these arguments, Aitchison (2008) thought that if we observe children speaking for the first time, we will find it very fascinating. One of the amazing things is that language emerges at about the same time in children all over the world. If we ask why children normally begin to speak between their eighteenth and twenty-eight month, surely it is not all because all mothers on earth initiate language training at that time. There is, in fact, no evidence that any conscious and systematic teaching of language takes place, just as there is no special training for stance or gait (Lenneberg, 1967:125). Opposing nativists’ approach in terms of innateness hypotheses, many linguists believed that language development in children is nurture, by means that it is given, taught and learned. This thought is well-known to linguistic researchers as “behavioristic theories”. The behaviorist approach concentrates on: (1) the immediately perceptible aspects of linguistic behavior, the publicly observable responses and (2) the relationship between those responses and events in the 136

world surrounding them. A behaviorist might consider effective language behavior to be the production of correct responses to stimuli. If a certain responses are reinforced, it then becomes habitual, or conditioned. So, the child produces linguistic responses that are reinforced. B.F Skinner’s (1957) classic, Verbal Behavior, is one of the best known attempts to construct a behavioristic model of linguistic behavior. According to Brown (1980), Skinner’s theory of verbal behavior was an extension of his general theory of learning by “operant conditioning”. It refers to conditioning in which the organism (a human being) produces a response, or operant (a sentence or utterance), without necessarily observable stimuli. Even though Skinner’s theory was under attacked and criticism, especially from Chomsky (1959) who hit highly critical review of Verbal Behavior, few linguists and psycholinguists today would agree that Skinner’s model of verbal behavior sufficiently account (1) for the capacity to acquire language, (2) for language development itself, (3) for the abstract nature of language, and (4) for a theory of meaning. A theory based on conditioning and reinforcement is faced with difficulty to explain the fact that every sentence you speak or write is novel that is, never uttered before either by you or anyone else. Nevertheless, these utterances are created by the speaker and processed by the hearer. With the thoughts of human language development, capacity to acquire language as well as the role of environment’s involvement in child’s language development which are related to Skinner’s theory of Verbal Behavior, the researcher tries to conduct this study. Therefore, this research is very important to give useful insight for teachers, parents, and language researchers about the involvement of surrounding environment, especially parents and families toward language development in children. Specifically, the researcher investigated whether parents need metalinguistic awareness, which is in simple words means the ability to think about language and to talk about it, in their parenting styles and how it deals with child’s language development. The implication is talked further to enhance metalinguistic awareness in parenting styles, especially related to the materials and methods or techniques that parents could implement in order to improve and control the child’s language development. 3. Method The researcher conducted this action research by qualitative descriptive method. The researcher investigated language development in four children in a relatively same age. They were Raya (3,9 years old), Salman (4 years old), Endra (2,4 years old), and Sidqya (1,5 years old). The investigation was conducted for 5 months. The researcher directly followed their daily activities, communications and interactions with their parents, families, and environments. Furthermore, the researcher did the intervention toward their language development by stimulating them to talk about something in order to hear the words and talks in their levels of language development and stages. In addition, the questionnaire and interview with the parents (especially mothers) were done in purpose to clarify the evidence that the researcher found during the research and to get additional information about their children’s language development and behavior if necessary. 137

Participants Researcher investigates 4 children in this research. They were Raya (3,9 years old), Salman (4 years old), Endra (2,4 years old), and Sidqya (1,5 years old). Raya and Salman are boys with fulltime mothers (housewives), who are in researcher’s perspective, have more interaction with their mothers than the other two; Endra (male) and Sidqya (female) whose mothers are working. The house-assistants or baby-sitters take care of them during their mothers work. 4. Result and Discussion The researcher observed language development of the participants through direct investigation and intervention using the theory stages of child’s language development by Dr. Lydia Soifer (2012) as parameters of observation. According to Lydia Soifer, these following stages and development happened to children 18-24 months; 1. Understand 300 words 2. Uses 50 recognizable words 3. Speak more than gestures 4. Wants to hear stories over and over 5. Uses rising intonation to ask question 6. Shakes head to answer questions 7. Follow 2 related commands 8. Begins to use verbs e.g, “do”, “go” 9. Starts to ask, “what’s that?” 10. Talks about what is happening in the moment 11. Combines two words e.g “more juice” and “go car” 12. Tells name when asked 13. Points to 6 or more body parts when asked 14. Turns pages of a book 15. Imitates house-work 16. Joins in songs and familiar rhymes. In the other hand, Dr. Lydia Soifer stated that following development happened in 3-4 years children; 1. Understands over 1000 words 2. Uses eye contact consistently in conversation 3. Asks many questions, including “what do” and “who” 4. Understands simple time concepts such as morning, lunch time, night, tomorrow 5. Understands spatial words, in front of, behind 6. Begin to use -s for the third person present tense 7. Uses can’t and won’t 8. Uses “and” 138

9. Uses 3-4 word sentences 10. Uses more than one sentence type 11. Can tell a story 12. Can speak about events in the recent past 13. Uses language to comment, question and respond 14. Stays with an activity 10-15 minutes 15. Is 75% intelligible to a stranger In order to get the evidence related to the implementation of children’s language stages development as parameter for researcher in doing the observation, the researcher did some approaches in the intervention to stimulate children’s talk, expression, reaction, interaction, and behavior. The researcher made sure that the approaches she used were appropriate with all types and ages of the participants. Although in some cases, the researcher used the way of communication according to the language capacity of each child as stated in the child’s language development stages and behavior as parameters. Specifically, the researcher asked questions about several things related to familiar things to the participants. It is done to know the quantity of their vocabularies and how they pronounce the words. In the other hand, the researcher also asked the questions by pointing to several things around children to ask the name of things. Furthermore, to get the information about their understanding about the talk and to know the way how they react toward the situation, the researcher did the light conversation about their daily lives. For example, she asked about what they were doing, what they like, what they are watching, etc. To get the evidence about the way how they comprehend and comment something, the researcher talked with them frequently about interesting topic that might be interesting for them such as about the ice cream they like, the cartoon movies they have watched and different characters in the movies. Besides, the researcher also used toys and dolls to tell a story in order to stimulate them to react and express their feelings and interpretation about the story. In addition, to get pragmatic understanding in children, the researcher tried to give them command to do something or not to do something. For example, she asked them to take a broom, to see the picture, to clean the table, etc. Pretending to be angry with them to see their reaction was occasionally done when necessary. The researcher describes the result of the observation in the following tables. The table is made by distinguishing children’s language development according to their ages and frequency of children’s interaction with their parents, especially mothers. Specifically, table 1 will describe the language development and behavior observation and intervention results of children with working moms, which is in researcher’s perception, have more limited interaction with their mothers than those with full-time moms. In the other hand, table 2 describes language development and behavior observation and intervention results of children with full-time moms, who have more frequent interaction. 139

Table.1 General language development and behavior (before intervention) Endra

Sidqya

Refers to self by his own name and with pronoun “aku”/ (me) Knows one until three names of colors with frequent errors (mismatching) Knows and memorizes names of the animal Talking with unclear articulation but understandable Combine three or four words Starts a conversation Answer a question with unclear sentence

Says “Ayah” to call her father Says the words with vowel sounds, e.g “nene” to call her grandmother Uses gesture when she was speaking, e.g. she puts her hand up and moves it while saying “dadah...”/ (goodbye) Shakes head to show agreement and disagreement or to answer a question, e.g nodded when saying “iya” (yes) Can turn pages of a book Shakes her body when listening to the music

Language development and behavior with/after intervention Endra

Month I

Sidqya

Can express feelings with Tell her nick name when certain adjectives, e.g say asked “aku takut” (I’m afraid) or “aku sedih” (I’m sad) Says more vowel sounds, e.g “mimi” Shows facial expression when giving a comment about Plays “CiluukBaa…” something, e.g “ihh seyem” (it’s scarry) Says “Ndaa….” (bunda) to call her mother Shows expression of request, e.g “aku mau nonton tv” (I Can turn pages of a book, read want to watch TV) it with “her own language” Talking over, sometimes unclear Can combine two words to express frustation

Month 2 140

Uses “ini” (this) “itu” (that) to show something Imitates more animal sounds, e.g sounds of cat, hen, and deer.

Gives comment by talking to Imitates images and facial himself when watching a expressions in front of a movie mirror, e.g she smiles and shows her teeth when asked Knows more names of colors “cantiknya gimana…??” (“how’s beautiful baby?”), Talks to himself when and up her lip when asked watching a movie “jeleknya gimana?” (how’s bad baby?) Eating alone without any assistance Says “unda” to call her mother Knows more names of colors Can turn pages of a book, tries with frequent errors to read it with “her own (mismatching) language”, and asking question about some parts in a Imitates the dialogue and book with her own language. actions of characters in the movie Shakes her body, head, and feet when listening to the Talk loudly when angry music. Month 3

Month 4

Negotiates or requests Can play hide and seek something e.g “aku oyeh main yaa..” (may I play Imitates the name of a number please..) or “aku itut yaa” (may I follow you?) Can turn pages of a book, tries to read it with “her own Open pages of a book and language and comment by guesses pictures in a book bubling”

Sometimes cannot answer a Persuades people to do what question she wants to do, e.g saying “nah.. yuk…!” (let’s go there) Uses possessive pronoun, e.g while walking to the door “baju aku” (my cloth), “lobot punya kamu ya?” (is that Answers a question well, your robot?). when asked “ini baju siapa?” 141

Talks over and over

Remember the names of her family

Talks to the animals Imitates names of letters, Gives comment about especially ABC something that he looks at Can say “aciihh..” to thank Shows expression of gratitude someone Tells a story with unsystematic organzation and errors in pronunciation, sometimes is understandable Can give a command to others, e.g “jangan ke sana!” (don’t go there), “awas atiati” (watchout!), etc.

Talking to herself and to the dolls with her own language

Say more vowel sounds, e.g “koko”, “baba” /buka/baca (read/open)

Imitates house-work, e.g Ask many questions about cleaning the floor with everything around him broom, drying her clothes by taking her underwear from the Uses new vocabulary with cupboard then hang it out with errors in context of usage, e.g hanger “kamu agi sombong ya di kamar mandi…” (are you Imitates more names of arrogant in the bathroom?) numbers, especially 123 Month 5 Persuade her mother of friend to get something e.g “baby lutu.. aku mau yaa biscuit nya” (funny baby, I want your biscuit)

Talk with people with her own language but sometimes keep silent when asked

Says words with consonant ending, e.g “dudun..”/ duduk Shows expression of (sit down), “ambin”/ ambil apologize, e.g “maafin aku (take), “enum”/ minum or ya...” senyum, “maamm”/ makan. Debates and argues Understand the command, e.g something to show complaint, throw away a rubbish when disagreement e.g “ihh tok asked to throw it away 142

mobinnya gak ada cihh...”/ Combine two words, e.g “au “ih kok mobilnya gak ada mamm...”/ mau makan (wants sih?”, (oh, why the car is not to eat) there?). Poses and selfie in front of the camera Talks to the animals Table 2 General language development and behavior before intervention Raya Salman Uses three-four words in speaking Talks with unclear pronunciation Can tell a story Tells the past events Asks a question Able to use negative phrases(sometimes) Uses negation to express disagreement Holds a conversation for two turns Says “hi” to a friend Talks to himself while playing with toys Listens more Talks loudly to show angry Afraid of stranger Very afraid of stranger Comments about something on TV Comment about something on TV General language development and behavior after intervention Raya

Salman

asking about the reason, e.g Combine three words in “mama ini kenapa?” (Momy, speaking with unclear why is this?). pronunciation

Month 1

does not want to talk when Knows the names of the asked by people about things around him with something unclear pronunciation, e.g “tendok”/sendok (spoon), combine phrases, e.g “itu “yuma”/rumah (house), mobin”/itu mobil (that’s car), “ubin”/mobil (car). and “bawah pohon” (under the tree) Answer a question, sometimes kept silent when angry if being approached and asked a question asked about something 143

Expresses gratitude with very Say thanks with clear pronunciation pronunciation Gives short answer

unclear

Explains something in detail with unclear pronunciation

Uses gesture to talk aboout something, e.g moves hand to Asks something with simple say “No” questions Month 2

Month 3

Month 4

Observes something with no expresses curiousity with comment unclear pronunciation and errors in sentence structure, e.g “mama tini iat ini ita mati tucingna”/”Mama ke sini lihat ini bisa mati kucingnya” (Mom, come and see here the cat is going to die) Shows facial expression Expresses request, e.g “au related to feelings, e.g laugh totatna”/ mau coklatnya and smile when he was happy or ate a candy Asks many questions with long and complex sentences Uses eye contact consistently but with unclear in conversation pronunciation, often not understandable for people Asks a question with clear who heard it sentence, e.g “ini berapa harganya?” Uses negation to avoid something Does not answer a question Knows the names of colors but is unable to distinguish Know the names of the things each of color around him when asked Sometimes answer a question, Answer question with “yes” sometimes no or “No” Shows facial expression and comment to a story and toys 144

Does not comment or shows Listen, and any reaction when heard a frequently story

Month 5

interrupting

Knows the name of colors and Talks more often is able to distinguish each of color Talks to self and toys with reaction if being commented Sometimes start a conversation about a story or Tells the past events with past events frequent errors in pronunciation Say several words and shows any reaction to the toys and Expresses his feeling about story with facial expressions something in conversation

5. Conclusion The result shows that the language development in children with working mothers, who have less interaction with their parents, is faster than those children with full-time mothers, especially in frequency level in speaking as well as the quantity of vocabularies. Although in some cases, Salman (4 years old, with full-time mother) shows himself as a talkative, but the stages of his development are almost similar to Endra who is younger than him and with working mother, especially in terms of the way how they build a sentence when talking and express their feeling about something when giving a comment. Additionally, in terms of pronunciation, Salman is lessdeveloped than Endra. In the other hand, Raya (3,9 years old, with full-time mother) seems semantically more developed among others. It can be seen from the way he observes something and the level of question, which is frequently stated in a style of deeper question for children version. For example he often asked her mom about a reason why something is happened, why something is there, etc. Conversely, Sidqya (1,5 years old, with working mother) is very well-developed and faster in the terms of acquisition of vocabularies, expressions as well as gestures, but is not developed yet in semantics. For example, she occasionally keeps silent when asked a question even though she is pragmatically well-developed. For example, she is able to do the instruction and command from other people. To sum up, this research is not to judge whether a child with full-time mother is better in language behavior and development than another child, or vice versa, because as we know that children’s language is frequently novel and not easy to interpret. Besides, the stage of each child in language development and behavior is not same as well. The most important thing is, why that language development and behavior of a child is different to the others, there must be some important factors influence it. It is not only about how 145

much the time that the child spent with his mother or parent at home, but how the way parents treat their children in order to be well-developed. Therefore, parents need metalinguistic awareness in their parenting styles. This research shows that children with parents who have metalinguistic awareness in their parenting styles causes significant effect related to the language development of their children, especially in terms vocabulary acquisition and the motivation to talk, and think how to talk the language. Metalinguistic awareness simply defined as the ability to think about language and talk about it. Specifically it is a cognitive process that allows a person to monitor and control their use of language (Garton and Pratt, 1989). Parents who have metalinguistic awareness will employ relevant techniques and methods to communicate with their children such as how to ask a question to children, how to stimulate children’s speaking, how to increase vocabulary in children, etc (Thompson and Barker 2009). In turns, their children will also have metalinguistic awareness that may increase their cognitive development as well. References Aitchison, J. 2000. The seeds of speech: Language origin and evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge university Press. Aitchison, J. 2008. The Articulate mammal: An introduction to psycholinguistics. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. Baker, C. L., & McCarthy, J. J. 1981. The Logical problem of language acquisition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Brown, R. 1973. A first language. London: Allen and Unwin. Caroll, J. B. 1993. Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor analytic studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chomsky, Noam. 1959. A review of B. F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior. Chomsky, Noam. 1988. Language problems of knowledge. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. McNeill, David. 1970. The acquisition of language. New York: Harper and Row. Skinner, B. F. 1957. Verbal Behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Lenneberg, Eric. 1967. The biological foundations of language. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Garton, A. And Pratt, C. 1989. Learning to be liberate: the development of spoken and written language. Oxford: Blackwell. Soifer, Lydia. 2012. Are you talking to me? The development of language skills in young children. International conference on Children’s language development, 16 Nov 2012, USA. Thompson, M., and Teresa Barker. 2009. It’s a boy!, Your son’s development from Birth to Age 18. New York: Random House Publishing. Nagy, E. William., and Anderson, C. Richards. 1995. Metalinguistic awareness and Literacy acquisition in different languages. Technical Reports, Children Language Center, University of Illinois Urbana Champaign, USA. 146

Terry, Danielle J. 2004. "Investigating the Relationship between Parenting Styles and Delinquent Behavior,"McNair Scholars Journal: Vol. 8: Iss. 1, Article 11. El Euch, Sonia and Alain Huot. 2015. Strategies to develop metalinguistic awareness in adult learners. Research paper on WEFLA 2015, International Conference on Foreign Languages, Communication and Culture, Holguin Cuba.

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Perpindahan Manusia dan Perubahan Toponimi di Kawasan Pesisir Jambi Junus Satrio Atmodjo Department of Archaeology Universitas Indonesia

Abstract In early 1970s the Indonesian Government began to move peoples from Java to Sumatra under the national transmigration program, including to the east cost of Jambi. Before that, the area was known cover by thick tropical rain jungle habituated for centuries by Malays living mostly along big rives such as Niur and Berbak. With the coming of immigrants from Java, new villages emerged in the interior of Berbak Delta that was once a vast marshy area. New names with ethnical background began introduced to the area, representing the placement of different migrant origins. Today many Sundanese, Javanese, and Malay topographic names are intermixing within the landscape. Studying these different names gives the opportunity to understand historical events of the past, including how migrants arrived and choose specific locations to established their settlements, and moved from place to place accessing natural resources to fulfill their ever growing economic needs. The paper will focus on past people movements within Jambi’s east cost lanscape in establishing built environments that can be trace back by using recent names known to the local inhabitants. Key words: transmigration, human migration, new name 1. Toponimi dalam Konteks Lanskap Pergerakan manusia di dalam ruang geografi umumnya berhubungan erat dengan perolehan akses ke sumber-sumber daya alam yang menyebabkan terjadinya perpindahan tempat tinggal. Dalam proses perpindahan ini kolonisasi ruang-ruang baru tidak bisa dihindari. Manusia bukan sekedar menyiapkan lingkungan barunya untuk mengambil dan mengolah sumber daya, tetapi lebih daripada itu sebenarnya ia menyiapkan tempat tinggal yang ideal menurut kebutuhannya. Isu-isu terkait dengan adaptasi manusia, ekonomi, dan politik sering menjadi perhatian peneliti saat melakukan kajian tentang pergerakan manusia (human mobility). Isu lainnya ialah melihat pergerakan manusia dalam konteks lanskap yang oleh Tiley dilihat sebagai ‘ruang yang memiliki makna bagi manusia’, di dalamnya terdapat tempat-tempat (places) yang berkonotasi dengan kebudayaan (Titley, 1994: 14). Pendapat Tiley diperkuat oleh Ashmore, menurut pandangannya persoalan pemilihan suatu tempat bukan semata dipengaruhi faktor ekologi atau bentang alam, melainkan yang lebih penting adalah dipengaruhi oleh pemikiran manusia yang abstrak untuk memenuhi kebutuhannya (Ashmore, 1994: 259). Untuk mengingatkan keberadaannya di muka bumi manusia memberi nama-nama spesifik berdasarkan kebutuhan menggunakan unsur lingkungan yang mudah dikenali 149

atau hal-hal yang berorientasi terhadap dirinya (Rais, 2008: 4-5). Nama-nama itu melekat dengan lokasi yang kemudian menjadi bagian dari identitas mereka. Migrasi manusia erat hubunganya dengan kedua konteks ini ketika ia melakukan perjalanan ke lokasi-lokasi jauh maupun dekat di sekitar tempat tinggalnya. Perpindahan penduduk dari suatu tempat ke tempat yang lain bisa dilihat menggunakan perspektif ini untuk memahami munculnya tempat-tempat baru di dalam bentang lanskap, termasuk perpindahan penduduk yang disebabkan oleh kegiatan transmigrasi. 2. Kawasan Pesisir Jambi Sebagai Lokasi Transmigrasi Perpindahan penduduk pulau Jawa ke Sumatera sebenarnya sudah berlangsung lebih dari 100 lamanya, yaitu sejak tahun 1905 dan kemudian dilanjutkan tahun 1930 atas inisiatif pemerintah Hindia Belanda untuk menurunkan tingkat kepadatan penduduk di Jawa Tengah yang tidak produktif. Masa itu istilah trasmigrasi belum dikenal tetapi kolonisatie. Daerah Lampung menjadi daerah uji coba pertama, banyak keluarga dari Jawa yang pindah ke Lampung bahkan setelah berakhirnya program kolonisatie menjelang Perang Dunia ke-2 (Levang, 2003: 10-11). Pemerintah Orde Baru melanjutkan program ini mengunakan nama ‘transmigrasi’ sejak tahun 1970-an denagn maksud yang sama. Selain ke Sumatera, pulau Kalimantan dan Sulawesi menjadi tujuan pemindahan penduduk dari pulau Jawa, Bali, dan Madura. Lahan-lahan baru yang cocok untuk pertanian dieksplorasi dan dibuka dengan maksud supaya dapat dikembangkan menjadi lahan pertanian sawah beririgasi. Salah satu daerah pilihan di pulau Sumatera adalah kawasan pesisir Jambi. Keberadaan lapisan gambut1 yang subur di kawasan ini menjadi pertimbangan ditetapkannya Kabupaten Tanjungjabung2 sebagai salah satu daerah penerima transmigran asal Jawa. Keberadaan gambut menjadi tanda bahwa kawasan itu merupakan dataran rawa yang terbentuk dari endapan sungai. Morfologi permukaan tanahnya yang relatif datar dilalui oleh ratusan sungai kecil yang menyediakan air tawar berlimpah. Untuk mengantisipasi kedatangan mereka pemerintah membangun jalan dan kanal-kanal irigasi untuk memudahkan akses ke lokasi. Di awal tahun 1970-an sedikit demi sedikit kawasan pesisir mulai dihuni para transnmigran yang datang bergelombang dalam jumlah sangat banyak. Masing-masing keluarga migran menempati tanah seluas satu hektar, satu rumah, dan menerima peralatan kerja pertanian standar berupa cangkul, kampak, dan linggis. Adapun benih padi untuk daerah pasang-surut disediakan oleh pemerintah (Koswara dan Rumawas, 1984: 37). Lingkungan kawasan trasnmigrasi masih berupa hutan lebat yang menyediakan sumber daya pangan dan mata pencarian baru di luar pertanian.

1

2

Gambut (peat) adalah lapisan tanah tersusun dari sisa-sisa tanaman mati bercampur lumpur yang diendapkan oleh sungai ke dataran rendah. Lapisan ini cukup subur untuk ditanami padi pasang-surut, meskipun tanahnya masih bersifat fibrik yaitu mengandung banyak unsur tanaman mati yang proses pembusukannya belum berlangsung sempurna. Sejak bulan Desember tahun 2012 kabupaten ini dipecah menjadi dua menjadi yaitu Kabupaten Tanjungjabung Barat dan Tanjungjabung Timur.

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Sungai dan kanal menjadi jalur transportasi yang penting mengingat jalan raya yang tersedia jumlahnya sangat sedikit. Tanah bekas rawa yang lunak tidak cukup kuat untuk dilalui kendaraan darat, oleh karena itu orang-orang etnis Jawa dan Sunda yang semula tidak terbisa menggunakan perahu mulai menggunakannya untuk mendukung mobilitas antarruang mereka, khususnya tipe perahu berukuran kecil sejenis sampan yang sudah banyakdigunakan oleh orang-orang Bugis dan Melayu di Tanjungjabung. 3. Eksplorasi Tempat-Tempat Baru Jauh sebelum pelaksanaan program transmigrasi formal oleh negara, di awal tahun 1920-an beberapa kelompok orang Jawa sebenarnya sudah datang lebih dahulu ke Jambi untuk membuka permukiman baru di sekitar kota Jambi atas kemauan sendiri.3 Umumnya mereka datang dari Jawa Timur dan Jawa Tengah menggunkan kapal-kapal yang diusahakan pemerintah Belanda. Akan tetapi topografi kota Jambi yang berbukit-bukit ternyata tidak memungkinkan mereka membuka sawah kecuali kebun dan mengusahakan ternak. Pengetahuan mengelola sawah hampir tidak terpakai di lingkungan baru ini, oleh karena itu banyak dari mereka yang kemudian beralih profesi sebagai pedagang keliling, peladang, atau membuka rumah makan. Masuknya bala tentara Jepang ke Jambi tahun 1943 mengubah total kehidupan mereka. Untuk menghindari kekejaman perang, para migran ini memutuskan meninggalkan kota Jambi menuju ke desa Nipahpanjang di muara sungai Berbak. Rombongan terdiri dari beberapa kelompok, setiap kelompok berjumlah kurang dari 20 orang terdiri dari sejumlah laki-laki dewasa, wanita, dan anak-anak. Dibutuhkan waktu dua hari menyusuri sungai Batang Hari dan Berbak menggunakan perahu sebelum rombongan mencapai tujuan. Mereka diterima oleh keluargakeluarga Jawa, Bugis, dan Melayu yang sudah lebih dahulu tinggal di sana. Untuk bertahan hidup dan memperoleh penghasilan, setahun kemudian para pendatang ini bergotong-royong membuka lahan pertanian baru di dalam hutan dengan menggali kanal ke arah sungai Berbak untuk menurunkan permukaan air rawa. Penggalian hanya menggunakan cangkul, sekop, dan batang-batang kayu yang mereka buat sendiri. Upaya pertama gagal karena tidak memenuhi harapan terciptanya lahan kering. Hasil jernih payah itu mereka serahkan kepada orangorang Melayu lokal yang turut membantu selama pekerjaan berlangsung. Oleh masyarakat Nipahpanjang kanal ini kemudian diberi nama Paritmelayu atau Paritbom.4 Usaha kedua kembali gagal, kanal yang belum jadi itu kemudian disebut Parittengah. Baru di usaha ketiga keinginan mereka tercapai. Parit sepanjang 2 kilometer menghasilkan tanah kering yang bisa ditanami palawija dan membangun rumah. Kanal itu diberi nama Paritjawo5 untuk menandai bahwa pemukimnya adalah orang-orang Jawa. Dengan demikian secara geografis di Nipahpanjang

3

Vink menyebut proses membuka permukiman baru seperti ini sebagai “kolonisasi”, yaitu upaya menata lingkungan pendatang yang ideal dipergunakan sebagai ruang habitasi (1984: 71).

4 5

Kata bom berasal dar kata boom yang dalam bahsa Belanda berarti dermaga atau pelabihan kecil. Paritjawo juga dikenal dengan parit 6 mengikuti sistem penomoran yang dibuat Dinas Pekerjaan Umum Provinsi Jambi.

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terdapat pengelompokkan-pengelompokkan (clustering) suku dalam wilayah kota. Setiap kelompok mencerminkan budaya kas para pemukim lanskap yang bervariasi. Penggunaan pata “parit” dalam konteks budaya Melayu lokal digunakan untuk membedakan antara sungai artifisial dengan sungai bentukan alam. Kata lain dari “parit” adalah “suak” yang sama-sama menunjukkan buatan manusia.6 Dengan demikian terdapat klasifikasi yang jelas dalam sistem pengetahuan orang-orang Melayu antara sungai buatan dengan sungai alam. Di Nipahpanjang kata “parit” berkonotasi dengan sungai yang menjadi induknya, misalnya Paritsungaiakardalam yang airnya berasal dari sungai Akardalam. Penambahan kata “dalam” di sini menunjukkan bahwa kanal menembus bagian “pedalaman” (hinterland) dari sungai, dibedakan dengan kata “luar” untuk menandai tempat-tempat yang lokasinya berada dekat muara sungai.7 Menurut keterangan pak Sapari, salah seorang pengungsi dari kota Jambi ke Nipahpanjang tahun 1943, pengetahuan membuat kanal mereka pelajari dari orang-orang Melayu. Selama berkebun di kota Jambi mereka sudah terbiasa membuat saluran-saluran kecil untuk mengendalikan air pada tanah berlereng yang cukup dikerjakan sendiri. Oleh karena itu sukar bagi mereka membayangkan bahwa selama berhari-hari mereka akan berendam di genangan rawa sambil menggali tanah. Akan tetapi belajar dari orang Melayu yang melakukan hal itu pada saat air surut, akhirnya para pendatang ini bersepakat untuk bergotong-royong menggali kanal. Pekerjaan besar itu mereka selesaikan berbulan-bulan lamanya, bekerja saat air surut yang turun lebih kurang 3-4 meter dibandingkan saat pasang. Dalam waktu dua tahun mereka berhasil menggali kanal sepanjang ± 2 kilometer dan sedalam 3 meter sampai membus tanah padat di bawah lapisn gambut dan lumpur (Atmodjo, 2014).8 Penggalian menghasilan daratan baru yang bisa ditanami palawija dan mendirikan rumah. 60 tahun kemudian derah paritjawo ini sudah berubah menjadi permukiman orang-orang Jawa perantauan. Mereka adalah generasi ketiga para migran sebelum masuknya gelombang kedua yang lebih besar di tahun 1970-an. Sayangnya pekerjaan orang-orang Jawa ini tidak terekam dalam catatan sejarah, namun apabila kita perhatian peta Belanda tahun 1955 (Gambar 2) terlihat adanya dua saluran air di utara dan selatan kota Nipahpanjang yang pada tahun peta 1948 belum terlihat (Gambar 1). Kedua saluran itu adalah Paritmelayu dan Paritjawo.9 Berdasarkan topographic marking yang di sekitar kota tampak bahwa lingkungan Nipahpanjang masa itu seluruhnya masih berupa rawa.

6 7

8

9

Ditandai dengan bentuk saluraan yang lurus-lurus bermuara ke sungai terdekat. Sebagai informasi tambahan, di kabupaten Muarojambi terdapat daerah bernama Kemingkingluar dan Keminkingdalam yang keduanya berlokasi di sepanjang aliran sungai Kemingking. Yang dimaksud adalah tanah mineral, yaitu tanah asli yang membentuk daratan Sumatera sebelum tertutup oleh lapisan gambut dan lumpur. Sifatnya padat, berwarna kuning keabu-abuan, tersusun dari lumpur bercampur pasir laut, abu volkanik (tuff), dan kerikil halus. Peta yang saya digunakan keduanya keluaran US Army Map Service tahun 1948 berjudul dan US Army Map Service 1955 skala 1:10.000. Keduanya berjudul “Nipahpandjang” dibuat berdasarkan peta buatan Belanda tahun 1935 dan 1945.

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US Army Map Service 1948

Gambar 1. Kota Nipahpanjang tahun 1945. Belum terdapat parit.

US Army Map Service 1955

Gambar 2. Kota Nipahpanjang dan kota Sabak tahun 1955. Terdapat paritparit lurus yang terhubung dengan Sungai Niur, kebun kelapa dan karet.

Dari peta tahun 1955 yang sama, terlihat bahwa di sekitar kota Muarasabak 39 kilometer sebelah baratdaya kota Nipahpanjang juga terdapat kanal-kanal serupa yang dibuat oleh orangorang Bugis. Mereka belajar keterampilan membuat kanal ini juga dari orang-orang Melayu. Keterampilan ini menjadi salah satu ciri permukiman orang Bugis yang secara spontan terus berdatangan ke pantai timur Sumatera membuka lahan-lahan pertanian baru di daerah rawa. Keterampilan mereka mengelola padi pasang-surut memang sukar dipisahkan dari pekerjaan menggali kanal ini, terutama di provinsi Sumatera Selatan seperti penjelasan Collier dkk. bahwa: “…the village of Sungai Cawang, located on the Saleh Delta along the west bank of the Air Saleh River, has been settled with remarkable speed. Between 1971 and 1981, Buginese spontaneous migrants opened 3,000 ha of swamp forest for agriculture … they dug 62 major canals and many branch canals in this peat swamp…” (1984: 90). Budaya maritim yang melekat kuat dengan orangorang Bugis menyebabkan mereka cenderung menempati lokasi-lokasi yang mempunyai akes langsung ke sungai-sungai yang bermuara dekat laut. 4. Konfigurasi Keruangan Dari uraian di atas setidaknya terdapat tiga kelompok etnik yang berinteraksi mengelola kawasan pesisir Jambi, mereka adalah orang Melayu, Bugis, dan Jawa. Selain ketika kelompok ini masih terdapat kelompok lain yang lebih kecil jumlahnya yaitu orang-orang Banjar asal Kalimantan Selatan, orang Minang asal Sumatera Barat, dan orang Sunda dari Jawa Barat. Kelompokkelompok ini hidup membaur di lokasinya masing-masing akan tetapi tidak sebesar permukiman kelompok suku Melayu, Bugis, dan Jawa. Kecepatan orang Bugis mengakses hutan rawa berpengaruh langsung terhadap permukiman mereka yang semakin jauh masuk ke pedalaman, sementara orang Melayu tetap bertahan di tepi sungai-sungai besar. Pengolahan kayu menjadi mata pencarian kedua terpenting orang Bugis setelah bertani sebagai konsekuensi langsung dari kegiatan membuka hutan. Kayu dibutuhkan 153

untuk mendirikan rumah-rumah baru para transmigran, pembuatan mebel, dermaga, dan jembatan, serta mendukung industri perkapalan yang menjadi keahlian mereka. Kelompok migran asal pulau Jawa tidak melakukan hal itu, mereka lebih memilih untuk mencetak lebih banyak kebun dan sawah selain berjualan di pasar dan membuka bengkel. Banyak petak-petak hutan yang sudah ditebang oleh orang Bugis diambil alih menjadi kebun atau sawah oleh orang Jawa atau Sunda. Kedua kelompok etnik ini bersama orang Melayu lebih suka menetap secara permanen di tempattempat yang sudah mereka kelola. Perubahan besar terjadi ketika pemerintah membangun kanal-kanal irigasi bagai para transmigran di wilayah pedalaman yang sama. Ratusan kanal digali untuk mengeringkan rawagambut, Setiap ruas kanal dipersiapkan sebagai hunian baru keluarga migran asal desa-desa di pulau Jawa (Gambar 3). Maka muncul nama-nama baru yang mencermin-kan asal usul mereka, misalnya dusun Trimulyo atau Karangdadi-soga di kecamatan Rantaurasau yang ditinggali transmigran asal Yogyakarta. Muncul pula nama-nama baru yang mencer-minkan harapan transmigran untuk hidup lebih makmur di Sumatera seperti Wonorejo, Kotaharapan, Kebonrojo, atau Sidomulyo. Nama-nama ini jelas merujuk kepada permukiman orang-orang Jawa. Sementara desa dengan nama-nama Bugis atau Sunda nyaris tidak ada. Umumnya permikuman mereka mempertahankan nama sungai yang sudah lama dikenal oleh masyarakat Melayu seperti Paritsungaibuaya, Paritsungaipalas, atau Paritsungairaya. Muncul pula namanama baru yang tidak ada hubungannya dengan identitas enik atau asal usul penduduk, misalnya Paritcendrawasih atau Paritgaruda yang dihuni oleh purnawirawan TNI Sumber: Suwardi dkk., 2007. Angkatan Darat. Di lain pihak cukup banyak nama-nama yang menggunakan kode kanal buatan PU10 sebagai pengenal, contohnya SKGambar 3. 19 di kecamatan Rantaurasau yang Sistem kanal irigasi di daera Rantaurasau yang merupakan kependekan dari ‘parit sekunder dibangun pemerintah untuk kepentingan transmigrasi nomor urut 19’. Maka di kawasan pesisir Jambi, setiap ruas ‘parit’ identik dengan kelompok pemukim yang bisa dibedakan asal-usul mereka dan identitas budayanya. Terlepas dari sejarah kedatangan para migran ke kawasan pesisir, kecenderungan mereka memilih lingkungan geografis sebagai tempat tinggal menghasilkan konfigurasi toponimi yang 10

Direktorat Jenderal Pengairan, Kementerian Pekerjaan Umum (dulu disebut Departemen Pekerjaan umum atau disingkat DPU)

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menarik. Toponimi berlatar belakang bahasa Melayu umumnya ditemukan pada sepanjang aliran sungai Niur dan Berbak. Misalnya Kampunglaut, Telukmajelis, Muarasabak, Kotokandis, Simpang, Rantaurasau, atau Nipahpanjang. Nama-nama ini memiliki unsur lingkungan alam sebagai ciri pengenal seperti kata “muara”, yaitu mulut sungai yang bergabung dengan sungai lain, atau “teluk” untuk menamakan bagian dari sungai yang menjorok ke daratan. Kedekatan dengan karakter alam juga ditandai dengan penggunaan nama tanaman seperti kandis (Garcinia xanthochymus, aslinya tumbuh di India. Disebut juga pohon Asam Kandis), nipah (Nypa fruticans, tanaman keluarga palma yang hidup di air payau) dan rasau (Pandanus helicopus, keluarga pandanus berdaun panjang yang hidup di daerah rawa gambut). Nama-nama ini mencerminkan ekologi spesifik dari masing-masing tanaman. Dengan memperhatikan unsur nama yang menggunakan “rasau” penduduk pesisir Jambi akan segera mengetahui bahwa lokasi permukiman berada jauh dari pantai, yaitu pada daerah rawa dengan genangan air dangkal. Adapun unsur nama “nipah” tentunya berlokasi dekat dengan laut mengingat tanaman jenis ini menyukai lingkungan sungai dengan tingkat salinitas (kegaraman) yang tinggi. Penduduk lokal cukup paham bahwa pohon “kandis” tidak hidup di lingkungan rawa atau air payau, melainkan pada tanah-tanah yang tidak tergenang air seperti pada tanggul-tanggul alam (natural levee)11 sepanjang sungai besar. Bersama kandis biasanya tumbuh pula pohon mangga, kelapa, jambu, durian, atau nangka dari ekosistem yang sama (Lampiran). Pola penempatan nama-nama seperti ini mencerminkan klasifikasi geografis masayarakat Melayu menggunakan posisi laut dan sungai sebagai referensi keruangan. Terdapatnya toponimi dengan unsur tanaman kandis, nipah, dan rasau di dalamnya secara tidak langsung memperlihatkan sistem klasifikasi tersebut. Unsur “nipah” berkonotasi dengan laut, “kandis” dengan sungai, dan “rasau” dengan daerah rawa. Konotasi ini sekaligus berperan sebagai pedoman bagi para pelayar intra-insuler (bergerak di dalam lingkup pulau) untuk membedakan daerah hilir dengan hulu sungai di mana “nipah” berkonotasi dengan hilir, “kandis” dengan hulu, dan “rasau” dengan daerah tengah antara keduanya. Pola penamaan ruang geografis ini secara umum ditaati sebagai pedoman penciptaan namanama tempat di kawasan pesisir oleh orang Melayu dan Bugis, akan tetapi tidak diambil alih sepenuhnya oleh pendatang dari Jawa maupun Pemerintah yang sering menggunakan nama-nama baru tanpa memperhatikan konsep di balik pemberian nama ruang oleh orang Malayu. Maka dengan menggunakan konfigurasi toponimi yang bisa kita di kabupaten Tanjungjabung Timur antara kota Muarasabak, Nipahpanjang, dan desa Simpang dapat digambarkan distribusi kelompok etnik sebagai berikut.

11

Gundukan tanah yang tinggi terbentuk di sepanjang aliran sungai. Tersusun dari partikel tanah, debu, dan pasir yang dibawa oleh sungai sebagai hasil erosi di kawasan hulu.

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KAWASAN PESISIR

Peda lama Sungn (Hul ai u) besar (Hilir)

1. Wilayah Melayu dan Bugis 2. Wilayah Bugis dan transmigran 3. Wilayah transmigran

3 2 1

Gambar 4. Skema konfigurasi toponimi terkait dengan permukiman berdasarkan etnik .

Lingkaran pertama secara umum dianggap sebagai lingkungan ideal yang dipilih orang Melayu sebagai tempat tinggal mereka. Berdasarkan tinggalan purbakala yang diemukan di Muarasabak, Telukmajelis, dan Kotakndis diperkirakan mereka telah menghuni kawasan pesisir sejak abad X. Temuan keramik-keramik masa dinasti Sung (960-12) di ketiga lokasi membuktikan bahwa pada masa itu sudah terdapat kelompok-kelompok masyarakat yang membina hubungan luas dengan Cina, India, Thailand, dan kepulauan Nusantara.12 Bukti-bukti serupa juga ditemukan pada lokasi-lokasi di pedalaman yang beberapa ratus tahun kemudian ditinggalkan dan kembai menjadi hutan.13 Kepandaian orang Melayu membuat kanal dibuktikan dengan hadirnya saluransaluran air buatan di situs Muarajambi, yang oleh masyarakat setempat juga diberi nama menggunakan unsur kata parit. Contohnya paritjohor, paritamburanjalo, dan paritsekapung. Parit-parit ini diperkirakan sudah dibuat sejak masa kerajaan Sriwijaya sekitar abad XI-X (Mundardjito, 1985).14 Sementara orang-orang Bugis di Sulawesi dan orang Jawa umumnya tidak 12

13

14

Indikasi hubungan dengan India, Cina, dan Thailand khususnya untuk situs Kotokandis bisa dibaca dalam McKinnon “A Brief Note on Muara Kumpeh Hilir” tahun 1982” atau daam “New Data for Studying the Early Costline in the Jambi Area” tahun 1984. Lihat Taim “Penelitian Arkeologi Situs Lambur (Siti Hawa), Kabupaten Tanjung Jabung, Propinsi Jambi” tahun 1996 atau Atmodjo “Laporan Hasil Survei Arkeologi di Kecamatan Nipahpanjang dan Dendang, Kabupaten Tanjungjabung, Provinsi Jambi” tahun 1997. Sungai dan parit di Muarajambi mengelilingi daerah tempat berdirinya puluhan bangunan candi atau bangunan-bangunan berbahan bata yang belum diketahui fungsinya. Casparis memperkirakan Muarajambi pernah berstatus ibukota kerajaan Malayu Kuno berdasarkan nama sungai kecil bernama Melayu yang masih ada hingga hari ini selain puluhan reruntuhan bangunan tersebut. Satu sungai bernama Terusan di sebelah barat Muarajambi diperkirakan juga tergolong parit berdasarkan dengan

156

mempunyai latar belakang pengetahuan ini kecuali membuat saluran-saluran irigasi sawah. Pengalaman orang Sunda membuat kanal di dataran rendah Kerawang abad – tampaknya sudah dilupakan oleh para migran yang datang ke Jambi. Lingkaran kedua banyak dihuni oleh keturuanan orang Bugis yang berbaur dengan Melayu. Mereka umumnya membuka ladang kelapa, pinang, dan menggarap sawah pasang-surut. Ikatan budaya Bugis yang erat dengan laut memaksa mereka tidak mendirikan permukiman-permukiman baru jauh ke pedalaman dan jauh dari sungai besar, di mana kapal dan perahu berukuran besar tidak bisa masuk. Permukiman mereka cukup disebut menggunakan istiah yang umum, yaitu “Kampung Bugis”. Seperti halnya orang-orang Banjar di sekitar kota Kualatungkal, permukiman orang Bugis tetap mempertahankan nama yang sudah dikenal orang Melayu. Misalnya desa Kotokandis yang penduduknya sebagian besar adalah keturunan Bugis keturunan dari transmigran spontan tahun 1930-an atau tahun 1960-an dengan berakhirnya pemberontakan DI-TII di Sulawesi.15 Hal itu mungkin dipengaruhi oleh sejarah awal kedatangan mereka datang dan menetap di tempat-tempat yang sudah dihuni orang Melayu. Nama-nama tempat sebagai geographical knowladge orang Melayu diambil alih sebagai bagian dari sistem pengetahuan orang Bugis. Dengan strategi ini mereka cepat beradaptasi dengan lingkungan barunya. Akses ke hutan umumnya dimotifasi untuk mendapatkan kayu berkulitas dan berharga mahal seperti bulian (ulin, kayu besi, Eusideroxylon zwageri), kulim (bawang, Scorodocarpus borneensis), rengas (Gluta renghas), damar (Shiorea sp.), nibung (Oncosperma tigillarium), atau pulai (Alstonia scholaris). Dua jenis tanaman terakhir menjadi indikator keberadaan lapisan gambut tipis di atas lumpur yang subur untuk bercocok tanam. Petak tanah produktif ini sering mereka pertahankan untuk kepentingan sendiri, atau diserahkan kepada kelompok etnik lain melalui mekanisme jual-beli atau hibah. Saat ini lingkaran ketiga menjadi daerah yang paling luas bersamaan dengan masuknya orang-orang trans dari pulau Jawa,16 khususnya di pedalaman delta Berbak jauh dari sungai besar.

15

16

namanya. Istilah “terusan” adalah nama lain dari kanal, yaitu ruas sungai yang dibuat memotong ke sungai yang lain (chaneling). Sistem kanal serupa juga dijumpai pada situs Karanganyar di kota Palembang. Situs ini menempati meander sungai Musi menjelang kota Palembang yang sengaja dipotong oleh kanal bernama suakbujang. Di bagian yang terspisahkan itu dibangun tiga kolam berukuran besar yang masing-masing dihubungkan dengan saluran-saluruan yang menerima air dari sungai Musi. Untuk tinggalan purbakala di situs Karanganyar lihat Soekatno dkk., Rencana Induk Taman Purbakala Sriwijaya di Karanganyar, Palembang tahun 1995. Lihat artikel Vyda tentang migrasi orang-orang Bugis ke pantai Timur Sumatera dalam “Buginese Colonization of Sumatra's Coastal Swamplands” di laman http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/ 80130e/80130E0d.htm Pada umumnya istilah orang trans digunakan untuk menyebut para migran dari Jawa yang mempunyai banyak arti. Dari sisi mata pencarian orang trans dipahami sebagai petani dan pekebun non-Melayu dan non-Bugis. Dari sisi geografis orang trans adalah penduduk pedalaman. Mereka menjadi orang hulu karena menempati tempat-tempat yang jauh dari sungai besar Niur dan Berbak. Di mata orang Melayu dan Bugis, orang trans adalah pembeli komoditas potensial, sekaligus mitra setia dalam membangun jejaring perdagangan sistem asongan (hawkers) yang bergerak dari desa ke desa. Dari sisi politik dan sosial orang trans secara de-facto adalah penduduk dengan jumlah terbanyak yang cukup

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Banyak dari tempat ini yang tidak punya nama sebelumnya karena letaknya yang terpencil. Masuknya program transmigrasi membuka lahan-lahan baru segera diikuti dengan pemberian nama yang sering tidak mengacu kepada toponimi lokal. Oleh sebab itu nama sungai terdekat diadopsi sebagai kode wilayah yang bisa diintegrasikan ke dalam sistem pengetahuan kognitif penduduk lama suku Melayu, yang memberi nama semua ruas sungai dan interkoneksi antarsungai secara turun temurun. Orang-orang Jawa yang tidak terbiasa dengan konsep pembagian ‘hulu’ dan ‘hilir’ atau ‘luar’ dan ‘dalam’ lebih memilih untuk menggunakan nama-nama baru yang mengingatkan kampung halaman mereka atau harapan mereka untuk hidup lebih makmur di Sumatera. Kecenderungan serupa juga diperlihatkan oleh instansi pemerintah yang bertanggung jawab atas penyiapan lahan transmigrasi yang lebih menggunakan nama-nama berdasarkan klasifikasi teknis ruas kanal sebagai identitas.nama-nama ini memudahkan pihak yang memberi nama untuk mengetahui unit keruangan mereka dalam daerah yang dipisahkan oleh petak-petak tanah hasil dari penggalian kanal. Pengetahuan kognitif ini dibutuhkan untuk memudahkan pergerakan mereka di kawasan yang luas dengan mengingat ciri-ciri alam yang secara visual bisa diamati dan diberi nama. Desa Simpang, yang terletak di muara sungai Batang Hari sebelum pecah menjadi sungai Niur dan Berbak, diberi nama demikian karena di lokasi desa ini pertemuan ketiga sungai menjadi ciri yang mudah bisa diamati. Nama desa ini mempunyai arti sebenarnya sebagai “persimpangan sungai” atau “persimpangan sungai antara sungai Batang Hari, Niur, dan berbak”. Maka dengan menyebut nama desa penduduk Jambi akan mengetahui posisi geografis yang dimaksud, yaitu daerah perbatasan antara kawasan pantai dengan kawasan pedalaman. Penggunaan kata “kuala” dengan “muara” untuk menyebut toponimi yang berhubungan dengan sungai pun dipahami sebagai klasifikasi antara mulut-mulut sungai (river mouths) yang keluar ke laut atau yang menyatu dengan sungai ain berukuran lebih besar. Kata “kuala” dipegunakan untuk untuk mengacu daerah-daerah tempat sungai tertentu menyatu dengan laut, adapun kata “muara” dipergunakan untuk sungaisungai yang menyatu dengan sungai lain. Misalnya Kualamendahara sebagai daerah tempat menyatunya sungai Mendahara dengan laut, atau Muarakumpeh tempat menyatunya sungai Kumpeh dengan sungai Batang Hari. Akan tetapi, kata “kuala” juga digunakan untuk mulut-mulut sungai tertentu di daerah pesisir yang berada dekat laut, contohnya Kualamendahara yang airnya tumpah ke sungai Niur. Banyak dari daerah ini yang kemudian berkembang menjadi permukiman karena nilai strategisnya sebagai tempat bertemunya laut dengan sungai atau sungai dengan sungai. 5. Kesimpulan Dari uraian di atas bisa ditarik kesimpulan terdapatnya toponimi baru dan nama-nama lama di pesisir Jambi yang kita kenal sekarang. Nama-nama baru mulai diperkenalkan sejak era tahun 1970-an bersama dengan dipersiapkannya Kabupaten Tanjungjabung menjadi daerah trasmigrasi. Toponimi itu memiliki dimensi sejarah terkait dengan berpindahnya kelompok masyarakat dari tempat tertentu di pulau Jawa ke tempat-tempat baru di Sumatera. Pola sebaran toponimi tersebut berpengaruh. Pemahaman ini sukar dilepaskan apa bila kita memperhatikan konfigurasi toponimi di Kabupaten Tanjungjabung Timur.

158

memperlihatkan penempatan kelompok masyarakat tersebut yang bisa diduga latar belakang etnik, budaya, dan daerah asal-usulnya. Menelusuri kembali toponimi itu memungkinkan kita untuk memahami sejarah mobilisasi penduduk baru Jambi dari pulau Jawa ke Sumatera untuk mengisi tempat-tempat yang ‘kosong’ dengan harapan dapat mesejahterakan kehidupan masyarakat berpenghasilan rendah. Munculnya nama-nama baru tidak terhindarkan sebagai efek langsung dari kebijakan tersebut. Kajian Anschuetz mengenai lanskap menghasilkan empat kesimpulan yang dapat mengkaitkan arti ruang (space) dengan kebudayaan. Pertama, lanskap tidak sinonim dengan lingkungan alam melainkan sebuah wujud sintetik antara alam dengan manusia. Kebudayaan terstruktur di dalamnya, di mana masyarakat yang menempati lanskap tertentu mengorganisasikan kegiatan mereka di lingkungan alam yang spesifik. Kedua, lanskap adalah hasil budaya. Komunitas manusia mengubah lingkungan fisik menjadi tempat yang penuh arti melalui kegiatan, sistem kepercayaan, dan sistem nilai mereka. Ketiga, lanskap adalah ‘arena’ yang menampung kegiatan-kegiatan komunitas. Lanskap tidak saja dibentuk (construct) oleh populasi manusia tetapi juga menjadi tempat interaksi (milieu) di mana mereka tinggal dan bertahan hidup. Dan keempat, Lanskap merupakan konstruksi dinamis tempat setiap komunitas dan setiap generasi menempatkan ingatan mereka pada dunia yang beroreinteasi kepada manusia (anthropogenic), menyatukannya dengan morfologi, tatanan-tatanan, dan makna-makna yang logis (Anschuetz, 2001: 160-161). Mengingat bahwa permukiman manusia pada dasarnya adalah tempat-tempat (places) di dalam lanskap, kiranya bisa dimaknai pula bahwa toponimi kawasan pesisir Jambi baik lama maupun baru pada prinsipnya merupakan ciptaan manusia untuk menandai kehadirannya di permukaan bumi. Konsep pembagian ruang menjadi hulu dan hilir tidak digunakan untuk menandai ‘orang asli’ dengan ‘pendatang’ melainkan semata untuk mendiskripsikan satuan-satuan ruang geografis yang berada dekat laut atau jauh dari laut. Di balik pengertian ini tentu tersirat pula hadirnya jalinan sosial antarpenghuni di kedua satuan ruang yang terpisahkan oleh jarak. Interaksi budaya antara orang-orang Melayu dan suku-suku migran secara tidak langsung membentuk ikatan bersama melalui pengembangan nama-nama lama menjadi nama baru, atau dengan memperkenalkan nama-nama baru yang tidak mempunyai hubungan dengan nama lama dipahami sebagai konsekuensi dari proses migrasi penduduk yang sudah berlangsung hampir 80 tahun lamanya. Sebaran topinimi di kawasan ini kiranya bisa dilihat sebagai jejaring fungsional masyarakat agro-maritim yang dikelola bersama berdasarkan peran masing-masing. Dengan demikian distribusi situs-situs arkeologi di kawasan pesisir terbuka untuk dimaknai dalam konteks yang sama. Terdapat lebih dari 60 situs di pesisir Jambi di mana 44 diantaranya mengandung ertefak dan reruntuhan bangunan abad XI-XIII. Hampir semua situs menempati tempat-tempat di sepanjang sungai besar maupun kecil, memperlihatkan pola sebaran permukiman purba di hulu dan hilir yang kembali terjadi di abad XX setelah ditinggalkan selama ratusan tahun. Pergerakan penduduk ke pedalaman dari arah sungai-sungai besar kali ini digantikan oleh para migran dengan identitas budaya dan profesi spesifik mereka. Dalam proses ini banyak nama nama yang hilang digantikan dengan nama baru, atau terdapat tempat-tempat yang memiliki dua nama sesuai pemahaman turun-temurun dari masing-masing kelompok etnik. 159

Cukup banyak situs purbakala yang masih dihuni atau kembali dihuni oleh anggota kelompok berbeda suku seperti yang bisa kita temui di situs Kotokandis, Muarasabak, Telukmajelis, Simpang, atau Rantaurasau. Tempat-tempat ini tidak berubah nama dengan masuknya migran nonMelayu. Di akhir makalah ini bisa disimpulkan bahwa konfigurasi toponimi di kawasan pesisir Jambi adalah hasil dari konstruksi budaya yang memberi makna khusus terhadap satuan-satuan geografis sebagai ruang hidup manusia, maupun sebagai lanskap yang menampung kegiatan manusia untuk mewujudkan kebutuhan hidupnya. Daftar Acuan Anschuetz, K.F., Wilshusen, R.H. dan Scheick, C.L. (2001) “An Archaeology of Landscapes: Perspectives and Directions.” Journal of Archaeological Research, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2001. 157-211. Ashmore, W. (2007). “Social Archaeologies of Landscape.” Eds. Lynn Meskell dan Robert W. Preucel. A Companion to Social Archaeology. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2007. 255-271. Atmodjo, J.S. (1997) “Laporan Hasil Survei Arkeologi di Kecamatan Nipahpanjang dan Dendang, Kabupaten Tanjungjabung, Provinsi Jambi.” Jambi: Kantor Kantor Suaka Peninggalan Sejarah dan Purbakala Propinsi Jambi, Sumatera Selatan, dan Bengkulu. Atmodjo, J.S., Hendrata, A.O., dan Litiyaningsih. (2014). “Survei Etnografi Kawasan Nipahpanjang: Kontribusi Bagi Studi Etnoarkeologi.” Palembang: Balai Arkeologi Palembang, 2014. Collier, W., Rachman, B., Supardi, B., Ali, Rahmadi, and Jurindar, A.M. (1984). Cropping Systems And Marginal Land Development In The Coastal Wetlands Of Indonesia.” Workshop on Research Priorities in Tidal Swamp Rice. Manila: International Rice Research Institute Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines, pp. 193-196. Koswara, O. dan Rumawas, F. (1984). “Tidal swamp rice in Palembang region.” The Workshop on Research Priorities in Tidal Swamp Rice. Los Baños: International Rice Research Institute, pp. 37-48. Levang, P. (2003). Ayo ke Tanah Sabrang. Transmigrasi di Indonesia. Jakarta: Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia dan Institut de Recherche pour le Développment. McKinnon, E.E. (1982). “A Brief Note on Muara Kumpeh Hilir: An Early Port Site on the Batang Hari?.” SPAFA Digest, Vol 2, No. 3, 1982. 37-40. McKinnon, E.E. (1984). “New Data for Studying the Early Costline in the Jambi Area.” JMBRAS, Vol. 57, 1984. 56-66. Mundardjito. (1985) “Pola Pusat Upacara di Situs Muara Jambi.” Rapat Evaluasi Hasil Penelitian Arkeologi II. Jakarta: Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional, pp. 241-252. Rais, Jacub dkk. (2008). Toponimi Indonesia. Sejarah Bangsa yang Panjang Dari Permukiman Manusia dan Tertib Administrasi. Jakarta: Pradnya Paramita. 160

Soekatno dkk. (1993). Rencana Induk Taman Purbakala Sriwijaya di Karanganyar, Palembang. Jakarta: Direktorat Pelindungan dan Pengembangan Peninggalan Sejarah dan Purbakala. Suwardi dkk. (2007) “Some Efforts for Improving Degraded Peatland in the Berbak Delta, Jambi: Indonesia.” Proceeding of the International Symposium and Workshop on Tropical Peatland, Yogyakarta: 27-29 August 2007. Leicester, University of Leicester, 2007. 231236. Taim, Eka Asih Putrina. (1996). “Laporan Penelitian Arkeologi Situs Lambur (Siti Hawa), Kabupaten Tanjung Jabung, Propinsi Jambi.” Palembang: Balai Arkeologi Palembang, 1996. Tilley, Christhoper. (1994). A Phenomenology of Landscap Places, Paths and Monuments. Oxford: Berg Publishers, 1994. Vyda, A.P. (t.t.) “Buginese Colonization of Sumatra's Coastal Swamplands and Its Significance for Development Planning”, tanpa tahun: tanpa halaman. Diakses dari (http://archive.unu.edu/ unupress/unupbooks/80130e/80130E0d.htm)

161

LAMPIRAN

Toponomi permukiman sepanjang sungai Berbak dan Niur di Kabupaten Tanjungjabung Timur.

U

Selat Berhala 

Simburn  Kampungla aik Muarasa ut bak Kotokand is



Puding Simpang 

Sumber: diolah dari Koswara dan Rumawas, 1984: 40 Tanpa skala

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 Nipahpanjan g

 Rantauras au

A Corpus Study of Proverbs Related to Heart from Past to Present

Lina Septianasari STKIP Muhammadiyah Bogor [email protected]

Abstract The capacity of brilliant brain enables human being to create their creativity in using and mixing words to communicate their ideas. It is not news that some fixed expressions get such change in their forms or fixedness. The aims of this research are (1) to describe the transformation of proverbs related to heart and (2) to describe the variation of proverbs related to heart. The kind of this research is qualitative research used dictionary and corpus as the source of data. This research particularly focused on proverbs related to heart in American English dialect. The fixed syntactical form of the proverbs was taken from American English Idioms Dictionary. To get the data of its transformation and variation, the researcher used COCA and NOW Corpus. Moon’s theory (2008) about transformation and variation in fixed expressions and idioms (FEI) is used to analyze the data. The results show that there are transformation and variation in the lexical and syntactical forms of proverbs related to heart. It proves that cognitively human being is creative in using language. Key words: corpus, proverbs, transformation and variation.

1. Introduction Digital era already eases linguists to collect the data served in language corpus which is used in some domains of research. Corpus linguistics gives a number of data which is useful for linguists in analyzing linguistic phenomena. Practically, using corpus linguistics for language research is 163

more efficient since it provides linguists some kind of research tools which enable more accurate and valid description of language phenomena they need to observe (Kaunisto, 2007). A set of corpora found in websites show how human use and develop language from time to time. It eases linguist to analyze variation and change of some linguistic domains, such as the change of syntactical form of proverb. Although idiomatic expressions have a fixed form, some studies show that change and variation are found on its use in daily conversation. It occurs in idioms, cliché, proverb, saying etc. (Moon, 1998; Langlotz, 2006; Septianasari, 2015). Furthermore, Moon (1998) stated that even though proverb is the part of fixed expressions, the form of this expression is not actually fixed. Some transformations and variations may occur to change its phraseological units. These kinds of change happen because human have a magnificent brain which evokes them to produce such creativity in using language. Proverbs bring culture through language. In addition, proverbs are bits of ancient wisdom which also bring history to be taught from time to time as long as the language of those proverbs still exists (Stone, 2006). This kind of fixed expression is formed since long time ago documented in bible, literature, or other manuscripts. Nevertheless, proverbs syntactically have flexibility. Affected by human’s creativity, the forms of its fixedness are changed from time to time. Cluter (1982) correlated transformation deficiencies and diachronic studies. She found out that the earliest data of items she investigated were less frozen in form. This argument is supported by Moon (1998) in his theory about the change of FEI which happened time to time. Look at the sample below:

(1)Yet Henderson is also fully capable of hitting home runs if he cannot get on base. Against a slow-moving catcher like the Giants' Terry Kennedy in the World Series, Henderson is expected to make hay. (Moon, 1998).

The verb phrase to make hay in the sample (1) above comes from a proverb make hay while the sun shines which is transformed into predicate or verb phrase. This phenomenon can also be called as truncation in which the term of lexical variation occurs to change proverb, performed in imperative sentence, into verb phrase. Although this proverb is syntactically flexible, the change of it still has an equivalent meaning semantically, that is “if someone has an opportunity 164

to do something, do it before the opportunity expires”. As the time goes by, the frozenness of some proverbs changes to be more flexible on their daily use. This kind of transformation and variation also can be found in several proverbs. In line with the phenomenon explained above, researcher interested to conduct a research entitled “A Corpus Study of Proverbs Related to Heart”. The lexeme “Heart” is chosen to specify the scope of this research. The aims of this research are (1) to describe the transformation of proverbs related to heart and (2) to describe the variation of proverbs related to heart.

2. Research Method The type of this research is qualitative research which using corpora and American English Idioms Dictionary as the data sources. The object of this research is proverbs related to heart. In collecting the data, researcher used referential method. American English Idioms Dictionary is used to collect the fixed forms of proverbs related to heart in American English dialect. Besides, corpora (COCA and NOW Corpus) are used to collect the data of transformation and variation of proverbs related to heart. The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) and The NOW (News On the Web) Corpus are chosen as the sources in collecting the data because the researcher focused this research on American English dialect. Besides, COCA and NOW corpus consist of recent words of data. COCA contains more than 520 million words of text while NOW corpus contains about three billion words from web-based magazines from 2010 to the present time. Both of these corpora are used to collect the data in transformation and variation occurred in proverb related to heart. After taking the data from the corpora, the researcher analyzed the data by grouping the transformation and variation of proverbs related to heart using transformation and variation theory explained by Moon (1998).

3. Theoretical Review Folklore, fable, fairytale, and other old manuscripts become source of proverbs’ documentation. It has been used and has been inherited from generation to generation as long as the language of the proverbs is used. In some cases it brings cultural values taught by the ancestor of one ethnics or one language society. There are thousands proverbs from various culture and language around the world (Wolfgang, 2004). Commonly proverbs reflect life’s experiences, wisdom, sermon, etc. 165

Generally speaking, proverb is kind of fixed expression that express the truth and teach a lesson about the life akin guidance or practical advice (Kerschen, 1998; Moon, 1998; Stone, 2006). Given the definition of fixed expression, creatively the form of proverbs’ fixedness can be changed syntactically as long as it does not change its meaning and it is still intelligibly understood. A number of studies show that the forms of some items in FEI are less frozen (Moon, 1998; Langlotz, 2006; Septianasari, 2015). As the language changes time to time, the forms of some fixed expressions also vary time to time. Related to this fact, Moon (1998) found out that there are several transformations and variations in FEI. Here are the classifications.

3.1 Transformation Proverbs, as the part of fixed expressions, are syntactically unstable. Moon (1998) generally divided transformation of fixed expressions and idioms into 8 parts. They are: polarity, passivization, nonfinite uses, embedding, pronominalization, nominalization, transformation to adjective, and transformation to adverb. In short, syntactical approach is used to classify these terms.

3.2 Variation Talking about variation, Moon (1998) classified the variation of fixed expressions and idioms into 8 main parts (lexical variation, syntactical variation, frame and variation, etc). In this case, the analysis of data is focused on the lexical variation found in proverbs related to heart, such as truncation, adjective variation, and noun variation. The theory above is used to analyze the data taken from corpora. The transformation and variation deficiencies of proverbs show how far the syntactical flexibility of proverbs can be found in utterances.

4. Discussion The discussion of this term is divided into two main parts based on the guideline of the theory already mentioned in the previous part. The first discussion is about transformation of proverbs related to heart. In this point, the researcher found out that embedding and polarity are used in some data. The next part discusses about the variation of proverbs related to heart. 166

The results from data collecting technique show that there are 9 proverbs related to heart which is found in McGraw-Hill’s Dictionary of Idioms. They are: (1) Absence makes the heart grow fonder; (2) Cold hands, warm heart; (3) Faint heart never won fair lady; (4) A heavy purse makes a light heart; (5) Hope deferred maketh/makes the heart sick; (6) It is a poor heart that never rejoices; (7) A light purse makes a heavy heart; (8) The way to a man’s heart is through his stomach; and (9) What the eye doesn’t see, the heart doesn’t grieve over. After conducting a deep investigation by using COCA and NOW Corpus, transformations and variations of proverbs do not occur in all of those proverbs. Further discussion can be seen on subsections below.

4.1 Transformation of Proverbs Related to Heart After analyzing the data by using Moon’s theory of transformation, the researcher found out two kinds of transformation in proverbs related to heart. Polarity type and embedding type are two common transformation used for these kind of proverbs.

a. Embedding Moon (1998) stated that embedding involves the relegation of the part of FEI to relative clause and dependent on a component noun in the FEI, cleft or pseudo-cleft structure. Broadly meaning, Quirk et al (1985) argued that embedding can be defined as the occurrence of linguistic unit as the constituent of the other unit at the same grammatical domain (see also: Kroeger, 2005; Gelderen, 2010). Look at the data below! (1) To explain why separation and other adversities can make the heart grow fonder, she has coined the term… (Source: NOW Corpus) (2) When absence has truly made the heart grow fonder, one’s desire is exclusively for the now-absent lover. (Source: COCA)

The basic form of data (1) and (2) is Absence makes the heart grow fonder (Spears, 2005). The relative pronouns why in data (1) and when in data (2) show the occurrence of embedding in sentence. In data (1), the subject of the proverb (Absence) is replaced by the embedded pronoun as written in bold above. In the other hand, this proverb is transformed from sentence to relative clause in data (2). The use of relative pronoun when in data (2) embedded the form of this proverb to be a relative clause of the sentence. These kinds of transformation yield embedding. 167

b. Polarity Talking about polarity cannot be separated from talking about negation. In polarity, the forms or meanings of proverbs are changed syntactically and semantically. Mostly the transformation in polarity occurs from positive form to negative form. Polarity is the opposite of the old form of fixed expression. Look at the data below! (3) Gilliam says, “Absence does not make the heart grow fonder. Closeness makes the brain grow more connected. (Source: NOW Corpus) (4) Proverbs 13:12 says, “Hope deferred makes the heart sick, but a dream fulfilled is a tree of life. (Source: NOW Corpus) Data (3) above show contradictive meaning and form of proverb “Absence makes the heart grow fonder”. Spears (2005) elaborated the meaning of this fixed expression that people tend to feel more affection and love toward other people or things if they are far apart. The appearance of negation does not strengthened with the sentence Closeness makes the brain grow more connected in data (3) broke the fixed form and meaning like already explained by Spears (2005) on his dictionary. Spears (2005), regarding to the proverb in data (4), argued that the meaning of “Hope deferred makes the heart sick” is that a long waiting will bring desperation. Given the utterance in data (4) above, the use of conjunction but followed by the dependent clause a dream fulfilled is a tree of life gave such objection toward the meaning of this proverb. The phenomena found in those two data yield as polarity. Besides reflected by the using of negation, polarity can be indicated by the appearance of clause or sentence which gives the opposite meaning or weakens the meaning of the proverb or other fixed expression.

4.2 Variation of Proverbs Related to Heart The change of forms in some of fixed expressions like idioms and proverbs show how creative human is in using language as a means of communication. The result of investigation conducted by researcher showed that there are three kinds of variation found in this research; lexical variation, specificity and amplification, and truncation. They all were analyzed by using Moon’s theory as explained previously. 168

a. Lexical Variation Lexically words vary considerably and some words are interchangeable. They can replace each other within conveying the close meaning of utterances. Lexical variation is a kind of variation occurred in the term of lexicon which construct the form of fixed expressions. Data (5) to (11) below show the variability of the use of lexicon in proverb “Absence makes the heart grow fonder” and “Faint heart never won fair lady”. (5) Distance makes the heart grow fonder (Source: COCA) (6) Abstinence makes the heart grow fonder (Source: COCA) (7) There’s an old saying, that parting makes the heart grow fonder (Source: COCA) (8) Out of sight may make the heart grow fonder. (Source: NOW Corpus) (9) Like many unhappy lovers who fantasize that death will make the heart grow fonder. (Source: COCA) The noun distance in data (5), abstinence in data (6), and death in data (9) are used to replace the noun absence as the subject of proverb “Absence makes the heart grow fonder”. This kind of variability can also be called as Noun Variation. In other case, gerund parting in data (7) and idiom out of sight in data (8) are used interchangeably to replace the subject of the proverb. Those words are synonymous. (10) Oh well, he thought, steeling his courage and stepping in, faint heart never won fairly pissed-off lady. (Source: COCA) (11) Well, spit it out. Faint heart never won fair maiden. (Source: COCA) The noun phrase fair lady as the fixed form of idiom “Faint heart never won fair lady” had been lexically modified by the use of noun phrase fairly pissed-off lady in data (10) and fair maiden in data (11). Variability occurred in the data above are synonymous. Regarding to its frozenness, some proverbs are unique because they can be modified within variability which reflects the creativity of the way human use their language. b. Specificity and Amplification Specificity and amplification are used to give emphasis or strengthen the utterances. It could be modifier, adjective, adverb, etc. Look at the data below!

169

(12)

Plus with them being apart, the absence is definitely making the heart grow fonder. (Source: NOW Corpus) (13) What can I say? Absence does indeed make the heart grow fonder, and the guilt of having him locked away in a hell realm for…(Source: COCA) (14) Maybe my absence had, as the adage promised, made his heart grow fonder. (Source: COCA) (15) A little absence makes the heart grow fonder. (Source: COCA) (16) An absence of vocals can make the heart grow fonder (Source: COCA) Those specificity and amplification of data (12) to (16) are addressed to proverb “Absence makes the heart grow fonder”. Data (12) is strengthened by the use of intensifying adverb definitely. Data (13) is emphasized by the use of intensifying modifier does and indeed. The same case occurs in data (15). Modifier a little emphasizes the proverb. Furthermore, appositive as the adage promised, added in data (14), is given to amplify the proverb. The last, the noun vocal in noun phrase an absence of vocals (data 16) is added to specify the subject of the proverb. c. Truncation Moon (1998) pointed out that in truncation, proverbs and also sayings are moved to a lower level of grammatical units. Based on data collecting, there are 2 proverbs which are truncated into shorter grammatical units. It can be seen as follows: (17) The thing I like best about Fearne is that she’s got a warm heart and she’ll do anything for charity. (Source: NOW Corpus) (18) Mr. Ueno’s music is challenging. It is not for the faint of heart, nor for people who cringe at the thought of hearing contemporary music of any… (Source: COCA) Idiomatic phrase warm heart in data (17) is truncated from proverb “Cold hands, warm heart.” Based on Spears (2005), this proverb means that people whose hands are usually cold, have kind and loving personality. The truncated form of this proverb warm heart still holds the same meaning of this part in the proverb. Warm heart in data (17) above still means kind, friendly and sympathetic or loving personality. Another idiomatic phrase in data (18), faint of heart, is truncated from proverb “Faint heart never won fair lady”. Spears (2005) argued that this proverb means a lacking confidence person or coward will never win his lady. It is clear that the phrase faint of heart in data (18) above means coward or people who do not like challenges. 170

In truncation, although a proverb changes into smaller grammatical unit, they still hold the meaning of its part in proverb. It shows that every element which constructs a proverb carries a meaning.

4.3 The Case of Diachronic Term in Proverb Related to Heart Proverbs are ancient group of words which exist since several decades ago. Its ancient form somehow is still applicable for today’s life. In collecting the data of proverbs related to heart from Dictionary of American English Idioms written by Spears (2005), researcher found a unique datum. That is proverb “Hope deferred maketh the heart sick” (Spears, 2005). It is also commonly used nowadays with a fixed form as “Hope deferred makes the heart sick” as found in the corpus below: (19)

… with sprinkles, it's just different! # “Hope deferred makes

but a longing fulfilled, is a tree of life" … (Source:

the heart sick,

NOW Corpus)

As far as this research being conducted, the researcher did not find any data from corpora which use the archaic lexeme maketh. Further investigation showed that this lexeme was no longer listed as the lemma in 8th edition of Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary (Hornby, 2010). Maketh is the third-person singular simple present indicative form of make. This word is broadly used during Shakespeare’s era, frozen in old sayings or proverbs, but nowadays this word is barely used in utterances. People nowadays tend to use the lexeme make than to use this archaic lexeme.

5. Conclusion This research shows that people are very creative in using their language. Within considering the term of frozenness of fixed expression, proverbs can be transformed and be varied with still holding its intelligibility in utterances. As the ancient wisdoms conveying ideals, proverbs are still relevant with today’s life. There are three points that can be summed up from this discussion. Firstly, the transformations of proverbs related to the lexeme “heart” occurred in term of embedding and polarity. Syntactically, people use their creative minds in transforming proverbs’ fixed form to communicate their ideas. Secondly, variability of those proverbs which is divided into three parts: (1) lexical variation, (2) specificity and amplification, and (3) truncation, prove that variation or 171

change also occurred in fixed expression. Lastly, the frozenness of proverb showed how the lexicon changed diachronically and how grammatically its form can also be changed.

References Gelderen, Elly Van. 2010. An Introduction to the Grammar of English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Hornby. 2010. Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary: 8th Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. http://corpus.byu.edu/coca/ accessed in September to October, 2016. http://corpus.byu.edu/now/ accessed in September to October, 2016. Kaunisto, Mark. 2007. Variation and Change in the Lexicon: A Corpus-based Analysis of Adjective in English Ending with –ic and -ical. Amsterdam: Rodopi. Kerschen, Lois. 1998. American Proverbs about Women. London: Greenwood Press. Kroeger, Paul R. 2005. Analyzing Grammar: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Langlotz, Andreas. 2006. Idiomatic Creativity: A Cognitive-Linguistics Model of IdiomRepresentation and Idiom-Variation in English. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Moon, Rosamund. 1998. Fixed Expressions and Idioms in English: A Corpus Based Approach. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Septianasari, Lina. 2015. Idiom dalam Novel The Kiss. Tesis: UGM. Spears, Richard A. 2005. Dictionary of American Idioms. USA:McGraw-Hills’ Company. Stone, Jon R. 2006. The Routledge Book of World Proverbs. New York: Routledge. Wolfgang, Mieder. 2004. Proverbs: A Handbook. London: Greenwood Press. Quirk, Randolph, Sidney G., Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. 1985. A Comprehensive Grammar of English Language. USA: Longman.

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Storytelling of Entrepreneurs in Entrepreneurship Education: Discourse Analysis Lucy Suraiya Faulty of Humanities, Andalas University [email protected]

Abstract In this paper, it is questioned why students would say that entrepreneurs telling the stories in class are more powerful compared to their lecturers providing a ‘rational’ pedagogy framework. It is believed that language has important role to convey their vision on entrepreneurship. In entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurship is not only an effort to generate entrepreneurs but also and more important is how to develop entrepreneurial spirit that emphasizes personal qualities to be creative, innovative and self-reliant, as they are needed when the students are living in community. Drawing on discourse analysis, this study analyzes the utterances of entrepreneurs who gave ‘general lecture’ in Andalas University and lecturers of entrepreneurship class. The indicators of entrepreneurial spirits are also analysed in their narrative as they contain motivations that should be developed for students. The finding identifies the “paradox” of entrepreneurial storytelling and concludes with the support for the value of discourse analysis in entrepreneurship research and for practices to enhance entrepreneurship pedagogy and training. Keywords: discourse analysis, entrepreneurial spirits, storytelling

1. Introduction Entrepreneurship education has been attracting widespread interest over the last decade to be taught in many educational institutions, in many countries, since it is regarded as a powerful drive of economic growth, job creation (Darwanto, 2012; Decker et.al, 2014; Ayoadel & Agwu, 2016) and particularly for the purpose of growing up the spirit of entrepreneurship of the students (Achtenhagen, 2014). In Indonesia, Directorate of Higher Education has obliged universities to include entrepreneurship course as compulsory course in curriculum for two semesters since 2009. Most of research in educational entrepreneurship in Indonesia has yielded supports to the importance of educational entrepreneurship in Indonesia. For example, Susilaningsih (2013) found that entrepreneurship education in higher education is required in any all fields of study, whatever the professions. Wiratno (2012) studied the implementation of entrepreneurship in higher education. Dakoumi & Abdelwahed (2014) concerned that the best way to make the students aware of “the entrepreneurial intention” is mostly through a story. While research conducted overseas mostly studied the effects of entrepreneurship education to students’ attitude in relation to business and management studies (Donellon, 2014; Kakouris, 2015). Lack of attention of studying entrepreneurship education on linguistics perspective. In this study, I question why students would say that entrepreneurs telling stories in class are more powerful compared to their 173

lecturers providing a ‘rational’ pedagogy. It is believed that this question may be examined through the language used by entrepreneurs and lecturers since the language play an important role to distribute vision on entrepreneurship. Storytelling about the ‘success stories” of entrepreneurs is one of the popular ways used in many entrepreneurship classes. Stories are interesting and motivating, thus, attracting students to listen. An effective story communication strategy combines two elements: identity and behavior (Schultz, 2000). Stories may create someone identity that may yield events in the past, today and tomorrow. In other words, “stories help individuals understand and describe who they are” (Martens et al., 2007: 1110). A life story of entrepreneurs can be divided into two parts and associated with the discourse units like as the sequence of events, the connections among those sequences, and told by an individual during the course of his/her lifetime. The storytelling may have two ways of dissemination: 1. The stories and associated discourse units contained in the life story have as their primary point about the speaker since it is the speaker him/herself telling the stories 2. The stories and associated discourse units have extended and are retold by others over the course of a long period of time. The stories may follow these sequence: 1. Who-I-Am stories reveal personal details about yourself as the entrepreneur – perhaps your childhood, your first workplace experience, or family. 2. Why-I-Am-Here stories talk about the motivation and objectives, sometimes beyond professional - even personal - reasons. 3. Educational or Teaching stories share lessons learned from experience, usually about conveying a moral, principle or better way of doing things. The stories rely a lot from entrepreneurs’ experience. 4. Vision stories engage listeners/students with the bigger and broader picture, and inspire them to overcome obstacles and achieve a grand goal, or make a dream comes true. 5. Value-In-Action stories may use anecdotes or wise-words to strengthen the message given in the stories. 2. Method This is a qualitative research. The data were collected from September to October 2016 in three entrepreneurship classes, Economics, Husbandry and Engineering Faculties in Even semester of 2015/2016 academic year. These classes were selected referring to the division of discipline, natural and social sciences. Then, three General Lectures on Entrepreneurship at Andalas University during those two months were recorded. The data were transcribed orthographically, identified, codified and categorized into the utterances which contained paradoxical ways in the ideas presented by both lecturers and entrepreneurs. The data were analysed according to classroom discourse structure, which includes the event of the discourse, thematic coherence, and context of the discourse. Storytelling is typically categorized into narratives. This discourse is based on the phenomena of a participant narrative and a non-participant narrative Entrepreneurs are categorized as participant narratives 174

(who experiences his life story) and lecturers of entrepreneurship class are categorized in nonparticipant narratives (neither the participant in the reported event nor a witness of what has happened). 3. Discussion Entrepreneurship classes in Andalas University is included in MKDU Class (Mata Kuliah Dasar Umum), compulsory class that must be enrolled in all study programs in all faculties. Entrepreneurship class is taught by the lecturer of study program. If the study programs have lack of lecturers who are able to teach entrepreneurship class, they may propose the lecturers from Economics Faculty to assist. In addition, Andalas University invites entrepreneurs or famous CEO every week to give general lecture on entrepreneurship. This is conducted in line with Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education program, to produce graduates who are not only job seekers but also job creators. Therefore, entrepreneurship learning in Andalas University is not only provided by Andalas University lecturers but also famous entrepreneurs in Indonesia. In General Lecture, entrepreneurs always tell their success stories. Entrepreneurs who have higher educational background tend to tell their stories from their own experience as low level of employees in companies and then are able to see better opportunities to resign from those companies. For entrepreneurs who have no higher educational background share the stories of suffered experiences to work hard to achieve success. All problems faced were regarded as challenges and the spirit to achieve success. a. Motivating expressions to be entrepreneurs: simply talk about their life and ideas The following entrepreneurs express their ideas straight forward, simply mention and tell the story of their life. They don’t talk about failure but whenever they fail this is only a learning experience or the chance to move to another opportunity. The entrepreneur 1 motivates the students to start business earlier with straight language. He just applies simple words, and giving illustration that is easily understood by students, something that most students are familiar with like learning how to ride a bicycle is analogized with starting business. Children learn to ride bicycle without frightening being falling down. Just like a baby who never thinks to fall down whenever he learns to walk. Entrepreneur 1: Jadi pengusaha itu tidak ada teorinya, tidak ada formula khusus, sama halnya kita naik sepeda, ya naik sepeda saja. Begitu juga memulai bisnis, langsung dimulai dan dikerjakan saja. Langsung dicoba. Pokoknya saya pengen saja, harus ada saya usahakan dan kerjakan. Jadi jangan takut ciptakan jadi nyata Makin cepat makin baik. Tidak boleh alasan belum siap, takut mencoba, atau belum punya modal. 175

Jadi tidak ada teorinya Tidak ada batasan umur kapan harus mulai berwirausaha Yang terbaik adalah semakin muda semakin baik jadi pengusaha Semakin muda semakin baik. The entrepreneur 2 focuses on her own success and how she performs some strategies to achieve success. She never thinks about failure. Whenever she fails, she won’t listen to what other thinks about her. Problems must be faced, solved quickly and work hard to achieve your dreams. One must be ready to changes. You won’t get your dream if you don’t start to do it. The destiny is not the thought of entrepreneurs, Entrepreneur 2: Jangan andalkan kata orang Orang boleh bilang apa pun tentang kita Tapi kita yang putuskan Kita kan punya telinga, saring itu informasi Cari orang yang sukses saja dan ikuti caranya Cari model yang mau ajarkan kita Saya cuma meniru apa yang orang sukses lakukan Siap kerja Pengorbanan sekecil-kecilnya, hasil sebesar-besarnya itu bohong. Tidak ada di dunia ini, duduk-duduk saja dan dapat uang Kita harus siap dengan perubahan Kalau anda pikir anda bisa sukses, ya lakukan segera Ini bukan gaya hidup orang yang ditiru Tapi gimana cara kerjanya Jadi ketika anda bangun pagi hari Ada dua pilihan sederhana Kembali tidur dan bermimpi atau Bangun dan mengejar mimpi anda Although Andalas University has used the main books in entrepreneurship education, observation in learning process indicated that there occurred variation in instructional delivery. For lecturers who have the spirit of entrepreneurship and have the experience in doing business, they may provide concrete examples of each topic given in the class related to their discipline or field of study. As for example, Lecturer A who is teaching at Husbandry Department provided examples in animal farm, how to quickly determine the weight of cow, the habit of Minang culture to negotiate the price of cow (hiding fingers under the sarong to negotiate how much the cost of 176

cow to sell), and other local wisdom in transaction. This lecturer usually gives illustrations as if he is an actor who plays and dramatizes many roles in his artificial stories, but it stills in accordance with the topic of teaching material. In general, other lecturers only give the materials and examples based on the textbooks or too general business illustrations, such as food, garment, and other selling stuff. They are not able to provide examples of products related with their field of study. As a result, the students feel uneasy and then disagree with the examples given to conduct business which are not in line with their interest and field of study. This expression uttered by one of the students, “what’s it used for I learn how to sell food, while I’m studying engineering”. The utterances expressed by one of lecturers is shown as follows. b. Motivating expressions to be entrepreneurs: ‘rational’ way about how entrepreneurs make decision The lecturers tend to discuss about opportunity but never discuss opportunity from the failure or how the entrepreneurs make decision. They only talk about the opportunities theoretically or conceptually, not in reality. Entrepreneurship learning is not sufficient only by giving directions or explaining innovation to students but the lecturers themselves should be innovative ones to provide the students with whatever examples surrounding the students’ life as illustration in learning process. The following is the sample of lecturers’ utterances: Lecturer 1: Mungkin ada baiknya saya minta kan salah seorang wakil kelompok ini untuk menceritakan apa video yang diceritakan bisnis Kebab Turki Baba Rafi, apa pelajaran yang dapat diambil pelajaran dari padanya. The lecturer 1 retold the success story of others. He only plays a role as non-participant narrative. This lecturer less provides entrepreneur attitude in giving illustration related to his field of study in the learning process of entrepreneurship. It’s better for him to provide the students with the illustration of simple products related to their field of study. For example, if it is in Engineering Faculty, the illustration should be innovative, simple and practical machine used for easy living or daily needs. Lecturer 2: Yang anda lakukan sesungguhnya adalah anda saya suruh dulu masuk kolam, saya suruh anda melakukan bisnis terserah anda, apa produknya, apa pasarnya, apa masalahnya, sekarang bisa tahu mana orang yang berbisnis tanpa sekolah dan mana yang berbisnis dengan sekolah. Nah sekarang kita mulai belajar tentang aspek keuangan. Ayo sebutkan apa produk yang anda jual? Ayo tolong ceritakan tantang jilbab, risoles, t-shirt, violet, chocolate 177

Apa yang membuat orang membeli produk kita? Ok, sekarang coba kelompok yang jual jilbab dulu. Coba ceritakan apa yang telah kalian lakukan! Jadi value proposition adalah desain bagus, nyaman dipakai, warna banyak. Jadi apa itu value proposition? Even though Lecturer 2 has given freedom to his students to choose their own business but then he still uses illustration on general products, not the products produced related to his field of study. In these utterances, Lecturer 2 shows the steps of conducting business, starting from how the product characteristics must be produced until that product arrive at customers. While explain the process, he also introduced the students the terminology used in business. Students who have enrolled in entrepreneurship class as well as attended General Lecture on Entrepreneurship gave comment, that what has been delivered by entrepreneurs more motivates them to be businessman in accordance with their field of study they are studying at the moment. Speech delivery of entrepreneurs is not straight forward, giving tips to produce products or services, strategies to problems-solving, how to negotiate with business partners, and others. These make them easier to understand and interest to try to do what the entrepreneurs have done. On the other hand, material delivery by lecturers tend to be text-bookish, lack of relevancy to business world practice, as a result, students regard this as uninteresting topics. Students participation in entrepreneurship class is due to the compulsory subject to obtain grade. It is not about on how they find opportunities for themselves as they graduate later. 4. Conclusion Based on the utterances expressed by both entrepreneurs in General Lecture and lecturers in entrepreneurship classes, there are contrary ways on how to motivate students to be entrepreneurs: 1. The expressions of entrepreneurs are simply talk about their life and ideas. They do not tell failure but create success from failure. Their story is real, about their life. They are talking what they do. They also use wise words that are easily remembered by students. This refers to value-inaction. 2. The expressions of entrepreneurship lecturers are by telling others’ success story and emphasize on opportunities. They are not able to describe and explain innovative products related to their field of study. Therefore, lecturers should learn how to illustrate the innovative products related to their disciplines with motivating expressions. An entrepreneurship lecturer must firstly have the spirit of entrepreneurs in order to be able to provide the innovative examples to the students in every stages of teaching learning process. Thus, discourse analysis in this research describes the sequence of utterances which contain motivating words for students to be entrepreneurs in the form of storytelling. However, the meaning are realized differently by entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship lecturers. Further research should continue to explore specific language features used by entrepreneurs and lecturers in developing the spirit of entrepreneurship. 178

References Achtenhagen, Leona. (2014). Re-constructing the Entrepreneurial Spirit. Sweden: Jonkoping International Business School. Amel Hamrouni Dakoumi, A.H. & Yosra Abdelwahed. (2012). Is Entrepreneurship for You? Effects of Storytelling on Entrepreneurial Intention. Higher Institute of Management, University of Sousse, Tunisia. Ayoade, Ezekiel O. and Edwin M. Agwu (2016). Employment Generation through Entrepreneurial Development: The Nigerian Experience”. British Journal of Economics, Management & Trade 11(3): 1-14, 2016. Darwanto. (2012). Peran Entrepreneurship dalam Mendorong Pertumbuhan Ekonomi dan Peningkatan Kesejahteraan Masyarakat. Seminasi Riset Terapan Bidang Manajemen & Bisnis Tingkat Nasional. Administrasi Bisnis Politeknik Negeri Semarang. Fakultas Ekonomika Dan Bisnis Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang. Decker, Ryan., et.al. (2014). “The Role of Entrepreneurship in US Job Creation and Economic Dynamis”. Journal of Economic Perspectives—Volume 28, Number 3—Summer 2014— Pages 3–24. Donnellon. Anne., Susana Ollila, and Karen Middleton. (2014). “Constructing Entrepreneurial Identity In Entrepreneurship Education”. The International Journal of Management Education. Vol. 12. Kakouris Alexandros. (2015). Entrepreneurship pedagogies in lifelong learning:Emergence of criticality?. Learning, Culture and Social Interaction 6. Pp.87-97. Martens, M. L., J.E. Jennings, and P.D. Jennings. (2007). Do the stories they tell get them the money they need? The role of entrepreneurial narratives in resource acquisition. Academy of Management Journal, 50(5), 1107-1132. Renkema, Jan. (2004). Introduction to Discourse Studies. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Susilaningsih. (2015). Pendidikan Kewirausahaan di Perguruan Tinggi: Pentingkah untuk Semua Profesi? Prosiding Seminar Nasional 9 Mei. Wiratno, Siswo. (2012). “Pelaksanaan Pendidikan Kewirausahaan di Pendidikan Tinggi” (The Implementation of Entrepreneurship Education in The Higher Education). Jurnal Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, Vol. 18, Nomor 4, Desember.

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Acoustical Analysis of Final Question Intonation in English Foreign Learners Miva Aziza University of Indonesia [email protected] Abstract This research aims at examining the production of final English intonation by English foreign learners in Indonesia. This is an experimental production of phonetic acoustic research. The sample data is vocational school students utterances and native speakers as the control group. This is a phonetic acoustic research using PRAAT program to analyze the acoustic data in the intonation. The instruments used are interrogative and tag questions contrasted to get the information of the intonation differences between the two modes of sentences. The data taken from the samples using two techniques, reading and imitating. The results of the research reveal significant differences between the two groups in producing rising and falling final intonations and within two different techniques. Overall, the result shows that the imitation technique can accommodate students' need in producing the correct rising and falling final intonation. This research hopefully could give input to the teaching speaking techniques, especially in teaching English prosody to Indonesian students. Keywords: final intonation, production approach, PRAAT, phonetic acoustic.

1. Introduction Prosodic features, or also known as non-segmental features or suprasegmentals, of speech of the kind commonly describes as tone, stress, and intonation (Clark and Yallop, 1997: pp.358). For the first-language speakers, acquiring prosody comes automatically with the language. Yet, this doesn’t happen with the foreign language learners. Research shows that the first language can influence people in learning their foreign language in the term of pronunciation as well as the prosody, in particular the rhythm and melody. Therefore, it would be interesting to investigate how Indonesian students of Vocational school uttering the English intonation. English prosody differs in some aspects from Indonesian prosody. In English, word stresses could define meaning while in Indonesian they don’t significantly influence the meaning. Another crucial but tricky aspect in prosody is the intonation. Intonation is often describe as a matter of ‘musical feature’ or speech ‘tunes or melodies’ (O’Connor and Arnold, 1973: p.1 in Clark and Yallop, 1997: pp. 358). It delivers meanings, emotions, and also attitude of the speakers. It occurs both in English and Indonesian, yet in different degree. It is in fact a crucial part of the English language, carrying important semantic 181

functions which may be ‘attitudinal’ in the sense that they express, for instance, definiteness or tentativeness. Yet this meanings are no more superimposed or extrinsic than other functional options such as whether to ask a question or make statement or whether to qualify a statement by including the word ‘probably’ or ‘possibly’. (Clark and Yallop, 1997: pp. 358). There are three functional ingredients that are central to English (as well as Indonesian) intonation: tone or pitch pattern, tone placement and tone group structure. The first of these is the a matter of tonal options, or the pitch pattern available system; the second and the third can be taken together as aspects of tonicity or the structural organization of utterances into units within which prominences are positioned. (Clark and Yallop, 1997) The fundamental tonal choice of both English and Indonesia is between rise and fall, which is marked on the last lexical stress of an utterance. Generally, a statement will end in falling intonation while a question usually ends in rising intonation. However, the tonal options in English are not limited to simple rise and fall. They may be combined, for example in a falling then rising pattern (fall-rise tone) in which the rise so to speak cancel or qualifies the definiteness of the fall (Halliday 1985a, pp. 28-31 in Clark and Yallop, 1997:pp. 358). Unfortunately, the intonation patterns particularly the final pattern sometimes are not as simple as rise or fall intonation. According to Cruttenden (1997) there are seven nuclear tones of English including high-fall, low-fall, rise-fall, low-rise, high-rise, fall-rise, and mid-level depends on the utterances’ meaning, function or modes. However, in this paper, only the intonation pattern of interrogative modes particularly, yes/no-questions and questions-tag will be discussed. There are some researches on prosody conducted before. One of them is Noteboom (1999) researched on pitch as one of the acoustical parameters that in speech melody. His finding is pitch is investigated by measuring the vocal fold vibration, the fundamental frequency (F0) (Nooteboom 1999: 642). The more the vocal fold vibrates, the higher the fundamental frequencies. Combinations of pitch movements form the intonation of the sentence. Since in English intonation of interrogative sentences can differ from one type to another, it would be fascinating to know how Indonesian students utter the intonation. Therefore, this research aims at examining the final intonation of tag-questions and yes/no questions of Indonesian students who learn English as a foreign learners.

2. Methods This experimental phonetics research uses qualitative method. The production experiments are used to investigate the final intonation of English questions. The data produced are digitalized and the intonation contours are extracted. To analyze the speech sound, the computer program called PRAAT (Boersma & Wenink, 2015) are used. The perception experiment is not performed in this research since the aims of this paper is only to compare English native final intonation with Indonesian native final intonation who learn English as their foreign language. The subjects of this research are 12th grade vocational students who have learned English only at school since elementary level. There are four subjects at the age of 16 and 17 years old, 182

two males and two females with different English ability. Subject 2 (female) and 3 (male) perform good English and achieved the highest English National Exam scores when enrolling to the school (when they graduated from junior high-school), while subject 1 (female) and 4 (male) get the average score and English skills. To find out whether these subject can produce the correct final intonation of the questions in English, the control group is used. The control group is the recording of English native speaker utterances taken from a National Geographic CD audio (Life-Upper Intermediate level-recoding 39). The subjects were asked to read 4 sentences in interrogative modes; two sentences of question tag, the other two sentences are questions with negative words. After that, they were asked to listen to the recording from the national geographic book uttering the same sentences. After three times listening, the subjects were asked to imitate what they have heard. At the end, there are three kinds of data analyzed; 1. English native speaker recording (taken from the listening material of National Geographic book with the female voice), 2. the subjects reading the sentences, and 3. the subjects imitating the same sentences uttered by the audio of National Geographic book. The data for this research are utterances of: 1. You like the idea of volunteer vacations, don’t you? 2. Don’t you think it’s an interesting idea? 3. You’ve been on a volunteer vacation, haven’t you? 4. Didn’t it seem strange to pay money in order to work? The data recording was then extracted, stylized and analysed using PRAAT program to get the intonation contours of each sentences. The intonation contours of the subjects were drawn and compared to the control group. 3. Result and Discussion As mention before, different description of intonation have emphasized grammatical meanings, attitudinal meanings, or discourse meanings. Emphasizing grammatical meanings suggests that there are typical tones associated with syntactic structures like declaratives, interrogatives, and imperatives and that discourse meanings usually associated with these structure i.e. statements, questions, and commands, will also have typical tones even when they are not marked syntactically. (Cruttenden, 1997: pp. 88) Here, we will only discuss about the final intonation in the yes/no questions and tagquestions. In the tag questions, there two typically tone of tag which is high-falling or low-rising, e.g.  He won’t come to the party, /will \he?  He won’t come to the party,\will /he? The falling tones (high-falling) on reversed polarity tag questions generally indicate a high expectation of agreement that the speaker is actually already know the answer yet he needs an agreement. The rising tones (low-rising), on the other hand, allow different answer. It could be indicate that the speakers are not sure about the condition and needs a confirmation. However, in the teaching of English as foreign language, the falling tones (high-falling) are commonly taught 183

and used. As for yes/no questions, generally they use rising tone (/), they will be interpreted as open-ended of indefinite, usually inviting response or reaction. Below is the native speaker intonation pattern (pitch contour) saying sentence 1 and 3 (tagquestion)--“You like the idea of volunteering vacation, don’t you?” (red line) and “You’ve been on a volunteer vacation, haven’t you?” (blue line) tag-questions intonation patterns of native 500

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2.646 3.325 Time (s)

Figure 1. Native speaker intonation pattern of sentence 1 and 3 (tag-question)

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From figure 1 we can see that thequestions final intonation of the tag is high-falling. It has rising pitch negative intonation patterns of native 600 in the word “don’t” and “haven’t” and falling in the word “you”. Now compare to the native speaker intonation pattern saying sentence 2 and 4 (negativeyes/no-questions)—“Don’t you think it’s an interesting idea?” (red line) and “Didn’t it seem 480 strange to pay money in order to work?” (blue line) 360

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2.033 3.173 Time (s)

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negative questions intonation patterns of native 600

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Figure 2. Native speaker intonation patterns of sentence 2 and 4 (negative-yes/no-questions) 240

From the figure above, we can see that the final intonations are rising indicate yes/no questions. Even though both sentences showing different final-pitch scores, from the pattern, they 120 show consistent rising intonation. This show that the open-ended or yes/no questions invite responds or reactions. 0 0 2.417 3.275 occurrences in the 2.235 3.258 In reading results, all subjects seems Time not(s)aware of the tag-question sentences they read. Below is the picture of intonation pattern of all subject reading the first sentence—“You like the idea of volunteering vacations, don’t you?” sentence 1 intonation patterns of subject 1,2,3,and 4 600

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2.712 3.339 2.852 2.911 Time (s)

Figure 3. Sentence 1 intonation patterns (tag-question) read by all subjects (Subject 1-blue line, subject 2-maroon line, subject 3-green, subject 4-purple) 185

From the figure 3 we can see that all subjects use similar rising final intonation in reading tag-question. Only subject 4 (purple) show rather flat intonation. The three subjects seem that they were aware of the interrogative mode from the question mark at the end of the sentence but they didn’t understand the concept of tag-question final intonation. On the other hand, subject 4 seems doesn’t aware of the final sentence intonation. This also happened to the reading result of sentence 3 (also in tag question—“You’ve been on a volunteer vacation, haven’t you?”) as follow:

sentence 3 intonation patterns of all subjects (reading) 600

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3.554 2.856 2.698 Time (s)

Figure 4. Sentence 3 intonation patterns (tag question) read by all subjects (Subject 1-blue line, subject 2-maroon line, subject 3-green, subject 4-purple) From both figure 3 and 4, it can be inferred that all students are not aware of the final intonation of tag-questions since they don’t appear in Indonesian prosody and utterances. They simply follow the general rule of final intonation for questions (rising tone). This can be seen from the reading results of sentence no 2 and 4 (yes/no questions--“Don’t you think it’s an interesting idea?” and “Didn’t it seem strange to pay money in order to work?”) below.

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sentence 2 intonation patterns of subject 1,2,3,and 4 600

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2.417 3.275 2.235 3.258 Time (s)

Figure 5. Sentence 2 intonation pattern (yes/no question) read by all subject (Subject 1-blue line, subject 2-maroon line, subject 3-green, subject 4-purple) sentence 1 intonation patterns of subject 1,2,3,and 4 600

sentence 4 intonation patterns of all subjects (reading) 600

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2.712 3.339 2.852 2.911 Time (s)

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3.397 3.281 3.823 2.914 Time (s)

Figure 6. Sentence 4 intonation pattern (yes/no question) read by all subject (Subject 1-blue line, subject 2-maroon line, subject 3-green, subject 4-purple) The subjects’ awareness of the rising final intonation in questions are more likely to be consistent since they’ve built this awareness along with the acquiring of their first language. Although their intonations of the sentences are not adequate yet. 187

This condition is different to the imitation results. After having heard the recording of native speaker utterances, subjects attempt to imitate the intonation especially the final intonation. Below are the figure of imitation results both in tag-questions and yes/no questions. sentence 1 intonation patterns of all subjects (imitation) 600

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2.795 3.066 2.698 3.293 Time (s)

Figure 7. “You like the idea of volunteer vacations, don’t you?” Intonation pattern imitated by all subjects (Subject 1-blue line, subject 2-maroon line, subject 3green, subject 4-purple) sentence 3 intonation patterns of all subjects (imitation) 600

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2.538 2.645 2.487 2.345 Time (s)

Figure 8. “You’ve been on a volunteer vacation, haven’t you?” Intonation pattern imitated by all subjects (Subject 1-blue line, subject 2-maroon line, subject 3green, subject 4-purple)

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Figure 7 and 8 showed that subjects could successfully imitate the final intonation of the tagquestions (high-fall) after listening three times to the native speaker’s recording saying the same utterances. Here we could see the benefit of giving real-natural intonation examples to students. sentence 2 intonation patterns of all subjects (imitation) 600

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1.896 1.906 2.259 1.866 Time (s)

Figure 9. “Don’t you think it’s an interesting idea?” Intonation pattern imitated by all subjects (Subject 1-blue line, subject 2-maroon line, subject 3green, subject 4-purple) sentence 4 intonation patterns of all subjects (imitation) 600

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2.579 3.091 3.129 2.627 Time (s)

Figure 10. “Didn’t it seem strange to pay money in order to work?” Intonation pattern imitated by all subjects (Subject 1-blue line, subject 2-maroon line, subject 3green, subject 4-purple) 189

We can see from figure 9 and 10, all subjects could maintain their consistency in producing rising final intonation in yes/no questions both in reading and imitating techniques. Another benefit of imitating techniques is that even the average students could achieve the adequate prosody feature. They seem to imitate the native speakers’ intonation pattern as well as duration of uttering the sentences. Their utterances sound more natural. 4. Conclusion Indonesian students who learn English as foreign learners do not acquire the prosody of English as native speakers do. They need to be exposed to the natural-correct examples particularly in the matter of intonation feature. As some type of sentences, for instance tag-questions, do not appear in Indonesian sentences types. From the experimental productions, we can conclude that students are mostly do not aware of the high-fall intonation in the tag-questions and produce the similar rising intonation as in yes/no questions. This happened because of the influence of their first language prosody. However, after listening to native speaker’s recording and practicing to imitate the same utterances, they successfully produce the adequate final intonation of tag-questions. Therefore, drilling with the natural and correct examples would be beneficial to boost students’ ability in mastering their English prosody. References Boersma, P. and Weenink, D. (2015). PRAAT, doing phonetics by computer, version 5.4.18, [www.praat.org]. Chun, D. M. (2002) Discourse Intonation in L2: From Theory and Research to Practice. Amsterdam: John Benjamin. Clark, J., & Yallop, C. (1997). An Introduction to Phonetics and Pnonology. 2nd Edition. Oxford: Blackwell Publisher Ltd. Cruttenden, A. (1997). Intonation. 2nd Edition. UK: Cambridge University Press. Dummet, P. et al. (2012). National Geographic Life-Upper Intermediate—Audio CD of Student Book Course. Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd. Ladefoged and Johnson (2011). Acourse in Phonetics. International Edition (with CD-Rom), Boston: Wadsworth, Cengange Learning Mennen, I. (2007). Phonological and phonetic influences in non-native intonation. In Trouvain, J. & Gut, U. (Eds.) Non-native Prosody: Phonetic Descriptions and Teaching Practice (Nicht-muttersprachliche Prosodie: phonetische Beschreibungen und didaktische Praxis). Mouton De Gruyter, 53 - 76. Nooteboom, S. (1997) The Prosody of Speech: Melody and Rhythm. In W.J. Hardcastle & J. Lavers (eds) The Handbook of Phonetic sciences, 640-673. Oxford: Blackwell.

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Legal Translation as a Multidisciplinary Linguistic Practice Muhammad Ersan Pamungkas Universitas Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract Translating legal documents is arguably one of the most challenging translation practices, one of the reasons being the distinct characteristics of the language used. Nevertheless, in many cases, the difficulties in translating legal texts may not only stem from the language itself but also from the contents, which might be related to a host of fields such as economic field, social field, political field, and many others. As a result, those legal documents contain special jargons and special terms of a specific field, making the task of the translator even more challenging. In this regards, translators of legal documents, to some extent, also have to engage in other fields. This paper seeks to show how translating legal documents, including government laws, can present not only linguistic challenges but also non-linguistic challenges, namely the challenges and difficulties of finding equivalents in the Target Language (TL) of special jargons and terms of certain fields. This paper also attempts to show how translating in general and translating legal texts in particular is indeed a multidisciplinary activity. This is a descriptive quality research and data source for this research is taken from four English translations of government laws. Key words: translation studies, legal translation, multidisciplinary linguistics

1. Introduction Translation has long been regarded as part of applied linguistics. House (2014) defines applied linguistics as a broadly interdisciplinary field concerned with promoting our understanding of the role language plays in human life. She also argues that translation is indeed an important part of Applied Linguistics – today more than ever. In the meantime, the study of translation, which is known as translation studies, began to be recognized as an independent study, with James S. Holmes who first proposed the term ‘translation studies’ (Munday, 2001, page.6). Nevertheless, in this paper, I will delve into the discussion of whether translation is part of applied of linguistic or an independent study. Yet, the focus of this research is to prove whether or not translation can be regarded as a multi-linguistic activity. 191

In many cases, translation covers a broad range of topics, which means that in the real practice, one can find translators working on a wide range of fields such as literary works (novels, plays, dramas, short stories, and like), political speeches, legal texts (memorandum of understandings, laws, regulations, contracts, and the like), subtitles, website or software localizations and many others. Consequently, a translator is often required to be familiar with terms, jargons or special words that the texts contain. It also explains that some translators choose to specialize in a certain, specific field like legal translation, novel translation, subtitle translation, and many others. This fact alone can support the notion that translation is a multi-linguistic activity as it does not only invole language or translation theories in the practice. Therefore, the consequence is that a translator not only has to have linguistic skills but also other ‘relevant’ skills needed in the translation process. For example, to produce a good novel translator, it is believed that a translator must also have proven literary skills; in that they must have an artistic or poetry taste. Or, a translator who translate legal documents is highly advised to also know more about legal world (legal terms, legal system, etc). All these facts show that a translation process cannot and will never be done in isolation. In fact, a translation process is always inextricably linked with at least one other field other than linguistics. In other words, it takes more than just a language theory or a translation theory to be able to produce a translation. Thus, it can be assumed that translation is a multi-linguistic activity. Furthermore, one of the translational activities can serve as a good example to show that translation is as a metalinguistic activity is legal translation. Legal translation is a special and specialized area of translational activity (Cao: 2007). In legal translation, the translator will certainly deal with legal language. Schauer (1987: 571) also argues that legal language is a technical language which often operates in a context, giving legal terms different meanings from those existing in non-legal context. This paper seeks to prove whether or not legal translation can be considered a multi-linguistic practice. This is a descriptive qualitative translation research. Source data for this research is the text of Law Number 1 of 2013 on Microfinance originally written in Indonesian and its unofficial English translation. Translation units to be analyzed are words, phrases and sentences. Only selected words, phrases and sentences are used for the analysis in this research. 2. Translation There are many definitions of translation, one of which is the one proposed by House (2014). According to her, translation can be defined as the result of a linguistic-textual operation in which a text in one language is re-produced in another language. In her definition, House also suggests that translation is both a linguistic and textual activity that involves the reproduction of a text written in one language into another language. She also argues that translation in not only a linguistic act but also an act of communication. House’ definition of translation suggests that translation is not only a linguistic act but also a communication act. Thus, based on her definition, it can be implied that translation is not purely a linguistic act. 192

Wills (1977) also argues that translation is a text-processing and text-re-verbalization which leads from a source text to a target text that is as equivalent as possible and presupposes an understanding of the original text in terms of content and style. Will’s definition of translation, in other words, views translation as a text-processing and text-re-verbalization activity. Meanwhile, Larson (1984) argues that translation is the act of transferring the meaning of the source language into the receptor language and this is done by going from the form of the first language to the form of a second language by way of semantic structure. In other words, in her definition of translation, Larson puts more emphasis on the meaning over the form. Nida and Taber (1982), however, regards translation as a process of reproducing in the first language the closest natural equivalent of the Source Language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms in style. In other words, according to them, translation is a transfer of meaning, message, and style from one ST to TL. The various definitions of translation show that translation is a process that can be viewed from multiple perspectives – be it linguistic perspective, social perspective, functional perspective and the like. Also, translation has been an important cross-linguistic and cross cultural practice since earliest times (House : 2014). The complex nature of translation as an activity can also give room to the idea that it is indeed an multi-disciplinary action because in the real world when doing translation, a translator will not only deal with linguistic or language issues but it can go beyond that. Specifically, translation of legal texts can reinforce the idea that translation is indeed a multidisciplinary activity for reasons to be explained in the following pages. 3. Legal Translation Legal translation is one of the most common translational activities, including in Indonesia. According to Cao (2007), legal translation is a special and specialized area of translation activity. Cao also argues that what makes it special and specialized is due to the fact that legal translation involves law, and such translation can and often does produce not just linguistic but also legal consequences. In the meantime, Joseph (1995) stated that the translation of legal texts of any kind, from statue laws to contracts to courtroom testimony, is practice that stands at the crossroads of legal theory, language theory, and translation theory. Furthermore, Sarcevic (1997) classifies legal translation according to the functions of the legal texts in the SL into the following categories: 1. Primarily prescriptive, for example laws, regulations, codes, contracts, treaties, and conventions. 2. Primarily descriptive and prescriptive, for example judicial decision and legal instruments that are used to carry on judicial and administrative proceedings such as actions, pleadings, brief, appeals, requests, petitions, etc. 3. Purely descriptive, for example scholarly works written by legal scholars such as legal opinions, law textbooks, articles, etc.

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With those two claims above, it can be argued that legal translation can be considered as a multidisciplinary linguistic activity as it involves not only language and translation theories but also another field, which is law in this case. The repercussion is that a translator who does legal translation not only has to be competent in language and translation theories but also in legal theories. When it comes to difficulties in legal translation, Cao (2007) further states that there are three sources of difficulty in legal translation, namely: 1. Different legal systems and laws 2. Linguistic differences 3. Cultural differences In the practice of translation legal texts from Indonesian into English, those sources of difficulties are evident. In terms of legal systems and laws, legal systems in Indonesia is different from those in English speaking countries like Australia, the United States, the United Kingdom and the like. As for linguistic differences, Indonesian language and English language have different grammatical systems. One of the most common problems, for example, is the absence of tenses in Indonesia. In the meantime, Indonesia and some English-speaking countries have differing cultural values reflected in the language for example in terms of formality or politeness. These facts are in line with what Cao (2207) argues that law and legal language are system-bound, that is, they reflect the history, evolution, and culture of a specific legal system. 4. Discussion Legal translation can be considered as a multidisciplinary linguistic practice in that not only a translator is required have knowledge in linguistic theory and translation theory, but also in legal theory and in a particular field that a law is all about. For example, in translating a law on an economic issue, a translator must also have the knowledge on economy as well. In the following paragraphs, I will elaborate why legal translation can be a prime example of why translation in general and legal translation in particular is a multi-linguistic activity. Data source for this research is the unofficial English translation of Law Number 1 of 2013 on Microfinance. The translation by done State Secretariat in 2014. As the title of the law suggests, this law is all about microfinance in Indonesia. The first issue in translating this law is the translation of several phrases, known as ‘frozen phrases’ commonly found in many other government law texts. For example: phrases like ‘menimbang, mengingat and memutuskan’ are commonly found in the beginning of the law. These words, however, have different English translations, including this one:

Table 1. 1st Alternative of Legal Expression Translation 194

Indonesian (ID) Menimbang Mengingat Memutuskan

English (EN) Considering Noting To enact

Another version of the translations are the three phrases is: Table 2. 2nd Alternative of Legal Expression Translation Indonesian (ID) Menimbang Mengingat Memutuskan

English (EN) Considering Being of the opinion To lay down

It can also be like this: Table 3. 3rd Alternative of Legal Expression Translation Indonesian (ID) Menimbang Mengingat Memutuskan

English (EN) Consider In the view of To enact

To date, there are no ‘standard’ translations of these phrases. Every translator or every institution that translates a law, has differing opinion on how to translate the phrases. Further research to investigate what the most accurate equivalents of those phrases are is certainly needed. However, at this point, I just want to point out that even to translate these the phrases, a legal translator has to make choices from many choices available. The translator might also have to do more research, by comparing existing equivalents for example, to decide which phrases they will use. In this practice, legal theory, language theory and translation theory are certainly needed. Phrases that are commonly in found in law texts are among other, pasal, ayat, ketentuan, and many others. The knowledge of these terms should be owned by legal translators. Sometimes, it is also necessary ‘memorize’ ‘know’ those terms as it can save the translator’s time as they do not have to look for the English equivalents in the dictionaries. In fact, those words/phrases can be like ‘templates’ in translating legal texts. Another example of those common phrases is ‘atas rahmat Tuhan Yanng Maha Kuasa’, which can be translated into many Indonesian equivalents. By the grace of almighty God By the grace of the God almighty Upon the Mercy of God the Almighty 195

None of those translations is the most correct one as in many English translations of Indonesian laws, those translations are commonly used. Meanwhile, the following sentence as presented on Table 4. is also common in law texts in general: Table 5. ST TT Agar setiap orang mengetahuinya, For public cognizance, it is hereby memerintahkan pengundangan ordered that this Law be promulgated in Undang-undang ini dengan the State Gazette of the Republic of penempatannya dalam Lembaran Indonesia. Negara Republik Indonesia. The Indonesian sentence is found in virtually almost all law texts in Indonesia, while the English translation is one few English translations that it has. So, the translator can regard it as a template and every time the translator comes across this sentence when translating a law for example, they do not have to find elsewhere to translate the sentence. Furthermore, the word ‘shall’ is commonly used in English legal documents. The word itself carries the meaning of obligation. Another alternative is ‘must’ and it is up to the translator which one they want to use. This knowledge should be a common knowledge for translator who translates legal documents, including from Indonesian into English. In many cases, however, the Indonesian text does not explicitly include a word that means ‘obligation’ just like the word ‘shall’. Consider the following example: Table 6. ST TT LKM dilarang dimiliki, baik langsung LKM shall not be owned, either directly maupun tidak langsung, oleh warga or indirectly, by foreign nationals and/or negara asing dan/badan usaha yang legal entities which are partially or sebagian atau seluruhnya dimiliki oleh entirely owned by foreign nationals or warga negara asing atau badan usaha foreign legal entities. asing. The Indonesian text does not have the word ‘shall’ but sometimes it is important for the translator to add the word ‘shall’ in the English translation. This is the common knowledge of legal texts that any legal translators should know. Specifically for the English translation of the Law Number 1 of 2013, the text contains a number of economic terms, as follows: Table 4. ST

TT

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Lembaga keuangan mikro Simpanan Pinjaman Pembiayaan Penyimpan Koperasi

Macrofinance institution Saving Loan Financing Depositor Cooperative

In translating those economic terms, it is necessary for the translator to find the meaning of the ST terms first. For example, the translator has to know the meaning of ‘simpanan’, or the difference between ‘simpanan’ and ‘pinjaman’ for example. Afterwards, the translator can proceed to find the English equivalents of the terms. This fact show that in translating this Law on an economic issue, the translator has to has knowledge in economic fields in order to find the accurate equivalents of those terms. The knowledge is important in making accurate choices of those terms. In addition, those terms are some of the ‘key’ terms of the law; thus mistranslating them can be fatal. Language theory is obviously needed to approach sentences used in the law. Sentences in many legal texts tend to be long and complicated; thus it is necessary for the translators to approach the translation with the right translation methods and strategies. Take the Indonesian sentence and its English translation as presented on Table 5 as an example. Table 5. ST Dalam hal tindakan sebagaimana dimaksud pada ayat (1) belum cukup untuk mengatasi kesulitan likuiditas dan solvabilitas LKM, Otoritas Jasa Keuangan mencabut izin usaha LKM dan memerintahkan direksi atau pengurus LKM untuk segera menyelenggarakan Rapat Umum Pemegang Saham, Rapat Anggota atau rapat sejenis guna membubarkan badan hukum LKM dan membentuk tim likuidasi. 


TT In the event that actions as intended by paragraph (1) have not adequately addressed liquidity and solvability difficulties of LKMs, the Financial Services Authority shall revoke the business licenses of LKMs and order their board of directors or administrators of LKMs to immediately convene the General Meeting of Shareholders, Members Meeting, or similar meetings in order to disband the legal entity of LKMs and form a liquidation team.

The Indonesian sentence is quite long and complicated, a total of 52 words, and when translating this kind of sentence, the translator has to be extra careful so that the messages can still be conveyed accurately. If possible, the TT sentence can be split into two sentences. This is in line with what is suggested by Newmark (1982) in one of translation procedures he proposes called 197

‘recasting sentences’, in which one ST complex sentence is rendered as two or three TT simple sentences. Another challenging word found in the text is the phrase ‘pemekaran wilayah’. Translating this phrase from Indonesian into English can also be quite challenging because the Indonesian phrase is closely related to Indonesia’s political fact, which probably does not exist in other countries. In this case, it is important for the translator to have the knowledge of pemekaran wilayah and convey it accurately into the English translation. Considering the sample on Table 6. Table 6. ST TT LKM yang tempat kedudukan dan LKM whose domicile and business area cakupan wilayah usahanya mengalami coverage changes due to the creation of perubahan sebagai akibat dari a new regency/municipality/province pemekaran wilayah harus (pemekaran wilayah) shall notify the memberitahukan kepada Otoritas Jasa Financial Services Authority. Keuangan. Based on the example above, the phrase ‘pemekaran wilayah’ is translated as ‘the creation of a new regency/municipality/province’. The translation is longer than the original but it is important to explain the TT readers about the concept ‘pemekaran wilayah’. In short, translating this law can be described in the following graph.

LEGAL THEORY

TRANSLATION THEORY

UU No. 1 Tahun 2013 LANGUAGE THEORY

ECONOMIC THEORY

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5.

Conclusion

Legal translation can indeed be regarded as a multidisciplinary linguistic practice as it involves language theory, translation theory, and legal theory but also another field that the legal text is all about. It can be economic, social, political or technical fields. Thus, it is important for legal translators to make the best approaches to deal with special terms in those fields. In many cases, however, the difficulty in translating a legal text may stem from translating those special words/phrases and it is the task of the translator to find the most accurate equivalents of those terms.

References Akehurst, Michael. 1972. ‘Preparing the Authentic English Text of the EEC Treaty’ in B.A. Wortley (ed.). An Introduction to the Law of the European Economic Community. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 20-31.
 Cao, Deborah. 2007. Translating Law. Clevedon, Buffalo, & Toronto: Multilingual Matters Ltd. House, J. (2014). Translation: a multidisciplinary approach. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Larson, M. (1984). Meaning-based translation: cross-language equivalence. Boston: University Press of America Munday, J. (2011). Introducing translation studies: theories and applications. London: Routledge. Newmark, P. (1981). Approaches to translation. Oxford: Pergamon Press. _____. (1987). A textbook of translation. New York: Prentice Hall. Nida, E. (2011). Contexts in translating. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

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