Manifestation of Psychosomatic Developments and Educational Influences of Girls’ Gymnastics in Physical Education Ph.D. theses
Éva Leibinger Semmelweis University Educational and Sport Sciences
Supervisor:
Dr. Pál Hamar associate professor, Ph.D.
Official reviewers:
Dr. Csaba Istvánfi professor emeritus, C.Sc. Dr. Erzsébet Rétsági associate professor, C.Sc.
President of the final exam committee: Members of the final exam committee:
Dr. László Nádori professor emeritus, D.Sc. Dr. Klára Batta associate professor, Ph.D. Dr. József Bognár associate professor, Ph.D. Dr. Erzsébet Rétsági associate professor, C.Sc. Budapest 2007
INTRODUCTION
Gymnastics have been practiced by humanity since 4000 BC therefore it can be established that gymnastics are the basis of all kinds of sports. In the XXI century in people’s minds gymnastics and physical education appear to be synonymous notions. This misunderstanding partly originates from the above mentioned historical fact but several terminuses can be associated with the domain of physical education in schools that contain the word “gymnastic”.
I would like to make a few steps forward in the case of physical education in schools (PE), mainly in gymnastics that is part of its curriculum directing the attention to the physical-cultural values and effects of those. I agree with the statement that gymnastics are meant to be a fundamental sport, which is one of the most effective tools of the process of psychosomatic education.
AIMS
My primary aim is to show the role of girls’ gymnastics curriculum within the process of education emphasizing the professional value-transmitting actions. Thus the construction and the role of gymnastics will be determined in the practice of physical education in schools introducing its specific skill-development influence possibilities.
Further intentions: •
to measure the students’ psycho-motor skill levels specialized in gymnastics, 2
•
to explore how much the students can be motivated by the process of acquiring the elements of gymnastics,
•
to reveal students’ affectivity and feelings towards the curriculum of gymnastics and to find the sources of these,
•
to analyze the changes in students’ cognitive skill levels caused by the teaching-learning interactions of gymnastics,
•
to collect information with the help of the weekly timetable analysis about how much students’ life is connected with sports and gymnastics. I reveal the frequency of sports – mainly gymnastics – in students’ lifestyles.
My hypotheses: 1.
I assume that the results of the performances in gymnastic-specific motor tests are reflected on PE grades.
2.
I presume that PE teachers’ positive or negative attitudes towards the material of gymnastics have an effect on students’ attitudes and these can be discovered also in students’ physical performances indirectly.
3.
I assume that the results of gymnastics-specific motor tests measuring strength abilities show decreasing tendency as the age of the examined people increase.
4.
I presume that the results of gymnastics-specific motor tests measuring balance, agility and complex coordination abilities reflect increasing tendency as the age of the examined people increase.
5.
I assume that the results of gymnastics-specific motor tests measuring the flexibility of joints show constant tendency as the age of the examined people increase.
3
6.
I presume that students’ performances in gymnastics-specific motor tests correlate with the students’ affective and cognitive skill-levels.
7.
I assume that sports and gymnastics appear in students’ everyday life as physical activities (PA).
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Examined people Altogether 443 students – 210 females – have been examined. According to the issue of my dissertation only the females’ data are presented. In the cross-cultural study I used all the 210 females’ data (n=210). I examined 159 of females only once for the cross-cultural study and 51 of them three times for the cross cultural study and also for the 3-year-long longitudinal study. The mean of their age was 11,92 years. In cross-cultural study students have been grouped according to the following group-variables: •
schools,
•
PE grades,
•
attitudes of PE teachers.
Instead of using a probability sampling method I collected my date with expert (theoretical) and convenience based sampling method from the population.
Methods of examination The survey consisted of a ten-piece psychomotor test-system and a weekly timetable and questionnaires measuring affective and cognitive level of the students. In each cases the psychomotor test were carried out first so that the students could get acquainted with the leader of the examination. Then 4
at answering the questionnaires the person giving the instructions was not an unfamiliar person to them any more. This fact along with the efficient help of the class masters enabled that it was possible to measure realistic values considering students’ affectivity and their cognitive manifestation. Gymnastics-specific psychomotor test-system: The fields of the application of the test are the following: lower-limb dynamic strength (Sargent-test); the shoulder and the upper-limb dynamic and static strength endurance (push up test, bent-arm hanging test) and their complex dynamic relative strength (rope-climbing); the dynamic balancesense (balance walking on up-side-down bench); the agility, complex coordination (landing with closed-eyes test, hurdle-race test); as well as the flexibility of spinal column and hip (bridge-test, side split test). Questionnaire measuring affective level: This questionnaire was created to get information about students’ affectivity towards gymnastics material. Type: “closed” simple answer questions. From the aspect of gymnastics material three categories of reply-potential have been set up: •
negative, refusal (1 point)
•
neutral, non-refusal (2 points)
•
positive (3 points).
The possible maximum points were 45. The students have been categorized into three groups considering their attitude towards the gymnastics material – negative, neutral and positive – on the basis of their points collected.
Questionnaire measuring cognitive level: This questionnaire was created to get information about students’ cognitive levels in gymnastics. 5
Type: “closed” multiple-reply questions. Each possible correct answer can mark one point. If the given right answer had been signed, the student could get one point. A not-signed wrong answer could also mark one point. The possible maximum point was 65. Weekly timetable Many data have been collected about students’ sport habits and gymnastics activities from the weekly timetable. The weekly schedule analysis had been applied for a “regular” week without any school or national holiday. Each day of the week had been divided into 15 one-hour-long parts from 7am till 10pm and the students must have filled each part with their most typical activity. Questionnaire measuring PE teachers’ attitudes This questionnaire was created to get information about PE teachers’ opinions about PE in general and its gymnastics curriculum and material. Type: five-grade Likert-scale. During an anonym data-collection process PE teachers could express their opinions considering goals, tasks, requirements, content, methods, control, measuring and grading by evaluating given statements in the above listed topics in a five-grade Likert-scale.
Statistical analysis The statistical analysis was started with the calculation of the basic statistical parameters (mean, range, minimum, maximum, standard deviation and standard error) of the psycho-motor tests. In the case of the questionnaires the frequency of the answers formed the basis of the analysis. The analyzed people were divided into different categories on the grounds of a scoring system that was created using professional arguments. Analyzing the weekly timetable I calculated the average time spent on a 6
given activity of a person per day and also per week. I did not apply any further statistical calculation. For the analysis of the longitudinal data single-sample t-test (dependent samples), Friedman ANOVA (comparing two dependent samples) and signtest have been used depending on the types of the data. For the cross-cultural analysis different groups had been created on the basis of various aspects and to compare the performances of these groups two-sample t-test and also its non-parametric equivalent Mann-Whitney Utest have been used. For the one-way analysis of variance one-way ANOVA (parametric) and Kruskall-Wallis ANOVA (non-parametric) have been used. The performances of the students measured in different skills were given marks and the correlation between them was analyzed by Spearmann’s rank correlation. Data processing was carried out with the software Statistics for Windows 7.1, Stat. Soft. The level of significance was p<0.05.
RESULTS
Results of the cross-cultural study of psychomotor tests In the psychomotor part of the survey the tested students achieved fluctuating performances compared to the displayed reference values of literature. In the cases of Sargent-test, bent-arm hanging-test, as well as rope climbing test the measured results were under the submitted values. The measured performances in side split and bridge-test are supposed to be weak however these couldn’t have been compared to reference values. Results of push up test happened to be between the two different displayed reference values. The students’ performances in balance walking on up7
side-down bench, their time results in the hurdle-race test and their marks in the subject PE at school exceeded the previously introduced Hungarian reference values.
Personnel and equipment conditions are two of the main factors influencing physical performances in PE. This statement has been confirmed by several significant differences appearing in the results of the students tested in various schools. Considering the summarized results of the psychomotor tests of all the tested people the students from Kőrösi Csoma Sándor Primary and Grammar School performed the best. This group achieved significantly high results especially in push up test, balance-walking test and in bridge-test. They are followed by the results of the students from Jedlik Ányos Grammar School, Kosztolányi Dezső Grammar School and Molnár Ferenc Primary School in this order. The students from Jedlik Grammar School achieved the worst results in rope climbing test and in hurdle-race the students from Molnár Ferenc Primary School turned out to have been the weakest. Finally the students from Diana Street Primary School came out with the weakest overall results, while they had the best grades in their PE subject.
Considering the groups created on the basis of the students’ PE grades their achievements in Sargent-test, bent-arm hanging, balance-walking, landing with closed-eyes tests, hurdle-race and side split test were absolutely relevant to their PE grades. The group of the students with ‘fair’ grades could get a few tenth higher results in the push-up test than the group of the students with ‘good’ grades. The only statistical difference was measured between the ‘excellent’ and ‘good-graded’ groups. In rope climbing test the
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students with ‘fair’ grades reached significantly weaker results than their fellows with good and excellent PE grades.
Correlation analysis showed that students of PE teachers with positive attitude had more positive approach towards gymnastics, they are highly interested in doing gymnastics and they consider its material as a challenge. The effects of neutral or negative attitudes of teachers can easily be recognized in the behavior and reactions of their students. The students’ psychomotor achievements can clearly reflect these negative indirect influences. Only four of ten students of PE teachers with neutral or negative attitudes achieved slightly better results than the students of the other group. Considering the mean-values of the students’ ages in these two analyzed groups (12.24 and 11.22 years) it can be stated that the first group could achieved better results than their younger mates because of their biological maturity. In the results of the six remaining tests the effects of the positive attitudes of PE teachers can be indirectly experienced. The push-up test (p<0.001), the balance-walking test (p<0.05), the landing with closed eyes test (p<0.05), as well as side split test (p<0.05) statistically confirmed the PE teachers’ positive influences on their students. The results of my survey are concurrent with the results of previous researches.
Results of the psychomotor tests in longitudinal study As compared the results of the 5th form with their 1-year-later results in lower-limb dynamic strength test; in shoulder and upper-limb dynamic strength-endurance, static strength-endurance and complex relative strength tests the analyzed people showed a great improvement. Reaching the 7th form their performances in all of these tests have fallen back, moreover in the case of rope climbing test their latest results dropped below their 9
starting level. It seems that their developments during this 2-year-long period were caused by biological maturity.
In the cases of dynamic balance test and in complex coordination test the improvements are linear. In the balance-walking test and in the landing with closed eyes test any notable improvement was only experienced between the 6th and 7th form students’ results. Hurdle-race test for which agility is required showed significant improvement between the 11-year-old and the 12-year-old students’ results.
The students’ performances in bridge-test and in side split test measured at the age of 11 and 12 were remarkably different showing improving tendency. In the 7th form students’ performances regressions were experienced in both tests, furthermore in bridge-test this regression was significant. During this 2-year-long period the analyzed students’ performances was stagnating.
Results of the questionnaire measuring affectivity The students’ answers were given points by differentiating all the possible answers. On the basis of the given points and the created categories it can be established that 45 students (21%) were negative, 133 students (64%) were neutral and 32 students (15%) were positive oriented from the aspect of PE and gymnastics.
Results of the questionnaire measuring cognitive level Ten percent (22 people) of the analyzed students do not invest enough energy to understand gymnastics. In the cases of 64 percent (134 people) of
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them their understandings are accidental, while only 26 percent (54 people) of them make some effort to understand the internal correspondences.
Complex study of psychomotor, affective and cognitive skills Performances measured in psychomotor tests had been evaluated in a traditional grading scale,
than their
mean
was
calculated.
The
questionnaires measuring affective and cognitive skills were given points and a correlation statistical test was carried out with all the data gained from these points. According to the significant correlations and “r”-values it can be stated that psychomotor performances correlate with affective and cognitive
performances
(p<0.001).
This
statement
is
in
good
correspondence with the previous results of international researchers. Those who had good results in the gymnastics specified psychomotor test came out with better achievements in the tests measuring their affective and cognitive levels.
Results of the weekly timetable study As the analyzed people spent most of their time at school the staff including PE teachers are highly responsible for developing an active, constructive lifestyle in pupils and for transmitting sports-loving attitude. Students spent much time on satisfying their personnel needs, sleeping and studying. The high occurrence of watching television is very disappointing.
Pál Hamar established in his curriculum research in 1997 that girls at the age of 8 and 15 spent 7.1 percent of their leisure time with doing sports which means 63 minutes per day. Unfortunately this rate in my survey – 41 minutes/day – is notably falls behind the above mentioned value. It is a little bit surprising that time spent on gymnastics-type exercises reached a 11
higher rate in my analysis (67 min/week) than it was in 1997 (40 min/week). The reason if this result may have been the application of different sampling methods (the one I used was applied after a professional reference).
Results of the questionnaire measuring the PE teachers’ attitudes As this thesis has an aspiration of making an entire survey both sides students as well as teachers were analyzed. Because of the small number of the analyzed PE teachers (n=9) in this survey deep conclusions could not be drawn. On the grounds of the results of this survey it is suggested that PE teachers should be taught to the manifold educational effects of gymnastics and the necessity of setting up and differentiating the requirements more stressfully. The importance of the competencies of the selection and arrangement of the school-work, and the most characteristic methods and organizations of educating gymnastics should also be emphasized.
CONCLUSIONS From the results of this survey and from national and international references it can be concluded that the material of school gymnastics is adequate for transmitting general educative values and norms. Gymnastics are unique in developing and enforcing of complex effects and the control over the human body. It requires coordination of space, time and dynamic movements that could prepare a constructive life-style having transformed to everyday life. Its role in aesthetic education is unquestionable. Gymnastics with its educative effects ensure the integration of courage, initiative skills and the ability of overcoming of fear into our personalities.
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In the process of the selection and arrangement of gymnastics curriculum the principle of gradually teaching seems to be controversial. In my opinion, the most difficult gymnastics elements should be taught till the age of 11 or 12. Having finished the education of acquired basic skills I would suggest teaching of gymnastics-type physical activities that are appropriate to the biological changes of the students (dance, aerobics, minitrampoline, collective
warm-up
exercises,
hand-equipment
exercises,
rhythmic
gymnastics elements). In my opinion the newest curriculum documents are functioning as a twoedged sword in the practice of PE at school. Giving more freedom for PE teachers in determining and arranging the curriculum also gives a chance to leave out fundamental technical elements of various sports skills.
The gage of quality teaching of gymnastics is in the PE teachers’ hands. Beyond many education-policies, public education or school reforms, the success or fail of quality education including physical education depends on the teachers themselves, their approach, attitude and professional preparedness.
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6.
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9.
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10. Leibinger É.: Testnevelő tanári vélemények az általános iskolai testnevelés tantervi változásiról (előadás) IV. Országos Sporttudományi Kongresszus. 2003. október 17-18. Szombathely Absztrakt kötet. 24. p. 11. Leibinger É.: Az általános iskolai tornaoktatás az elmúlt 25 év tantervi változásainak tükrében (előadás) 34. Mozgásbiológiai Konferencia. 2003. november 20-21. Absztrakt kötet. 31. p. 12. Leibinger É., Huszár Á., Hamar P.: „Ha én testnevelő tanár volnék…” (előadás) V. Országos Neveléstudományi Konferencia. Magyar Tudományos Akadémia. 2005. október 6-8. Absztrakt kötet. 336. p. 13. Leibinger É.: Testnevelő tanári vélemények a tantervelmélet időszerű kérdéseiről (előadás) V. Országos Sporttudományi Kongresszus. 2005. október 27-28. Budapest. 14. Huszár Á., Leibinger É., Hamar P.: Az iskolai testnevelés tartalmi kiszélesítésének új irányzatai tantervtörténeti aspektusból. (poszter) V. Országos Sporttudományi Kongresszus. 2005. október 27-28. Budapest. 15. Leibinger É., Rácz K., Kalmár Zs.: A 2005-ös debreceni Tornász Európa Bajokság gerendagyakorlatainak elemzése a felugrások és a
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leugrások tükrében. (előadás) 36. Mozgásbiológiai Konferencia. 2006. április 27-28. Budapest Absztrakt kötet. 21. p. 16. Leibinger É., Rácz K., Kalmár Zs.: A 2005-ös debreceni Tornász Európa Bajokság gerendagyakorlatainak elemzése az akrobatikus és gimnasztikus elemek tükrében. (előadás) 36. Mozgásbiológiai Konferencia. 2006. április 27-28. Budapest. Absztrakt kötet. 21. p. 17. Kalmár Zs., Leibinger É., Rácz K.: A 2005-ös debreceni Tornász Európa Bajnokság gerendagyakorlatainak elemzése a 2006-ban érvénybe lépő szabálymódosítások alapján. (előadás) 36. Mozgásbiológiai Konferencia. 2006. április 27-28. Budapest. Absztrakt kötet. 20. p. 18. Gyulai G., Bretz K., Derzsy B., Leibinger É.: Szertornászok egyensúlyérzékének összehasonlító vizsgálata terhelés hatására. (előadás) 36. Mozgásbiológiai Konferencia. 2006. április 27-28. Budapest. Absztrakt kötet. 10. p.
19. Leibinger, É., Murányi, E.: Change in the primary school boys’ affectivity towards the teaching material of gymnastics within the last one and half decades. Nemzetközi Tudományos Diákköri Konferencia. 2002. április 26-27. Budapest Absztrakt kötet. 32. p. 20. Leibinger É.: Opinions about the current questions of the contents and methods of Physical Education. (előadás) Nemzetközi Tudományos Diákköri Konferencia. 2004. április 23-24. Budapest. Absztrakt kötet. 22. p. 21. Leibinger, E., Soos, I., Karsai, I., Hamar, P.: A cross-cultural study on the mood state of English and Hungarian university students. (poszter) European College of Sport Sciences 2004. július 3-6. Clermont-Ferrand (Franciaország) CD ROM 22. Leibinger, E., Soos, I., Karsai, I., Hamar, P., Lanza, M.: Studio Interculturale sullo Stato dell’Umore. (előadás) V. Biennale Sulla Didattica Universitaria 2004. december 1-3. Padova (Olaszország) CD ROM. 18
23. Leibinger, É., Hamar, P.: Contextual modernization and practice of Physical Education in Hungary. (előadás) V. Biennale Sulla Didattica Universitaria 2004. december 1-3. Padova (Olaszország) CD ROM. 24. Leibinger, É., Huszár, Á., Hamar, P.: Opinion Of Hungarian Physical Education Teachers Regarding Current Questions of Physical Education Learning and Teaching Methods. (poszter) European College of Sport Sciences 2005. július 13-16. Belgrád (SzerbiaMontenegró) CD ROM. 25. Leibinger, É., Huszár, Á., Hamar, P. (2005): Opinion of Hungarian physical education teachers regarding current questions of physical education learning and teaching methods. The 10th Annual Congress of the European College of Sport Sciences. CD 26. Hamar, P., Leibinger, É., Bartha, Cs., Soós, I.: Investigation on content of Hungarian School Physical Education in European comparison. (poszter) European College of Sport Sciences 2005. július 13-16. Belgrád (Szerbia-Montenegró) CD ROM. 27. Soós, I., Hamar, P., Leibinger, É., Lane, A. M.: The impact of mood state and emotional intelligence on academic and sport performance. V. országos Neveléstudományi Konferencia. Magyar Tudományos Akadémia. 2005. október 6-8. Absztrakt kötet. 285. p. 28. Soós, I., Lane, M. A., Leibinger, E., Karsai, I., Hamar, P.: Validity of the Profile of Mood States (SF) among Hungarian Students. (előadás) World Congress in Sport Psychology (ISSP) 2005. Sydney (Ausztrália) CD ROM. 29. Lane, M. A., Soós, I., Leibinger, E., Karsai, I., Hamar, P.: Emotional Intelligence, Mood States and Performance in Hungarian Athletes. (előadás) World Congress in Sport Psychology (ISSP) 2005. Sydney (Ausztrália) CD ROM. 30. A. Lane, I. Soos, E. Leibinger, I. Karsai, P. Hamar: Emotional Intelligence, Mood States and Successful and Unsuccessful Performance. (előadás) BASES Annual Conference 2005. Laughborough (Nagy Britannia) CD ROM.
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31. Huszar, Á., Leibinger, É., Murányi, E., Hamar, P.: Comparison Analyses of Different Sport Groups Concerning to Balance. (poszter) European College of Sport Sciences 2006. július 5-8. Lausanne (Svájc) CD ROM. 32. Murányi, E., Huszar, Á., Leibinger, É., Hamar, P.: Effect of Education Methods Used by Physical Education Teachers for Student Affectivity in Hungary. (poszter) European College of Sport Sciences 2006. július 5-8. Lausanne (Svájc) CD ROM. 33. Gyulai, G., Bretz, K., Leibinger, É., Derzsy, B.,: Role of equilibrium of gymnasts while executing static and dynamic elements (A comparative analysis) VII. World Congress of Performance Analysis of Sport. Szombathely. 34. A. Lane, I. Soos, É. Leibinger, I. Karsai, P. Hamar: Validity of the Brunnel Mood Scale for Use with Italian and Hungarian Athletes. (előadás) BASES Annual Conference 2006. Wolverhampton (Nagy Britannia) CD ROM. 35. Hamar, P., Leibinger, É., Munkácsi, I.: Hungaian pubescent girls’ views of physical exercise. (előadás) I3PE Network – International Week 2007. március 7. Worcester (Nagy Britannia) 36. Munkácsi, I., Hamar, P., Kalmár, Zs., Leibinger, É.: Analysis of educational methods favoured by Hungarian and foreign gymnastics coaches for gymnastics training. (előadás) I3PE Network – International Week 2007. március 7. Worcester (Nagy Britannia) 37. Hamar, P., Munkácsi, I., Kalmár, Zs., Leibinger, É.: Results of a questionnaire based international survey on the role of positive consolidation at gymnastics trainings. (poszter) European College of Sport Sciences 2007. július 11-15. Jyvaskyla (Finnország) CD ROM.
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