A C R IT IC A L D ISC O U R SE A N A L Y SIS O N T H E JA K A R T A PO ST T E X T A T h esis S ub m itted to L ette rs an d H u m an ities F acu lty in P a rtial F u lfillm en t o f th e R eq u irem en ts fo r S 1 D e g ree
M U D H O FA R 103026027660
EN G LISH L ET TE R S D E PA R T M E N T LET TE RS A N D H U M A N ITIES FA C U LT Y ST A TE ISL A M IC U N IV ER SITY SY A R IF H ID A Y A T U L L A H JA K A R TA 2009
A BST R A C T
M u d ho far, A Critical Discourse Analysis on the Jakarta Post Text. A T h esis. Jakarta: L etters and H u m anities F acu lty, S tate Islam ic U n iv ersity S yarif H id aya tu llah , F eb ru ary 2 009 .
T h e pu rpo se of th is research is to d ev elop a research betw e en so cio -lin gu istic sciences w ith m ass co m m u n ication in critical d isco u rse analysis w h ich based o n d iscou rse theory ab ou t so cial prob lem (C h in ese d iscrim in ation ) new s in m ass m ed ia w h ich is esp ecially lad ed in th e Jak arta P o st tex t. T h e m eth od o f th is resea rch is C ritical D isco u rse A n alysis w h ich is related to tex t an alysis; R ep resen ta tio n, R elation and Id en tity w h ich is d esc rib ed an d sho w n in th e tex t. T h e rese arch resu lt: R epresen tation lev el. T h ose tex ts ab ov e n ot o n ly d esc rib e ho w th e ev en t is m ad e, bu t also sho w ho w th e so cial po w er is rep resen ted in th e n ew s. T h e tw o o f tex ts abo v e are related to eth n ic C h in ese life w h o is still d iscrim inated b y th e go v ern m en t. H e re, it can b e seen th at th e w h o le tex ts are related to eth n ic C h in ese life w h o still get in ju stice. R elation lev el. T h e discou rse also can be see n fro m ho w th e relatio n is fo un d ed in th e tex t. T h e tex t en closes tw o sid es; th ose are eth n ic C h in ese -Ind o n esian and the In do n esian gov ern m ent (S oeh arto R e gim e). T h e tw o sides are describ ed d ifferen tly in th e tex t. T h e eth n ic C h inese is d escribed as w e ak sid e an d m argin alized. A nd th e o th er han d , th e gov ern m en t (S o eharto re gim e) is d escrib ed h ig h er, stro n ge r and co nsidered as d eterm inant fo r ethn ic C h inese life. Id en tity lev el. B ased on the tex t abo v e, th e jo u rnalist id en tifies h im self as p art of Ind o n esia (gov ern m en t). A ltho u gh, h e realiz es th at eth n ic C h in ese is d iscrim inated but h e su g gests erad icatin g th e past an d lo ok ing forw ard to h av e bette r fu tu re to d evelop Ind o n esia to geth er. B ased on tho se tex ts abov e, it can b e con clu d ed that th e jo u rnalist po sition s h im self in the n eu tral po sition . A s th e con clusion , tex t analysis o n th e sam p les sho w s in justice to so ciety w h ich fin ally b ears so cia l prob lem . T h e tex t o nly talks ab ou t th e m isery o f th e so ciety as th e resu lt o f in justice in th e so ciety itself a nd the regu latio n w h ich is m ad e b y the go v e rn m ent and also im plies th e m yth th at b y d e liv ering o r ex po se th e m isery o f th e so ciety h as b etter p o w er to rev eal th e m ean in g o f c o m m un icatio n m essage.
i
A PPR O V EM EN T
A C R IT IC A L D ISC O U R SE A N A L Y SIS O N T H E JA K A R T A PO ST T E X T
A T h esis S ub m itted to L ette rs an d H u m an ities F acu lty in P a rtial A cco m p lish m ent o f the R eq u irem en ts fo r S 1 D e g ree
M u d h o far N o. 10302602766 0
A pp ro v ed b y:
D r. F rans S a yo gie, M .P d S up erv iso r
EN G LISH L ET TE R S D E PA R T M E N T LET TE RS A N D H U M A N ITIES FA C U LT Y ST A TE ISL A M IC U N IV ER SITY SY A R IF H ID A Y A T U L L A H JA K A R TA 2009
ii
LE G A L IZA T IO N
T h e th esis entitle “A C ritical D isco u rse A n alysis o n th e Jak arta P ost T ex t” has been defend ed befo re th e L etters and H u m an itie s F acu lty’s E x am in atio n C o m m ittee on F eb ru ary 19 , 200 9 . T he th esis h as alre ad y be e n acc ep ted as a p artial fu lfillm ent o f th e req u irem ent fo r th e d egree o f L etters S cho lar.
Jakarta, F eb ru ary 19 , 2 0 0 9
Exam ination C om m ittee
C hair Person,
Secretary,
D r. H . M . Farkhan, M . Pd. N IP. 150 299 480
D rs. A. Saefuddin, M . Pd. N IP. 150 261 902
M em ber
Elve O ktafiyani, M . H um . NIP. 150 317 725
D r. H . M . Farkhan, M . Pd. N IP. 150 299 480
iii
D EC LA R A TIO N
I hereb y d eclare th at th is sub m ission is m y o w n w o rk an d th at, to th e b est o f m y k no w led ge an d b elief, it con tains no m aterial prev iou sly pub lish ed o r w ritten b y ano ther pe rson no r m ate rial w h ich to a sub stantial ex tent has been accep ted fo r th e aw ard o f an y o th er de gree o r d ip lo m a o f th e un iversity o r o th er institu te o f high e r learn in g, ex cept w h e re d u e ackno w led g m en t has b een m ad e in th e tex t.
Jakarta, F eb ru ary 20 09
M u d ho far
iv
A C K N O W L E D G M EN T
In th e n am e o f A llah , th e B en eficen t, the M erc ifu l. A ll p raises are du e to A llah, th e A lm igh ty, an d th e Lo rd o f all th at ex ist. M a y A llah ’s p ea ce and blessin g b e u pon H is fin al P rop h et a nd M essen ger, M u h am m ad , h is fam ily and h is co m p an io ns. T h is p aper is presen ted to th e E n glish L etters D epartm ent o f th e F aculty of L etters and H u m an ities U IN S yarif H id a yatu llah Jakarta as a p artial fulfillm en t o f th e req u irem en ts fo r S 1 d e gree. It is a g reat h on o r fo r th e w rite r to m ak e ack no w ledgm ent o f in d ebted n ess to con v e y h e r since re gratitud e to D r. F ran s S a yo g ie , M .P d ., fo r h is v alu ab le adv ice and gu id an ce to acco m p lish this research . T h e w riter also w ou ld lik e to con v e y h is sin cere gratitud e p articu larly to : 1.
D r. H . A b d. C h air, M .A ., T h e D ean o f L etters an d H u m an ities facu lty.
2.
D r. M . F arkh an , M . P d ., the H ead o f E n glish L ette r D ep artm en t.
3.
D rs. A . S aefu dd in, M . P d ., th e S ecretary o f E n glish L ette rs D ep artm ent.
4.
A ll th e lectu res o f E n glish L etters D ep artm en t fo r their encou rag em en t to th e w riter.
5.
T h e w rite r’s b elo v ed p aren ts, M u ch las and M iratu n fo r th eir p atien ts an d sp irits in sp ired th e w riter in h is ev ery an x iety.
v
6. H is b elov ed b ro th ers an d sisters, A b du l S yu k u r, S .A g, S u lh adi M S, Nur H a yati and M u a’aw an ah , w h o h av e en co u rag ed th e w riter in ac co m p lish in g h is research. 7.
T h e B ig F am ily o f Korps Sukarela Palang Merah Indonesia (KSR PM I) State Islamis University Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta.
8.
T h e B ig F am ily o f Teater el Na’ma, Sanggar Altar an d Teater Syahid.
9.
T h e teach ers an d staffs o f Bimbingan Belajar Bintang Pelajar.
10 . N u r A jen g S o lek h a, fo r h er p atient an d sup po rt. 11 . A ll
L ib rarians
of
A tm ajaya L ib rary, S tate
U n iv ersity
U IN
S ya rif
U n iv e rsity
H id a yatu llah of
In do n esia
L ib ra ry, U n iv ersity L ib rary,
L ibrary
of of
o f Jakarta an d Institute o f S ocial and P o litic S cience
Jakarta. F in ally, th e w riter h o p e s th is research is not o nly u sefu l b ut also in v ites an o th er resea rch g en esis w h ich d iscu sses ab out m ed ia pra ctical.
Jakarta, F eb ru ary 20 09 T h e W riter
M u d ho far
vi
TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S
A BST R A C T .............................................................................................................
i
A PPR O V EM EN T .................................................................................................... ii LE G A L IZA T IO N .................................................................................................... iii D EC LA R A TIO N ......................................................................................................
iv
A C K N O W L E D G M EN T ......................................................................................... v TA B L E O F C O N T E N TS ......................................................................................... v ii LIST O F TA BL ES ................................................................................................... ix LIST O F A PPE N D IC ES ......................................................................................... x C H A PT E R I IN T R O D U C T IO N A . B a ck gro un d o f th e S tu d y .......................................................................... 1 B . F o cus o f th e S tu d y .................................................................................... 5 C . R esearch Q u estio n ..................................................................................... 6 D . T h e S ign ific an ces o f the S tu d y ................................................................. 6 E . R esearch M eth od o lo g y .............................................................................. 6 1. M eth od o f th e R esea rc h .................................................................... 6 2. Instru m en t o f th e R ese arch ................................................................ 7 3. T echn iqu es o f D ata S tud y ................................................................ 7 C H A PT E R II TH EO R ET IC A L FR A M E W O R K A . M ass M ed ia as In stitu tio n ......................................................................... 8 B . N e w s an d O b je ctiv ity ................................................................................ 9 C . T h e C o n cep t o f T ex t and Inte r-T ex tu al ..................................................... 11 D . D iscou rse ................................................................................................... 1 7 1. C ritical P arad ig m .............................................................................. 2 1 2. N o rm an F airclo u gh D isco u rse T h eo ry .............................................. 23 a. R epresen tatio n ................................................................................ 25 b. R elation .......................................................................................... 32 c. Identity............................................................................................ 35
vii
C H A PT E R III T H E R E SE A R C H R ESU LT AN D D A TA A N A L Y SIS A . R esearch S u b ject ....................................................................................... 3 7 B . T h e R esearch R esu lt .................................................................................. 3 7 1. C h in ese N ew Y ear E u pho ria an d P o litical T rau m a .............................. 37 a. R epresen tatio n .................................................................................. 3 9 b. R elation ............................................................................................ 4 4 c. Identity.............................................................................................. 4 5 2. F itting In ............................................................................................... 4 7 a. R epresen tatio n .................................................................................. 4 9 b. R elation ............................................................................................ 5 5 c. Identity.............................................................................................. 5 6 C . D ata A n alysis ............................................................................................ 5 8 C H A PT E R IV C O N C L U SIO N A N D SU G G EST IO N A . C on clu sio n ................................................................................................. 6 1 B . S u gg estio n ................................................................................................. 6 2 R E FER EN C ES ......................................................................................................... 63 A PPEN D IC ES
v iii
LIST O F T A B L ES
1.
Table of the Elem ent of Text R esearch… … … … … … … … … … … … … ... 7
2.
Table of D efinition of D iscourse… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .. 18
3.
Table of the C haracteristic of Text R esearch… … … … … … … … … … … . 22
ix
LIST O F A PPEN D IC E S
1.
C hinese N ew Y ear Euphoria and Political Traum a ................................. 64
2.
Fitting In ....................................................................................................... 70
x
C H A PT E R I IN T R O D U C T IO N
A . Background of the Study T od ay, not
m ed ia
h o ld
im p o rtan t
ro les
in
hu m an
life.
M ed ia
are
o nly fu n ctio n ed as sou rce o f inform atio n b ut also as trig gering facto r in chan gin g
of so cial, cu lture, po litic and econ o m y. H arso no S u w and i – lectu re o f P o litic an d C o m m u n ication P ostgrad u ate F IS IP U I – as ex cerp ted b y Ib n u H am ad, sa ys that there are fiv e asp ects fro m m ass m ed ia w h ich m ak e it im p o rtan t. “Pertama, daya jangkauan (coverage) yang sangat luas dalam menyebar- luaskan informasi politik; yang mampu melewati batas wilayah (geografis), kelompok umur, jenis kelamin dan social-ekonomistatus (demografis) dan perbedaan paham dan orientasi (psikografis). Kedua, kemampuannya melipat-gandakan pesan (multiplier of message) yang luar biasa. Ketiga, setiap media massa bisa mewacanakan sebuah peristiwa sesuai pandangann ya masing-masing. Keempat, tentu saja dengan fungsi agenda setting yang dimilikinya, media memiliki kesempatan yang sangat luas (bahkan hampit tanpa batas) untuk memberitakan sebuah peristiwa. Kelima, pemberitaan peristiwa oleh suatu media lazimnya berkaitan dengan media lainnya hingga membentuk rantai informasi (media as links in other chains).” 1 B ased on th e ex plan atio n ab ov e can b e co n clud ed , first, m ed ia h ave larg e co v era ge. N ew s w h ich is prod u ced b eco m es atten tio n in everyw here and ev ery asp ect of so ciety. S econ d, m ed ia h av e a gre at m u ltip lier m essages. A n ev ent no t o n ly can b e 1
P refa ce of H arso n o S u w a n d i, lectu re of P o litic an d C o m m u nic atio n P ostg rad u ate F IS IP U I in Ibn u H a m ad , Konstruksi Realitas Politik dalam M edia M assa: Sebuah Studi Critical D iscourse Analysis terhadap Berita-berita Politik, (Jak arta: G ran it, 2 0 0 4 ). P refac e p ag e.
1
m u ltip lied d ep en ds on how m an y ex em p lars w h ic h are n eed ed b ut also can be prin ted m o re and m ore. T h ird , m ed ia hav e th eir o w n d isco u rse. It m ean s th at m ass m ed ia th ro u gh th eir p o lic y determ in e th e ap p earan ce an d th e con ten t o f it thro u gh th e tex ts. F o u rth , m ed ia h av e large o pp o rtun ities fo r deliverin g th e n ew s, an d th e n e w s can be flash ed separate d
o r n o t. A n d
th e last, as lin ks in
po w er in d istrib u tin g
in fo rm atio n
and
an
o th er ch ain s can add effect
to
the
p u b lic.
B y th is asp ect, m ass m ed ia b eco m e stro n ge r in m ak in g p ub lic op in io n. M ed ia fram ing
also
m ak e
th e
fram in g
of
m essa ges
p ro cess.
In
th e
o f m essag es, m ed ia c an ch o o se the fa ct, w h ich w ill b e w ritten (o r no t) in the
n ew s tex ts. W h atev er th e factors, if m ass m edia hav e b eco m e an agent o f po litic, the ob jectiv ities of th e new s tex t w ill be cru cial. M o reo v er, o n e o f th e charac teristics o f m ed ia is m ak ing pu b lic o pin io n. Z ellin g discou rse.
S.
H arries
(195 2 )
firstly intro d u ces
th e
term
of
tex t
/
H e started to search th e lan gu ag e prin cip les th at ex p lain ho w th e
sen ten ce w ith in a tex t co nn ected b y a typ e o f e x tend ed gram m atic al. 2 F airclo u gh d iv id ed d isco u rse analysis in to thre e d im en sio n: text, discourse practice and socio-cultural practice. 3 H o w ever, in th is research th e w riter on ly focuses on the tex t level. In th e F airclo u gh m o d e l, an an alysis o f tex t is analyz ed lin gu istically; b y seeing w h ich
2
th e
w o rds, sem an tic, an d
th e
stru ctu re . A ll o f th e
are
G u y C o ok , Discourse, (O xfo rd: O xfo rd U niv ersity P ress 1 9 8 9 ), p. 3.
elem ents,
3
E riya n to, Analisis Wacana: PengantarAnalisis Teks M edia, (Y o g ya k arta: L K iS , 2 0 0 3 ), p. 2 8 6 .
2
an alyz ed , are u sed fo r seein g three p ro b lem s, rep resen tatio n , relation an d id en tity. R ep resen tatio n asp e ct w an ts to see ho w th e ev ent, p eo p le o r an yth ing is sho w n an d describ ed in the tex t. R elation asp ect w an ts to see ho w th e relatio n b etw een jo u rnalist and pu b lic are sho w n an d d escrib ed in th e tex t. Iden tity asp ect w an ts to see h o w th e id en tity o f jo u rn alist an d p ub lic are sho w n and d escrib ed in th e tex t. A ll of
th ose asp ects are related to jou rn alist an d th e in stitu tion o f m ed ia as n ew s
m ak er. W e are g o in g to fin d th e ex am p les as fo llo w s: (1 ) (a) P o licem an rap ed a w o m an . (b ) P o licem an d id a rap e. (c) A w o m an ex perien ced R ap es (2 )
happ en
a
rap e.
(d )
A
w o m an
w as
rap ed .
(e)
in an yw h ere.
T h e stu d en ts o f U G M a re fid g ety w ith th e o ccu rrin g cam p us au to no m y.
T h e ex am p le (1 ) (a) is clear eno u gh called as a se nten ce/ tex t (su b ject + v erb + o b ject). T h e ev en t on ly pu ts in to o n e p articipant in th e tex t, either th e su b ject o r th e ob ject. In (b ) th e tex t om its th e o b ject. In (c ) th e tex t om its th e ob ject. T h e event is in transitiv e sen ten ce (su b ject + v erb). In (d ) th e tex t is o n ly sh o w n th e situ ation , w ith ou t m en tio n ing an d m a y h ide th e sub ject o f th e acto r’s action . It on ly d escrib es that
th ere
w as
a
w om an
m en tal p ro cess; sho w so m eth in g creates
con scio u sn esses
as
w ho
w as
ph eno m e n a,
rap ed . gen eral
A n o th er s ym p to m ,
typ e
is
w h ich
the pu b lic, w ith ou t sho w in g th e su b ject/ acto r and th e
victim s specifically, lik e in th e tex t (d ). It o n ly d escrib es th e p h en o m en on w h ich is h ap p en in g in th e so c iety. The differen ce typ e is n ot on ly structu ral p ro b lem b ec a use th e p ub lic w ho get th e m eanin g
3
are d ifferen t b ut also h o w an ev en t, actio n, o r actor can b e sh o w n d ifferen tly b y using differen t stru ctu ral in lan gu ag e. 4 T h e ex am p le (2 ) is am b ivalence n ew s. D o es th e sen ten ce con stitu te vo ice of a stud en t w h ich then sh o w n b y jou rn alist? O n th e o th er hand , d o es it constitute v o ice o f th e
w riter?
D o es
th e
w o rd
co nstitu te
actuality
th at
is
spo k en
by
th e
au tho rities o r stu d en ts? T h e elem en ts m ay b e fo rm ed fo r b ein g tran slated in th e different w a y b y th e p ub lic o r reader, an ticipated and in ter-tex tual is th e so u rce of th e am b ivalen ce. 5 A n o rd e r o f d iscou rse is a so cial stru ctu rin g of sem io tic differen ce – a particu lar so cial o rd e rin g of relation sh ips am on gst d ifferen t w a ys o f m ak in g m ean in g , ie
d ifferent
ord erin g or
d iscou rse
is d o m inance:
m ain stream
in
and
gen res
so m e
an d
w a ys
of
styles. O n e m ak in g
asp ect m ean in g
of a re
th is
do m in ant
a p articu lar o rd e r o f d iscou rse, oth ers are m arginal, o r
opp osition al, o r ‘alternativ e’. F o r instan ce, the re m a y b e a d o m in ant w a y to con d uct a d o ctor-p atient co n su ltation in B ritain , b ut th ere are also v ario us o th er w a ys, w h ich m a y b e ado p ted o r d ev elop ed to a
greater
do m in ant and
or
lesser
w a y p rob ab ly
p atien ts,
and
ex tent still
in
op po sition
m ain tain s
to
social
the
do m inant
d istan ce
w a y.
betw e en
The
d o cto rs
th e au tho rity o f th e do cto r o ver th e w a y in tera ctio n pro ceeds;
but th ere are o thers w a ys w h ich
are
m o re
‘dem o cratic’,
in
w h ich
d o cto rs
pla y do w n th eir au th ority. T h e p o litical con cep t o f ‘h eg em o n y’ can usefu lly b e u sed in an alyz in g ord ers o f d isco u rse – a p articu lar so cial structu ring o f sem io tic d ifference m a y b eco m e h eg em on ic,
4 5
Op .Cit, p. 292-293. Ibid, p. 3 0 6 – 3 0 7.
4
beco m e p art relation s o f
of
th e
leg itim iz ing
co m m o n
sense
w h ich
su stains
do m inatio n , b ut hegem o n y w ill alw a ys b e con tested to a greate r o r lesse r ex ten t, in heg em on ic stru g gle. A n ord er o f d iscou rse is no t a closed o r rigid s ystem , but rath er an o p en s ystem , w h ich is put at risk b y w h at happ ens in actu al in teraction s. 6 C ritical D isco u rse A n alysis – as a typ e o f d isc ou rse an alysis w h ich stud ies ho w d o m in ation and in ju stice are ca rried ou t an d p ro du ced th rou gh tex t – con stitu te p art o f e ffort fo r return in g so m eth in g cultu ral stu d ies – w h ich is esp ecially dev elo p ed in E n gland – to th eir roo ts as critical stud ies. B ased o n th ose realities, the w riter is go in g to ana lyz e th e tex t th e Jak arta P ost b y usin g critical d iscou rse an alysis.
B.
Focus of the Study T h is
research
m eth od o log y app ro ach . fo cu ses
on
ho w
u ses T h is
C ritical research
D isco u rse is
based
on
A n alysis th e
(C D A )
as
in terp retation
an d
th e rep resen tation , relatio n an d id entities are sh o w n an d
describ ed in th e tex t o f the Jak arta P o st. 7
6
7
N o rm a n F airclo u g h , The Dialectics of Discourse, http ://w w w .g o o g le.co .id /se arc h ?h l= id & q = id en tity % 2 C + rela tio n % 2 C + rep rese ntatio n + th eo ry+ N o rm a n + F airclo u g h & b tn G = T elu suri+ d en g a n + G o o g le & m eta= & aq = f& o q = . A cc essed o n F eb ru ary 2 5 , 2 0 0 9 . p. 2. W h y is it b ased o n th e inte rpretatio n ? A cco rd in g to Jo h n B . T h o m so n, if w e w an t to d o d ee p est an alysis fro m c o nte n t, w e h a v e to do in terp retatio n b e cau se th e in terp retatio n is alw a y s related to w h at is n o t real of w h at w e see. T h e d ee p est m ean in g ca n b e k no w n if w e d o an alysis d ee p ly b y relatin g to stru ctu re a n d so cia l co n te x t w hic h co v er th e tex t. A n d th e p ro c ess w h ic h relates th e te xt an d th e so cial co n tex t can n o t b e d o n e o nly b y seein g b ut also b y in terp reting . Joh n B . T h o m son, Ideology and Modern Culture: Critical Social Theory in the Era of Mass Communication, (C a m b ridg e: P o lity P ress, 1 9 9 0 ), p . 2 0-2 2 . in E riyan to, ibid. p p . 2 3 9.
5
C . R esearch Q uestion B ased on th e back g ro un d o f th e stu d y, the m ain qu estio ns o f th e research are: 1.
H o w is th e C h inese rep resen tation describ ed b y the jou rnalist in th e tex t o f th e Jakarta P ost?
2. H o w are th e relatio n an d iden tities o f th e jo u rnalist sho w n in th e tex t of th e Jakarta P ost?
D . The Significances of the Study The
research
w ill
analyz e
th e
tex t
of
The
Jak arta
P o st.
T h en ,
th e w riter ex p ects, th is research w ill b e u sefu l, esp ecially fo r the w riter him self to stu d y ab ou t a tex t an d kn o w s m o re ab ou t so cial p ro b lem in In do n esia an d gen erally fo r bein g referen c e fo r o th er p eo p le.
E.
R esearch M ethodology
1.
M ethod of the R esearch T h e m etho d th at is u sed b y th e w rite r is C ritical D isco u rse A n alysis (C D A ).
C ritical D isco u rse A n alysis (C D A ) is an in terd iscip lin ary ap p ro ach to the stu d y o f d iscou rse w h ich v iew s "lan gu a ge as a form o f so cial practice" and focu ses o n th e w a ys so cial and p o litical do m in atio n is rep ro du c ed b y tex t and talk . C ritical d iscou rse analysis is fo un d ed o n th e idea th at th ere is u n e qu al ac cess to lin gu istic and so cial
6
resou rces th at are con tro lled in stitu tio n ally. T h e pattern s o f ac cess to d iscou rse and co m m u n icativ e ev en ts a re on e essen tial elem ent for C D A .
2.
Instrum ent of the R esearch T h e instru m en t in th is research is th e w rite r h im self w ith co llecting, read ing
and an alyz in g th e relev an t d ata w ith th e rese arch .
3.
Techniques of D ata A nalysis T h e techn iq u es of data stud y are b egun b y co llecting th e m aterial, in th is c ase
is new s tex ts o f T h e Jak arta P ost. T h e secon d ph ase is tex t an alysis app licatio n. T h is p h ase is d iv id ed in to th ree lev els; represen tation , relation and iden tity. T h e details are:
Table I The E lem ent of Text R esearch T h e E lem en t R ep resen tatio n
R elation
F o r se ein g H ow or
th e
ev en t,
p eo p le ,
p ub lic,
situ ation
an yth in g are sho w n and d escrib ed in th e tex t. H o w th e relatio n b etw e e n jou rn alist, p ub lic and n ew s participan ts are sho w n and d escrib ed in th e tex t.
7
Id en tity
H ow
jo u rnalist’s,
p u b lic’s
and
n ew s
p articip an t’s iden tity are sho w n and d escrib ed in th e tex t.
8
C H A PT E R II TH E O R ET IC A L FR A M EW O R K
A.
M ass M edia as Institution R a y E . H ieb ert, in “M ass M ed ia an In trod u ction to M o d ern C o m m u n ication ,”
ex cerp ted of
by
S u rya
F ah riz al,
says
“T h e
m ass
m edia
are
institu tion
p ub lic co m m u n ication . T h e y p a rticip ate in every po litical, econo m ic an d
cu ltu ral aspect o f o u r society. 1 O n e o f th e typ es o f m ass m ed ia is m agaz in e. T o tok D juro to , as ex cerp ted b y P riyon o article,
san toso ,
sa ys
th at
m agaz in e
is
“co llectio n
of
new s,
sto ry, ad v ertisem en t, etc, w h ich p rin ted in sh eet o f pap er in letter o r fo lio
siz e, b and ed in to b oo k. A m agaz in e u su ally co m es o ut re gu larly, w eekly or m o n th ly.” 2 In Kamus Bahasa Indonesia is m ention ed that: ”Majalah adalah terbitan yg berisi berbagai liputan jurnalistik, pandangan topic aktual pembaca, penerbitannya dibedakan atas bulanan, tengah bulanan, mingguan, dsb, dan menurut isinya, dibedakan atas berita, wanita, remaja, olahraga, sastra, ilmu pengetahuan tertentu, dsb.” 3 F ro m th e ex p lan ation ab ov e, th e w rite r tak es a co nclu sio n th at m ag az in e is as on e o f m ass m ed ia w h ic h co m e out regu larly w ith a co v er pap er, usin g p ho to and 1
S u rya F ach rizal, “W a can a S e ku larism e, P luralism e, d an L ib eralism e (S P L ) P ad a P em b eritaan L K B N A n tara d an K o ran T e m p o M en g en ai H u k u m C a m b u k d i A c eh d an F atw a M U I T en tan g S P L d an A h m ad iya h ,” S krip si, (Jak arta: Institu t Ilm u S osial d an Ilm u P o litik, 2 0 0 6 ), p ..2 1 . u .p. 2 P riyon o S a n tosa, “Ju rn alism e S astra M B M T e m p o seb ag ai P rak tik E stetik d an P o litik B a h asa M e d ia p ad a P em b eritaan K a su s D u g aan K o ru p si y an g M e lib atk an P ejab at N eg ara K ab in et In d o n esia B ersatu,” skrip si, (Jak arta: In stitut Ilm u S o sial d an Ilm u P o litik , 2 0 0 6 ), p .2 6. u .p. 3 T im P en y u su n K a m u s P usat B ah asa, Kamus Bahasa Indonesia, (Jak arta: P usat B ah asa, 2 0 0 8 ), p. 9 6 9
9
illu stration an d con sist o f jo u rn alistic rep o rt, actu al top ic w h ich h as to b e kno w n b y th e read er (pub lic ).
B. N ew s and O bjectivity K u rn iaw an Jun aedi ex p lains th at n ew s is “rep o rt/ ann ou n cem en t abou t e v en t w h ich h app en o r gen eral situ ation an d actual w h ic h is p resen ted b y jou rn alist throu gh m ass m ed ia.”
4
D jafar H . A sseg af defin es new s as “repo rt abo u t a fa ct o r id ea ab out m ass, w h ich is ch osen b y red u ctio n staff fo r d istribu ting w h ich can in terest read er, eith er it is w o nd erfu l o r co v er hu m an in terest fo r in sta nce, h u m or, em o tion an d strained situ ation .” 5 In ano ther h an d, H o eta S o eh o et d efin es new s beco m e th ree, as P riy on o S an toso ex cerp ted, as fo llo w s: 6 a) Berita adalah keterangan mengenai peristiwa atau isi pernyataan manusia b) Berita bagi seseorang adalah keterangan mengenai peristiwa atau isi pernyataan manusia yang perlu baginya untuk mewujudkan filsafat hidupnya c) Berita bagi suatu surat kabar adalah keterangan mengenai peristiwa atau isi pernyataan yang perlu bagi pembacanya untuk mewujudkan filsafat hidupnya M o reo v er, H o eta S o eh o et tells th at th e m ain p rereq u isites w h ich h av e to be fu lfilled b y a n ew s tex t is th e tru th , an d u seful fo r so ciety. T h e true p rereq u isites
4 5 6
K urn ia w an Ju n ae d h ie, Ensiklopedi Pers Indonesia, (Jak arta: G ra m e d ia P u sta k a U ta m a, 1 9 9 1 ), p .2 6 D jafar H . A sseg af, Jurnalistik Masa Kini: Pengantar ke Praktek Kewartawanan, (Jak arta: G h alia In d o n esia, 1 9 8 3 ), p ..2 4 P riyo n o S a nto so, Op. .Cit. p . 31
10
po in ts to th e fact w h ich is o b jectiv e th at th e n ew s event is really h ap p en an d fact, no t m o re and no t less, no t in th e sam e m an n e r as jo u rn alist w an t. L ik e o r d islik e, rep o rter m ust arran ge th e n ew s te x t abo ut th e ev en t as in th e sam e m ann e r as th e fa ct. B ased o n th e ex plan atio n ab ov e, th ere is app osite m ean in g in it. In on e sid e, th e new s has to b e w ritte n in the sam e m ann er as fact, bu t in ano th er sid e there is an effo rt to en close th e life p h ilosop h y (id eo lo g y) in the n ew s w h ich w ill b e d istrib u ted. If m ass m ed ia w an ts to e nclo se th e ideo lo g y, so it is im p ossib le to d eliv er th e new s o b jectiv ely. W h en th e n e w s is w ritten since th e jou rn alist so u g h t, w ro te, an d ch ose staff,
an d
p lac em en t
au to m atically, refo rm ation
new s of
w h ich
th e
reality
is
do n e th ro u gh
by
th e
m ed ia
redu ction discu rsiv e
practice on th e n ew s w ill b e d istrib u ted . In th e term o f it, m ass m ed ia cap italiz e in prod ucing p rejud ice, b e cause th e ev en t is n ot rep o rted on th e sam e as th e reality o r o n p art o f th e ev en t. It can b e said th at m ed ia are an ag ent th at d efine th e reality w h ich is in h id d en im p o rtan ce. 7 B ecause o f the ideo lo g y from new s
th e m ass m ed ia itself, it cau ses th e
beco m e n ot ob jectiv e. H ence, fo r giv in g m o re ex p lan ation , th e w riter is go ing to loo k u p in critical p ara d igm .
7
A g u s S u d ib yo , et al., Kabar-kabar Kebencian, (Jak arta: Institu te S tud y A ru s Inform asi, 2 0 0 1 ). P refac e p ag e.
11
C . The C oncept of Text and Inter-Textual
1.
The C oncept of Text T ex t, acco rd in g to B a rth e s, is “an o b ject o f p le asu re”. 8 T h e p leasu re in read ing of tex t is th e p leasu re w h en fo llo w th e o b je ct p age b y p ag e, w h ich is read . T h e reade rs them selves o n ly feel th e p le asu re, w h ich is created . T h e read er
p leasu re h as th e q u ality ch aracteristic o f ind ividu al. T h e in d iv id u al p leasu re as tho u g h fou nd th e read e r’s w o rld, w h ich
can
b e im ag in ed
freely 9 . T h e im agin ation s con stitu te an
en erg y, w h ich rises from hu m an , w h ich h as ch ara c teristic p erso n al. 1 0 F u rtherm o re, B arth es sa ys th at, th e p leasu re, no t o n ly related to lan gu ag e, but also related to bo d y. In The Pleasure of the text, B arth es sh o w s th at th e pleasu re con cept is related to sem io tic activ ities an d tex tual an alysis. 1 1 In oth er h and , acco rd in g to R ico eu r, tex t is d isco u rse 1 2 (it m eans p ro nou n ce) w h ich is b rou g ht in to w ritin g form . 1 3 T h ere fo re, it is clear th at tex t is “th e fix atio n o r
8
T h e p leasure o f read in g is d e scrib ed b y B arth es 1 9 7 5 , (in K u rn ia w an 2 0 0 1 : 1 0 2 ) as: “W h at I en jo y in sto ry, it’s n o t directly its con ten t, no r ev en its stru cture, b ut th e ab rasio n I im p o se o n th e fin e surfac e: I sp eed a h ead , I skip , I lo o k u p, I dip in ag ain. A lex S o b ur, Analisis Teks Media: Suatu Pengantar Untuk Analisis Wacana, Analisis Semiotik, dan Analisis Framing, (B an d u n g : P T . R e m aja R o sd ak arya, 2 0 0 4 ), p . 5 2. 9 K urnia w a n , Semiologi Roland Barthers, (Y o g yak arta : Y ay a san In d o n e sia T era, 2 0 0 1), P . 2 0 2 . 10 H . T ed jo w o ro , Imajinasi dan Imajinasi, Suatu Telaah Filsafat Postmodern, (Y o gya k arta: K an isiu s, 2 0 0 1 ), P . 5 9 11 A le x S o b u r, loc. Cit. 12 In ling u istic stud y, disco urse sho w s th e u n ity of la n gu a g e , w hich g e n erally b ig g er th an sen te n ce, eith er d eliv ering in sp o k en o r w ritten. D isco u rse is th e c o m p atib le sen te n ce co m b in a tio n, w hic h co n n ect to o n e p ro p o sitio n to an o th er p ro p o sitio n ; on e se nte n ce to an oth er se n te n ce, w h ic h m ak e o n e unity. T h e m ea n in g of o n e se nten ce is related to an o th er se nten ce an d is n o t in terp reted sen ten ce b y sen te n ce. T h e un ity of lan g u ag e ca n b e lo ng o r sh o rt. A s a te x t, disco urse is n o t th e seq u en ce o f sen te n ce, w h ich d o es n o t h a v e b o n d each o th er, n o t se nten ces, w h ic h is co m b in ed alo n e. D isco u rse stu d y in lin g uistic co n stitu te a rea ctio n to lin g uistic stu d y, w h ich on ly research lan g u ag e a sp e ct fro m w o rd or senten c e. T h e w o rd s o r th e sente n ce s are stu d ie d in d ep en d en tly, n o t related to an o th er
12
in stitu tio n alizatio n an ev ent o f spo k en discou rse in to w ritin g form ” (H ida ya t, 1 99 6: 129 -1 30 ). 1 4 In th e d e fin itio n ab ov e, im p licitly, sh o w s abo ut the relatio n betw e en w ritin g and tex t. If th e w ritin g is lan gu a g e w h ich p ou red out in to w ritin g fo rm , tex t is spok en discou rse w h ich po u red o ut in to text fo rm . H allid ay an d H asan (19 8 5) d efin e ‘tex t’ as “lan gu ag e th at is fun ction al… th at is do ing so m e jobs in so m e con tex t as op po sed to iso lated w o rd s o r sen ten ces.” 1 5 A tex t is n ot ju st a strin g of sen ten ce. In ano th e r w o rd , it is n ot sim p ly a larg e gram m atical u n it, so m eth in g o f th e sam e k ind as sen tence b ut d ifferin g fro m its size. A
tex t is no t as a g ram m atical u n it at all, bu t rather as a un it o f
diffe rent k in d: a sem an tic u n it. T he u n ity th at is had is a un ity o f m ean in g in con tex t, a tex tu re th at ex press th e fact th at it co nn ects as w h o le. 1 6 B ein g a sem an tic un it, a tex t is realiz ed in th e fo rm o f sen ten ce, an d th is h o w th e relatio n o f tex t to sen tence c an b est in terp rete d. A set o f related sen ten ces, w ith a sin g le sen ten ce o r even a w o rd as lim itin g case, is th e em bod im ent o r re aliz ation of tex t.
sen te n ces. H ere, th e stud y is o nly p ut o n p hra se or senten c e, n ot related to th e relatio n sen ten ce b y sen te n ce as o n e u nity. E riy an to , Analisis Wacana: PengantarAnalisis Teks M edia, (Y o g ya k arta: L K iS , 2 0 0 3 ). p. 3-4 . 13 N in u k K led e n-P ro b o n eg o ro, Pengalihan Wacana: Lisan ke Tulisan dan Teks, d alam P u d en tia M P S S (ed .), M etodologi Kajian Tradisi Lisan, (Jak arta: Y a y asan O b o r In d o n esia, 1 9 9 8 ), p. 1 9 14 A le x S o b u r, ibid. p . 5 3 . 15 T erry L o ck e, Continum Research M ethod Critical Discourse Analysis, (L o n d o n-N e w Y o rk: C o ntinu u m Intern atio n al P u b lishin g G ro u p , 2 0 0 4 ), p . 1 4 . 16 M .A .K . H allid a y an d H asa n , Cohesion in English, 1 st ed ., (L o n d o n: L o n g m a n G rou p L im ited , 1 9 7 6), p . 2.
13
A ltho u gh th e con cept of th e tex t ex act en ou gh , an d can b e adequ ately an d ex p licitly
d efin ed ,
th e
d efinition
w ill
not
p ro v id e
us
w ith
au to m atic
criteria fo r reco gn iz ing in all sen ten ces w h at is a tex t and w h at is n o t. In all kind o f ling u istic con tex t, from th e m o st form al to th e m ost in fo rm al, w e constan tly hav e to do w ith fo rm s o f in teraction , w h ich lie on th e b o rd erline betw een tex tu al co n tinu ity an d d iscon tinu ity. H o w ev er, th e ex isten ce of ind ete rm in ate in stances o f k in d d o es not d estro y th e usefu ln ess o f the g en e ral no tio n o f th e tex t as th e b asic sem an tic un it o f lin g u istic in teraction . 1 7
2. The C oncept of Inter-textual O ne
o f th e
im po rtan t ideas o f F airclo u gh
is ab ou t in ter-tex tual, 1 8
w h ich is d ev elo p ed b y Ju lia K ristev a an d M ich ael B ack tin . In ter-tex tual is a term , w h ich text and id io m are m ad e b y tex t, w h ich co m es b efo re, perceiv es each o th er an d on e o f th e p art o f tex t an ticip ate to ano ther. In un d erstan d in g o f B ac h tin , as fairclou gh stated , all id io m s, eith er w ritten or spo k en , fro m all o f k inds o f tex t, su ch as scien ce repo rt, no v el, an d n e w s are d iffered b y the ch an gin g o f th e sp eak er (o r w riter) an d p o inted b y th e sp e ak e r o r w riter b e fo re (eith er scien ce repo rt o r n ov el). 1 9
17 18
19
Ibid. p. 2 9 5. In ter-tex tu al is a so u rce w h ere can b e fo un d a m b iv a len ce in th e te x t. If th e m ain te x t is d eterm in ed or b ased o n th e o th er te x t, w h ich co m e b e fo re an d tak e in to co m b in ation , th e ele m e n t o f m ain tex t c an b e co m e n o t cle ar w h ic h p lac e d in th e rela tio n w ith inter-tex tu al n etw o rk, a n d th e m e an in g can b e am b iv ale n ce. O p. C it. p. 3 0 6 ibid. p. 305-306
14
T h e co n cep t o f in ter-tex tual relates to w a ys in w h ich tex ts are re ferred to o th er tex ts b y v irtu e o f sto ries (o r d iscou rse ) em bed d ed in them . M o reo v er, tex ts can re fer fo rw ard o r ba ck w a rd. 2 0 T h e p ro b lem o f in ter-tex tual in n ew s can b e detected fro m ex cerp tin g n ew s sou rce in new s. A cco rd in g to F airclo u gh , an o p in io n fro m th e new s sou rce, w h ich w ill b e n ew s, can b e sh o w ed in d irect d iscou rse o r ind irect d iscou rse. 2 1 W e are go in g to fin d an e x am p le as fo llo w s:
D irect
A m ien R ais: “F ro m n o w , G us D u r m ust sto p sp eak ing
In d irect
abo ut p o litic” A m ien R ais p ro claim to G us D u r to sto p speak in g po litic.
In d irect
A m ien sp eak
R ais
b e g in
b ra v in g
to
fo rb id
G us
D ur
po litic.
T h e cho ice ex cerptin g betw een d irect an d in d irect, is n ot th e pro b lem o f jo u rnalistic
tech n iq ue
on ly,
bu t
in
fact,
w h ich
th e
cho ice
is
tak en ,
describ e th e d iscou rse strateg y, ho w th e jou rn alists p lace them selv es in the cen tre o f m an y v o ices w h ich is in ou tsid e o f th em selv es. In th e d ire ct ex cerp tin g, sign ed b y th e u sin g o f apo strop h e to sho w th at th e part in ap ostrop h e is spok en b y A m ien R ais directly. H ere, th e vo ic e o f so m eb o d y (A m ien R ais) ex p licitly is sho w ed as h e said th ro u g h ex cerp tin g . O n th e o th er hand ,
20 21
T erry L o ck e, Op. Cit. p. 9. E riya nto , Op. Cit. p p . 3 0 6 -3 0 7.
15
in th e ind irect ex cerp ting , the vo ice of so m eb o d y (A m ien R ais) is vo iced th ro u gh m ou th and vo ice o f jo u rn alist, b asically, A m ien R ais do es no t sp e ak as h im self. It is sign ed , fo r ex am p le, th e usin g o f w o rd as “sa y, p roclaim , requ ire, etc.” altern ativ ely, usin g adv e rb “that” w h ich assert th at th e jou rn a list w ho ex ten d w h at is vo iced b y n ew s so u rce. T h e alteration fro m d irect ex cerp ting in to in d ire ct ex cerp ting also cau se th e alteration o f sem antic, because hav e to ad just th e sen ten ce p attern in th e in d irect ex cerp tin g. T h e using o f w o rd, as “n o w o r in th is m o m en t” w h ich describ es th e real o p in io n fro m th e n ew s sou rce w h en he sa ys h is /h er w o rd s, has to b e ch an g ed in to ind irect ex cerp tin g. In tertex tuality, gen e rally,
can
be
div id ed
in to
tw o
parts;
m an ifest
in tertex tuality an d m an ifest in terd iscu rsiv ity. 2 2 M anifest Inter-textuality: it is in tertex tu ality fo rm w h ere ano th e r tex t or an o th er vo ice is app ea rin g ex p licitly in th e tex t. D iscourse R epresentation: it is used fo r sh o w ing a term ho w th e ev en t is rep o rted . W h y th e jou rn alist ch ose o n e typ e rep o rt or c ertain d iscou rse, co m pa red to an o th er; w h at is sho w ed no t on ly sp ok e n bu t also w ritten and no t o n ly stru ctu re im a ge b u t also certain discou rse typ e. Presupposition: it is p ro po sitio n w h ich is accep ted b y th e tex t m ak er th at is read y
22
Ib id . p. 3 1 1-3 1 5
16
p laced as so m ething th a t b eh eld tru ly an d place d in th e text o rgan izatio n in a w ho le m an n er. N egation: th e legatio n se nten ce is o ften u sed fo r p olem ic p u rpo se. Irony: gen erally, iro n y is term w h ich is u sed fo r d escrib in g th at w h at is told is no t w h at w an ts to b e to ld . It is o n ly fo r teasin g o r h u m or, etc. M etadiscourse: it is th e fo rm fro m m an ifest in te rtectu ality w h ere th e tex t m ak er giv es th e d ifferent lev el in to the tex t w h ich she/h e h ave and m ak e d istan c e fo r h er/him self w ith ano ther tex t lev el.
M anifest Interdiscursivity: th e o th er tex t un derla y elem ent co n figu ra tion w h ich is d ifferent fro m o rder o f d iscou rse. G enre: it is p art of co n v ention w h ich is related to actio n. A ctivity T ype: it is a ce rtain g en re w h ich is related to co m po sitio n certain stru ctu re. Style: a g en re w h ich is related to ce rtain style, it h as sev eral alternativ es thro u gh w h ere is d istribu ted . D iscourse: sho w on tex t dim ension w h ich is gen erally d efin ed as con ten t, id ea, th em e, top ic an d etc.
17
D . D iscourse D iscou rse
(L .
discursus,
"run n in g
to
an d
fro m ")
m eans
eith e r
"w ritten o r spo k en co m m un icatio n o r d ebate" o r "a fo rm al d iscussion o r debate." 2 3 T h e term is o ften u sed in sem an tics an d d iscou rse an alysis. In sem an tics, d isco u rses are lin gu istic un its co m p osed o f sev eral sen tences; in oth er w o rd s, co nv ersatio ns, argu m en ts, o r sp ee ch es. In w h ich cam e sho rthand
to
pro m inen c e
in
th e
late
1 960 s,
th e
d isco u rse an alysis,
w o rd
"d iscou rse "
is
fo r
"d iscu rsiv e form ation ," w h ich is w h at M ich el F ou cau lt called co m m un icatio n th at inv o lv es sp ecializ ed kn o w led g e of v ario us kind s. It is in th is sense th at th e w o rd is m o st o ften used in acad e m ic stud ies. S tud ies o f discou rse h av e b een carried out w ith in a v ariety o f trad itio ns th at in v estigate th e relation s betw een lan gu ag e, stru cture and a genc y, in clu d in g fem in ist stud ies, an th rop o lo g y, ethno g rap h y, cu ltu ral stud ies, literary th eo ry and th e h isto ry o f id eas. W ith in th ese fields, th e n o tio n o f "d isco u rse" is itself sub ject to discou rse, w h ich is, d eb ated on th e b asis o f sp ecializ ed kn o w led g e. D isco u rse c an b e observed in th e use o f spo k en , w ritten and signed lan gu ag e and m u ltim o d al/m ultim edia fo rm s of co m m u n icatio n, an d is no t fo un d on ly in "n on -fiction al" o r v erbal m aterials. In th e so cial scien ces (fo llo w in g th e w o rk o f M ic hel F ou c au lt), a d isco u rse is con sid ered to be an institution aliz ed w a y o f th in k ing, a so cial b oun d ary d e fin ing w h at
23
C o m p act O xfo rd D ictio n ary, Thesaurus and Wordpower G uide, (N ew Y o rk: O xfo rd U n iv ersity P ress, , 2 0 0 1 ).
18
can b e said ab ou t a sp ecific top ic, o r, as Ju d ith B u tler pu ts it, "th e lim its o f acc ep tab le sp eech "— o r p ossib le tru th. D iscou rses are seen to affect ou r view s o n all things; it is not p ossib le to escap e d isco u rse. F o r ex am p le, tw o n o tably d istin ct d isco u rses can b e used abo ut v ariou s g uerrilla m o v em en ts d escrib in g them either as "freed o m fig h ters" or
"terro rists."
In
oth e r
w o rd s,
th e
chosen
d iscou rse
delivers
th e
v o cabu lary, ex pressio ns and perh ap s also th e style need ed to co m m u n icate. D iscou rse is closely link ed to d ifferen t theories o f po w er an d state, at least as lo n g as d efin in g d iscou rses is seen to m ean d efin in g reality itself. 2 4 T ab le b elo w w ill ex p lain eno u gh ab ou t th e d efin ition o f d isco u rse. 2 5
Table II D efinition of D iscourse
Wacana: 1. Komunikasi verbal, ucapan, percakapan; 2. sebuah perlakuan formal dari subjek dalam ucapan atau tulisan; 3. sebuah unit teks yang digunakan oleh linguis untuk menganalisa satuan lebih dari kalimat (Collins Concise English Dictionary, 1988) Wacana: 1. sebuah percakapan khusus yang alamiah formal dan pengungkapan diatur dalam ide dalam ucapan dan tulisan; 2. pengungkapan dalam bentuk sebuah nasihat, risalah, dan sebagainya; sebuah unit yang dihubungkan ucapan atau tulisan. (Longman Dictionary of the English Language, 1984) Wacana: 1. rentetan kalimat yang berkaitan, yang menghubungkan proposisi yang satu dengan proposisi yang lainnya, membentuk satu kesatuan, sehingga terbentuklah makna yang serasi di antara kalimatkalimat itu; 2. kesatuan bahasa yang terlengkap dan tertinggi atau terbesar di atas kalimat atau klausa dengan koherensi dan kohesi yang tinggi yang 24 25
Discourse , http ://e n .w ikip ed ia.o rg /w ik i/D isco urse. A cc e sse d on O cto b er 2 9 , 2 0 0 8 E riya nto , Op. Cit. p . 2
19
berkesinambungan, yang mampu mempunyai awal dan akhir yang nyata, disampaikan secara lisan atau tertulis. (J.S. Badudu 2000) Analsis wacana memfokuskan pada struktur yang secara alamiah terdapat pada bahasa lisan, sebagaimana banyak terdapat dalam wacana seperti percakapan, wawancara, komentar, dan ucapan-ucapan. (Crystal 1987) Wacana adalah komunikasi kebahasaan yang terlihat sebagai sebuah pertukaran di antara pembicaraan dan pendengar, sebagai sebuah aktivitas personal di mana ditentukan oleh tujuan sosialnya. (Hawthorn 1992) Wacana adalah komunikasi lisan atau tulisan yang dilihat dari titik pandang kepercayaan, nilai, dan kategori yang masuk di dalamnya; kepercayaan di sini mewakili pandangan dunia; sebuah organisasi atau representasi dari pengalaman. (Roger Fowler 1977) Wacana: kadang kala sebagai bidang dari semua pernyataan (statement), kadang kala sebagai sebuah individualisasi kelompok pernyataan, dan kadanng kala sebagai praktik regulatif yang dilihat dari sejumlah pernyataan. (Foucault 1972)
T h e im p o rtan t p o in t h ere is th at fo r critical d isco u rse an alysts su ch as van D ijk and F airclo u gh , discou rse is link ed to po w er and so cial in terests. F ro m su ch relation sh ip s, th ere em erge differen t p ersp ectiv es o n th e w o rld . A s F airclo u gh w rites: “I see discourses as ways of representing aspects of the world – the processes, relations and structures of the material world, the ‘mental world’ of thoughts, feelings, beliefs and so forth and, the social world … different discourses are different perspectives on the world, and they are associated with the different relations people have to the world”.26 F airclo u gh an d v an D ijk are p articu larly con cerne d w ith id eo lo gical effects o f discou rse. A s F airclou gh no tes: 26
“ M ed ia G ro up M eth o d s and th e D isco u rse A n alysis of N o rm a n F airclo u g h an d T eu n van D ijk: a co m p ariso n o f ap p ro ach es.” A lso ap p e ared as: P hilo, G . ‘C an D isco u rse A n alysis S u cc essfu lly ex p lain th e C on te nt of M ed ia an d Jou rn alistic P ractic e’ in Journalism Studies , V o l 8 N u m b er 2. A cce ssed o n N o v e m b er 2 9 , 2 0 0 8. w w w .scrib d .co m . P . 2
20
“One of the causal effects of texts which have been of major concern for critical discourse analysis is ideological affects … ideologies are representations of aspects of the world which can be shown to contribute to establishing, maintaining and changing social relations of power, domination and exploitation”.27 In h is recent w o rk o n tex tu al an alysis, F airclo u gh w rites o n id eo lo g y in term s w h ich h av e so m e reson an ce w ith th is: “A particular discourse includes assumptions about what there is, what is the case, what is possible, what is necessary, what will be the case, and so forth. In some instances, one might argue that such assumptions, and indeed the discourses they are associated with, are ideological”.28 In illu strating w h at is seen to b e ‘n ecessary’, F airclo u gh tak es th e ex am p le o f glob al econ o m ic ch an g e. H e no tes th at th is m a y be p resented as an inev itab le p ro cess, w itho ut h u m an agenc y a n d co m m en ts on a tex t pu b lished b y th e E u rop ean U n ion : “It is similar to many other contemporary texts in representing global economic change as a process without human agents … a process in a general and ill-defined present and without a history (it is just what ‘is’) which is universal (or, precisely, ‘global’) in terms of place, and an inevitable process which must be responded to in particular ways – an ‘is’ which imposes an ‘ought’, or rather a ‘must’”. 29 Id eo log y leg itim iz ed
an d
th e
m an n er
in
w h ich
so m e
p ersp ectives
an d ach iev e d o m inan ce rem a ins a cen tral issu e in tex tu al an alysis.
T h e m etho ds, w h ich are em p lo yed , are th e foc us o f th e n ex t sectio n.
27 28 29
ib id . p . 2 ib id . p . 4 ib id p. 4
are
21
1. C ritical Paradigm C ritical p arad igm
is
b ased
on
tho u gh
of
F ran k fu rt scho o l. W h en
F ran k furt sch oo l g rew , in G e rm an , th ere w as H itler’s p ro p ag and a in larg e sc ale. M ed ia w ere fu ll of preju d ice, rheto ric and pro p agan da. M ed ia b e cam e gov ern m e nt instru m en t to con tro l pub lic, to insp ire w ar sp irit. In fact, m ed ia are n ot neu tral en tities, b u t m ed ia are go tten o f best o f do m inant gro up . 3 0
So,
starting
fro m
F ran k fu rt
scho ol
w h ere
bo rn
different tho u gh t, arose a scien ce w h ich w as kn o w n as critical p a radigm . A ccord in g to critical p arad ig m v iew s, m ed ia are not a ch an n el, w h ich are free and neu tral. P recisely, m ed ia are o w n ed b y a g ro up and used fo r do m in atin g ano th er grou p, w h ich is no t do m in an t. C ritical parad ig m argu es; se e the co m m u n icatio n an d th e p ro cess, w h ich happ ens inside, sh ou ld in ho listic v iew , ov o id th e so cial con tex t th at w ill p ro du ce serio us d isto rtio n . 3 1 C ritical p arad ig m h as a b ig atten tion at ex p osu re asp ects, w h ich is hidd en in sid e o f v irtual reality fo r b eing co nd u cted critiq u e and tran sfo rm ation th ro u gh so cial stru ctu re. 3 2 T h at is w h y; th e analysis o f con cen tratio n in critical p arad ig m is
for find ing th e do m in an t po w er in m argin alizes ano th er grou p, w h ich is no t
d o m in an t. 3 3
30
31 32
E v erett M . R o g er, A History of Communication Study: A Biographical Approach, (N ew Y o rk : T h e F ree P ress, 1 9 9 4 ), p. 1 2 1-1 2 2 in E riya n to, Op. Cit. p p . 2 3 . E riya nto , ibid., p . 4 6 C ritical P arad ig m is o n e of th e researc h p arad ig m s. E v er y p arad ig m prin cip ally h a s its o w n a lo o k ab o u t th e re ality, w h ich rese arch e d . C ritic al P arad ig m se es v irtu al reality, in th is case is m ed ia reality, is “ap p aren t” re ality, w h ic h created b y h isto ric al p ro cess an d so cial – cu lture an d ec o no m ic – p o litic po w ers. S o , acc o rd in g to th is p arad ig m , th e n e w s of th e m ed ia in clu de th e o b je ct of this research, is th e reality, w h ich o b serv ed as th e jou rn alist co n stru ctio n , w hic h is influ en c ed b y m ed ia histo rical m ed ia fac to r w h ere th e jo u rn alist w o rk an d oth er p o w er. T h en , to k no w m o re ab o ut k in d of
22
E p istem o lo gically, critic al parad igm sees th e relatio n b etw een th e research er and th e reality, certain v alu e
w h ich
is,
research ed
alw a ys
b rid ged
by
the
(transaction alist/ sub jectivist). F o r u nd erstan d in g th e research er, reality m ust u se th e acto r persp ectiv e (m ak er) reality (n e w s). T h e reality m ust b e und ersto od as reality w h ich is m ed iated b y v alues (v alu e m ed iated fin d in gs) b etw een the ‘sub ject’ and th e tru ly reality. 3 4 F u rtherm o re, th e w riters w ill ex p lain on e b y o n e th e cha racteristic of tex t research b y usin g th is parad igm . 3 5 Table III The C haracteristic of T ext R eseach Tujuan Penelitian
Realitas
Posisi peneliti
Kritik social, transformasi, emansipasi,dan penguatan sosial. Historical realism: realitas yang teramati merupakan realitas semu yang telah terbentuk oleh proses sejarah dan kekuatan social, budaya, dan ekonomi politik. a. Peneliti menempatkan diri sebagai aktivis, advokat dan transformative intellectual.
co m m u n icatio n research p ara d ig m , read H id a y at, D ed i N , Paradigma dan Perkem bangan Penelitian Komunikasi, d ala m Jo urn al IS K I V o l. III/A p ril 1 9 9 9 , hlm .3 2 -4 3. S ee also G u b a, E g o n G and L in co ln, Y v o n n a S , Competing Paradigms in Qualitative Research ,in D en zin, N o rm an K , a nd Y v o n n e S L in co ln, (ed .,_ H an d b o o k of Qualitative Research (L o n d o n : S age P u b licatio n , 1 9 9 4 ),p . 1 0 5-1 1 6 . Ib n u H a m ad , Konstruksi Realitas Politik dalam Media Massa: Sebuah Studi Critical Discourse Analysis terhadap Berita-berita Politik, (Jak arta: G ranit, 2 0 0 4 ), p. 38 . 33 S ee T h o m a s S . P o p k e w itz, “W h o se F uture? W h o se P ast? : N o tes on C ritical T h eo ry a n d M eth o d o lo g y:, in E g o n G . G u b a (ed .), T h e P arad ig m D ialo g, N e w b u ry P ark, S a g e P u b licatio n , 1 9 9 0 , p. 4 8-4 9 . in E riya n to, Op. Cit, p. 49 . 34 Ib n u H a m a d , Op. Cit, p p . 4 3 . 35 Source : Adaptation from Dedy N. Hidayat, “Paradigma dan Perkembangan Penelitian Komunikasi,” Jurnal Ikatan Sarjana Komunikasi Indonesia, Vol. III, April, 1999, p. 39-40.
E riya n to, Op. Cit. p p . 5 0 -5 1
23
b.
Nilai, etika, pilihan moral bahkankeberpihakan menjadi bagian yang tidak terpisahkan dati analisis. a. Subjektif Titik perhatian analisis pada penafsiran subjektif peneliti atas teks. b. Partisipatif Mengutamakan analisis komprehensif kontekstual, dan multilevel analisis yang bisa dilakukan melalui penempatan diri sebagai aktivis/partisipan dalam proses transformasi social.
Cara penelitian
c. Kriteria kualitas penelitian: Historical situadness: sejauh mana penelitian memperhatikan konteks histories, social, budaya, ekonomi, dan politik dari teks berita. T h e tab le ab ov e ex p lain s ho w th e ch aracte ristic o f tex t research fro m critical view . F u rth erm o re, th e p arad igm gaz e th at so cial life re ality is no t neutral reality, bu t in flu en ced b y e co no m y, po litic, social po w er.
2. N orm an Fairclough D iscourse T heory O ne of N o rm an
the
fou nd ers
of
C ritical
D iscou rse
A n alysis
(C D A ),
F airclo u gh , h as d escrib e d it as aim in g: “To systematically explore often opaque relationships of causality and determination between (a) discursive practices, events and texts, and (b) wider social and cultural structures, relations and processes to investigate how much practices, events, and texts arise out of and are ideologically shaped by relation of power and struggles over power”. 36
36
T erry L o ck e, Op. Cit. p .1
24
D iscou rse th e
an alysis
in
C ritical
D iscou rse
A n alysis
(C D A ) 3 7
m eans
research e r analyz e at th e level o f tex t, h isto ry an d th e co n tex t o f the d isc ou rse. T h e research o f d isco u rse is not on ly con du cted at th e level o f tex t b ut also con tin u ed at th e factors w h ich influen t th e tex t. F airclo u gh (1 98 9 ) sets o ut th e so cial th eo ries u nd erp in n in g C D A and as in o ther ea rly critical lin gu istic w o rk a v ariety o f tex tu al ex am p les are an alyzed
to illu strate the field , its aim and m etho d o f an alysis. L ater F airclo u g h
(19 9 2, 19 95 ) an d C hou liarik i and F airclo u gh (199 9 ) ex p lain ed an d elabo rate so m e
adv an ces
in
C D A sh o w ing n ot o n ly ho w th e an alytic al fram e w o rk fo r
in v estigating lan g u age in relation to po w er and id eo lo g y d ev elo p ed bu t also ho w C D A is u sefu l fo r disclosing th e d iscu rsiv e n ature o f m u c h con tem p o rary so cial an d cu ltu ral chan ge. 3 8 P articu larly the lan gu age of th e m ass m ed ia is scrutin iz ed as a sid e o f po w er, of strug g le an d as a site w h ere lan gu age is app aren tly tran sp aren t. M ed ia institu tio n often p u rpo rt to b e neu tral in th at th e y prov id e sp ace fo r p ub lic d isco u rse, th at th e y refle ct
states
of
a ffairs
d isin terestedly,
and
th o se
the y
g iv e
th e
pe rc ep tion s an d argu m en ts o f new sm ak ers. F airclo u gh sh o w s th e falla c y o f su ch assu m p tio ns and
37
C ritical: a ce n tral ou tco m e o f th e act of a n alysis is to en a b le co n sid eratio n o f th e so cial e ffects o f th e m ea n in g s a read er b ein g p o sitio n ed or called u p o n to sub scrib e to in th e act o f read in g, a n d th e co n testatio n o f th ese m e a nin g . D isco u rse: co n c ern ed w ith lan g u ag e in u se (on e sen se o f th e w ord ‘d isco u rse’) a n d w ith th e w a y in w h ic h p attern o f m ean in g (as in sto ries th a t m ak e th e w o rld m e an in g fu l) are so cially con stru cted (th e oth er se nse of th e w o rd ‘disco u rse’). A n aly sis: a d etailed sy ste m a tic ex a m in atio n of a p articular su b jec t w ith a view to arrivin g at on e o r m o re un d erlyin g p rin cip le. Ibid. p . 9
38
R u th W o d ak an d M ich a el M e y er, Method of Critical Discourse Analysis, ( L o n d o n : S ag e , 2 0 0 1 ). p. 6
25
illu strate th e variety o f
m ed iatin g
and
co nstru ctin g
role
of
th e
m ed ia
w ith
a
ex am p les. 3 9
1.
R epresentation R ep resen tatio n
w an ts
to
see
ho w
so m ebo d y,
a
grou p,
actio n ,
activ ity are sh o w n in tex t. A ccord in g to F airclo u gh , rep resen tatio n is seen fro m tw o th in gs; h o w p eop le, gro up , and id e as are sh o w n in clause an d the co m b in ation o f clau se . 4 0 S o cial actors w ith in an y practice p ro du c e rep resen tation s o f o ther p ractices, as w ell as (‘reflex iv e’) rep resen tation s o f their o w n p ractic e, in of th eir activity w ith in th e p ractice.
the co u rse
T h e y “re-co n tex tu aliz e” o th er practices –
th at is, th e y in co rp o rate th em in to th eir o w n p ra ctice, an d d ifferent so cial acto rs
w ill
position ed
represen t th em w ith in
the
d ifferen tly
acco rd ing
practice. R epresen tation
is
to
ho w
th e y
a
p ro c ess
of
a re so cial
con structio n o f p ractices, in clud in g reflex iv e self-co nstru ction – rep resen tation s en ter an d sh ap e social p rocesses and p ra ctices. 4 1
a.
R epresentation in clause T h is asp ect is related o n ho w so m ebo d y, g ro up , e ven ts an d activ ity are sh o w n
in tex t, in this case in lang ua g e w h ich is u sed . A cco rd in g to F airclo u gh , if th ose are
39
Ibid. p. 6-7 E riya nto , Op .Cit., p . 2 9 0 41 N o rm a n F airclo u g h, The Dialectics of Discourse, http ://w w w .g o o g le.co .id /se arc h ?h l= id & q = id en tity % 2 C + rela tio n % 2 C + rep rese ntatio n + th eo ry+ N o rm a n + F airclo u g h & b tn G = T elu suri+ d en g a n + G o o g le & m eta= & aq = f& o q = . A cc essed o n F eb ru ary 2 5 , 2 0 0 9 . p. 2. 40
26
sho w n , th e lan gu a ge use r w ill b e faced o n tw o cho ices. First, th e vo cabu lary lev el, w h at k ind o f vo cabu lary, w h ich is used for ap p earin g an d d esc rib in g so m eth ing, w h ich sh o w h o w th e th in g is p ut in to th e sam e c atego ry. T h e vo cabu lary cho ice is very im p o rtan t be cause relate o n h o w the reality is acted in lan gu a g e an d h o w th e lan gu a ge sh o w s ce rtain d erivativ e reality. T h e in terestin g on e fro m th is case is no t o nly h o w the w o rd ch o ice w h ich is cho sen cau se d ifferen t re ality, bu t also ho w th e sa m e reality is ex p ressed d ifferen tly. W e are go in g to fin d th e ex am ples as fo llo w s: a. poor b. destitute c. suburbanite d. oppressed people
Poor people in the city must be employed. Destitute people in the city must be employed. Suburban ite people in the city must be employed. Oppressed people in the city must be employed.
A ll o f th e w o rd s ch o ices abo v e cau se ce rtain asso ciatio n in th e reality, w h ich is referred. By
usin g
th e
w o rd s
ab o ve
(ex am ple
‘a ’
and
‘b’),
th e
pov erty
pro b le m is lim ited on po o r citiz en s th em selv es. T h e y are p o o r because they are n o t lu ck y, o r ex p erience in effo rt failure. In an o th e r hand , th e w o rds ch o ice (ex am p le ‘c’ a nd ‘d ’), th e p o v erty p ro b lem is n ot o n ly th e p rob le m s o f them selves, b ut also relates o n u n b alan ce o f so cial stru ctu re. T h e p o v erty, in th is w o rd s are no t o n ly so m eon e fail in effo rt, b ut also
27
becau se th e y h av e n o th e sam e access and op po rtun ity or d eliberately m ad e p oo r b y grou p w h ich is stro ng er in th e so ciety.
b.
R epresentation in the com bination of clause T h e reality can b e form e d throu gh lan gu age w ith m erg er b etw een o n e cla u se
and an o th er clau se. F o r ex am p le, there is fact; th ere are m an y d em on strations w h ich is
co nd u cted
b y u n iv e rsity stud en ts, and
rup iah ex ch an g e
value.
The
tw o
facts
ano ther fact, th e can
be
jo ined
increasin g
to geth er;
of
b ecau se
th ere are m an y d em on stration s o f u n iversity stud en ts, rup iah ex ch an g e valu e beco m e w eak . B u t, it can b e gazed as tw o fac ts w h ich are sep arated . T h e in cre asin g o f rup iah ex chang e v alu e is n ot con sidered a s th e cau se and the tw o facts are sep arated , ind e ed . The
m erg er
b etw een
tw o
clau ses
w ill
m ak e
local
co h eren ce;
th e
fou n d ed m ean in g fro m th e m erger o f on e clause an d an o ther clause w ith th e re su lt that th e sen tence h as m ean in g. T h e coh eren ce in the certain po in t sh o w s th e ideo log y fro m th e lan gu ag e u ser. F o r in stance, a fact, a w o m an ex perien ce rapin g, an d ano the r fact, th e w o m an is w id o w ap p aren tly. T he tw o facts can be sh o w n as th e facts w h ich related each o ther, bu t can m ade as sep arate d facts. If th e facts is jo in ed , it w ill m ak e asso cia tio n to th e pub lic th at w id o w status o f th e w o m an influenc e, be facto r w h y sh e is rap ed . in o th er h an d, if th e tw o facts are sep arated, it w ill m ak e asso ciation th at th ere is relatio n at all b etw een th e w ido w status an d th e rap in g ev en t.
28
T h e co h e ren c e b etw een tw o clau ses h as so m e fo rm s. 4 2 F irst, elabo ration - o n e clau se
b eco m es
cla rifier
fu n ctio n as sp ecify is related
th e
fro m d etails
an o th er of
th e
clause. first
The
clause.
secon d
clause
G en erally,
th e
h as fo rm
b y usin g con ju n ction , su ch as ‘that’, ‘so ’, o r ‘furthe rm ore’.
S econ d , th e ex ten sio n – o n e clause con stitu te ex tension of an o th er clau se. H ere th e fun ction o f se co nd clause is con tin u ity o f first clau se. G enerally, th e fo rm is related b y usin g con ju n ctio n , su ch as ‘and ’, ‘b u t’, ‘alth ou gh ’, ‘in sp ite of’, etc. T h ird , enh an ce – th e p osition o f o n e clau se is h igh e r than an o ther cla use. G en erally, th e fo rm is related b y u sin g con jun ction , su ch as, ‘b e cause’, ‘c au sed ’. T h e coh eren c e con stitu te s ch o ice, it m eans tw o c lause can b e g az ed on ly as clarifier, add itio n , o r be in co n trad iction , d epend o n h o w a fact is gazed related to each o th er.
c.
R epresentation in the com bination of inter sentence. T h is
w h ich
represen tation
relates
to
w h ich
part
in
th e
sen tence
m o re p ro m in en t an d co m p ared w ith ano th er p art. O n e o f th e im p o rtan t
asp ects is w h eth e r p articip ant con sid ers stan d alo n e or w h ether sh o w ed b y givin g reaction in a tex t. The A ccord in g
im po rtant
is
ho w
a
statem en t
is
sho w ed
in
a
tex t.
to F airclo u gh, at least, th ere are thre e fo rm s ho w th e statem en t is
sho w ed in th e tex t. F irst, b y ex cerp tin g d irec tly w h at an a cto r sa ys. S eco nd , b y co n clud in g w h at th e m ain
42
Ibid, p. 2 9 5.
29
id ea is w h ich th e acto r sho w s. T h ird, b eyon d eva lu atio n, w h ere th e acto r’s statem en t is ev alu ated, th en w ritten in new s. T h e d iv ision o f thre e parts abo v e esp ecially can b e seen m o re in title and le ad . H ow
a
statem ent
also bring certain
is
sho w ed
ideo lo g y
no t
o n ly
jo u rn alist
techn ical
pro b lem ,
co nseq uence. G en erally, new spaper w h ich
b ut do es
not lik e certain d isco u rse, p re fer sh o w in g an ev aluation fro m th e actor’s statem en t. F o r ex am p le, G u s D u r su b m itted m o tion w it draw l ab out MPRS decisio n . G us D u r’ m o tion go t reaction s, su ch as fro m A m in R ais w h o g aze d irectly th e m o tion . H o w are th e tw o sen ten ce co m b in ed ? T h e co m b inatio n o f th e sen tence, not on ly relates to th e w ritin g techn ical, bu t also the co m b in ation influence th e m ean in g of sen ten c e w h ich is sh o w ed to th e p ub lic.
beginning
end
The President of Indonesia, Gus Dur sugg ested to M PR removed Tap MPRS/XXV/1966. the suggestion was extended in front of Jamaah Masjid Almunawwaroh, Ciganjur, yesterday. The reason was, Tap MPRS was not appropriate with justice principal, and sameness in law. Perceive the Gus Dur’s suggestion, the chairman of MPR, Amien Rais, his disagreement. AmiensaidRais refused the Gus Dur’s suggestion who wished for removing Tap MPRS/XXV/1966. When gave speech in front of Jamaah Masjid Al-Munawwaroh, yesterday, Gus Dur suggested MPR for removing Tap MPRS /XXV/1966, The reason was, Tap MPRS was not appropriate with justice principal, and sam eness in law
30
B ased o n th e ex am p le abo v e, G u s D u r’s o p in io n can b e sh o w ed in fron t, gettin g ah ead o f A m ie n R ais’ o p in ion . O n the o th er h an d , th e ne gativ e reaction o f A m ien R ais can b e sh o w ed at th e first, then th e G us D u r’s op in io n. T h e first fo rm an d th e seco nd on e hav e different m ean in g. In th e first fo rm , th e A m in R ais’ rea ction is p laced at th e un im po rtant p lace, o n ly a little p a rt o f m an y op in ion s. O n th e o th er h and , th e seco nd fo rm , th e effect o f it as tho u gh m an y p eo p le w ho d isag ree w ith G us D ur’s op in ion . In w h ich as
ad d ition ,
th e
asp ect
w h eth e r
th ere
is
inform atio n
is sh o w ed as b ack gro und o r fo re gro und . In th e c lau se w h ich p lace
b ack gro und , gen erally
th em e
im po rtan t
then
given
w h ich
is
sho w ed
is
th e
con clusion
of
n ew s
o th er in fo rm ation as p lan e of ev en t.
Support to each other
Contradiction to each other
The chairman, Amien Rais said his disagreement with the Gus Dur’s suggestion for completely removing Tap MPRS /CCV/1966. according to Amien, if the decision (Tap) was removed, there was possibility for Indonesian Communist Party would be renascent, in the mean time, in Solo there is demonstration which is conducted by young Moslem, who refuse the abolition of Tap MPRS. In Jakarta also there is same demonstration which raps Gus Dur’sAmien suggestion. The the chairman, Rais said his disagreement with the Gus Dur’s suggestion for completely removing Tap MPRS /CCV/1966. But, several observer support the Gus Dur’s suggestion. Political observe from UI, Arbi Sanit, believes the society has been adult. The
31
same thing is proposed by Hendardi, who says the communism has died in another part of the world. Hendardi also said that the society had to be educated for respecting law and democation.
T h e ex am p le ab o v e, in the first senten ce, A m ien R ais b eco m e leg itim ate, h is op in ion
as
tho u gh
is
ad vo cated
m an y
p eop le.
On
th e
o ther
hand ,
by
placing th e A m ien R ais’ op inion b e in con tradicted w ith o th er ex p ert, b e im p ressed th at A m ien R ais’ o p in ion is n ot po pu lar. W ith ou t ex p lain ing A m ien R ais’ op in ion length an d w id th and in th e con trary ex p lain ano th e r argu m en t len gth and w id th , b e im pressed th at A m ien R ais’ o p in ion is n ot ratio n al, b ecause fo rb id an id eo lo g y th a t h as b een p rov en b an k rup t in th e w o rld an d is n ot d em ocratic. W hatever new s w h ich is cho sen fo r b eing sho w ed b y m ass m ed ia, sh o w in far lim itation , h o w th e d ifferen t sen tence is, an d d ifferen t o p in ion , can b e co m b in ed an d seem b ein g related to jou rnalist and certain d isco u rse strateg y. D iscou rse
in
th e
represen tatio n
and
self-rep resen tation
of
so cial
practices co nstitu tes d iscou rses (no te th e d ifferen ce betw e en ‘d iscou rse ’ as an ab stract
n oun , and ‘discou rse (s)’ as a co u nt no un ). D iscou rses are d iv erse
rep resen tatio n s o f so cial life
w h ich
are
in h eren tly
p ositio n ed
–
differen tly
position ed social actors ‘see’ and rep resen t so cial life in d ifferen t w a ys, different discou rses. F o r instan ce, th e liv es o f poo r
and
d isad v an taged
p eop le
are
rep resen ted throu gh diffe rent d isco u rses in th e so cial practices o f g ov ern m en t, po litics, w ith in
m ed icine, each
of
an d these
so cial p ractices
scien ce,
an d
co rresp on d in g
throu gh d ifferent to
differen t
discou rses
32
position s o f social a cto rs. F in ally, d isco u rse as p a rt o f w a ys o f bein g co nstitutes styles – fo r instan ce the styles o f b usiness m an a gers, o r p olitical lead ers. 4 3
2.
R elation If represen tation is relate d to qu estio ns h o w so m eon e, grou p , a ctiv ity, act, or
so m eth ing w h ich
are
sho w ed
in
a
tex t, so
relatio n
is
related
ho w
the
particip an t in m ed ia is related an d sho w ed in a tex t. M ed ia, here, is b eh eld a s so cial aren a, w h ere all g ro up , class, and th e p u b lic w ho are in th e so ciety a re related to each o th er and conv e y an o p in io n and idea in variety. At categories
least,
acco rd in g
to
F airclo u gh ,
th ere
are
m ain
p articip an t
in m ed ia. T ho se are: Jou rn alist (repo rter, red acto r an d p resen ter fo r
telev ision o r rad io ), T h e P ub lic o f M ed ia, and T h e P u b lic P articipant (P o litician , busin ess m an, p ro m inent figu re o f so ciety, artist, ulama, 4 4 scien tist, etc). B u t no w th e q u estion s are h o w th e relatio n form s am o n g th e three acto rs w h ich are sho w ed in a tex t: am o ng jo u rn alist and th e p ub lic, an d am o n g jou rn alist and th e pub lic participan t. 4 5 T h e an alysis abo ut th is relatio n con stru ctio n in m ed ia is very im p o rtan t and sign ifican t, esp ecially if related to so cial co n tex t becau se th e un iqu e in flu ence fro m th eir p ositio n w h ich is sh o w ed in m edia p o in t ou t so ciety co n tex t.
43 44
45
N orm a n F airclo u g h, Loc. Cit T h e bo d y of M u lla h s (M u slim sc h o lars train ed in Isla m a n d Isla m ic la w ) w h o are th e inte rpreters of Isla m ’s scien ce s and d o ctrin es an d la w s an d th e ch ie f g u ara n to rs of co ntinu ity in th e sp iritu a l and in tellectu al histo ry o f th e Isla m ic co m m u n ity (W o rd W eb D ictio n ary). Eriyanto, Op. Cit. p . 3 0 0
33
A ccord in g to F airclou gh , th e natu re o f th e p o w e r relatio ns ena cted in m assm ed ia
d isco u rse
is
o ften
n ot
clear,
inv o lv in g
h id d en
po w er
betw ee n
pro d u cers and in terp reters (con su m e rs). B e cause it is no t p ossib le fo r p rodu c ers to kno w w h o is in th e au d ience, th e y m u st in m in d p ro du ce w ith so m e in terprete rs— an id eal sub ject an d actual v iew ers o r listen ers o r read ers hav e to ne go tiate a relationsh ip w ith it. T h en , w h o is th e id eal su b je ct in th e w elco m e m essage th e presidents are inte ractin g w ith? In sam p le 1 , it is o bv iou sly m en tion ed : 4 6 “A university president or a representative from a research institute seeking for high-level academic exchange and cooperation; an international investor thinking about investment in a vigorously developing educational institution; a research or business representative interested in the incubation and industrialization of research achievements; a high-school or college graduate looking for undergraduate or graduate studies in different fields of learning; a foreign citizen who wants to know more about the Chinese language and culture; or a visitor just wanting to learn more about Zhejiang University.” T h e analysis is im po rtan t in tw o th in gs. First, if said th at m ed ia is social sp ace, w h ere ev ery gro u p w ho is in so ciety sub m it an op in io n an d lo ok for in flu en ce in
o rd er to
b e ac cep te d
b y p ub lic. S o, th e relatio n
an alysis w ill giv e
valu ab le inform atio n ho w so cial po w er is sho w ed in a te x t. A grou p , w ho h as h igh position , gen erally is plac ed h igh e r in relatio n w ith jo u rnalist th an a m in o rity gro up .
Related to Papua
46
During this are being son in wealth, more over, biggest in the world. oil are in Papua citizens’ life still
time, Papua citizens law. Papua has big may be as one of the From gold mining to land. Ironically, Papua in less
Promotional university institutional discourse: a case analysis related to Chinese content w w w .sis.zju .ed u .c n/w y x y z y/c o nferen ce /rese arch g ro u p /stu _ w o rks/d u % 2 0 b ei_ P ro m o tio n a l% 2 0 u ni
v ersity % 2 0 d isc o u rse.d o c. A cc essed o n F eb ru ary 2 5, 2 0 0 9 .
34
Related to Government
developed, only a little citizen who has high education. The property is taken and brought out from the territory and only partly of it which can be enjoyed by Papua citizens. This is one of thing which make many people feel disappointed and wish to release from Indonesia Government, during this time, is not serious in solving Papua problem. Especially, during “Orde Baru” there was not policy which is made by government which gave advantage to Papua citizens. In fact, Government brought Papua into being milch cow, especially for the sake of the chronic that enjoyed a flood of money from Papua. Government also, frequently, takes strong steps to receive actions which are conducted by Papua citizens. So, if they wish to release from Indonesia, that the cost which has to be paid by government.
T h e tw o ex am p les abo ve describ e ph en o m eno n d em and P apu a citizenry w ho w an t freed o m . H ere, it c an b e seen h o w th e n ew s is fo rm ed . In th e first se nten ce, th e new s p lac e m o re abo ut the relation w ith P ap u a citizenry, in other h an d in th e secon d sen ten ce th e P apu a’s p ro blem is seen m o re in rela tio n w ith gov ern m en t. T h e tw o new s, n ot on ly d escrib e h o w th e ev ent is encased, bu t also sh o w h o w th e real so cial p o w er w h ich is represented in th e n ew s. G en erally, d o m inan t gro up w h ich b e o f p o w er g et m o re adv an ta ges in n ew s. In th e first sen ten c e, th e pub lic read er is related to P ap u a citiz en ry. O n th e other h an d, th e
p ub lic
read e r
is
p la ced
as
th o u gh
citizen ry w ith gov ern m en t.
35
th ere
is
g ap
am o n g
P apu a
Second, th e relatio n an alysis is also im po rtant to see h o w th e p ub lic w ill be placed in n ew s. H o w th e relation fo rm s am on g th e jo u rnalists w ith ano th er particip an t w an t to b e co m m u n ic ate d to th e pu b lic. In o th er w o rd , ho w a tex t b u ild the relatio n am o ng th e pu b lic w ith th e so cial particip an t w ho is bu ilt.
3.
Identities T h e identity asp ect is m ain ly se en b y F aircloug h b y seein g th e
jo u rn alist’s iden tity w h ich is sho w ed and co nstru cted in n ew s tex t. A ccord in g to F airclo u gh , h o w th e jo u rnalist p lace and id en tify h im /h e r self w ith th e prob lem o r so cial grou p w h o is m ix ed up w ith: in w h ich grou p do es h e/ sh e id en tify h im /h er self as p art o f gro up ? D o es th e jo urnalist w ant to iden tify him /h er as p art o f th e p ub lic o r sh o w and iden tify h im /her se lf stand alon e? 4 7 H o w th e jo u rnalist id entify h im /h er self – for in stance th e d iscou rse ab ou t “Papua M erdeka” - , it can b e an alyz ed w h at h e/sh e p laces h im /h er self as p art of P ap u a citiz en ry w h o w a nt freed o m o r as pa rt o f P apu a citizen ry w h o disag ree w ith freedo m o f P a pu a.
Identification with Papua citizen
47
Ibid, p. 3 0 4
In Papua citizen congress yesterday, decided that Papua released from Indonesia. That was for the first time, formally in the meeting where presented by thousands people, Papua citizen extended their desirability to release from Indonesia. As a matter of fact, long time ago, they wanted to release from Indonesia and yesterday, decided formally. The main point, they want to fight for their life to be better after
36
many years fusing with Indonesia, does not change life. In Papua citizen congress yesterday, decided that Papua released from Indonesia. Although it was not Identification advocated by all Papua citizens, the with Indonesian citizen government and Indonesia citizen should pay attention to the decision. In order that does not happen like Timor Timur, it is the time for us to pay attention to Papua citizens’ aspiration. T h e sen tences ab o v e sho w h o w th e jou rn alist id en tifies h im /h er self in th e cen tre o f variou s social facto rs w h ich is m ix ed up w ith. T h e first sen ten ce, th e jo u rn alist iden tifies h im /her self as P apu a citizenry w ho h as lived in suffer fo r alon g tim e and w an ts to b e free fro m Indo n esia. In th e con trary, th e secon d sen ten c e, th e jou rn alist id en tifies h im /her self as p art o f In do n esian, ev en tho u gh ,
a w are
w ith
th e
su ffe rin g
w h ich
is
ex perien c ed
b y P ap u a citizenry. T h e seco nd new s tex t w an ts that erro r can b e rep aired. T h e id en tity w ill determ in e ho w a tex t w ill be m ad e, h o w th e qu estio n is su b m itted to resou rce p e rson 4 8 an d h o w th e m aterials are w ritten in to new s tex t. T h e id en tity is n ot on ly a gg lu tinated an d related to jou rn alist, b ut also h o w the pub lic p articipant id en tified and ho w th e p ub lic id en tified.
48
A cco rd in g to F airclo u g h, th e q u estio n w h ic h is sub m itted to reso urce p erso n is d eterm in ed b y ho w jo urn alist id entifie s h im /h er self and ho w reso u rce p erso n is id en tified b y jou rn alist. G e n erally if h e/sh e is d isag ree, th e q u estio n w hich is m a d e and sub m itted w ill b e in v alu atio n form , th en a sk ed th e an sw er to th e reso u rce p erso n.
37
C H A PT E R III R ESE A R C H FIN D IN G S A N D D A T A A N A LY SIS
A . R esearch Subject U po n th in k in g o f so m a n y k ind s o f tex ts, th e research fo cuses on the Jak arta P ost tex t. T h e tex t w h ich is selected p u rpo siv ely as m an y as tw o tex ts. It enab les th e w riter to gain a w ell to d o data. T ho se are: N o. 1. 2.
B.
Title C h in ese N ew Y ear E up ho ria an d P olitical T rau m a F itting In
Edition Janu ary 2 4, 20 04 Janu ary 2 3, 20 08
R esearch R esult
1. C hinese N ew Y ear eu phoria and political traum a T h e tex t describ es ab ou t th e eup ho ria o f C h in ese N ew Y e ar w h ich th e y n e ver go t w h en S oeh arto re gim e held th e p o w er. “Indonesians, and especially those of Chinese descent, have just celebrated Chinese New Year. Chinese-Indonesians who, for over 30 years during the New Order regime, were forced to celebrate this event behind closed doors, are now free once again to celebrate it publicly.” (First paragraph)
38
T h e tex t also describ es abo ut th e d ifferen ce eth n ic C h in ese con d ition w h en D u tch co lon ial, S o eh arto regim e and th e presen t da y w h ere ethn ic C h in ese get d ifferent co nsid eratio n b etw een each po w er ho ld e r. “Whereas during the 300 years of Dutch colonial subjugation this event could be celebrated freely, in an independent Indonesia under the Soeharto regime, ironically, basic cultural, religious and language rights were severely restricted. Citizens of Chinese descent were even required to change their nam es and could not attend Chinese schools.”(Second paragraph) T h e tex t ab ov e describes th at C h in ese N ew Y ea r co u ld b e celeb rated freely w h en D u tch co lon ial sub jug atio n. It w as d ifferen t fro m S oeharto re gim e w h ere ethn ic C h inese w as d iscrim inated . M o st o f th eir activ ities w ere restricted. B u t, in th e presen t d ay, even th e ethn ic C h in ese can celeb rate C h inese N ew Y ear freely, th ey still hav e no freed o m in h u m an rig ht especially po litical rig h ts. “It is true that now many of the cultural rights of the ethnic Chinese have been restored. In actuality, however, the government is still far from going all the way in recognizing the human rights of our ethnic Chinese population. Many of their political rights are still limited, and as human rights are universal, to grant some cultural rights and to deny others is simply wrong.” (Third paragraph) M o stly, th e tex t d escrib e s ab ou t th e freed o m o f e th n ic C h inese w h ich is still far fro m p erfect and still need m ore stru g g les to hav e it. T h e tex t also giv es m o re atten tio n in C h inese hu m an righ ts w h ich are still d iscrim in ated b y th e po w e r ho ld er. “There is euphoria now as we celebrate Chinese New Year; actual struggle for equality before the law is only begun and be some time before real equality can be achieved. Ethnic youth need to get involved in politics and join in the struggle with other democratic forces.” (17 th paragraph)
but the it may Chinese reform
39
a.
R epresentation
a.1. R epresentation in clause T h e d iscou rse o f d isc rim in ation to ethn ic C h in ese c an b e seen fro m ho w ethn ic C h in ese is sh o w ed (rep resen ted ) b y th e jou rnalist. “Many ethnic Chinese have tried to deny their identity in various ways due to this political pressure that, at times, associated their " " C h in esen ess" " with C om m u n ism , betrayal, disloyalty, in su larism , with their ancestral cou n try and various other u n desirable attribu tes that added to the political pressure and stigma weighted against them.” (Fifth paragraph) B ased o n th e tex t ab ov e, it can b e said th at C h in ese a re not p ro ud w ith their id en tity an d tried to den y it b ecau se th e po litical p ressu red . C h in ese is also consid ered as C o m m un ism , b etraya l, d islo yalty, an d insu larism , w ith their an cestral c oun try and variou s
o th er
discrim inated
un d esirab le
attribu tes
w h ich
cause
the y
are
and m argin aliz ed .
“Ethnic Chinese are passen gers in this ship we call Indonesia, and what is experienced by some passengers will also be experienced by others.” (Eighth paragraph) B ased on th e tex t abo v e, the jo u rn alist m akes illustration th at ethn ic C h inese is “p asseng er” in th e sh ip w h ich is called In don e sia. S o , w h atev er th e ca ptain do es, th e p asseng er ju st fo llo w it and w h atever the ethn ic C h in ese ex p erience s, it is also ex perienced b y o the rs. “Many of the cultural rights of the ethnic Chinese have been restored” (Third paragraph)
40
T h e sen ten ce ab o v e o n ly d escribes th e co nd itio n o f th e ethn ic C h in ese cu ltural rig h ts w h ich h av e b e en resto red w itho ut m en tion ing an d h iding th e sub ject (th e acto r) of th e ev en t. H ere, th e jou rn alist o n ly d escribes that th ere are m an y o f th e cu ltu ral righ ts o f th e ethn ic C h inese hav e been resto red an d d o es no t m en tio n th e acto r w ho h ave resto red it. “Human rights are something that cannot be abolished or limited in any way” (fourth paragraph) T h e sen ten ce ab o v e also on ly d escrib es th e co nd ition that h u m an righ ts can n ot be abo lish ed an d lim ited . T he tex t do es n ot sh o w th e sub ject w ho ab o lish or lim it th e hu m an righ ts. T h e jou rn alist on ly desc rib es th e cond ition that there are h u m an rig h ts w h ich is ab o lish ed an d lim ited . T h e d escrib in g the co n d itio n on ly, can also b e seen fro m the sen tenc e as fo llo w s: “Already from birth, citizens are classified according to race and ethnicity” (11 th paragraph) T h e sen ten ce on ly d escribes th at th e classified o f th e citizens hav e alread y b een since b irth w h ich are classified a cco rd in g to race and eth n icity.
a.2. R epresentation in the com bination of clause “Chinese-Indonesians who, for over 30 years during the New Order regime, were forced to celebrate this event behind closed doors, are now free once again to celebrate it publicly.”(First paragraph) T h e tex t ex p lains that the C h in ese-In do n esian got d iscrim in atio n and in justice m ostly w h en th e N e w O rd er re gim e h eld the po w er w h ere th e y h ad to celebrate
41
C h in ese N ew Y ea r closely and felt no fre e. B u t it h as ch an ged n o w w h ere th e S oeharto re gim e fell. C h in ese-Ind o n esian can cele brate C h in ese N e w Y ea r freely an d op en ly. “Whereas during the 300 years of Dutch colonial subjugation this event could be celebrated freely, in an independent Indonesia under the Soeharto regime, ironically, basic cultural, religious and language rights were severely restricted. Citizens of Chinese descent were even required to change their nam es and could not attend Chinese schools.” (Second paragraph) B ased o n the tex t ab ov e, it can b e seen th at there is o pp osite actio n w h ich is ex p erienced
b y C h in ese-In do n esian
fo r
liv in g
in
Ind o n esia.
The
jou rn alist
w an ts to co m pare b etw een D u tch co lon ial sub ju gatio n an d S o eh arto re gim e in co nsid ering C h in ese-In do n esian . T h e tex t tells that since D u tch co lo n ial sub ju gatio n,
C h in ese- In do n esian cou ld celebra te th e C h inese N ew Y ea r freely
w itho ut b ein g lim ited . B u t, w h en C h in ese-Ind on esia
is
fo rb idd en
th e
S o eh arto
re g im e
h eld
the
p o w er,
to celeb rate the even t, fo rb id d en to u se th e
C h in ese n am e and cam e to sch oo l. T h rou gh th e tex t, th e jo u rn alist tells th at actu ally th e d iscrim ination w as b egun w h en S o eh arto regim e h eld the po w er. “It is true that now many of the cultural rights of the ethnic Chinese have been restored. In actuality, however, the government is still far from going all the way in recognizing the human rights of our ethnic Chinese population. Many of their political rights are still limited, and as human rights are universal, to grant some cultural rights and to deny others is simply wrong.” (Third paragraph) T h e jo u rnalist, th ro u gh the tex t ab ov e, w an ts to sho w th e g ov e rn m en t is not seriou s
in
reco gn iz in g
th e
hu m an
rig h ts
of
eth n ic
C hinese
po pu lation ,
sh o w ed th at p o litical rights are still lim ited . H ere, th ere is o p p o site actio n w h ich is sh o w ed . O n e
42
sid e m an y o f cu ltu ral rig h ts o f C h inese are restore d bu t an o th er sid e there is lim itation of their p o litical righ ts. A nd b y g iv in g lim itation in h u m an right is so m eth ing w ro n g becau se hu m an rig h ts are un iv ersal. “Such restrictively encompassing political pressure as suffered by Chinese- Indonesians during the Soeharto regime has caused a section of the Indonesian community to lose their identity.” (fifth paragraph) T h e tex t abo v e sho w s a bou t causal senten c e, w h ere o n e clause is p osition ed high er than ano th er. T h e jou rn alist w an t to tell that C h inese-In do n esia le ft ou t th eir id en tity just becau se p o litical p ressu re w h ich w as cond u cted b y S o eh arto re gim e. “This is the second year in which Chinese New Year has been celebrated as a national holiday. There is a kind of euphoria about marking Chinese New Year, but the rights of ethnic Chinese -- like other human rights conditions in this country -- are still far from perfect due to violations by power-holders who do not respect law and human rights.” (12 th paragraph) T h e tex t describ es th e op po site sen tence w h ich ex p lains th at even ethn ic C h inese h as op p o rtu n ity to celeb rate C h in ese N ew Y ea r as a n atio n al h o lid a y, bu t th ey
are still d iscrim inated
b y p o w er ho ld er w h o
do es no t
resp ect law and hu m an righ ts. T h ro u gh th e sen ten ce, th e jou rn alist w an ts to tell th at ethn ic C hinese still get d iscrim inatio n
esp ecially
fo r
righ ts
of
ethn ic
C h in ese. It can b e said in sim p le senten ce th at ethn ic C h inese is still far fro m freed o m . “The struggle to abolish discrimination is still a long one, because discriminative laws against ethnic Chinese still exist and the DPR and the governm ent show no political will to abolish them. Although the government has annulled the Indonesian Citizenship Certificate required solely by ethnic Chinese (SBKRI), in practice it is still often required in day-to-day adm inistrative processes.” (13 th paragraph)
43
T h e tex t describ es ab ou t th e causal sen ten c e w h ich talks ab ou t th e treatm ent w h ich
is
go tten
by
eth n ic
C h inese
th ou gh th e gov ern m en t h as an nu lled in
practice
w ho th e
still
go t
Indo n esian
d iscrim in atio n
C itiz en sh ip
even
C ertificate,
th e p rob lem co m es fro m ad m in istrativ e pro cess w h ich is still often
req u ired lon g tim e to h av e th e certificate. H ere, th e jo u rn alist ex plain s th at, acco rd in g to th e la w , th e y can h av e In do n esian C itiz ensh ip C ertificate as n ativ e In do n esian , b ut in fa c t the y still h av e to face the p rocess (bu reau c ra c y). “There is euphoria now as we celebrate Chinese New Year; but the actual struggle for equality before the law is only begun and it may be some time before real equality can be achieved.” (16 th paragraph) T h e tex t sho w th at the tru ly stru ggle fo r eth n ic C h inese is o n ly b eg un ev en th ou gh th e
tex t,
th e y
can
celeb rate
th e
C hinese
N ew
Y ear
fre ely.
T h rou g h
the jo u rnalist rem in d th e eth n ic C hinese that th e y still h av e to fa ce
ano ther b a rrier b efo re th e real eq u ality can b e ach ieved .
a.3. R epresentation in the com bination inter sentence Acknowledging the cultural rights of the Chinese does not give the government an excuse to forget about the recognition of other rights. Human rights are something that cannot be abolished or limited in any way. For 30 years under the New Order regime, the political rights of ethnic Chinese citizens were violated and completely ignored -- a fact that, to the present day, causes unease and trepidation among Chinese communities throughout Indonesia. The lim itation tex t,
th e
tex t
tells
th at
th e
d iscrim in ation
an d
abo lish m en t
or
o f C h in ese’s hu m an righ ts is go v ern m en t m istake. T h rou gh th e jo u rnalist ex p licitly b lam es th e gov ern m ent o n th e d iscrim in ation ;
abo lish m ent an d lim itatio n o f
44
C h in ese’s h u m an rig h ts, esp ecially N ew O rd er regim e w h ich is clearly p o litical righ ts of C h inese citiz ens w ere v io lated an d ig no red.
b.
R elation T h e d isco u rse also can b e seen fro m h o w th e relation is fo und ed in th e tex t.
T h e tex t enclo ses tw o sides; th ose are ethn ic C h in ese-Ind o n esian an d th e In do n esian go v e rn m ent (S oeharto R egim e ). T h e tw o sides are d escrib ed differen tly in th e tex t. T h e ethn ic C h inese is d e scribed as w eak side and m argin aliz ed . A n d th e o th er h an d, th e
gov e rn m en t
(S o eharto
regim e )
is
d escrib ed
h igh er,
stro n g er
an d
co nsid ered as d eterm in ant fo r eth n ic C h in ese life. T h e relation fo rm o f the tex t w h ether th e p ub lics are p ositio n ed in to ethn ic C h in ese side o r th e g ov ern m ent side can b e seen a s fo llo w s: “It is true that now many of the cultural rights of the ethnic Chinese have been restored. In actuality, however, the government is still far from going all the way in recognizing the human rights of our ethnic Chinese population. Many of their political rights are still limited, and as human rights are universal, to grant some cultural rights and to deny others is simply wrong.” (Third paragraph) T h e tex t ab ov e sho w s th at th e n ew s is related to ethn ic C h inese w ho g et lim itation in p olitical righ ts. “Acknowledging the cultural rights of the Chinese does not give the government an excuse to forget about the recognition of other rights. Human rights are something that cannot be abolished or limited in any way. For 30 years under the New Order regime, the political rights of ethnic Chinese citizens were violated and completely ignored -- a fact that, to the present day, causes unease and trepidation among Chinese communities throughout Indonesia.” (Fourth paragraph)
45
B ased on th e tex t, th e pu b lics are p ositio n ed as if there is d istan ce b etw een ethn ic C hin ese an d th e G ov ern m ent (N ew O rd er reg im e ).
“The SBKRI requirement has been perpetuated through a new citizenship law, although the original intent was to provide proof that a foreigner had been naturalized as an Indonesian citizen. Worse still, Karawang and Bekasi still issue national identity cards that specify keturunan, which indicates persons of Chinese descent). This may have occurred through ignorance, stupidity or because the official was racist -- nevertheless, the discriminative mentality is evident.” (15 th paragraph) T h e tex t abo v e positio n s th e pub lics in th e rela tion of th e go v ern m en t and there is d istan ce b etw een th e gov ern m en t an d eth n ic C h in ese. T ho se tex ts abo v e no t on ly desc rib e h o w th e ev ent is m ade, bu t also sho w h o w th e social p o w e r is rep resen ted in th e new s.
c.
Identity T h e tex t d escrib es ho w th e jou rn alist po sitions him self w h eth er as ethn ic
C h in ese o r th e p osition o f go v ern m en t. It can b e seen fro m th e tex t as fo llo w : “It is true that now many of the cultural rights of the ethnic Chinese have been restored. In actuality, however, the government is still far from going all the way in recognizing the human rights of our ethnic Chinese population. Many of their political rights are still limited, and as human rights are universal, to grant some cultural rights and to deny others is simply wrong.” (Third paragraph) B ased on th e tex t abov e, th e jou rn alist iden tify h im self as ethn ic C h in ese w h ich
is
still
co nsidered
as
m in o rity,
ev en
cu ltu ral
rights
of
C h in ese h av e b een resto red . T h e jou rnalist c o nsid ers th e go v ern m ent has no b ig in ten tion to giv e eth n ic C h in ese freed o m .
46
“Acknowledging the cultural rights of the Chinese does not give the government an excuse to forget about the recognition of other rights. Human rights are something that cannot be abolished or limited in any way. For 30 years under the New Order regime, the political rights of ethnic Chinese citizens were violated and completely ignored -- a fact that, to the present day, causes unease and trepidation among Chinese communities throughout Indonesia.”(Fourth paragraph) “This is the second year in which Chinese New Year has been celebrated as a national holiday. There is a kind of euphoria about marking Chinese New Year, but the rights of ethnic Chinese -- like other human rights conditions in this country -- are still far from perfect due to violations by power-holders who do not respect law and human rights.”(12 th para graph ) T h e tw o o f tex ts abo ve also describ e th e jo u rn alist w ho id en tifies h im self as ethn ic C h in ese w h o is still d iscrim inated in field o f hu m an righ ts esp ec ially in th e po litical righ ts.
“In this struggle, we must eradicate the fears of the past and look forward to a new day when democracy, human rights and the rule of law are respected. Ethnic Chinese enter fields like public administration, law, national defense, policing, the judiciary and education in order to develop Indonesia in the right direction in partnership with other ethnic groups of this great and diverse nation.” (18 th paragraph) B ased on th e tex t abo v e, th e jo u rnalist iden tifies him self as p art o f Ind o n esia (go v ern m en t). but
A lth o u gh ,
he
realiz es
that
ethn ic
C h in ese
is
d iscrim in a ted
he su g gests erad icatin g th e p ast and lo ok ing forw ard to h av e b ette r
fu tu re to d ev elop In do n esia to geth er. B ased on th ose tex ts a bo ve can b e co n clu d ed that the jou rn alist position s h im self in th e n eu tral p o sition .
47
2. Fitting In T h e tex t tells ab ou t th e d iscrim in ation w h ich is ethn ic C h in ese got sin ce 196 0s. T h e y go t it da y b y da y. It b ecam e w o rse w h en th e M a y rio ts happ ened . T h e y lo st their sh op and o f cou rse th e y ho m e also w h ich is v an d alized an d looted du rin g M a y rio ts. It w as no t on ly happ en ed in Jak arta b u t also h ap p en ed in S u rakarta and o ther cities in Jav a, and S u m atra as stated in th e te x t in fifth paragraph . “The ’98 riots’ in which an orgy of violence overtook the predominantly ethnic Chinese commercial center of Glodok in Jakarta, Surakarta, and other cities in Java and Sumatra,… … “ The
d iscrim in atio n
n o t o n ly
oc cu rs
p h ysic ally
bu t also
occu rs
in
id en tities p ro b lem . F o r in stan c e, id en tification card (K T P ), b irth certificate o r ev en m arriag e certific ate, that is w h y, th ey hav e n ever b een to p a rticip ate in g en eral electio n b ec au se of it. A nd also th ey are called as fo reign citiz en . “Some have never been to participate in general election because they do not have identification card (KTP) required to register.”( 2 9 th parag raph .) “I never had a birth certificate,” says Yin Fang, a native of Bangka province. “(The government) make it so difficult for me to process any paper work. I’ve been married for 30 years and I don’t even have a marriage certificate.”( 3 0 th para graph .) “one of the most discriminatory among them was the labeling of Chinese- Indonesians as “foreign citizens” (WNA),…” (27 th paragraph)
G en erally, th e tex t is tak in g abo ut th e d iscrim in ation w h ich ethn ic C h inese go t. T h e tex t o n ly talk s abo ut su fferin g o f C hinese, an d d o es n ot talk m o re ab ou t why it h ap p ens to C h inese.
48
T h e tex t is im plicitly is teasin g th e go v ern m en t, w h y till n o w , th e eth n ic C h in ese as if still gets d iscrim in ation ev en officia lly, th ey req u ire to get a certificate of citiz en sh ip since 19 96 and also in structed clearly b y p resid en t B J. H ab ib ie in 1 99 9. “Officially, the regulations are no longer in existence. Presidential Decree No. 56/ 1996 scraped the rules and regulations requiring that ethnic Chinese- Indonesians obtain a certificate of citizenship. An instruction issued by BJ. Habibie during his presidency in 1999 abolished all other regulations which required ethnic Chinese-Indonesians to apply th for the certificate.”(30 paragraph) In d eed , eth n ic C h in ese b eco m es a v ictim o f d iscrim inatio n in Ind on esia, a nd m a y b e th e In do n esian gov e rn m en t is th e on e w ho respon sib le. B u t, th e discou rse w h ich is dev elop ed o n ly tak e the d iscrim in ation w h ich is a ccep ted b y eth n ic C h in ese no t talk abo ut w h y it hap p ens to th em ; is it g ov e rn m en t fau lt? O r in d eed , In do n esian p eop le fau lt? T h e tex t d o es n ot enclose th e go v ern m ent p o in t o f v iew . T h e on ly describ ed is th e d iscrim in atio n to eth n ic C h inese in th e early 19 60 s-in th e w aning ye ars of th e S oekarn o re gim e. “In the waning years of Soekarno regime, Chinese-Indonesia also endured discriminatory regulations. Under the draconian PP10/1959 regulation, trader in rural areas were forced to move to urban centers (some were repotedly killed when they resisted), and ethnic Chinese told to “choose” if they wished to remain in Indonesia or depart for the People’s Republic of China.” (24 th paragraph) A ll th e tex t d o es n ot en clo se th e gov ern m en t statem ent w h y it still happ ens, an d the on ly statem ent is stated b y P resid en t S u silo B am ban g Y ud h o yo no in th ird last o f th e tex t.
49
“…… President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono publicy acknowledged the m any unfortunate “misconceptions” against ethnic Chinese citizens as a result of mistakes made by past administrations. He promised changes would be made for the better.” (36 th paragraph)
a. R epresentation T h e d iscou rse o f d isc rim in ation to ethn ic C h in ese c an b e seen fro m ho w ethn ic C h in ese is sh o w ed (rep resen ted ) in th e tex t b y th e jou rn alist.
a.1. R epresentation in C lause The
ethn ic
C h in ese
is
n am ed
“th e
scap e go ats”
or
“v ictim ”. T h e
w o rds asso ciate th at th e y are p eo p le w h o are pressu red . “… .Chinese-Indonesians were the scap egoa ts, part of an ugly historical legacy that dates back to colonial times when they in the precarious position of middlemen between the Dutch overloads and the local population, could always find themselves victim s to the anger of one side or the other.” (5 th paragraph) It ind icates that th ey a re peo p le w h o are b lam ed o r p un ish fo r th e w ron g d o in g or fau lts o f so m eb o d y else and also th ey are in ju re d, k illed , o r destro yed as a resu lt o f crim e, bad lu ck , etc.
T h e tex t also uses th e w ord s “seco nd -class citizens” an d “m argin alized”. T h e w o rds im p licitly tells th at eth n ic C h in ese is no t m ain citizens and o n ly a s m ino rity citizens. “… .they could quickly be reduced to secon d-class citizen s simply due to their ethnic origin (the word pribumi, meaning indigenous, was hurriedly painted on many storefronts to “exempt” them for looting).” (6 th paragraph)
50
“… .approach to leadership that had m arginalized Chinese-Indonesians and prohibited any displays of Chinese culture has been change.” (8 th paragraph) It in d icates that th e y are p eo p le w ho
beco m e
o r feel less
im po rtant o r po w erfu l in Ind o n esia. T h e o th er w o rd is th e u sing o f “o rien tal”. T h e w o rd stated clearly th at eth n ic C h in ese are p eop le fro m E astern cou n try and are n ot nativ e Ind o n esia. “The “oriental” look, signifying almond-shaped eyes and light skin, became trendy in fashion, ….” A nd eth n ic C h in ese are a lso n am ed “ou tcast” w h ich in d icates that th e y are no ho m e and as p eop le w h o are d riv en aw a y fro m h o m e, friend s, so ciety o r w ho h as n o place in society, d eserv e dly, th e y g et discrim ination , an d as if the y hav e n o p lace fo r th em an ym o re. A n d th e w o rd “lim bo ” in d icated th at there is no place w h e re is p ro p er fo r th em . “One of the most discriminatory among them was the labeling of Chinese- Indonesians as “foreign citizens” (WNA), thereby making them an ou tcast community rather than a minority.” (27 th paragraph) “Many find that their citizenship status still remains in lim bo although they have lived all their lives in the country.” (28 th paragraph)
a.2. R epresentation in the com bination of clause “In a nation made up of diverse ethnic groups, Chinese-Indonesians stand out for their historical and cultural contributions as well as for the persecution they have endured. B u t 10 years after the bloody riots in which ethnic Chinese were targeted, is there greater acceptance of them as Indonesians?” (lead of the news) T h e tex t ab ov e sho w s a con trast tex t w h ich is sign ed w ith “bu t.” T h e tex t tries to ex p lain to th e p ub lic (read er) b y giv ing the q uestio n w h ich is opp osite w ith th e
51
sen ten ce be fo re w h ich ex p lain s im plicitly that C h in ese-Ind on esia go t persecu tion du ring M a y rio ts. B y u sing the w o rd “b u t” th e jo u rnalist w an ts to sho w w h ether th ere is d ifferen ce b etw een treatm ent w h ich is gotten b y C h inese-Ind on esia d u rin g M a y rio ts
and
the
treatm en t after
it o r
it is
still th e
sam e, C h in ese-
In do n esia still get d iscrim inatio n and in ju stice. “Lim Hwee stands behind the cash register at his store in Mangga Besar, West Jakarta, and asks a couple of questions that continue to haunt him. “What did we do wrong? Why does it keep on happening?”(first Paragraph) B ased o n th e tex t ab ov e, the jo u rn alist tries to m ak e th e pu b lic im agin es th e L im
H w ee’s
feelin g
by
d ram atiz in g
th e
con d ition .
T he
jo u rn alist
also
lad es th e q u estio ns w h ich as if co nstitu te L im H w ee ’s talk. It sho w s that th e text w h ich is lad ed b rin gs th e certain co nseq u en ts ideo log y. “Ten years ago, the 56-year-old ethnic Chinese man’s shop was one of the many in the area th at was vandalized and looted during the May riots.” (third paragraph) T h e u sage o f the
w o rd
ex p lain s C h in ese m an ’s sho p
“th at” con stitu te elab o ra tio n
w as vand aliz ed an d
clau se w h ich
lo o ted d u ring th e M a y
rio ts. H ere th e jo u rnalist tries to co nn ect th e v and aliz ing an d lo o ting just b ecause th e M a y rio ts. “The
’98
riots,
in
which
an
orgy
of
violence
overtook
the
predominantly ethnic Chinese commercial center of Glodok in Jakarta, Surakarta and other cities in Java and Sumatra, followed the shooting of four university students during a protest against the Soeharto regime.” T h e tex t sh o w s th at th e pro test ag ain st th e S o eh arto re g im e is th e causal fa c to r w h ich cau ses v io len ce o r v an d aliz ing to w ard C h in ese co m m ercial cen ter,
fo llo w ed
52
th e sho o ting o f fou r un iversity stu d en ts. B y p lacin g th e v io lence o r v and aliz ing to w ard C h in ese co m m ercial cen te r in th e first, th e jou rn alist tries to ex p lain s th at th e m ost su ffering p eo p le w ho g et th e effect of M a y rio ts is eth n ic C h in ese. A nd th e fou rth stud en t w ho is sho t is on ly as an o th er v ictim o f M a y rio ts. “Many Indonesians – ethnic Chinese and otherwise – contend that broaching the issue of ethnicity, even in a joking way, simple serves to bring lurking hostility and stereotypes to the fore. Part of the reticence can be attributed to Indonesia’s fickle and painful history, for acknowledging one’s ethnicity has been dangerous for Chinese-Indonesians.” Others, h ow ever, feel the failure to look at the issues head-on, and confront the discrimination that Chinese-Indonesians face, means the issues will never be resolved.” (14 th paragraph) T h e tex t ind icates that in on e sid e C h in ese-In do n esia w ant to co m e o ut fro m th e pressu re and th e h ostility bu t in o n e sid e the y h av e n o o p tim ism to face it, an d still con sid er
th at
th e
prob le m
w ill
nev er
be
sho w s th e o pp osite actio n b etw een o p tim ism
reso lv ed.
H ere,
th e
jo u rnalist
and pessim istic actio n w h ich
are as if said b y C h inese-Ind on esia. “School textbooks have rarely included the names of Lim Koen Hian, Tan Eng Hoa, Oey Tiang Tjoe, Oey Tjong Hauw and Drs. Yap Tjwan Bing even th ou gh they helped draw up the Constitution. Others, including So Beng Kong, Tan Djin Sing and Sie Kong Liong, are practically unheard of. Yet each of them is a national hero.” (20 th paragraph) T h e tex t abov e sh o w s that C h in ese-Ind o n esia also
th e fou nd er of
In do n esia cou n try an d p articipate to draw u p th e con stitu tio n. Im p licitly, th e jo u rn alist w ant to say th at it is n ot fair if C h in ese-In do n esia are d iscrim inated b ecause th e y also d raw u p th e constitu tion . S o , sch oo l tex t b oo k sho u ld hav e in clud ed th eir nam e as n atio n al h ero .
53
“Many find that their citizenship status still remains in limbo alth ou gh they have lived all their lives in the country. Some have never been able to participate in a general election because they don’t have the identification card (KTP) required to register.” (27 th paragraph) S till related to op posite actio n . T he tex t abo ve tells th ere is o pp osite actio n w h ich con sid er th at C h in ese-In do n esia still h av e no ho m e ev en th e y ha v e liv e fo r lon g in In do n esia. T h e y also still h av e no id en tificatio n card an d it cau ses th e y cann ot p articipate in g eneral election . T h rou gh th e tex t, th e jo u rnalist w an t to sh o w th at m an y C h in ese-Ind o n esia are con sid ered as n ot Ind on esian citizen even th ey liv e in In do n esia fo r lo n g tim e.
a.3. R epresentation in the com bination of inter sentence T h e rep resen tation can be seen fro m th e jo u rn a list po sition s th e sid e o f th e p ub lic in th e tex t. “This time, though, there was a difference. Unlike the quickly hushed-up incidents of the past that were relegated to historical footnotes, there was an international audience watching the devastation. Cable news stations beamed images of the anarchy to the world, and showed ChineseIndonesians fleeing the capital or barricading their neighborhoods against marauding groups.” (sixth paragraph) “Local media also took note, with mainstream publications and TV programs detailing the singling out of the ethnic Chinese in the destruction.”(seventh paragraph) B ased on th e tex t abo ve, th e jo u rnalist positio ns th e cable n ew s statio n (in tern atio n al m ed ia) in the first befo re th e lo cal m ed ia. It ind icates th at th e jou rn alist w an t to sa y that th ere are m an y p eo p le in th e w o rld w ho w atch th e d ev astation an d
54
kno w abo ut Ind o n esian pro b lem . It also in d icates th at th e in tern ation al m ed ia hav e big ger atten tio n to the p rob lem th an lo cal m ed ia. “Things are better, and I think we can continue to improve, because we are still behind Singapore and Malaysia but we are going in the right direction, there is recognition of us,” says businessman Johnny Andrean, who rebounded from losing dozens of his hairdressing salons in the riots to establish the successful chain of J.CO donut stores.” (ninth paragraph) “That’s for the better and will help create a feeling of nationalism. It helps us feel that we belong. We were born in Indonesia … what’s important is that we are all the same. When that feeling [of acceptance] arises, then it will be good for Indonesia.” (tenth paragraph) T h e jo u rnalist, th ro u gh tex t ab ov e, tries to stre n gthen th e fact th at eth n ic C h inese get d iscrim in atio n an d so m etim es h av e b een pu t lo w b y few p eo p le. It also sho w s th at m ost o f th e ethn ich C h in ese hav e the sam e feelin g th at th e y
are
still d iscrim inated b y ce rtain peop le and the gov ern m ent th ro u gh th e re gu la tion and th e bu reau c ra c y o f the go v ern m en t. A s th e tex t fo llo w s: “Helmi, a middle-aged executive, is an advocate of pluralism and does his best to ensure minorities – from ethnic Chinese to people from Eastern Indonesia – are given priority for hiring in his office. But even he says that underlying distinctions remain, most of the time unspoken. He uses the analogy of Indonesia’s badminton stars, many of whom are ethnic Chinese.” “When they win, they’re Indonesian,” he says with a smile. “But when they lose, people will say, ‘Ah, he’s Chinese after all.” (twelveth paragraph) “I never had a birth certificate,” says Yin Fang, a native of Bangka province. “[The government] makes it so difficult for me to process any paperwork. I’ve been married for 30 years and I don’t even have a marriage certificate.” (28 th paragraph)
55
th e tex t sh o w s th at eth n ic C h iness still get the d iscrim inatio n b y no t h av in g a birth certificate ev en h av e been m a rried fo r 30 ye ars. T h ro u gh th is tex t th e jo u rnalist w an t to sho w th e d iscrim in atio n w h ich is accep ted b y eth n ic C h in ese.
b. R elation T h e d isco u rse also can b e seen fro m th e relatio n w ho w an ts to b e fo un d e d in th e tex t. T h e tex t enclo ses th ree sid es w ho are con nected on e ano the r; ethn ic C h inese (L im H w e e, Jo hn n y A n d rean , H elm i, A n gie, Y in F an g), G o v ern m ent o f In do n esia (S o ek arno
regim e,
M ega w ati S o ek arn o so cie ty
the P u tri,
N ew
O rd er,
P resid en t
P resid en t S u silo
B J.
B am ban g
H ab ib ie,
P resid en t
Y ud h o yon o )
and
(n ative In do n esian). In th e tex t, even th o u gh so ciety is no t m en tio n ed clearly, th e y are m en tio ned
im p licitly as so m eo n e w ho vand aliz e an d loo t d urin g th e M a y rio ts. T he tex t is n ot related d irectly to so ciety, n ot o n ly the y are no t in terv iew ed but also there is no an y ex p lan atio n ab ou t th em . E v en tho u gh in th e sto ry, th e so ciety p osition is im po rtan t becau se eth n ic C h inese is a part o f th e so ciety. “Ten years ago, the 56-year-old ethnic Chinese man’s shop was one of the many in the area that was vandalized and looted during the May riots. He had experienced upheaval before; during a wave of anti-Chinese sentiment in the early 1960s, 11-year-old Lim and his family fled their home in Jakarta to take refuge with a friend in Cirebon, West Java.” (Second paragraph) P ractically, in th e n ew s tex t w h ich is ex plain ed clearly, there are: eth n ic C h in ese and G ov e rn m ent. T he tw o sid es are describ ed d ifferen tly in th e tex t.
56
E thn ic C h in ese are d esc ribed as th e o n ly v ictim w ho go t d iscrim inatio n an d as if
b eco m e
go vern m ent
o u tcast
co m m un ity
is d escrib ed
as
an d
p ossesso r
sta y who
in
lim bo .
h as
stro ng
The
o th er
po w er
h and ,
and
h as
un lim ited d o m inance w h ich w ill m ake easy o r d ifficu lt in p ro cessin g so m eth in g . “One of the most discriminatory among them was the labeling of Chinese- Indonesians as “foreign citizens” (WNA), thereby making them an outcast community rather than a minority. During the New Order regime, all Chinese-Indonesians were obligated by law to acquire a certificate of citizenship (SKBRI) which serves as a hard proof of their Indonesian identity (WNI). To do this, a copious set of requirements had to be met and, often, a large sum of money paid to ensure its processing.” (27 th paragraph) “Many find that their citizenship status still remains in limbo although they have lived all their lives in the country. Some have never been able to participate in a general election because they don’t have the identification card (KTP) required to register.” (2 8 th para graph ) The is
tw o
of
tex ts
abov e
are
related
to
ethn ic
C h inese
life
who
still d iscrim inated b y th e gov ern m en t. H ere, it can b e seen th at th e w h o le tex ts are
related to eth n ic C h in ese life w h o still get in ju stice.
c. Identity T h e tex t describ es ho w the jo u rnalists po sition th em selv es w h eth er as eth n ic C h in ese o r in th e po sition of gov ern m en t. “One of the most discriminatory among them was the labeling of Chinese- Indonesians as “foreign citizens” (WNA), thereby making them an outcast community rather than a minority. During the New Order regime, all Chinese-Indonesians were obligated by law to acquire a certificate of citizenship (SKBRI) which serves as a hard proof of their Indonesian identity (WNI). To do this, a copious set of requirements had to be met and, often, a large sum of money paid to ensure its processing.” (27 th paragraph)
57
“Many find that their citizenship status still remains in limbo although they have lived all their lives in the country. Some have never been able to participate in a general election because they don’t have the identification card (KTP) required to register.” (2 8 th p ara grap h ) B ased on th e tex t ab ov e, th e jou rnalists id en tify th em selves as In do n e sian p eop le w ho is in th e n eu tral p ositio n . It can b e se en fro m th e usa ge o f w o rd s “th e y” o r “th em .” T h e jou rn alists also id en tify them selv es as eth n ic C h inese b y lad in g ethn ic C h in ese argu m en t in to th e tex t, as fo llo w s: “Things are better, and I think we can continue to improve, because we are still behind Singapore and Malaysia but we are going in the right direction, there is recognition of us,” says businessman Johnny Andrean, who rebounded from losing dozens of his hairdressing salons in the riots to establish the successful chain of J.CO donut stores.”(Eighth paragraph) “That’s for the better and will help create a feeling of nationalism. It helps us feel that we belong. We were born in Indonesia … what’s important is that we are all the same. When that feeling [of acceptance] arises, then it will be good for Indonesia.” (Ninth paragraph) “I never had a birth certificate,” says Yin Fang, a native of Bangka province. “[The government] makes it so difficult for me to process any paperwork. I’ve been married for 30 years and I don’t even have a marriage certificate.” (29 th paragraph) B ased o n th ose tex ts, th e jou rn alists also po sition as ethn ic C h in ese w ho feels discim in ated an d g et in ju stice fro m the go v ern m en t. T h e tex t p ersu ad es th e pub lic to d ip in to th e life of ethn ic C h in ese w h o alw a ys get d isc rim inatio n in th e early 1 96 0s till no w in order to felt fo r th em . T h at is w h y, in th e tex t, fro m
th e b egin n in g till th e end , is co nsist o f sto ry of eth n ic
C h in ese’s strug gle and sacrifice till the y g et a little bit ad m issio n in Ind on esia.
58
C . D ata A nalysis R eferrin g to th e resu lt o f analysis, on th is part th e w riter w ill an sw er th e m ain qu estio ns w h ich th e w riter h as to ld in C hap ter I in th is rese arch . A s th e first step in data an alysis, firstly, th e w riter w ill con clu d e th e th ree levels of tex t analysis. T h en , it is con tin u ed b y co n clud in g th e an sw er on m ain q u estion b y re ferrin g o n th e data an alysis. R ep resen tatio n lev el. T h e d isco u rse of d iscrim in ation to ethn ic C h inese can be seen fro m h o w eth n ic C hinese is sho w ed (represen ted ) in th e tex t b y th e jou rn alist. T h e eth n ic C h inese is n a m ed “th e scap e go ats” o r “v ictim ”. It ind icates th at th e y are peo p le w ho are blam ed o r pu n ish fo r th e w ron g d oing o r fau lts o f so m eb o d y else and also the y are in ju red , k illed , o r destro yed as a resu lt o f crim e, b ad lu ck, etc. T h e tex t also uses th e w ord s “seco nd -class citizens” an d “m argin alized”. T h e w o rds im p licitly tells th at eth n ic C h in ese is no t m ain citizens and o n ly a s m ino rity citizens. E thn ic C h inese are also n am ed “o u tcast” w h ich ind icates that th ey are no ho m e and as p eo p le w ho are d riv en aw a y fro m h o m e, friend s, so ciety o r w ho has no p lace in society, deserv ed ly, th e y get discrim in ation , and as if th e y hav e no place fo r them an ym o re. A nd th e w o rd “lim b o ” in d ic ated th at there is n o p lace w h ere is pro per fo r th em . T h e tex t sho w s th at th e pro test ag ain st th e S oeharto regim e is th e causal fa c to r w h ich
causes
v io lence
or
van d aliz in g
to w ard
C h in ese
co m m ercial cen ter,
fo llo w ed th e sh oo tin g of fou r un iversity stu d en ts. B y p lacin g th e v io lenc e or v and aliz in g to w ard C h in ese co m m ercial cen te r in th e first, th e jou rn alist tries to ex p lains th at th e
59
m ost su ffering peo p le w ho get th e effect o f M ay rio ts is eth n ic C h in ese. A nd th e fou rth stu d ent w h o is sh o t is on ly as an o th er v ictim o f M a y rio ts. T h e tex t ind icates that in on e sid e C h in ese-In do n esia w ant to co m e o ut fro m th e pressu re and th e h ostility bu t in o n e sid e the y h av e n o o p tim ism to face it, an d still con sid er
th at
th e
prob le m
w ill
nev er
be
sho w s th e o pp osite actio n b etw een o p tim ism
reso lv ed.
H ere,
th e
jo u rnalist
and pessim istic actio n w h ich
are as if said b y C h inese-Ind on esia. T h e tex t abov e sh o w s that C h in ese-Ind o n esia also
th e fou nd er of
In do n esia cou n try an d p articipate to draw u p th e con stitu tio n. Im p licitly, th e jo u rn alist w ant to say th at it is n ot fair if C h in ese-In do n esia are d iscrim inated b ecause th e y also d raw u p th e constitu tion . S o , sch oo l tex t b oo k sho u ld hav e in clud ed th eir nam e as n atio n al h ero . T h e jo u rnalist tries to stren gthen
th e fa ct th at ethn ic C h in ese
get d iscrim in ation and so m etim es hav e b een pu t lo w b y few p eo p le. It also sho w s th at m ost o f th e ethn ich C h in ese h av e th e sam e feelin g th at the y
are still
discrim inated b y certain p eop le and th e go v ern m en t throu gh th e reg u latio n and th e bu re au crac y o f th e go v ern m en t. R elation relatio n
lev el.
The
discou rse
also
can
be
see n
fro m
ho w
th e
is fo un d ed in th e tex t. T h e tex t en closes tw o sid es; th ose are eth n ic
C h in ese -Ind o n esian and
the
In do n esian
gov ern m ent (S oeh arto
R e gim e). T h e
tw o sides are describ ed d ifferen tly in th e tex t. T h e eth n ic C h inese is d escribed as w e ak sid e and m a rg inaliz ed .
60
A nd th e o th er h and , th e go v e rn m ent (S oeh arto re g im e) is d escrib ed h igh e r, stron g e r and co nsidered as d ete rm in an t fo r eth n ic C h in ese life. T ho se tex ts ab ov e no t only d escrib e ho w th e ev en t is m ad e, but also sho w h o w th e so cial p o w er is rep resen ted in th e new s. T h e tw o o f tex ts abov e are related to eth n ic C h inese life w ho is still discrim in ated b y th e go v ern m en t. H e re, it can be seen th at th e w ho le o f tex t are related to eth n ic C h inese life w ho still get in justice . Id en tity lev el. B ased on the tex t abo v e, th e jo u rnalist id en tifies h im self as p art of Ind o n esia (gov ern m en t). A ltho u gh, h e realiz es th at eth n ic C h in ese is d iscrim inated but h e su g gests erad icatin g th e past an d lo ok ing forw ard to h av e bette r fu tu re to d ev elo p In do n esia to g eth er. B ased on th ose tex ts abo v e can b e co n clud ed th at th e jou rnalist po sition s h im self in th e n eu tral po sition . G en erally an d as th e co n clusion , tex t analysis o n th e sam p le sh o w s injustice to ethn ic C h in ese w h ich finally bea rs d iscrim inated a ction . T h e tex t o n ly talks abo ut th e m isery o f ethn ic C h in ese as the resu lt of in justice in the so ciety itse lf and th e regu latio n w h ich is m ad e b y th e go v ern m en t. In o th er w o rd s, it on ly e x p oses th e m isery o f the so ciety a nd also im p lies th e m yth th at b y deliv erin g o r ex po se the m isery o f th e society h as better po w e r to rev eal th e m ean in g o f co m m un icatio n m essag e.
61
C H A PT E R IV C O N C L U SIO N A N D SU G G EST IO N
A . C onclusion A s th e clo sing o f th is research, th e w riter is go ing to tak e con clu sio n as fo llo w s: F irst, in th e “C h in ese N ew Y ear E up h o ria and P olitical T rau m a” sam p le. In th e
rep resentatio n
lev e l,
th e
C h in ese
is
describ ed
as
eth n ic
who
still
get d iscrim ination esp ecially in th e hu m an righ ts. In th e relation lev el,
th e tex t m o stly d escrib es as if th ere is d istance b etw een eth n ic C hin ese and th e G o v ern m en t. It is m o stly related to eth n ic C h in ese. In th e Id en tity lev el, th e jo u rnalist po sitio ns h im self in th e neu tral po sitio n, eith er in eth n ic C h in ese o r the go v ern m ent. S econ d , in th e “F ittin g In ” sam p le. In th e rep resen tatio n lev el, th e C h in ese are describ ed as scape go ats, v ictim s, secon d class citizens and lim bo th at need to b e p itied b y th e so ciety. In th e relatio n level, m ostly, it is related to the eth n ic C h in ese. In th e id en tity lev el, th e jo u rnalists po sition them selv es as ethn ic C h inese w ho feels discrim inated and g et in justice fro m th e gov e rn m ent. A s th e co n clusio n , tex t an alysis on th e sam p le s sho w s in ju stice to ethn ic C h in ese w h ich fin ally b e ars d iscrim in ated a ctio n. T h e tex t on ly talk s ab ou t th e m isery of ethn ic C h in ese as th e resu lt o f in ju stice in th e so ciety itself an d th e re gu latio n w h ich is m ad e b y th e go v ern m en t. In o ther w o rd s, it on ly ex po ses th e m isery o f th e so ciety
and
also
im p lies
th e
m yth
th at
by
d eliv erin g
or
ex po se th e m isery of th e
62
so ciety h as m essag e.
b etter
p o w er
to
rev eal
th e
m ean in g
of
co m m u n icatio n
F u rtherm o re, th ere is d ifferent po int o f v iew if it is seen fro m th e jo u rnalists’ p o in t o f view in describ in g C h in ese d iscrim ination . T he first jou rn alist (first sam p le) sho w s m ore
ab out
po litical
righ ts
describ e
m o re
d iscrim in ation
in In do n esia. ab o u t
in
The
C h in ese secon d
hu m an
righ ts
jo u rn alists
esp ecially in
(seco nd
sam ple)
C h inese d iscrim in ation gen erally, esp ecially in S o eharto
reg im e, M a y rio ts an d ten yea rs after it.
B.
Suggestion C on sid ered fro m critical discou rse an alysis, as th e w riter tells befo re, th e n ew s
abo ut
C h in ese
d iscrim ination
w h ich
is
laded
in
the
Jakarta
P o st
o n ly
ex po ses th e m arg in aliz ed g ro up that n eed to b e p itied . H en c e, the w riter su g gest, first, m ass m ed ia sh ou ld
lad e
also
n ot
o n ly
th e
cau se
of
d iscrim inatio n
but also th e so lu tio n for o v erco m in g th e p ro b lem , so th at th e reade r h av e m o re in fo rm atio n an d kn o w w h at th e read e r has to do . S econ d , in th e fu tu re, m edia giv e m o re atten tion to th e so lu tion . T h e fu n ction of m ed ia w ill m o re op tim al if m ed ia giv e m o re d irectio ns in cre atin g p ub lic op in ion .
63
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Journal
Hidayat, Dedy N. “Paradigma dan Perkembangan Penelitian Komunikasi,” Jurnal Ikatan Sarjana Komunikasi Indonesia, Vol. III, April, 1999.
Internet Discourse . A c cessed o n O cto b er 29 , 2 00 8 h ttp ://en .w ik ip ed ia.o rg/w ik i/D iscourse. N o rm an F airclou gh, The Dialectics of Discourse A ccessed on F eb ru ary 2 5, 200 9 , http ://w w w .go o g le.co .id /search ? h l= id & q = id en tity% 2 C + relatio n % 2 C + rep resent atio n + th eo ry+ N o rm an + F airclo u gh& b tn G = T elu su ri+ d en g an + G o o gle & m eta = & a q= f& o q = . “Media Group Methods and the Discourse Analysis of Norman Fairclough and Teun van Dijk: a comparison of approaches.” A lso ap p eared as: P h ilo , G . ‘C an D iscou rse A n alysis S ucc essfu lly ex p lain th e C on tent o f M ed ia and Jo u rnalistic P ractice’ in Journalism Studies , V ol 8 N u m b er 2. A ccessed on N ov em b er 29 , 200 8 . w w w .scrib d .co m . Promotional university institutional discourse: a case analysis related to Chinese content, A ccessed o n F eb ruary 25 , 20 09 . w w w .sis.z ju .edu.cn /w yx yz y/con fe ren c e/research g roup /stu _ w o rks/d u % 2 0 b ei_ P r o m o tio n al% 2 0 u n iv ersity% 20d iscourse.do c. w w w .thejak artap ost.co m
A ppendix I
C hinese N ew Year political traum a The Jakarta Post , Jak arta
euphoria
| S at, 0 1 /2 4 /2 004 3:33 P M
and
| O p in io n
Frans H . W inarta, M e m b er of th e A dv iso ry B o ard IB A H u m an R igh ts In stitu te, Jak arta In do n esians, and espe cia lly tho se o f C hinese d escen t, h av e just celeb rate d C h in ese N ew Y ear. C h in ese-In d on esians w ho , fo r ov er 3 0 years du rin g th e N ew O rder regim e, w ere fo rced to c eleb rate th is ev en t beh in d closed d oo rs, are n o w free o n ce ag ain to celeb rate it p ub licly. W h ereas d u rin g th e 300 yea rs o f D u tch co lo n ial su b ju gatio n th is ev en t cou ld b e celebrated freely, in an ind ep en d en t In do n esia u n d er th e S o eh arto reg im e, iron ically, b asic cu ltu ral, relig iou s an d lan gu ag e righ ts w ere severely restricted . C itizens o f C h in ese d escent w ere ev en requ ired to ch an ge their n am es an d co u ld no t attend C h in ese sch oo ls. It is tru e th at no w m any o f th e cu ltu ral rig h ts o f th e ethn ic C h inese hav e b een resto red . In actuality, ho w ever, th e go v ern m ent is still far fro m go in g all th e w a y in reco gn iz in g th e h u m an rights of ou r eth n ic C h inese pop u lation . M an y o f th eir po litical righ ts are still lim ited , and as hu m a n righ ts are u n iv ersal, to g rant so m e cu ltu ral righ ts an d to d en y o thers is sim p ly w ro n g. A ck no w led gin g th e cu ltural righ ts o f th e C h in ese do es no t giv e th e go v ern m ent an ex cu se to fo rg et ab out th e reco gn ition o f othe r rights. H u m an righ ts a re so m eth ing that can no t b e abo lish ed o r lim ited in an y w a y. F o r 3 0 years un d e r th e N ew O rd e r re g im e, th e po litical rig h ts o f eth n ic C h inese citizens w ere v io lated an d co m p letely ign o red -- a fa ct th at, to th e p resent d a y, cau ses u n ease and trep id ation am on g C h in ese co m m u n ities th ro u g h out Ind o n esia. S uch restrictiv ely en co m p assing po liticalp ressu re as su ffered b y C h in ese- Ind o n esian s d u rin g th e S o eh arto re gim e has cau sed a section o f th e Ind on esian co m m u n ity to lose th eir id en tity. M an y ethn ic C h in ese hav e tried to d en y their iden tity in v a riou s w a ys du e to th is po litical pressu re th at, at tim es, asso ciated th eir ""C h inesen ess"" w ith C o m m u n ism , betra yal, dislo yalty, insu larism , w ith th eir an cestral coun try and v ario us o th er un d esirab le a ttrib u tes that add ed to th e po litical p ressu re and stig m a w eig h ted a gainst them .
A ppendix I
T h e resu lt is th at th e C h inese co m m un ity is still afraid to beco m e en ga ged in o r even talk abo ut po litics, let alon e, b eco m e po liticians th em selves. T h ere are few co m m u n ities in th e w o rld as apo litical as C h in ese -Ind on esian s. It is d ifficu lt to co nv in ce th em that, in order to strug gle fo r eq u ality in po litical rig h ts and equ ality b efo re the law , th ey m u st lin k up w ith o ther dem o cratic fo rc es in In do n esia. E thn ic C h in ese are passen gers in th is sh ip w e call Ind on esia, an d w h at is ex perien ced b y so m e p asseng ers w ill also b e ex p erien ced b y o the rs. W h at m ust b e fo u gh t fo r is the d estin y o f In d o n esia as a w h o le -- th e stru g g le fo r d em ocra c y, ru le o f law a nd resp ect for hu m an righ ts. If th ese th ings can b e ach ieved, th en d iscrim in atio n again st th e ethn ic C h in ese w ill su rely b e erad icated. T h e d iscrim inative legal system inh erited fro m th e D u tch an d p rop a gated b y th e N ew O rd er regim e throu gh p o litical segre gatio n m ust b e abo lish ed in its en tire ty, b e cau se it creates d ifferent classe s of citiz en s b ased on eth n icity. A lread y fro m b irth , citizens are classified accord in g to race an d eth n icity. T h e state gazette o n civ il registration m ust b e rep laced w ith a natio n al law on civil registration th at is m ore h u m an e an d respe cts eq u ality be fo re th e law . T h e C o nstitu tion m u st also gu aran te e dem o crac y, re sp ect fo r hu m an righ ts a nd adh eren ce to th e id e a l o f ru le o f law . T h is is th e secon d ye ar in w h ich C h in ese N ew Y ear h as b een celeb rated a s a natio n al ho lid ay. T h ere is a k in d of eu ph o ria abo ut m ark in g C h inese N e w Y ea r, b ut the righ ts of eth n ic C h in ese -- lik e oth er h u m an righ ts con dition s in th is cou n try -- are still far fro m perfe ct du e to v io lation s b y po w er-ho ld e rs w ho do no t respect law and hu m an rig h ts. F o r instan ce, th e an ti-C h inese rio ts o f M ay 1 9 98 are still yet to b e in v estigated p ro p erly an d tho se resp o n sib le held acco un tab le fo r th eir crim es. T h is in creases th e po ssib ility th at su ch trag ed ies can recu r. It is iron ic that C h in ese N e w Y ear is b ein g celeb rated as a n ation al h o lida y just fiv e ye ars a fte r th e trag ed y o f M a y 19 9 8 . T h e stru g gle to ab o lish d iscrim in ation is still a long on e, b ecau se d iscrim inativ e law s ag ainst ethn ic C h in ese still ex ist and th e D P R an d th e go v ern m ent sh o w no p o litical w ill to ab o lish th em . A ltho u g h th e go v ern m en t h as an n u lled th e In do n esian C itizensh ip C ertificate req u ired so lely b y eth n ic C h in ese (S B K R I), in p ractice it is still o ften req u ired in d a y-to -d a y ad m in istrativ e p ro cesses. T h e S B K R I requ irem en t h as b een pe rp etu ate d th ro u gh a new citizensh ip law , altho u gh th e original in te nt w as to p ro v id e p ro of th at a fo reig ne r h ad b een natu ralized as an In do n esian citizen. W orse still, K araw an g and B ekasi still issu e natio n al
id en tity cards th at sp ecify keturunan, w h ich ind icates pe rson s o f C h in ese desc en t). T h is m ay hav e o ccu rre d th ro u gh igno rance, stup idity o r b ec au se th e o fficial w as racist -- n ev ertheless, th e discrim inativ e m en tality is ev iden t. A ccord in g to th e prin cip les o f hu m an righ ts, all h u m an bein g s are equ al a nd m ust not be d iscrim in ated ag ainst b ased on race, religion , sk in co lo r, socio-econ o m ic statu s, cu ltu ral id en tity, po litical b elief or ethn icity. In d on esia has sig ned th e In ternation al C on v en tion on th e E lim ination of A ll F o rm s of D iscrim in atio n an d th erefo re m u st be con sisten t in im p lem en ting th is in its leg al, p o litic al, cu ltu ral and e co no m ic sph eres. T h ere is eu ph o ria no w as w e celebrate C hinese N ew Y ear; b ut th e actu al stru g gle fo r equ ality b efo re th e law is on ly b e gu n an d it m a y b e so m e tim e befo re re al eq u ality can b e ach iev ed . E thn ic C h in ese you th n eed to ge t inv o lv ed in po litics and jo in in th e refo rm stru g gle w ith o th er dem ocratic fo rces.
In th is stru g gle, w e m ust erad ic ate th e fea rs of th e p ast an d loo k forw ard to a n ew d a y w h en dem o cra c y, hu m a n rig h ts an d th e ru le o f law are resp ected. E thn ic C h in ese m u st en ter fields lik e pub lic ad m in istratio n, law , natio n al d efen se, p o licing, the jud iciary and ed u c atio n in ord er to dev elo p In do n esia in th e righ t d irection in p artnersh ip w ith other eth n ic gro u ps o f th is g reat and d iverse n atio n . A t th e sam e tim e, the gov e rn m en t and legislatu re need to op en u p to C h in ese- Indo n esians so that th e y, too , can con trib u te fu lly to natio n al develop m en t. http ://w w w .th ejak artapo st.co m /n ew s/2 0 0 4 /0 1 /2 4/ch in ese-n ew -yea r-eup h o ria-and po litical-trau m a.h tm l
A ppendix II
Fitting In The Jakarta Post
| W ed , 01 /2 3 /2 00 8 1 0 :35 A M
| C en te r P iece
In a nation made up of diverse ethnic groups, Chinese-Indonesians stand out for their historical and cultural contributions as well as for the persecution they have endured. But 10 years after the bloody riots in which ethnic Chinese were targeted, is there greater acceptance of them as Indonesians? Bruce Em ond and M aggie Tiojakin reports. L im
H w ee
stand s
cash re gister
at
h is
M an gg a B esa r, W est ask s
a
b eh ind
cou p le
sto re Jak arta,
th e in and
o f q u estio ns that
con tinu e to h au nt h im . “W h at d id w e do w ron g? W h y d o es it keep on h ap pen ing ? ” T en ye ars a go , th e 5 6 -ye ar-o ld eth n ic C h in ese m a n’s sh op w as on e o f th e m an y in th e area
that
w as
v and alized
and
lo o ted
du rin g
th e
M ay
rio ts.
He
h ad
ex p erien ced up h eav al b efo re; d u rin g a w av e o f an ti-C h inese sentim ent in th e early 19 6 0 s, 1 1 -year- o ld L im and h is fam ily fled th eir ho m e in Jakarta to tak e re fu g e w ith a friend in C irebo n , W est Jav a. The
’9 8
rio ts,
in
w h ich
an
o rg y
of
v io len ce
o v ertoo k
th e
p red o m in an tly eth n ic C hinese co m m ercial cen ter o f G lo do k in Jak arta, S u rakarta and o th er cities in Java and un iversity
stu d en ts du rin g
S u m atra,
fo llo w ed
th e
sho o ting
of
fo u r
a p ro test against th e S o eharto reg im e. O n ce a gain,
C h in ese-Ind on esian s w ere th e scap e go ats, p art o f an u gly h isto rical leg ac y th at d ates b ack to co lon ial tim es w h en the y, in th e p reca riou s m idd lem en
b etw een
the
D u tch
ov erlords
and
th e
local
p ositio n
of
A ppendix II pop u lation , co u ld alw a ys fin d them selves v ictim s to th e an ger o f o n e sid e or th e o th er. It w as a sho ck in g rem in d er th at, d esp ite b ein g bo rn here o r a ch iev in g su c c ess in th eir in d iv idu al fields, the y co uld qu ick ly b e red u ced to secon d -class citiz en s sim p ly du e to th eir ethn ic o rig in (th e w ord pribumi, m ean ing ind igen ou s, w as h u rriedly pain ted o n m an y sto refron ts to “ex e m p t” th em fro m loo ting). T h is tim e, tho u gh , there w as a d ifferen ce. U n lik e th e qu ick ly h ush ed-up incid en ts o f th e
past
th at
w ere
in tern ation al aud ien ce beam ed
im ages
In do n esians
of
fleein g
rele gated
to
h isto rical
w atch in g
th e
the an arch y
to
th e
cap ital
fo o tno tes,
dev astation . th e
w o rld ,
there
C ab le an d
new s sh o w ed
w as
an
station s C h in ese-
or b arric ad in g th eir neigh b o rh oo ds a gainst
m arau d in g group s. L o cal m ed ia also to ok n o te, w ith m ainstream pu b licatio ns and T V p ro g ram s detailing th e sin glin g ou t o f th e ethn ic C h in ese in th e destructio n. In th e en su in g ye ars, w ith th e dem ise
of
ap p roach
th e
N ew
O rd er
an d
its
co lon ialistic
“d iv id e
and
con qu er”
to leadersh ip th at h ad m arg in aliz ed C h in ese-Ind on esian s and pro h ib ited
an y d isp lays o f C h in ese cu ltu re, there h as been ch an g e. T h e “o rien tal” lo ok , sign ifyin g alm o nd -sh aped e yes an d ligh t sk in, b ecam e trend y in fash io n , In do n esian en te rtainers o f C h inese d escen t su ch as A gn es M o n ica, O lga L yd ia and D elon are pop u lar, th ere is a C h in ese-back ed p o litical party an d th e L u n ar N ew Y e ar in F eb ru ary h as been m ad e a n ation al h olid ay. “T h ing s are b etter, an d I th in k w e can co n tinu e to im prov e, becau se w e are still b eh ind
S in gapo re and
M ala ysia b ut w e are g o in g
in
th e rig h t
directio n , there is reco gn itio n o f us,” sa ys b usin essm an Joh n n y A n d rean , w h o reb ou nd ed fro m lo sin g do zens o f h is h aird ressin g salon s in th e rio ts to establish th e su ccessfu l ch a in o f J.C O don ut stores. “T h at’s fo r th e b etter and w ill help create a feelin g o f n atio n alism . It help s us feel th at w e b elon g. W e w ere bo rn in In do n esia … w h at’s im p o rtant is th at w e are all th e sam e. W h en th at feelin g [o f accep tan ce] arises, th en it w ill b e goo d fo r In d o n esia.”
A ppendix II So
do es
the
accep tan ce
increasin g
as In do n esian s?
v isib ility
actu ally
tra nslate
in to
gre ater
O r do es gettin g p ast th e sup erficial gestu res o f
reco gnition reveal th at o ld stereo typ es d ie h ard ? H elm i, a m idd le-aged ex ecu tive, is an adv o cate o f pluralism an d do es h is best to ensu re m in o rities – fro m eth n ic C h in ese to p eo p le from E astern Indo n esia – are giv en p riority fo r hirin g in h is o ffice. B ut ev en h e sa ys th at und erlyin g distin ctio ns rem ain , m ost o f th e tim e u nspo k en . H e uses th e analo g y o f In do n esia ’s bad m in ton stars, m an y of w h o m are ethn ic C hin ese. “W h en the y w in , the y’re In do n esian,” h e sa ys w ith a sm ile. “B u t w h en th e y lo se, p eo p le w ill sa y, ‘A h , h e ’s C h in ese after all.’” M an y In do n esians – ethn ic C h inese an d o therw ise – co n ten d that b ro achin g th e issu e of
ethn icity,
h o stility
even
in
a
jok ing
w a y,
sim p le
se rv es
to
b rin g
lurk in g
an d stereo typ es to th e fo re. P art o f th e reticen ce can b e attribu ted to
In do n esia ’s fick le an d p ainful h isto ry, fo r a ck n o w led gin g on e’s eth n icity h as b een d an ge ro us fo r C h in ese- Indo n esians. O thers,
ho w ev er,
co n fro nt issu es
feel
th e
th e d iscrim in ation w ill
n ev er
failu re th at
to
lo o k
at
th e
issu es
C h inese-In do n esians
face,
head-o n ,
and
m eans
the
b e reso lved .
“W e ju st n ev er talked ab out w ho w e w ere w h en I w as gro w in g up ,” sa ys A n gie, a 2 5 ye ar-o ld
ad
co m p an y
e m p lo yee. “ I rem em ber
so m etim es
w h en
we
w e re
kids w e w o u ld jok e ab out ‘cik ’ a nd ‘ko ko ’ (C hinese app e llatio ns) and m y m o th er w ou ld tell us to hu sh , th at w e shou ldn ’t say su ch thin gs.” Iron ically, sh e b e cam e fully aw are o f h er ba ck gro un d on th e m o rn ing th at th e M a y rio ts b eg an , w h en a M u slim w o m an pu lled h er off th e street and sh eltered her in h e r hou se. “ I d idn ’t w ant to go w ith h er, b ut sh e said, ‘yo u h av e to , yo u ’re C h in ese, it’s d an g ero us fo r yo u n o w ’. A nd I k ep t o n sayin g th at I w asn ’t C h inese, w h at w as sh e
A ppendix II talk in g abo u t? W h en I e ven tually go t ho m e, I asked m y m o th er and sh e said q u ietly, ‘Y es, w e are’.” S h e recen tly b ro ach ed th e sub ject o f an article sh e re ad ab ou t C h in ese-In d on esians to her p aren ts and au nt at a fam ily gath erin g . “ A t first th e y said th e y w ere ex cited b y it, and th en the y w en t q u ie t and w e sat th e re sa yin g n o th in g. It’s fun n y th at w e still cann ot talk ab ou t it.” A n alleg atio n o ften lev eled at C h inese-In do n esian s, as if to justify the d isc rim in ation th e y fac e, is that th e y h a ve failed to assim ilate in to Ind o n esian so ciety, esp ecially th e totok
co m m un ity
w ho
con tinu e
to
sp eak
C h in ese
d ialects
an d
ho ld
to
trad ition al w a ys. It’s an a rgu m en t th at n ot on ly b elittles the sign ifican t ro le peop le o f C h in ese d escen t hav e
p la yed
in
Ind o n e sian
so ciety, b ut also
h as
been
used
to
su p p o rt
variou s legislation to “en fo rc e” th eir assim ilatio n. S ch oo l tex tb oo ks h av e rarely in clud ed th e n am e s o f L im K o en H ian, T a n E n g H o a, O e y T ian g T joe, O e y T jo ng H au w and D rs. Y ap T jw an B ing ev en tho u g h the y h elp ed draw up th e C onstitu tio n. O thers, includ in g S o B en g K o n g, T an D jin S in g and S ie K on g L ion g, are p ractica lly un h eard o f. Y et ea ch o f them is a n ation al h ero . “W e fo llo w ed a stand ard cu rricu lu m set b y th e g ov ern m en t,” sa ys M iran d a Ju an d i, a retired h isto ry teach er. “D u rin g th e N ew O rd er re gim e, h isto ry w as no th ing but a bu n ch o f fictitio us stories strun g to geth e r as facts.” A nd no w ? “ It’s getting b etter,” sh e says. “B u t I w ou ldn ’t bet m y m o n e y o n it, eith er.” In
th e
w an ing
years
end u red d iscrim inato ry
of
th e
S uk arn o
re gu latio ns.
reg im e,
U nd er
th e
C h in ese-Ind on esian s d racon ian
also
P P 1 0 /1 95 9
regu lation , traders in rural areas w ere fo rced to m ov e to u rb an c en ters (so m e w e re rep o rted ly k illed w h en the y
resisted ), and
eth n ic C h in ese
to ld
to
“cho ose”
if the y w ished to rem ain in In do n esia or d epart fo r th e P eo p le’s R epu b lic of C h in a.
A ppendix II T ho se hard sh ips w ere n o thing co m p ared to w h a t la y in sto re w h en th e N ew O rd er too k po w er after an attem p ted cou p b lam ed o n th e In do n esian C o m m u n ist P arty w ith su pp osed b ack in g fro m asso ciates in C h in a. R eferen ces to eth n ic C h inese inv o lv em ent in th e histo ry o f th e nation w ere erased and ev en tu ally
d en ied .
C h in ese o rd ered
E x p ression s to
tak e
of
C h inese
m ore
In do n esian
cu lture
w ere
sou nd in g
o u tlaw ed, nam es
eth n ic
an d
new
citizensh ip re gu lation s w ere estab lish ed that created g reater d iv id es b etw een ethn ic C hinese an d so -called ind igeno us Ind o n esian s. O n e o f th e m o st d iscrim inato ry am o n g them w as the labelin g o f C hinese-In don esian s as “fo reign citizens” (W N A ), th e reb y m ak in g th e m an ou tcast co m m u n ity rath er than a m ino rity. D u rin g th e N ew O rder re gim e, all C hinese-Ind o n esian s w ere o b ligated b y law to acqu ire a certific ate o f citizensh ip (S K B R I) w h ich serv es as a h ard p ro o f o f th eir In do n esian iden tity (W N I). T o d o th is, a co p iou s set o f requ irem ents h ad to b e m et and , o ften, a large su m o f m on ey p aid to en su re its p ro cessin g . M an y fin d that th eir citizensh ip statu s still rem ain s in lim bo altho u g h th e y hav e liv ed all their lives in th e country. S o m e hav e n ev e r b een ab le to p articip ate in a gene ral election because th e y do n ’t hav e th e iden tificatio n card (K T P ) requ ired to re gister. “ I nev er had a b irth certificate,” sa ys Y in F an g, a nativ e o f B an gk a p ro v in ce. “[T he go v e rn m en t] m ak es it so difficu lt fo r m e to p ro cess an y p ap e rw o rk . I’v e b e en m arried fo r 3 0 years and I d o n ’t e ven hav e a m arria ge c ertificate.” O fficially, th e re gu latio n s are n o lo n ger in ex istence. P resid en tial D ecre e N o . 56 / 199 6
scrapp ed
th e
ru les
and
regu lation s
req u irin g
th at
eth n ic-C h in ese
Ind on esian s ob tain a certificate o f citizensh ip. A n instru ctio n issu ed b y B J H ab ib ie du rin g h is p residenc y in 19 99 ab o lish ed all o th er re gu lations w h ich req u ired eth n ic-C h inese Ind o n esian s to ap p ly fo r th e certificate. U n fortun ately, discrim inatio n
C h in ese-Ind o n esian s
sa y
th e y
co n tin u e
to
face
in d ealin g w ith th e bu reau c rac y. M an y region al go v ern m ent o ffices
repo rted ly requ ire th em to p ro du ce the S K B R I and refu se to p ro cess an y le gal pap erw o rk in its ab sence.
A ppendix II O ccasion ally, S usan ti
th e
issu e
m akes
head lines,
in clu d in g in
2 00 4
w h en
S u sy
and A llan B u di K usu m a, th e m arried bad m in ton p la yers w ho w ere
In do n esia ’s first ev er gold citizensh ip
for
S oekarno pu tri
the ir again
m edalists,
w e re
requ ired
passp o rt ex ten sio ns. reiterated
that
to
T h en
sho w
presid en t
pro o f
of
M eg aw ati
su ch d o cu m en ts w ere n ot req u ired (sh e
also in terv en e d to en su re that ano th er bad m in ton p la ye r, H end raw an, a fo rm er w o rld m en ’s sin gles cham p io n and coac h, re ceiv ed h is citiz en sh ip). A
v ast
m illio n
an d
d iv erse
natio n ,
Ind on esia
is
ho m e
to
m o re
than
2 30
peop le. A lth ou gh th ere are n o firm figu res on th e nu m b e r of ethn ic
C h in ese in th e cou n try, th ey are b eliev ed to acco u nt fo r 3 p ercent o f th e to tal pop u lation and up to 8 p ercent in th e cap ital Jakarta. M o st o f th em do n ’t k n ow ho w o r w h y their an c esto rs c am e to th is co un try; all th e y kno w is that th e y hav e liv ed h ere all their lives. “W h at’s
ho ld in g
th is
ex trao rd in ary
cou n try
to g e th er
is
…
a
sh are d
histo ry,” sa ys po litical scien tist S id n e y Jon es. “A n d I th in k on e of th e greatest ch allen g es o f th e po st-19 98 go v e rn m ent is to giv e ethn ic an d religiou s m ino rities a sense th at th ey are no w and alw a ys w ill b e o n an equ al foo tin g w ith th e m ajo rity.” L ast year, am id th e celebratio n o f C h in ese N e w B am ban g
Y u dh o yon o
pu b licly
“m isco n cep tion s” a gain st ethn ic m ad e
by
a ck n o w ledg ed C h in ese
Y ear, P resident S usilo th e
citizens as a
m an y
un fo rtu n ate
resu lt o f m istak es
p ast ad m in istration s. H e p ro m ised chan ges w ou ld b e m ad e fo r th e
better. “I’m p ast an g er. I do n ’t kn o w ho w I feel abo ut all th is, an ym o re,” m u m b led L im , sitting o n a black stoo l just ou tsid e o f h is shop , starin g in to th e cro w d ed street. A sk ed if h e ev er tho u ght o f leav in g th e cou n try fo r ano th er, h e rep lied w ith ano th e r q u estio n: “W h ere w ou ld I go? ” H e sho ok h is h ead . “ I’m alread y h o m e.” http ://w w w .th ejak artapo st.co m /n ew s/2 0 0 8 /01 /2 3 /fitting.h tm l
