Sejarah Arsitektur Komputer
Eri Prasetyo http://staffsite.gunadarma.ac.id/eri
Mechanical devices
Abakus, 3000 BC (?)
1822 Charles Babbage
1642, add & sub, Blaise Pascal
Electromechanical Machines • Based on Relays – Konrad Zuse (1910-1995)
The Zuse Z3 & Z4 Z1 / 1938, Z3 / 1941: mesin pemrograman Pertama di dunia Z3 dan Z4 dapat dilihat di musium jerman , Padeborn
Electronic Computers • First Generation – No mechanical components anymore – Vacuum Tubes
• Principle – Basic: Triode – Controllable flow within diode by a fence – On / Off
• 1946: ENIAC machine – Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer
Elektronika Tabung 1906
Lee de Forest menemukan tabung elektronik katoda
gate
anoda
Filamen pemanas
Penguatan signal
6,3v
Polarisasi gate menarik elektron
Lee de Forest
Filamen memanaskan katoda yang menyebarkan electrons : termo emission
Elektronika tabung Masalah Utama : Tegangan besar Mudah panas
≈300 V
Ukuran komponen
Plaque
6,3v
Grille ≈50 V
Cathode
Aplikasi Pertama
Radio penerima
Audio Amplifier
Radio Pemancar
Mesin Hitung tabung Pertama 1945
Mesin hitung tabung I bernama (ENIAC) Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer 30 tonnes Luas 1500 m2 Jumlah 17000 tabung Daya 140 KW
5000 penambahan setiap detik Makan tempat
Semi konduktor ???? 1874
Braun peletak dasar semi-conducteur
besi
selenium K. F. Braun
Dioda Pertama 1940
Schottky
menemukan métal/semi-conducteur.
contact
Pointe métallique Ge
Masih digunakan sampai sekarang untuk HF
W. Schottky 1942
Produksi pertama dioda dengan bahan germanium berhasil untuk teknologi micromave dan radar
Transistor bipolar 1947
Group dari Shockley mempunyai ide membuat dua dioda dari bahan yang sama (germanium).
Collector
Emetor
Base
W. Schockley
Transistor bipolar (2)
Fenomena nama baru
transistor = transfer + resistor
Transistor bipolar (3) Base
Sebuah awal fabrikasi (sangat berjasa )
Ge In
In
Emetteur
Collecteur Type n
Kesulitan utama : Reproduksi, ketebalan.
Type p
Temuan hasil penelitian lebih lanjut untuk bahan (Silikon atau Germanium).
Transistor bipolar silikon 1952
Bell Labs memperkenalkan metode untuk merealisasiakn printing Silikon monocristallin dengan kemurnian 99,7%.
Purification
Si amorphe
1954
Tirage
Si polycristallin
Si monocristallin
Pemakaian pertama Silikon sebagai pengganti germanium
Komputer transistor pertama 1957
Seymour
Cray
menciptakan
pertama secara komersial
processeur 4-8 bits, cycle mémoire : 5 micro detik.
CDC
1604,
komputer
Penemuan rangkaian terpadu ( IC) 1958
Jack
Kilby
dari
Texas
Instruments
menciptakan
rangkaian terpadu pertama dengan 5 komponen pasif.
Kemajuan Transistor 1960
Lab. Fairchild semiconductor teknik planar
R.N. Noyce
menyempurnakan dengan
Rangkaian terpadu pertama dengan teknik planar
Daya tarik transistors planar Di dalam transistor Planar, semua koneksi ada di permukaan dan pada sisi yang sama. Base Emetteur
P N
N
Collecteur
Penemuan Transistor MOS
Source
1963
Atalla dan Kahng dari Fairchild semiconductor peletak dasar transistor pertama MOS
gate
Drain
Hofstein & Heiman dari RCA membuat pertama IC dengan transistors MOS (8 paires de NMOS)
1.5 mm
1960
Structure MOS Le MOS est parfaitement symétrique et on appelle SOURCE (d'électrons) le coté le plus négatif Au début (1962) la grille était en Aluminium d'où le nom MOS:
Métal/Oxyde/Semiconducteur
Grille
Source
Drain Isolant
Substrat à la masse (à Vdd pour les PMos)
N+ P
N+
Fonctionnement d’un NMOS Conditions normales de fonctionnement :
Vgs > 0 Source
N+ P
Grille Isolant
N+
Vgs > 0 et Vds > 0
Drain
Vds > 0
Fonctionnement d’un NMOS Accumulation de charges positives sur la grille
Vgs > 0 Source
N+ P
Grille Isolant
N+
Drain
Vds > 0
Fonctionnement d’un NMOS Création d’un
champ électrique E sur la capacité MOS
Grille
Vgs > 0 Source
Isolant
E N+ P
N+
Drain
Vds > 0
Fonctionnement d’un NMOS Trous majoritaires du substrat repoussés
Grille
Vgs > 0 Source
Isolant
E N+ P
N+
Drain
Vds > 0
Fonctionnement d’un NMOS Electrons minoritaires du substrat attirés vers la grille
Grille
Vgs > 0 Source
Isolant
E N+ P
N+
Drain
Vds > 0
Fonctionnement d’un NMOS Création d’un canal de type N sous l’isolant (couche d’inversion)
Grille
Vgs > 0 Source
Id
Isolant
E N+ P
Drain
Vds > 0
N+
Caractéristiques Caractéristiques similaires à celle d’un transistor JFET
Id (mA) Vgs = 8 V Vgs = 6 V Vgs = 2 V
Vds (V)
La valeur de Vgs > 0 influence directement la densité de porteurs minoritaires attirés sous la capacité MOS La valeur de Vds > 0 influence directement la valeur du champ E et donc de la saturation de Id
Cas du MOS à appauvrissement Pour Vgs drain
= 0, existence du canal N entre la source et le
Id (mA) Vgs = 4 V Vgs = 2 V Vgs = 0 V Vgs = -2 V Vgs = -4 V
Vds (V)
L’existence du canal garantit une conduction du transistor pour des valeurs négatives et positives de Vgs
Caractéristiques Caractéristiques similaires à celle d’un transistor JFET
Id (mA) Vgs = 8 V Vgs = 6 V Vgs = 2 V
Vds (V)
3 zones de fonctionnement : Zone ohmique, Pincement, Saturation.
Mengapa terpadu ?
Système électronique
kelebihan :
Tempat ringkas
Hemat energi
modular
Lebih Aman
Circuit électronique
Composant: Circuit intégré
ORGANIZATION • Pertanyaan : • Bagimana bentuk mesin komputasinya ? • Bagaimana mengontrolnya ? • Original Work ( 1946 ) • Burks, Goldstine, von Neumann: Mulai diskusi untuk merancang logika instrumen komputasi elektronik
• Hasil : • von Neumann Architecture • Arsitektur yang sangat dominan – bahkan sampai sekarang
The IAS machine • Dikembangkan 1952 oleh von Neumann – Mesin pertama berbasiskan prinsip rancangannya – Institute for Advanced Studies computer
The von Neumann architecture • General purpose machine – Independent of applications – Flexible & Programmable
• 4 main units – Control unit (Instruction counter) – Arithmetic unit (Accumulator) – Input/Output unit (Connection to the outside) – Main memory
• Interconnected by simple buses
Von Neumann – Overview Instructions / Program
Main Memory
Arithmetic Unit AC
Addresses
Input/Output Unit E.g. Storage
Control Unit PC IR SR
Von Neumann – Details (1) • System structure is application independent – Fully programmable
• Programs and Data are stored in the same memory – Main Memory – Can be manipulated by the machine
• Main memory is divided into cells – Equal size – Consecutively numbered (addresses)
Von Neumann – Details (2) • Program is composed of a sequence of instructions – Read one after the other from main memory
• Program execution can be altered – Conditional or unconditional jumps – Change the current execution – Done by loading new value into PC register
Von Neumann – Details (3) • Usage of binary numbers – Just two values allowed per digit: 0/1 – Easy to implement: voltage yes or no
Von Neumann – Today • Still the dominant architecture in current systems – Used in all popular systems / chips
• Only minor modifications – Control und Arithmetic unit combined Result: CPU (Central Processing Unit) – New memory paths between memory and I/O Direct Memory Access (DMA)
• Additions to the concept – Multiple arithmetic units / Multiple CPUs – Parallel processing
Technology Development • Vacuum tubes replaced – – – –
Transistors Smaller, more power efficient DEC PDP-1, IBM 7094 Still large machines
• Next step: Integrated Circuits – Many transistors packed on one die – High density & reliability, low power – IBM 360 family & first Intel chips
• Many subsequent improvements
Manufacturing • Layered design – Base: Silicon – Light sensitive layers – Projection of masks – Erase parts using acid Clean
room fabrication
Any particle can cause errors Special fabs required Rising costs
IBM
Comparison of Technologies Gen.
Dates
Technology
Speed
Time/Ops
1
1946-1957
Vacuum tube
40 KHz
25 µs
2
1958-1964
Transistor
200 KHz
5 µs
3
1965-1971
Small and medium integrated circuits
1 MHz
1 µs
4
1972-1977
Large scale integration
10 MHz
100 ns
5
1978-
Very large scale integration
100 MHz
10 ns
• Main trend: smaller and faster – Trend still continues today – Processor speeds now over 3 GHz, but problems arise…
Microprocessor History • 2001: 30th Anniversary! • 4-Bit, 8-Bit Processors – Intel 4004 (~1971) – Intel 8008
• 16-Bit Processors – Texas Instruments TMS 9900 (~1977) – Intel 8086 – Zilog Z8000 (~1978-1980) – Motorola MC68000 – National Semiconductor NS16016
- 2300 Transistors, 108 Khz
http://www.intel4004.com
Intel 4004
INTEL 4004 – First Microcomputer
Intel 4004 – First Microcomputer
INTEL 4004 – First Microcomputer
Microprocessor History •16/32-bit Processors (external 16-bit Bus, internal 32 Bit Structure) Motorola MC68010 • • National Semiconductor NS16032 Additional Functionality on the Chip • •Direct Memory Access (DMA) (Intel 80186) • Virtual memory management (MC68010, Intel 80286) • Optional Coprocessor (Intel 8086/80286, NS16032) • Extended Address Space
Microprocessor History • 32-bit Processors – CISC Processors • • • • • •
Motorola MC680x0 Intel i386 / i486 / Pentium National Semiconductor NS32x32 Concept of a Processor Family Binary Compatibility Compatible with 16 Bit Processors
– RISC Processors • Advanced Micro Devices Am29000 (~1987) • Sun Microsystems SPARC • MIPS technologies MIPS R2000 / MIPS R3000
Pentium 4 ( 55 Juta transistors )
Microprocessor History • 64/32-bit Processors – SUN Microsystems SuperSPARC – Motorola 88110 – IBM, Motorola PowerPC 601 (MPC601)
• “Modern” Processors – 64-bit Structure – Internal Parallelism • Instruction pipelining • Arithmetic Pipelining
– Instruction and Data Caches – Advanced Memory and Peripheral Connections
ITANIUM ( 25.4 JUTA TRANSISTORS )
AMD Opteron (100 Million Transistors)
ITANIUM 2 ( 221 JUTA TRANSISTOR )
First Implementation of Key Features: Montecito Core
Core
Core 1
Core 2
L3 Cache
Key Processor Features Intel’s first dual-core processor Intel’s first processor with >1 billion transistors 24 MB L3 cache Multi-threading Compatible with existing Itanium 2-based systems
L3 Cache
Targeting H2’2005
System Bus 1MB L2I
2 Way Multi-threading
90nm Power Management/ Frequency Boost (Foxton)
Dualcore
1.7 Billion Transistors
2x12MB L3 caches with Pellston
Arbiter
Multiple cores, Multiple threads and L3 Cache on ONE die
Trends in transistor count 42 M transistors Number of transistors doubles every 2.3 years (acceleration over the last 4 years: 1.5 years)
Increase: ~20K
2.25 K transistors
(From: http://www.intel.com)
Technological Development Model
Year
# of transistors
4004
1971
2250
8008
1972
2500
8080
1974
5000
8086
1978
29000
80286
1982
120000
80386
1985
275000
80486
1989
1180000
Pentium
1993
3100000
Pentium-II
1997
7500000
Pentium-III
1999
24000000
Pentium 4
2000
42000000
Moore‘s Law (2) • Published in „Electronics“ in 1965 – Revised in 1975
• Why does this work? (Dr. R. Isaac, IBM) – 50 % Lithography – 25 % Device and Circuit Innovation – 25 % Chip size reduction
• How long does this continue? – Problem 1: Power density – Problem 2: The Lithography Wall
Breaking Moore‘s law • Can we compensate for loss or gain more – Architectural improvements – Massively Parallel Systems
• Example 1: ASCI Program in USA – Fastest machines in the world – Both military and research use – Capabilities grow faster than Moore‘s law
• Example 2: Hitachi RS 8000 @ LRZ/TUM – Innovative node design – Large number of individual processors
Massively Parallel Systems
IBM Blue Gene / L, LLNL, 128k processors
High Performance Clusters
Applications: Grand Challenges • What applications can take use of this? – Long running
• Very often: Numerical simulations – High computational demands – Often solving of special physical equations (PDEs)
• Some other codes from imaging/business
• Climate Modeling • Fluid Turbulences • Pollution Disturbation • Ocean Circulation • Combustion Systems • Semiconductor Modeling • Vision and Cognition